9701 Chemistry Syllabus 0101

General Certificate of Education (International) Syllabus
Advanced Level and Advanced Subsidiary Level

CHEMISTRY 9701
For examination in June and November 2010
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CHEMISTRY
GCE Advanced Subsidiary Level and
GCE Advanced Level 9701
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
1
AIMS
1
ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
3
SCHEME OF ASSESSMENT
5
WEIGHTING OF ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES 6
STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS
7
SUBJECT CONTENT
8
PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
33
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
48
SUMMARY OF KEY QUANTITIES AND UNITS 49
MATHEMATICAL REQUIREMENTS
50
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) USAGE IN A LEVEL CHEMISTRY 51
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN SYLLABUS/SCIENCE PAPERS 55
DATA BOOKLET
57
TEXTBOOKS AND IT RESOURCES
67
Note
Attention is drawn to the alterations in the syllabus by black vertical lines on
either side of the text.
CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

INTRODUCTION
This syllabus is designed to give greater flexibility both to teachers and to ca
ndidates and to place
greater emphasis on the understanding and application of scientific concepts and
principles and
less emphasis on factual material whilst still giving a thorough introduction to
the study of
Chemistry.
Centres and candidates may choose:
to take all Advanced Level components in the same examination session leading t
o the full
A Level
to follow a staged assessment route to the Advanced Level by taking the Advance
d
Subsidiary qualification in an earlier examination session. Subject to satisfact
ory performance
such candidates are then only required to take the final part of the assessment
(referred to in
this syllabus as A2) leading to the full A Level
to take the Advanced Subsidiary qualification only
AIMS
These are not listed in order of priority.
Many of these Aims are reflected in the Assessment Objectives which follow; othe
rs are not readily
assessed.
The syllabus aims are to:
1 provide, through well designed studies of experimental and practical chemistr
y, a
worthwhile educational experience for all students, whether or not they go on to
study
science beyond this level and, in particular, to enable them to acquire sufficie
nt
understanding and knowledge to
1.1 become confident citizens in a technological world, able to take or develop
an
informed interest in matters of scientific import;
1.2 recognise the usefulness, and limitations, of scientific method and to appr
eciate its
applicability in other disciplines and in everyday life;
1.3 be suitably prepared for employment and/or further studies beyond A level.
2 develop abilities and skills that
2.1 are relevant to the study and practice of science;
2.2 are useful in everyday life;
2.3 encourage efficient and safe practice;
2.4 encourage the presentation of information and ideas appropriate for differe
nt
audiences and purposes;
2.5 develop self motivation and the ability to work in a sustained fashion.
1
3 develop attitudes relevant to science such as:
3.1 accuracy and precision;
3.2 objectivity;
3.3 integrity;
3.4 enquiry;
3.5 initiative;
3.6 insight.
4 stimulate interest in, and care for, the environment.
5 promote an awareness that:
5.1 the study and practice of science are co-operative and cumulative activitie
s, and are
subject to social, economic, technological, ethical and cultural influences and
limitations;
5.2 the applications of science may be both beneficial and detrimental to the i
ndividual,
the community and the environment.
5.3 the use of information technology is important for communication, as an aid
to
experiments and as a tool for interpretation of experimental and theoretical res
ults.
6 stimulate students, create and sustain their interest in Chemistry, and under
stand its
relevance to society.
2
ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
The assessment objectives listed below reflect those parts of the Aims which wil
l be assessed.
A Knowledge with understanding
Students should be able to demonstrate knowledge with understanding in relation
to:
1. scientific phenomena, facts, laws, definitions, concepts, theories;
2. scientific vocabulary, terminology, conventions (including symbols, quantiti
es and units);
3. scientific instruments and apparatus, including techniques of operation and
aspects of safety;
4. scientific quantities and their determination;
5. scientific and technological applications with their social, economic and en
vironmental
implications;
6. present reasoned explanations for phenomena, patterns and relationships.
The Subject Content defines the factual knowledge that candidates may be require
d to recall and
explain. Questions testing these objectives will often begin with one of the fo
llowing words: define,
state, describe, explain or outline. (See the Glossary of Terms.)
B Handling, applying and evaluating information
Students should be able in words or by using symbolic, graphical and numerical f
orms of
presentation to:
1. locate, select, organise and present information from a variety of sources;
2. handle information, distinguishing the relevant from the extraneous;
3. manipulate numerical and other data and translate information from one form
to another;
4. analyse and evaluate information so as to identify patterns, report trends a
nd draw
inferences;
5. construct arguments to support hypotheses or to justify a course of action;
6. apply knowledge, including principles, to novel situations;
7. evaluate information and hypotheses.
These assessment objectives cannot be precisely specified in the Subject Content
because
questions testing such skills may be based on information which is unfamiliar to
the candidate.
In answering such questions, candidates are required to use principles and conce
pts that are
within the syllabus and apply them in a logical, reasoned or deductive manner to
a novel situation.
Questions testing these objectives will often begin with one of the following wo
rds: predict,
suggest, construct, calculate or determine. (See the Glossary of Terms.)
3
C Experimental skills and investigations
Students should be able to;
1. plan investigations;
2. use techniques, apparatus and materials;
3. make and record observations, measurements and estimates;
4. interpret and evaluate observations and experimental results;
5. select techniques, apparatus and materials;
6. evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements.
4
SCHEME OF ASSESSMENT
Paper Type of Paper Duration Marks Weighting
AS Level A Level
1 Multiple-choice 1 h 40 31% 15%
2 AS structured
questions 1 h 15 min 60 46% 23%
31/32 Advanced
Practical Skills 2 h 40 23% 12%
4 A2 structured
questions 1 h 45 min 100 38%
Planning,
5
Analysis and
1 h 15 min 30 12%
Evaluation
Paper 1
This paper will consist of 40 questions, thirty of the direct choice type and te
n of the multiple
completion type, all with four options. All questions will be based on the AS s
yllabus. Candidates
will answer all questions.
Paper 2
This paper will consist of a variable number of structured questions of variable
mark value.
All questions will be based on the AS syllabus. Candidates will answer all ques
tions. Candidates
will answer on the question paper.
Paper 31/Paper 32
Paper 31 and Paper 32 will be equivalent and each candidate will be required to
take only one of
them. This is to allow large Centres to split candidates into two groups: one g
roup will take Paper
31, the other group will take Paper 32. Each of these papers will be timetabled
on a different day.
Each paper will consist of two or three experiments drawn from different areas o
f chemistry.
The examiners will not be restricted by the subject content. Candidates will an
swer all questions.
Candidates will answer on the question paper. (Full details are given in the Pr
actical Assessment
section of the syllabus.)
Paper 4
This paper will consist of two sections.
Section A (70 marks) will consist of questions based on the A2 core syllabus but
may include
material first encountered in the AS syllabus.
Section B (30 marks) will consist of questions based on the section Applications
of Chemistry but
may include material first encountered in the core (AS and A2) syllabus.
Both sections will consist of a variable number of structured and free response
style questions of
variable mark value. Candidates will answer all questions. Candidates will ans
wer on the
question paper.
Paper 5
This paper will consist of a variable number of questions of variable mark value
based on the practical
skills of planning, analysis and evaluation. The examiners will not be restrict
ed by the subject content.
Candidates will answer all questions. Candidates will answer on the question pa
per.
Combinations of papers
Candidates for Advanced Subsidiary (AS) certification will take Papers 1, 2 and
either 31 or
32 at a single examination session.
Candidates who, having received AS certification, wish to continue their studie
s to the full
Advanced Level qualification may carry their AS marks forward and take just Pape
rs 4 and 5
in the examination session in which they require certification.
Candidates taking the complete Advanced Level qualification at the end of the c
ourse take all
five papers in a single examination session.
Candidates may not enter for single papers either on the first occasion or for r
e-sit
purposes. Candidates may only enter for the papers in the combinations indicated
above.
5
WEIGHTING OF ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES
The Assessment Grid below gives a general idea of the allocation of marks to ass
essment
objectives. Whilst the overall allocation of marks to assessment objectives A a
nd B in the theory
papers is given, the balance on each paper may vary slightly.
Assessment Objective Weighting
Assessment
(%)
Components
Knowledge with understanding 46* P
1,
2,
4
A
APERS
Handling, applying and evaluating information 30 P
1,
2,
4
B
APERS
Experimental skills and investigations 24 P
3,
5
C
APERS
*approximately 27% allocated to recall and 19% to understanding
The overall proportion of marks allocated to Physical, Inorganic and Organic che
mistry in Papers 1
and 2, taken together, and in Section A of Paper 4 will be in the approximate ra
tio 3:2:3.
Teachers should note that there is a greater weighting of 54% for skills (includ
ing handling,
applying and evaluating information, experimental and investigative skills) than
for knowledge with
understanding (46%). Teachers schemes of work and learning activities should ref
lect this
balance, so that the aims of the syllabus may be met, and the candidates prepare
d for the
assessment.
Additional Information
Data Booklet
A Data Booklet is available for use in Papers 1, 2 and 4. The booklet is reprin
ted towards the back
of the syllabus. Copies of the booklet can be ordered from the Publications Off
ice at UCLES using
the appropriate order form. Please note that changes to the Data Booklet were m
ade for 2009.
The new booklet will have been used for the first time in the June 2009 session
and Centres will
have been supplied with copies at this time. Further copies will be supplied as
needed.
Nomenclature
The proposals in Signs, Symbols and Systematics (The Association for Science Edu
cation
Companion to 16-19 Science) will generally be adopted although the traditional n
ames sulfite,
nitrite, sulfur trioxide, sulfurous acid and nitrous acid will be used in questi
on papers. Sulfur and all
compounds of sulfur will be spelled with f, not ph.
6
STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS
The syllabus has been constructed with a compulsory Advanced Subsidiary core. T
hat part of the
core syllabus which will be examined only in the full Advanced Level qualificati
on is indicated in
bold type. A full Advanced Level qualification requires the study of further co
re material together
with section 11, Applications of Chemistry. The Applications of Chemistry secti
on represents
about 12% of the full Advanced Level course or 23% of the A2 course.
Candidates can take the course either as an AS Level, A Level or staged assessme
nt to A Level.
It is intended that candidates should be directed towards the practice of experi
mental skills
throughout the whole period of their course of study. Candidates experimental sk
ills will be tested
in Papers 31/32 and 5. Paper 31/32 is a practical examination that will test th
e skills of
manipulation of apparatus, presentation of data, analysis and evaluation. Paper
5 is a written
examination that will test the higher-order experimental skills of planning, ana
lysis and evaluation.
It should be stressed that candidates cannot be adequately prepared for this pap
er without
extensive laboratory work throughout the course of their study.
Section 11, Applications of Chemistry, is designed to allow candidates to use th
e chemical
knowledge gained in the core syllabus to explore key areas of modern chemical sc
ience.
The course provides opportunities to revise content from the core syllabus as we
ll as introducing
candidates to some new chemistry. It focuses on the applications of chemistry i
n research,
industry and everyday life, and raises awareness of the associated ethical issue
s. It is intended
that the teaching of this section will incorporate practical work.
The section has three parts, all of which are compulsory:
11.1 The chemistry of life
11.2 Applications of analytical chemistry
11.3 Design and materials
Each section also covers aspects of environmental chemistry. Examination questi
ons will focus on
the chemical concepts and techniques rather than on the recall of specific examp
les.
All necessary information about the context will be given in the question and ca
ndidates will be
expected to apply their knowledge both from the core syllabus and from this sect
ion to novel
situations.
A booklet covering this section can be purchased from CIE.
Specimen papers for Papers 31/32, 4 and 5 are available on the Teacher Support S
ite.
In order to specify the syllabus as precisely as possible and also to emphasise
the importance of
skills other than recall, Learning Outcomes have been used throughout. Each par
t of the syllabus
is specified by a brief Content followed by detailed learning outcomes. Althoug
h this format, of
necessity, makes the syllabus a lengthier document, it is hoped that the format
will be helpful to
teachers and students.
It is intended that teachers should incorporate social, environmental, economic
and technological
aspects of chemistry, where relevant, throughout the syllabus. Some examples ar
e included in the
core syllabus and in the Applications of Chemistry section and students should b
e encouraged to
apply the principles in these examples to other situations introduced during the
course. Inclusion
of further examples in the core of the syllabus has been avoided as this would m
erely increase the
amount of factual recall required of students.
Aim 5.3 emphasises the importance of Information Technology (IT) in this chemis
try course. It is
hoped that students will make full use of IT techniques in their practical work.
Teachers may also
use IT in demonstrations and simulations. Asterisks (*) placed alongside Learni
ng Outcomes
indicate areas where it is anticipated that teachers might use applications of I
T, as appropriate.
It should be appreciated that the list is not exhaustive.
Appropriate parts of the section INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) USAGE IN A LEVEL
CHEMISTRY suggesting appropriate applications of IT, are printed towards the bac
k of the
syllabus.
7
SUBJECT CONTENT
The Learning Outcomes to be studied by AS candidates are in normal type.
The additional Learning Outcomes to be studied by A2 candidates are shown in bo
ld type.
* An asterisk (*) placed next to an assessment objective indicates an area wher
e IT might be
used.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
1. ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY
Content
I Relative masses of atoms and molecules
II The mole, the Avogadro constant
III The determination of relative atomic masses, A
, and relative molecular masses, M
, from
r
r
mass spectra
IV The calculation of empirical and molecular formulae
V Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)
Learning Outcomes
[the term relative formula mass or M
will be used for ionic compounds]
r
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula masses,
based on the
C
12
scale
(b) define the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant
(c) *analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances and molecular fragmen
ts
[knowledge of the working of the mass spectrometer is not required]
(d) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundan
ces of its
isotopes, or its mass spectrum
(e) define the terms empirical and molecular formulae
(f) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using combustion data or compos
ition by mass
(g) *write and/or construct balanced equations
(h) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept, involving:
(i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations)
(ii) volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons)
(iii) volumes and concentrations of solutions
When performing calculations, candidates answers should reflect the number of sig
nificant
figures given or asked for in the question. When rounding up or down, candidate
s should
ensure that significant figures are neither lost unnecessarily nor used beyond w
hat is
justified. (See also Practical Assessment, Paper 31/32, Display of calculation
and reasoning.)
(i) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such as those in (h)
8
2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Content
I The nucleus of the atom: neutrons and protons, isotopes, proton and nucleon n
umbers
II Electrons: electronic energy levels, ionisation energies, atomic orbitals, e
xtranuclear
structure
Learning Outcomes
(a) *identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms of their re
lative charges and
relative masses
(b) *deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons and electrons in electr
ic fields
(c) describe the distribution of mass and charges within an atom
(d) deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in both atoms
and ions
given proton and nucleon numbers (and charge)
(e) (i) describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to atomic nuclei in t
erms of proton
number and nucleon number
(ii) distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different numbers of neutrons
present
(f) *describe the number and relative energies of the s, p and d orbitals for t
he principal
quantum numbers 1, 2 and 3 and also the 4s and 4p orbitals.
(g) *describe the shapes of s and p orbitals
(h) state the electronic configuration of atoms and ions given the proton numbe
r (and charge)
(i) (i) explain and use the term ionisation energy
(ii) explain the factors influencing the ionisation energies of elements
(iii) *explain the trends in ionisation energies across a Period and down a Gro
up of the
Periodic Table (see also Section 9)
(j) deduce the electronic configurations of elements from successive ionisation
energy data
(k) *interpret successive ionisation energy data of an element in terms of the
position of that
element within the Periodic Table
3. CHEMICAL BONDING
Content
I
Ionic (electrovalent) bonding
II
Covalent bonding and co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding
(i) The shapes of simple molecules
(ii) Bond energies, bond lengths and bond polarities
III Intermolecular forces, including hydrogen bonding
IV Metallic bonding
V Bonding and physical properties
9
Learning Outcomes
(a) *describe ionic (electrovalent) bonding, as in sodium chloride and magnesium
oxide,
including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams
)
(b
*describe, including the use of dot-and-cross diagrams,
(i) covalent bonding, as in hydrogen; oxygen; chlorine; hydrogen chloride; carb
on
dioxide; methane; ethene
(ii) co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonding, as in the formation of the ammonium
ion and in
the Al
Cl
molecule
2
6
(c) *explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using the qualitati
ve model of
electron-pair repulsion (including lone pairs), using as simple examples: BF
(trigonal);
3
CO
(tetrahedral); NH
(pyramidal); H
O (non-linear); SF
(octahedral)
(linear); CH
2
4
3
2
6
(d) *describe covalent bonding in terms of orbital overlap, giving s and p bonds
(e) *explain the shape of, and bond angles in, the ethane, ethene and benzene
molecules in
terms of s and p bonds (see also Section 10.1)
(f) predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules analogous to those spe
cified in (c) and (e)
(g) describe hydrogen bonding, using ammonia and water as simple examples of mo
lecules
containing N-H and O-H groups
(h) explain the terms bond energy, bond length and bond polarity and use them t
o compare the
reactivities of covalent bonds (see also 5b(ii))
(i) *describe intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces), based on permanent a
nd induced
dipoles, as in CHC
l
(l); Br
(l) and the liquid noble gases
3
2
(j) describe metallic bonding in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded
by mobile
electrons
(k) *describe, interpret and/or predict the effect of different types of bondin
g (ionic bonding;
covalent bonding; hydrogen bonding; other intermolecular interactions; metallic
bonding) on
the physical properties of substances
(l) deduce the type of bonding present from given information
(m) show understanding of chemical reactions in terms of energy transfers assoc
iated with the
breaking and making of chemical bonds
4. STATES OF MATTER
Content
I The gaseous state:
(i) Ideal gas behaviour and deviations from it
(ii) pV = nRT and its use in determining a value for M
r
II The liquid state
The kinetic concept of the liquid state and simple kinetic-molecular description
s of changes
of state
III
The solid state
Lattice structures
10
Learning Outcomes
(a) state the basic assumptions of the kinetic theory as applied to an ideal ga
s
(b) explain qualitatively in terms of intermolecular forces and molecular size:
(i) the conditions necessary for a gas to approach ideal behaviour
(ii) the limitations of ideality at very high pressures and very low temperatur
es
(c) state and use the general gas equation pV = nRT in calculations, including
the determination
of M
r
(d) *describe, using a kinetic-molecular model, the liquid state; melting; vapor
isation and vapour
pressure
(e) *describe, in simple terms, the lattice structure of a crystalline solid whi
ch is:
(i) ionic, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide
(ii) simple molecular, as in iodine
(iii) giant molecular, as in graphite; diamond; silicon(IV) oxide
(iv) hydrogen-bonded, as in ice
(v) metallic, as in copper
[the concept of the unit cell is not required]
(f) explain the strength, high melting point and electrical insulating properti
es of ceramics in
terms of their giant molecular structure
(g) relate the uses of ceramics, based on magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide and
silicon(IV)
oxide, to their properties (suitable examples include furnace linings; electrica
l insulators;
glass; crockery)
(h) describe and interpret the uses of the metals aluminium, including its allo
ys, and copper,
including brass, in terms of their physical properties
(i) understand that materials are a finite resource and the importance of recyc
ling
processes
(j) outline the importance of hydrogen bonding to the physical properties of su
bstances,
including ice and water
(k) suggest from quoted physical data the type of structure and bonding present
in a
substance
5. CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Content
I
Enthalpy changes: H of formation, combustion, hydration, solution, neutralisati
on and
atomisation; bond energy; lattice energy; electron affinity
II
Hess Law, including Born-Haber cycles
11
Learning Outcomes
(a) * explain that some chemical reactions are accompanied by energy changes, pr
incipally in the
form of heat energy; the energy changes can be exothermic ( H, negative) or endo
thermic
(b) explain and use the terms:
(i) enthalpy change of reaction and standard conditions, with particular refere
nce to:
formation; combustion; hydration; solution; neutralisation; atomisation
(ii) bond energy ( H positive, i.e. bond breaking)
(iii) lattice energy (
H negative, i.e. gaseous ions to solid lattice)
(c) calculate enthalpy changes from appropriate experimental results, including
the use of the
relationship
enthalpy change = mc T
(d) explain, in qualitative terms, the effect of ionic charge and of ionic radi
us on the
numerical magnitude of a lattice energy
(e) apply Hess Law to construct simple energy cycles, and carry out calculations
involving such
cycles and relevant energy terms, with particular reference to:
(i) determining enthalpy changes that cannot be found by direct experiment, e.g
. an
enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy changes of combustion
(ii) average bond energies
(iii) the formation of a simple ionic solid and of its aqueous solution
(iv) Born-Haber cycles (including ionisation energy and electron affinity)
(f) construct and interpret a reaction pathway diagram, in terms of the enthalp
y change of the
reaction and of the activation energy (see Section 8)
6. ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Content
I
Redox processes: electron transfer and changes in oxidation number (oxidation st
ate)
II
Electrode potentials
(i) Standard electrode (redox) potentials, E ; the redox series
E
(ii) Standard cell potentials,
, and their uses
cell
(iii) Batteries and fuel cells
III
Electrolysis
(i) Factors affecting the amount of substance liberated during electrolysis
(ii) The Faraday constant: the Avogadro constant: their relationship
(iii) Industrial uses of electrolysis
12
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe and explain redox processes in terms of electron transfer and/or o
f changes in
oxidation number (oxidation state)
(b) explain, including the electrode reactions, the industrial processes of:
(i) the electrolysis of brine, using a diaphragm cell
(ii) the extraction of aluminium from molten aluminium oxide/cryolite
(iii) the electrolytic purification of copper
(c) define the terms:
(i) standard electrode (redox) potential
(ii) standard cell potential
(d) describe the standard hydrogen electrode
(e) describe methods used to measure the standard electrode potentials of:
(i) metals or non-metals in contact with their ions in aqueous solution
(ii) ions of the same element in different oxidation states
(f) calculate a standard cell potential by combining two standard electrode pot
entials
(g) use standard cell potentials to:
(i) explain/deduce the direction of electron flow from a simple cell
(ii) *predict the feasibility of a reaction
(h) construct redox equations using the relevant half-equations (see also Secti
on 9.5)
(i) predict qualitatively how the value of an electrode potential varies with t
he
concentration of the aqueous ion
(j) state the possible advantages of developing other types of cell, e.g. the H
/O
fuel cell
2
2
and improved batteries (as in electric vehicles) in terms of smaller size, lower
mass
and higher voltage
(k) state the relationship, F = Le, between the Faraday constant, the Avogadro
constant
and the charge on the electron
(l) predict the identity of the substance liberated during electrolysis from th
e state of
electrolyte (molten or aqueous), position in the redox series (electrode potenti
al) and
concentration
(m) calculate:
(i) the quantity of charge passed during electrolysis
(ii) the mass and/or volume of substance liberated during electrolysis, includi
ng
those in the electrolysis of H
SO
(aq); Na
SO
(aq)
2
4
2
4
(n) describe the determination of a value of the Avogadro constant by an electr
olytic
method
13
7. EQUILIBRIA
Content
I Chemical equilibria: reversible reactions; dynamic equilibrium
(i) Factors affecting chemical equilibria
(ii) Equilibrium constants
(iii) The Haber process; the Contact process
II Ionic equilibria
(i) Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases
(ii) Acid dissociation constants, K
and the use of pK
a
a
(iii) The ionic product of water, K
w
(iv) pH: choice of pH indicators
(v) Buffer solutions
(vi) Solubility product; the common ion effect
Learning Outcomes
(a) *explain, in terms of rates of the forward and reverse reactions, what is me
ant by a
reversible reaction and dynamic equilibrium
(b) *state Le Chatelier s Principle and apply it to deduce qualitatively (from ap
propriate
information) the effects of changes in temperature, concentration or pressure, o
n a system
at equilibrium
(c) deduce whether changes in concentration, pressure or temperature or the pre
sence of a
catalyst affect the value of the equilibrium constant for a reaction
(d) deduce expressions for equilibrium constants in terms of concentrations, K
, and partial
c
pressures, K
p
[treatment of the relationship between K
and K
is not required]
p
c
(e) calculate the values of equilibrium constants in terms of concentrations or
partial pressures
from appropriate data
(f) calculate the quantities present at equilibrium, given appropriate data (su
ch calculations will
not require the solving of quadratic equations)
(g) describe and explain the conditions used in the Haber process and the Conta
ct process, as
examples of the importance of an understanding of chemical equilibrium in the ch
emical
industry (see also Section 9.6)
(h) show understanding of, and use the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases
(i) explain qualitatively the differences in behaviour between strong and weak
acids and bases
and the pH values of their aqueous solutions in terms of the extent of dissociat
ion
(j) explain the terms pH; K
; pK
; K
and use them in calculations
a
a
w
(k) calculate [H
(aq)] and pH values for strong and weak acids and strong bases
+
(l) explain the choice of suitable indicators for acid-base titrations, given a
ppropriate data
(m) *describe the changes in pH during acid-base titrations and explain these c
hanges in
terms of the strengths of the acids and bases
14
(n) (i) explain how buffer solutions control pH
(ii) describe and explain their uses, including the role of HCO
in controlling pH in
3
blood
(o) calculate the pH of buffer solutions, given appropriate data
(p) show understanding of, and use, the concept of solubility product, K
s p
(q) calculate K
from concentrations and vice versa
sp
(r) show understanding of the common ion effect
8. REACTION KINETICS
Content
I Simple rate equations; orders of reaction; rate constants
II Effect of temperature on rate constants; the concept of activation energy
III Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis
Learning Outcomes
(a) explain and use the terms: rate of reaction; activation energy; catalysis;
rate equation;
order of reaction; rate constant; half-life of a reaction; rate-determining step
(b) *explain qualitatively, in terms of collisions, the effect of concentration
changes on the rate
of a reaction
(c) *show understanding, including reference to the Boltzmann distribution, of
what is meant by
the term activation energy
(d) *explain qualitatively, in terms both of the Boltzmann distribution and of
collision frequency,
the effect of temperature change on the rate of a reaction
(e) (i) explain that, in the presence of a catalyst, a reaction has a different
mechanism,
i.e. one of lower activation energy
(ii) interpret this catalytic effect in terms of the Boltzmann distribution
(f) describe enzymes as biological catalysts (proteins) which may have specific
activity
(g) construct and use rate equations of the form rate = k[A]
[B]
(limited to simple cases
m
n
of single step reactions and of multi-step processes with a rate-determining ste
p, for
which m and n are 0, 1 or 2), including:
(i) deducing the order of a reaction by the initial rates method
(ii) justifying, for zero- and first-order reactions, the order of reaction fro
m
concentration-time graphs
(iii) verifying that a suggested reaction mechanism is consistent with the obser
ved
kinetics
(iv) predicting the order that would result from a given reaction mechanism
(and vice versa)
15
(v) calculating an initial rate using concentration data
[integrated forms of rate equations are not required]
(h) (i) show understanding that the half-life of a first-order reaction is inde
pendent of
concentration
(ii) use the half-life of a first-order reaction in calculations
(i) calculate a rate constant using the initial rates method
(j) *devise a suitable experimental technique for studying the rate of a reacti
on, from
given information
(k) outline the different modes of action of homogeneous and heterogeneous cata
lysis,
including:
*
(i)
the Haber process
(ii) the catalytic removal of oxides of nitrogen in the exhaust gases from car
engines (see also Section 10.2)
(iii) the catalytic role of atmospheric oxides of nitrogen in the oxidation of
atmospheric sulfur dioxide
(iv) catalytic role of Fe
in the
I
/S
O
reaction
3+
2
2
8
9. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Statement of Aims
It is intended that the study should:
be concerned primarily with aspects of selected ranges of elements and their com
pounds;
be based on a study of the patterns:
across the third period of the Periodic Table
in the two Groups II and VII;
introduce, with examples, the transition elements and their compounds;
introduce the more important everyday aspects of nitrogen, sulfur and their comp
ounds
apply unifying themes to inorganic chemistry, such as structure (Section 2), che
mical bonding
(Section 3), redox (Section 6), the reactions of ions, acid-base behaviour, prec
ipitation (Section
7) and complexing behaviour (Section 9.5), where appropriate;
include:
the representation of reactions by means of balanced equations (molecular and/o
r ionic
equations, together with state symbols);
the interpretation of redox reactions in terms of changes in oxidation state of
the species
involved;
the prediction of the feasibility of reactions from E
values;
o
the interpretation of chemical reactions in terms of ionic equilibria;
the interpretation of chemical reactions in terms of the formation of complex i
ons.
16
9.1 THE PERIODIC TABLE: CHEMICAL PERIODICITY
Content
I Periodicity of physical properties of the elements: variation with proton num
ber across the
third period (sodium to argon) of:
(i) atomic radius and ionic radius
(ii) melting point
(iii) electrical conductivity
(iv) ionisation energy
II Periodicity of chemical properties of the elements in the third period
(i) Reaction of the elements with oxygen, chlorine and water
(ii) Variation in oxidation number of the oxides (sodium to sulfur only) and of
the
chlorides (sodium to phosphorus only)
(iii) Reactions of these oxides and chlorides with water
(iv) Acid/base behaviour of these oxides and the corresponding hydroxides
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should, for the third period (sodium to argon), be able to:
(a) *describe qualitatively (and indicate the periodicity in) the variations in
atomic radius, ionic
radius, melting point and electrical conductivity of the elements (see the Data
Booklet)
(b) explain qualitatively the variation in atomic radius and ionic radius
(c) interpret the variation in melting point and in electrical conductivity in
terms of the presence
of simple molecular, giant molecular or metallic bonding in the elements
(d) explain the variation in first ionisation energy
(e) describe the reactions, if any, of the elements with oxygen (to give Na
O; MgO; Al
O
;
2
2
3
P
O
; SO
; SO
), chlorine (to give NaCl; MgCl
; Al
Cl
; SiCl
; PCl
), and water (Na and Mg
4
10
2
3
2
2
6
4
5
only)
(f) state and explain the variation in oxidation number of the oxides and chlor
ides
(g) describe the reactions of the oxides with water
[treatment of peroxides and superoxides is not required]
(h) describe and explain the acid/base behaviour of oxides and hydroxides, incl
uding, where
relevant, amphoteric behaviour in reaction with sodium hydroxide (only) and acid
s
(i) describe and explain the reactions of the chlorides with water
(j) interpret the variations and trends in (f), (g), (h), and (i) in terms o
f bonding and
electronegativity
(k) suggest the types of chemical bonding present in chlorides and oxides from
observations of
their chemical and physical properties
In addition, candidates should be able to:
(l) predict the characteristic properties of an element in a given group by usi
ng knowledge of
chemical periodicity
(m) deduce the nature, possible position in the Periodic Table, and identity of
unknown elements
from given information of physical and chemical properties
17
9.2 GROUP II
Content
I Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group II metals magnesium to
barium and
their compounds
II Some uses of Group II compounds
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe the reactions of the elements with oxygen and water
(b) describe the behaviour of the oxides with water
(c) describe the thermal decomposition of the nitrates and carbonates
(d) interpret, and make predictions from, the trends in physical and chemical p
roperties of the
elements and their compounds
(e) explain the use of magnesium oxide as a refractory lining material and calc
ium carbonate as
a building material
(f) describe the use of lime in agriculture
(g) interpret and explain qualitatively the trend in the thermal stability of t
he nitrates and
carbonates in terms of the charge density of the cation and the polarisability o
f the
large anion
(h) interpret and explain qualitatively the variation in solubility of the sulf
ates in terms of
relative magnitudes of the enthalpy change of hydration and the corresponding
lattice energy
9.3 GROUP IV
Content
The elements carbon to lead as a group in which the physical and chemical proper
ties of the
elements change with increase in proton number from non-metals through metalloid
s to metals
and their compounds
I The variation in melting points and electrical conductivities of the elements
II The bonding, molecular shape, volatility and hydrolysis of the tetrachloride
s
III The bonding, acid/base nature and thermal stability of the oxides of oxidat
ion states II and
IV
IV The relative stability of higher and lower oxidation states for the elements
in their oxides and
aqueous cations
Learning Outcomes
(a) outline the variation in melting point and in electrical conductivity of th
e elements
and interpret them in terms of structure and bonding
(b) describe and explain the bonding in, molecular shape and volatility of the
tetrachlorides
18
(c) describe and explain the reactions of the tetrachlorides with water in term
s of
structure and bonding
(d) describe and explain the bonding, acid-base nature and thermal stability of
the
oxides of oxidation states II and IV
(e) describe and explain the relative stability of higher and lower oxidation s
tates of the
elements in their oxides and aqueous cations, including where relevant E values
(f) recognize the properties and uses of ceramics based on silicon(IV) oxide
9.4 GROUP VII
Content
The similarities and trends in the physical and chemical properties of chlorine,
bromine and iodine
I Characteristic physical properties
II The relative reactivity of the elements as oxidising agents
III Some reactions of the halide ions
IV The manufacture of chlorine
V The reactions of chlorine with aqueous sodium hydroxide
VI The important uses of the halogens and of halogen compounds (see also Sectio
n 10.4)
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe the trends in volatility and colour of chlorine, bromine and iodin
e
(b) interpret the volatility of the elements in terms of van der Waals forces
(c) describe and deduce from E values the relative reactivity of the element
s as oxidising
agents
(d) describe and explain the reactions of the elements with hydrogen
(e) (i) describe and explain the relative thermal stabilities of the hydrides
(ii) interpret these relative stabilities in terms of bond energies
(f) describe and explain the reactions of halide ions with
(i) aqueous silver ions followed by aqueous ammonia
(ii) concentrated sulfuric acid
(g) outline a method for the manufacture of chlorine from brine by a diaphragm
cell (see also
Section 6)
(h) describe and interpret in terms of changes of oxidation number the reaction
of chlorine with
cold, and with hot, aqueous sodium hydroxide
(i) explain the use of chlorine in water purification
(j) recognise the industrial importance and environmental significance of the h
alogens and their
compounds, (e.g. for bleaches; PVC; halogenated hydrocarbons as solvents, refrig
erants
and in aerosols) (see also Section 10.3)
19

9.5 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
Content
I General physical and characteristic chemical properties of the first set of t
ransition
elements, titanium to copper
II Colour of complexes
Learning Outcomes
(a) explain what is meant by a transition element, in terms of d-block elements
forming
one or more stable ions with incomplete d orbitals
(b) *state the electronic configuration of a first row transition element and of
its ions
(c) *state that the atomic radii, ionic radii and first ionisation energies of t
he transition
elements are relatively invariant
(d) contrast, qualitatively, the melting point; density; atomic radius; ionic r
adius; first
ionisation energy and conductivity of the transition elements with those of calc
ium as
a typical s-block element
(e) describe the tendency of transition elements to have variable oxidation sta
tes
(f) predict from a given electronic configuration, the likely oxidation states
of a
transition element
(g) describe and explain the use of Fe
/Fe
, MnO
/Mn
and Cr
O
/Cr
as examples of
3 +
2+
2+
2
3 +
4
2
7
redox systems (see also Section 6)
(h) predict, using E values, the likelihood of redox reactions
(i) *explain the reactions of transition elements with ligands to form complexe
s,
including the complexes of copper(II) ions with water, hydroxide and ammonia
(j) explain qualitatively that ligand exchange may occur, including the comple
xes of
copper(II) ions with water, hydroxide and ammonia
(k) describe the shape and symmetry of the d orbitals, and the splitting of deg
enerate d
orbitals into two energy levels in octahedral complexes using the complexes of
copper(II) ions with water and ammonia as examples
(l) explain the origin of colour in transitional element complexes resulting fr
om the
absorption of light energy as an electron moves between two non-degenerate d
orbitals
(m) describe, in qualitative terms, the effects of different ligands on the abs
orption, and
hence colour, using the complexes of copper(II) ions with water, hydroxide and
ammonia as examples
(n) state examples of catalysis by transition metals and/or their compounds, in
cluding iron in the
Haber process and vanadium in the Contact process
20
9.6 NITROGEN AND SULFUR
Content
I Nitrogen
(i) Its unreactivity
(ii) Ammonia, the ammonium ion, nitric acid and fertilisers
(iii) The environmental impact of nitrogen oxides and nitrates
II Sulfur
(i) The formation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide, its role in acid rain formatio
n, the use of
sulfur dioxide in food preservation
(ii) Sulfuric acid
Learning Outcomes
(a) explain the lack of reactivity of nitrogen
(b) describe:
(i) the formation, and structure, of the ammonium ion
(ii) the displacement of ammonia from its salts
(c) describe the Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia from its elements
, giving
essential operating conditions, and interpret these conditions (qualitatively) i
n terms of the
principles of kinetics and equilibria (see also Sections 7 and 8)
(d) understand the industrial importance of ammonia and nitrogen compounds deri
ved from
ammonia
(e) understand the environmental consequences of the uncontrolled use of nitrat
e fertilisers
(f) understand and explain the occurrence, and catalytic removal, of oxides of
nitrogen
(g) explain why atmospheric oxides of nitrogen are pollutants, including their
catalytic role in the
oxidation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide
(h) describe the formation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide from the combustion of
sulfur
contaminated carbonaceous fuels
(i) state the role of sulfur dioxide in the formation of acid-rain and describe
the main
environmental consequences of acid-rain
(j) state the main details of the Contact process for sulfuric acid production
(k) understand the industrial importance of sulfuric acid
(l) describe the use of sulfur dioxide in food preservation
21
10 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Statement of Aims
Although there are features of organic chemistry topics that are distinctive, it
is intended that
appropriate cross-references with other sections/topics in the syllabus should b
e made.
When describing preparative reactions, candidates will be expected to quote the
reagents,
e.g. aqueous NaOH, the essential practical conditions, e.g. reflux, and the iden
tity of each of the
major products. Detailed knowledge of practical procedures is not required: how
ever, candidates
may be expected to suggest (from their knowledge of the reagents, essential cond
itions and
products) what steps may be needed to purify/extract a required product from the
reaction mixture.
In equations for organic redox reactions, the symbols [O] and [H] are acceptable
.
10.1 INTRODUCTORY TOPICS
In each of the sections below, 10.1 to 10.8, candidates will be expected to be a
ble to predict the
reaction products of a given compound in reactions that are chemically similar t
o those specified.
Content
I Molecular, structural and empirical formulae
II Functional groups and the naming of organic compounds
III Characteristic organic reactions
IV Shapes of organic molecules; s and p bonds
V Isomerism: structural; cis-trans; optical
Structural formulae
In candidates answers, an acceptable response to a request for a structural formu
la will be to give
the minimal detail, using conventional groups, for an unambiguous structure, e.g
. CH
CH
CH
OH
3
2
2
for propan-1-ol, not C
H
OH.
3
7
Displayed formulae
A displayed formula should show both the relative placing of atoms and the numbe
r of bonds
between them, e.g.
H
O
H
C
C
H
H O
for ethanoic acid.
Skeletal formulae
A skeletal formula is a simplified representation of an organic formula. It is
derived from the
structural formula by removing hydrogen atoms (and their associated bonds) and c
arbon atoms
from alkyl chains, leaving just the carbon-carbon bonds in the carbon skeleton a
nd the associated
functional groups.
Skeletal or partial-skeletal representations may be used in question papers and
are acceptable in
candidates answers where they are unambiguous.
22

The skeletal formula for butan-2-ol and a partial-skeletal formula for cholester
ol are shown below.
The convention for representing the aromatic ring is preferred.
Optical Isomers
When drawing a pair of optical isomers, candidates should indicate the three-dim
ensional
structures according to the convention used in the example below.
CH
CH
3
3
C
C
H
H
HO
OH
CO H
CO H
2
2
mirror plane
Learning Outcomes
(a) *interpret, and use the nomenclature, general formulae and displayed formula
e of the
following classes of compound:
(i) alkanes, alkenes and arenes
(ii) halogenoalkanes and halogenoarenes
(iii) alcohols (including primary, secondary and tertiary) and phenols
(iv) aldehydes and ketones
(v) carboxylic acids, esters and acyl chlorides
(vi) amines (primary only), nitriles, amides and amino acids
[Candidates will be expected to recognize the shape of the benzene ring when it
is present
in organic compounds. Knowledge of benzene or its compounds is not required for
AS.]
(b) interpret, and use the following terminology associated with organic reacti
ons:
(i) functional group
(ii) homolytic and heterolytic fission
(iii) free radical, initiation, propagation, termination
(iv) nucleophile, electrophile
23
(v) addition, substitution, elimination, hydrolysis
(vi) oxidation and reduction.
[in equations for organic redox reactions, the symbols [O] and [H] are acceptabl
e]
(c) (i) *describe the shapes of the ethane, ethene and benzene molecules
(ii) *predict the shapes of other related molecules
(d) *explain the shapes of the ethane, ethene and benzene molecules in terms of
s and p
carbon-carbon bonds
(e) describe structural isomerism
(f) describe cis-trans isomerism in alkenes, and explain its origin in terms of
restricted rotation
due to the presence of p bonds
(g) *explain what is meant by a chiral centre and that such a centre gives rise
to optical
isomerism
(h) deduce the possible isomers for an organic molecule of known molecular form
ula
(i) identify chiral centres and/or cis-trans isomerism in a molecule of given s
tructural formula
10.2 HYDROCARBONS
Content
I Alkanes (exemplified by ethane)
(i) Free-radical reactions
(ii) Crude oil and cracking
II Alkenes (exemplified by ethene)
(i) Addition and oxidation reactions
(ii) Industrial importance
III Arenes (exemplified by benzene and methylbenzene)
(i) Influence of delocalised p electrons on structure and properties
(ii) Substitution reactions with electrophiles
(iii) Oxidation of side-chain
IV Hydrocarbons as fuels
Learning Outcomes
(a) be aware of the general unreactivity of alkanes, including towards polar re
agents
(b) describe the chemistry of alkanes as exemplified by the following reactions
of ethane:
(i) combustion
(ii) substitution by chlorine and by bromine
(c) *describe the mechanism of free-radical substitution at methyl groups with p
articular
reference to the initiation, propagation and termination reactions
24
(d) describe the chemistry of alkenes as exemplified, where relevant, by the fo
llowing reactions
of ethene:
(i) *addition of hydrogen, steam, hydrogen halides and halogens
(ii) *oxidation by cold, dilute, acidified manganate(VII) ions to form the diol
(iii) oxidation by hot, concentrated, acidified manganate(VII) ions leading to
the rupture of
the carbon-to-carbon double bond in order to determine the position of alkene
linkages in larger molecules
(iv) polymerisation (see also Section 10.8)
(e) *describe the mechanism of electrophilic addition in alkenes, using bromine/
ethene as an
example
(f) explain the use of crude oil as a source of both aliphatic and aromatic hyd
rocarbons
(g) suggest how cracking can be used to obtain more useful alkanes and alkenes of
lower M
r
from larger hydrocarbon molecules
(h) describe and explain how the combustion reactions of alkanes lead to their
use as fuels in
industry, in the home and in transport
(i) recognise the environmental consequences of:
(i) carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbons arising from th
e
internal combustion engine and of their catalytic removal
(ii) gases that contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect
(j) describe the chemistry of arenes as exemplified by the following reactions
of
benzene and methylbenzene:
(i) *substitution reactions with chlorine and with bromine
(ii) nitration
(iii) oxidation of the side-chain to give a carboxylic acid
(k) (i) *describe the mechanism of electrophilic substitution in arenes, using
the
mono-nitration of benzene as an example
(ii) describe the effect of the delocalisation of electrons in arenes in such r
eactions
(l) predict whether halogenation will occur in the side-chain or aromatic nucle
us in
arenes depending on reaction conditions
(m) apply the knowledge of positions of substitution in the electrophilic subst
itution of
arenes
10.3 HALOGEN DERIVATIVES
Content
I Halogenoalkanes and halogenoarenes
(i) Nucleophilic substitution
(ii) Hydrolysis
(iii) Formation of nitriles, primary amines
(iv) Elimination
II Relative strength of the C-Hal bond
25
Learning Outcomes
(a) recall the chemistry of halogenoalkanes as exemplified by
(i) the following nucleophilic substitution reactions of bromoethane: hydrolysi
s; formation
of nitriles; formation of primary amines by reaction with ammonia
(ii) the elimination of hydrogen bromide from 2-bromopropane
(b) *describe the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution (by both S
1 and S
2 mechanisms) in
N
N
halogenoalkanes
(c) interpret the different reactivities of halogenoalkanes e.g. CFCs; anaesthe
tics; flame
retardants; plastics and chlorobenzene with particular reference to hydrolysis a
nd to the
relative strengths of the C-Hal bonds
(d) explain the uses of fluoroalkanes and fluorohalogenoalkanes in terms of the
ir relative
chemical inertness
(e) recognise the concern about the effect of chlorofluoroalkanes on the ozone
layer
10.4 HYDROXY COMPOUNDS
Content
I Alcohols (exemplified by ethanol)
(i) Formation of halogenoalkanes
(ii) Reaction with sodium; oxidation; dehydration; esterification; acylation
(iii) The tri-iodomethane test
II Phenol
(i) Its acidity; reaction with sodium
(ii) Nitration of, and bromination of, the aromatic ring
Learning Outcomes
(a) recall the chemistry of alcohols, exemplified by ethanol:
(i) combustion
(ii) substitution to give halogenoalkanes
(iii) reaction with sodium
(iv) oxidation to carbonyl compounds and carboxylic acids
(v) dehydration to alkenes
(vi) ester formation
(b) (i) classify hydroxy compounds into primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol
s
(ii) suggest characteristic distinguishing reactions, e.g. mild oxidation
(c) deduce the presence of a CH
CH(OH) group in an alcohol from its reaction with
3
alkaline aqueous iodine to form tri-iodomethane
(d) recall the chemistry of phenol, as exemplified by the following reactions:
(i) with bases
26
(ii) with sodium
(iii) nitration of, and bromination of, the aromatic ring
(e) explain the relative acidities of water, phenol and ethanol
10.5 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
Content
I Aldehydes (exemplified by ethanal)
(i) Oxidation to carboxylic acid
(ii) Reaction with hydrogen cyanide
(iii) Characteristic tests for aldehydes
II Ketones (exemplified by propanone and phenylethanone)
(i) Reaction with hydrogen cyanide
(ii) Characteristic tests for ketones
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe
(i) the formation of aldehydes and ketones from primary and secondary alcohols
respectively using Cr
O
/H
2
+
2
7
(ii) the reduction of aldehydes and ketones e.g. using NaBH
4
(b) *describe the mechanism of the nucleophilic addition reactions of hydrogen c
yanide with
aldehydes and ketones
(c) describe the use of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNPH) reagent to detect
the presence
of carbonyl compounds
(d) deduce the nature (aldehyde or ketone) of an unknown carbonyl compound from
the results
of simple tests (i.e. Fehling s and Tollens reagents; ease of oxidation)
(e) describe the reaction of CH
CO compounds with alkaline aqueous iodine to give
3
tri-iodomethane
10.6 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES
Content
I Carboxylic acids (exemplified by ethanoic acid and benzoic acid)
(i) Formation from primary alcohols and nitriles
(ii) Salt, ester and acyl chloride formation
II Acyl chlorides (exemplified by ethanoyl chloride)
(i) Ease of hydrolysis compared with alkyl and aryl chlorides
(ii) Reaction with alcohols, phenols and primary amines
III Esters (exemplified by ethyl ethanoate and phenyl benzoate)
(i) Formation from carboxylic acids and from acyl chlorides
(ii) Hydrolysis (under acidic and under basic conditions)
(iii) Uses of esters
27
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe the formation of carboxylic acids from alcohols, aldehydes and nit
riles
(b) describe the reactions of carboxylic acids in the formation of
(i) salts
(ii) esters
(iii) acyl chlorides
(c) explain the acidity of carboxylic acids and of chlorine-substituted ethanoi
c acids in
terms of their structures
(d) describe the hydrolysis of acyl chlorides
(e) describe the reactions of acyl chlorides with alcohols, phenols and primary
amines
(f) explain the relative ease of hydrolysis of acyl chlorides, alkyl chlorides
and aryl
chlorides
(g) describe the formation of esters from carboxylic acids or acyl chlorides, u
sing ethyl
ethanoate and phenyl benzoate as examples
(h) *describe the acid and base hydrolysis of esters
(i) describe the formation of polyesters (see also Section 10.8)
(j) state the major commercial uses of esters e.g. solvents; perfumes; flavouri
ngs
10.7 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
Content
I Primary amines (exemplified by ethylamine and phenylamine)
(i) Formation
(ii) Salt formation
(iii) Other reactions of phenylamine
II Amides (exemplified by ethanamide)
(i) Formation from acyl chlorides
(ii) Hydrolysis
III Amino acids (exemplified by aminoethanoic acid)
(i) Acid and base properties
(ii) Zwitterion formation
IV Proteins
(i) Structure, based on the peptide linkage
(ii) Hydrolysis of proteins
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe the formation of ethylamine (by nitrile reduction see also Section
10.3) and
of phenylamine (by the reduction of nitrobenzene)
28
(b) explain the basicity of amines
(c) explain the relative basicities of ammonia, ethylamine and phenylamine in t
erms of
their structures
(d) describe the reaction of phenylamine with:
(i) aqueous bromine
(ii) nitrous acid to give the diazonium salt and phenol
(e) describe the coupling of benzenediazonium chloride and phenol and the use o
f
similar reactions in the formation of dyestuff
(f) describe the formation of amides from the reaction between RNH
and R
'
COCl
2
(g) describe amide hydrolysis on treatment with aqueous alkali or acid
(h) describe the acid/base properties of amino acids and the formation of zwitt
erions
(i) describe the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids and, hence, exp
lain
protein formation
(j) describe the hydrolysis of proteins
(k) describe the formation of polyamides (see also Section 10.8)
10.8 POLYMERISATION
Content
I Addition polymerisation
II Condensation polymerisation
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe the characteristics of addition polymerisation as exemplified by p
oly(ethene) and
PVC
(b) *recognise the difficulty of the disposal of poly(alkene)s, i.e. non-biodegr
adability and
harmful combustion products
(c) describe the characteristics of condensation polymerisation
(i) in polyesters as exemplified by Terylene
(ii) in polyamides as exemplified by peptides, proteins, nylon 6 and nylon 6,6
(d) predict the type of polymerisation reaction for a given monomer or pair of
monomers
(e) deduce the repeat unit of a polymer obtained from a given monomer or pair o
f
monomers
(f) deduce the type of polymerisation reaction which produces a given section o
f a
polymer molecule
(g) identify the monomer(s) present in a given section of a polymer molecule
29
11 APPLICATIONS OF CHEMISTRY
Key concepts
Chemistry is fundamental to understanding biological systems and processes and
to
modern medicine.
Novel chemistry can provide both the means of monitoring, and solutions to,
environmental problems.
The chemist is a designer, both of methods of analysis and of novel molecules a
nd
materials.
The applications of chemistry have both positive and negative impacts on societ
y and can
be used to address the issues of pollution, disease and resources.
11.1 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
At the end of this course candidates should be aware of the diverse variety of r
oles played by
proteins. These will be illustrated by examples in this section and in sections
11.2 and 11.3.
The recall of specific examples will not be tested but candidates will be expect
ed to discuss the
chemistry of given examples.
Content
I Protein chemistry
II Genetic information
III Energy
IV Metals in biological systems
Learning Outcomes
(a) recall that proteins are condensation polymers formed from amino acid monom
ers
and recognise and describe the generalised structure of amino acids (link to cor
e
syllabus, sections 10.7 and 10.8)
(b) explain the importance of amino acid sequence (primary structure) in determ
ining the
properties of proteins
(c) distinguish between the primary, secondary and tertiary structure of protei
ns and
explain the stabilisation of secondary and tertiary structure using the chemistr
y
learnt in the core syllabus, sections 3 and 10.7
(d) describe and explain the characteristics of enzyme catalysis, including
(i) specificity (using a simple lock and key model) and the idea of competitive
inhibition
(ii) structural integrity in relation to denaturation and non-competitive inhib
ition
(e) given information, use core chemistry to explain how small molecules intera
ct with
proteins and how they can modify the structure and function of biological system
s
(for example, as enzyme inhibitors or cofactors, disrupting protein-protein
interactions, blocking ion channels) (link to 11.3 (a))
(f) describe the double helical structure of DNA in terms of a sugar-phosphate
backbone
and attached bases (Candidates will be expected to know the general structure i
n
terms of a block diagram but will not be expected to recall the detailed structu
res of
the components involved. Where these are required they will be given in the
question paper)
30

(g) explain the significance of hydrogen-bonding in the pairing of bases in DNA
in
relation to the replication of genetic information
(h) explain in outline how DNA encodes for the amino acid sequence of proteins
with
reference to mRNA, tRNA and the ribosome in translation and transcription
(i) explain the chemistry of DNA mutation from provided data
(j) discuss the genetic basis of disease (for example, sickle cell anaemia) in
terms of
altered protein structure and function
(k) explain how modification to protein/enzyme primary structure can result in
new
structure and/or function
(l) outline, in terms of the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP + P
, the provision of energy for the
i
cell
(m) understand why some metals are essential to life and, given information and
with
reference to the chemistry of the core syllabus, be able to explain the chemistr
y
involved (for example, iron in haemoglobin (section 9.5 (g) and 11.1(e) and (j))
,
sodium and potassium in transmission of nerve impulses (section 3, ion solvation
and section 5, energetics), zinc as an enzyme cofactor (section 10.1, nucleophil
ic
attack, 11.1(e)))
(n) recognise that some metals are toxic and discuss, in chemical terms, the pr
oblems
associated with heavy metals in the environment entering the food chain, for exa
mple
mercury (development of methods to detect and address these problems will be
discussed in 11.2(i) and 11.3(f))
11.2 APPLICATIONS OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Questions in this section will focus on the techniques involved rather than the
recall of examples.
All necessary information about the context will be given in the question and ca
ndidates will be
expected to apply their knowledge.
Content
I Methods of detection and analysis
II Applications in chemistry and society
Learning Outcomes
(a) describe simply the process of electrophoresis and the effect of pH, using
peptides
and amino acids as examples (link to 11.1 (a))
(b) explain, in simple terms, the technique of DNA fingerprinting and its appli
cations in
forensic science, archaeology and medicine
(c) describe the importance to modern medicine, and the challenges, of separati
ng and
characterising the proteins in cells (link to 11.1)
(d) outline in simple terms the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance in
H and be
1
able to interpret simple NMR spectra
(e) show awareness of the use of NMR and X-ray crystallography in determining t
he
structure of macromolecules and in understanding their function (link to 11.1 (c
) and
11.2 (c))
31
(f) state what is meant by partition coefficient and calculate a partition coef
ficient for a
system in which the solute is in the same molecular state in the two solvents
(g) understand qualitatively paper, high performance liquid, thin layer and gas
/liquid
chromatography in terms of adsorption and/or partition and be able to interpret
data
from these techniques
(h) explain the concept of mass spectroscopy, deduce the number of carbon atoms
in a
compound using the M+1 peak and the presence of bromine and chlorine atoms
using the M+2 peak and suggest the identity of molecules formed by simple
fragmentation in a given mass spectrum (see also core syllabus, section 1 (c) an
d (d))
(i) draw conclusions given appropriate information and data from environmental
monitoring (for example, PCBs in the atmosphere, isotopic ratios in ice cores)
11.3 DESIGN AND MATERIALS
Candidates will not be expected to recall specific examples but to use and expla
in material given
in the question paper.
Content
I Medicinal chemistry and drug delivery
II Properties of polymers
III Nanotechnology
IV Environment and energy
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to use the concepts and knowledge from the core syllab
us and
sections 11.1 and 11.2 to:
(a) discuss the challenges of drug design and explain in simple terms how molec
ules
may be identified and developed to overcome these problems
(b) discuss the challenges of drug delivery and explain in simple terms how mat
erials
may be developed to overcome these problems
(c) discuss the properties and structure of polymers based on their methods of
formation (addition or condensation, link to core syllabus, section 10.8)
(d) discuss how the presence of side-chains and intermolecular forces affect th
e
properties of polymeric materials (for example, spider silk)
(e) show awareness of nanotechnology and, given information and data, be able t
o
discuss the chemistry involved with reference to the core syllabus
(f) discuss how a knowledge of chemistry can be used to overcome environmental
problems (for example, ground water contamination, oil spillage, CFCs)
(g) discuss how a knowledge of chemistry can be used to extend the life of exis
ting
resources, to identify alternative resources and to improve the efficiency of en
ergy
production and use
32
PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
INTRODUCTION
Candidates should be directed towards the practice of experimental skills throug
hout the whole
period of their course of study. As a guide, candidates should expect to spend
at least 20% of
their time doing practical work individually or in small groups. This 20% does
not include the time
spent observing teacher demonstrations of experiments. The practical work that
candidates do
during their course should aim to:
provide learning opportunities so that candidates develop the skills they need
to carry out
experimental and investigative work;
reinforce the learning of the theoretical subject content of the syllabus;
instil an understanding of the interplay of experiment and theory in scientific
method;
prove enjoyable, contributing to the motivation of candidates.
Candidates experimental skills will be assessed in Papers 31/32 and 5. In each o
f these papers, the
examiners may not be strictly bound by the subject content of the syllabus in fi
nding contexts for the
setting of questions. Within unfamiliar contexts, candidates will be told exact
ly what to do and how to
do it. Knowledge of theory and experimental skills will be drawn only from with
in the syllabus.
To support Centres in teaching of practical skills, CIE has produced two booklet
s totalling almost
200 pages. Each contains 30 practical exercises, of which at least 10 are prese
nted in detail, with
lesson plans, student worksheets and useful information for teachers and technic
al support staff.
The other 20 are presented in outline, for Centres to develop, learning from the
experience.
The booklets are:
Teaching AS Chemistry Practical Skills (PSAS97010105)
Teaching A2 Chemistry Practical Skills (PSA297010105)
They are available form CIE publications, 1 Hills Road, Cambridge, CB1 2EU, UK,
phone +44 (0)
1223 553553, fax +44 (0) 1223 553558, e-mail international@cie.org.uk
Guidance on making measurements and on error analysis may be found on the follow
ing
websites.
www.chemistry-react.org/go/Tutorial/Tutorial_4428.html
www.chemsoc.org/networks/LearnNet/RSCmeasurements.htm
See also under Textbooks and IT Resources for further resources.
Apparatus requirements for Paper 31/32
The apparatus requirements for Paper 31/32 will vary from paper to paper. A com
plete list of
apparatus and materials required for each question will be issued in the Confide
ntial Instructions.
The Confidential Instructions should be followed very carefully. If there is an
y doubt about how the
practical examinations should be set up or if a particular chemical is impossibl
e to obtain, it is vital
that Centres contact CIE as soon as possible.
To provide some variation in the questions set, some novel items of equipment or
material may be
required. The list of practical apparatus and materials at the end of this sect
ion gives details of the
requirements that are frequently required. Centres should keep these in stock a
nd candidates
should be accustomed to using these.
Guidance for the preparation of reagents for qualitative analysis and titration
indicators is given at
the end of this section. From 2010 these instructions will not be given in the
Confidential
Instructions; instead the Supervisor will be referred to the syllabus.
33
PAPER 31/32
Paper 31/32 will be a timetabled, laboratory-based practical paper focussing on
the following
experimental skills:
manipulation of apparatus;
presentation of data;
analysis and evaluation.
Each paper will consist of two or three questions, totalling 40 marks. One ques
tion will be an
observational problem in which the candidate will be asked to investigate by spe
cified
experiments, an unknown substance or substances. Candidates will be expected to
draw up
tables to record their observations, to analyse their results and to draw approp
riate conclusions.
The substances may be elements, compounds or mixtures. The other question or qu
estions will
be quantitative, either volumetric analysis or measurement of some quantity e.g.
the enthalpy
change of a reaction. Candidates will be expected to draw up tables, graphs and
other
appropriate means of presenting the data, to analyse it and perform calculations
and to draw
appropriate conclusions. One or more of the questions will require candidates t
o identify sources
of error and make suggestions for change.
Paper 31 and Paper 32 will contain different questions, but will be equivalent i
n the skills assessed
and in the level of demand. Each candidate should take one of these papers. So
me Centres may
wish to divide their candidates so that some are entered for Paper 31 and the ot
hers are entered
for Paper 32; other Centres may wish to enter all of their candidates for the sa
me paper.
34
Mark scheme for Paper 31/32
Paper 31/32 will be marked using the generic mark scheme below. The expectation
s for each
mark category are listed in the sections that follow.
Skill Minimum
Breakdown of skills Minimum
mark
mark
allocation*
allocation*
Manipulation,
12 marks
Successful collection of data and
8 marks
measurement and
observations
observation
Quality of measurements or observations 2 marks
Decisions relating to measurements or
2 marks
observations
Presentation of data
6 marks
Recording data and observations 2 marks
and observations
Display of calculation and reasoning 2 marks
Data layout 2 marks
Analysis, conclusions
10 marks
Interpretation of data or observations and
4 marks
and evaluation
identifying sources of error
Drawing conclusions 5 marks
Suggesting improvements 1 marks
* The remaining 12 marks will be allocated across the skills in this grid and th
eir allocation may
vary from session to session.
Manipulation, measurement and observation
Successful collection of data and observations
set up apparatus correctly;
follow instructions given in the form of written instructions or diagrams;
use their apparatus to collect an appropriate quantity of data or observations,
including
subtle differences in colour, solubility or quantity of materials;
make measurements using pipettes, burettes, measuring cylinders, thermometers,
and other common laboratory apparatus.
Systematic analysis and a knowledge of traditional methods of separation will no
t be
required. It will be assumed that candidates will be familiar with (i) the reac
tions of the
following cations: NH
; Mg
; Al
; Ca
; Cr
; Mn
; Fe
; Fe
; Cu
; Zn
; Ba
; Pb
; (ii)
+
2 +
3+
2+
3 +
2 +
2+
3+
2 +
2 +
2 +
2+
4
the reactions of the following anions: CO
; NO
; NO
; SO
; SO
; Cl
; Br
; I
; CrO
;
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
4
3
4
(iii) tests for the following gases: NH
; CO
; Cl
; H
; O
; SO
, as detailed in the qualitative
3
2
2
2
2
2
analysis notes which will be included with the question paper and are reproduced
at the end
of the section.
The substances to be investigated may contain ions not included in the above lis
t: in such
cases, candidates will not be expected to identify the ions but only to draw con
clusions of a
general nature.
Candidates should not attempt tests, other than those specified, on substances,
except
when it is appropriate to test for a gas.
Exercises requiring a knowledge of simple organic reactions e.g. test-tube react
ions
indicating the presence of unsaturated, alcoholic and carboxylic groups may also
be set, but
this would be for the testing of observation skills and drawing general conclusi
ons only.
A knowledge of the following volumetric determinations will be assumed: acids an
d alkalis
using suitable indicators; iron(II), ethanedioic acid (and its salts), by potass
ium
manganate(VII); iodine and sodium thiosulfate. Simple titrations involving othe
r reagents
may also be set but, where appropriate, sufficient working details will be given
.
Candidates should normally record burette readings to the nearest 0.05 cm
and
3
temperature readings to the nearest 0.5 °C when using a thermometer calibrated in
1 °C
intervals and to the nearest 0.1 °C where the interval is 0.2 °C.
35
Quality of measurements or observations
make accurate and consistent measurements and observations.
In qualitative experiments, precise descriptions and comparisons of colour or ot
her
observations are expected. In a titration with a good end-point, candidates are
expected to
record two titres within 0.10 cm
.
3
Marks will be awarded for consistency and accuracy of readings. In some cases,
the
candidate s data or observations may be compared with information supplied by the
Supervisor or known to the examiners; in other cases, the award of the mark may
be based
on the scatter of points on a graph. The examiners will only consider the exten
t to which the
candidate has affected the quality of the data: allowances will be made where th
e quality of
data is limited by the experimental method required or by the apparatus and mate
rials used.
Decisions relating to measurements or observations
decide how many tests or observations to perform;
make measurements that span a range and have a distribution appropriate to the
experiment;
decide how long to leave experiments running before making readings;
identify where repeated readings or observations are appropriate;
replicate readings or observations as necessary;
identify where confirmatory tests are appropriate and the nature of such tests.
choose reagents to distinguish between given ions
Candidates may need to choose how many tests, measurements and observations can
be
made in the time available. Candidates will be expected to be able to identify
the most
appropriate range and distribution of values. In some experiments a regularly-s
paced set of
measurements will be appropriate.
Repeated readings of particular quantities are often necessary in chemistry in o
rder to
obtain accurate values and minimise experimental error. Individual readings or
observations should be repeated where they appear to be anomalous. In qualitati
ve
analysis experiments, candidates will be expected to identify appropriate confir
matory tests.
Presentation of data and observations
Recording data or observations
present numerical data, values or observations in a single table of results;
draw up the table in advance of taking readings/making observations so that the
y do
not have to copy up their results;
include in the table of results, if necessary, columns for raw data, for calcul
ated values
and for analyses or conclusions;
use column headings that include both the quantity and the unit and that confor
m to
accepted scientific conventions;
record raw readings of a quantity to the same degree of precision and observati
ons to
the same level of detail.
As an example of accepted practice in column headings, if the quantity being mea
sured is
volume in cm
, then volume/cm
would be the usual way to write the column heading, but
3
3
volume in cm
or volume (cm
) would be allowed. Headings such as volume cm
or just
3
3
3
cm
are not acceptable. The quantity or the unit or both may be written in words or
3
appropriate symbols may be used provided that their meaning is clear and unambig
uous in
the context (e.g. avoid t, since it may be used for time and for temperature).
Conventional
symbols or abbreviations, such as H for enthalpy change or ppt. for precipitate
, may be
used without explanation.
36
In recording data and observations, if one measurement of volume in a column of
raw data
is given as 0.06 cm
, then all the volumes in that column should be given to the nearest
3
0.01 cm
. The degree of precision used should be compatible with the measuring
3
instrument used: it would be inappropriate to record a volume measured on a cm
scale as
3
10 mm
. Where the calibration marks on a measuring instrument are widely spaced, it ma
y
3
be appropriate to interpolate between the marks, but where the calibration marks
are close
together then the reading should be to the nearest calibration mark. Observatio
ns of
qualitative variables such as colour should be recorded in simple language such
as blue or
orange . Where fine discrimination is required, terms such as pale or dark should be
used, and comparisons made such as darker red than at 3 minutes or paler green than
at
0.2 mol dm
, but darker than at 0.4 mol dm
.
3
3
Display of calculation and reasoning
show their working in calculations, and the key steps in their reasoning;
use the correct number of significant figures for calculated quantities.
Where calculations are done, all of the key stages in the calculation should be
recorded by
candidates, so the credit can be given for correctly displaying working. Simila
rly, where
observations form the basis for logical deduction (e.g. the concentration of a s
olution or the
identity of an unknown substance), the steps in making the deduction should be s
hown.
Again, where inductive thought processes are used to build up a general predicti
on or to
support a general theory, from specific observations, the sequence of steps used
should be
reported.
Calculated quantities should be given to the same number of significant figures
(or one more
than) the measured quantity of least accuracy. For example, if titre volume is
measured to
four significant figures e.g. 23.45
cm
, then the corresponding molar concentration should be
3
given to four significant figures e.g. 1.305
mol
dm
or 0.9876
mol
dm
.
3
3
Data layout
choose a suitable and clear method of presenting the data, e.g. tabulations, gr
aph or
mixture of methods of presentation;
use the appropriate presentation medium to produce a clear presentation of the
data;
select which variables to plot against which and decide whether the graph shoul
d be
drawn as a straight line or a curve;
plot appropriate variables on clearly labelled x- and y-axes;
choose suitable scales for graph axes;
plot all points or bars to an appropriate accuracy;
follow the ASE recommendations for putting lines on graphs.
Generally, candidates are expected to present data in the form in which the key
points of the
data can be most easily visualised. For qualitative data this is likely to be a
table.
For quantitative data, this may be a graph or a table. Candidates should choose
scales for
the graph axes that allow the graph to be read easily, such as 1, 2 or 5 units t
o a 20 mm
square. It is anticipated that candidates will be able to make the best use of
the space
available for making their presentation: using over half of the length of a grid
in both x- and
y-directions so that the data points occupy at least half of the graph grid in b
oth directions;
making tables of qualitative observations large enough so that all the entries c
an be
comfortably fitted in the available space. The presentation medium should be pe
ncil for
lines on tables and graphs.
The accepted scientific conventions for labelling the axes of a graph are the sa
me as for the
column headings in a table of results with both the quantity and the unit shown
(where
appropriate). Points should be finely drawn with a sharp pencil, but must still
be visible.
A fine cross or an encircled dot is suitable; a thick pencil blob is not. Often
it is obvious that
the data fall on a straight line or smooth curve, and a line of best fit or appr
opriate curve
should be placed on the graph. In some cases candidates may be expected to draw
two
curves or lines and find the intersection. A line of best fit should show an ev
en distribution
of points on either side of the line along its whole length. Lines should be fi
nely drawn and
should not contain kinks or breaks. Candidates will be expected to extrapolate
lines to read
intercepts with axes or other lines or predict values outside the range of the e
xperiment.
37
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation
Interpretation of data or observations and identifying sources of error
describe the patterns and trends shown by tables and graphs;
describe and summarise the key points of a set of observations;
find an unknown value by using co-ordinates or intercepts on a graph;
calculate other quantities from data, or calculate the mean from replicate valu
es, or
make other appropriate calculations;
determine the gradient of a straight-line graph;
evaluate the effectiveness of control variables;
identify the most significant sources of error in an experiment;
estimate, quantitatively, the uncertainty in quantitative measurements;
express such uncertainty in a measurement as an actual or percentage error;
show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors and random
errors.
Descriptions should be precise, giving quotations of figures to support the desc
ription, and
calculated values where these are appropriate. Unknown values might include a t
itration
end point or change in mass. Calculations may involve mean, percentage, percent
age gain
or loss, rate of reaction, concentration, molar mass, and volume of gases or oth
er
appropriate calculations. When a gradient is to be determined, the points on th
e line chosen
for the calculation should be separated by at least half of the length of the li
ne drawn.
Candidates should be used to looking at experiments and assessing the relative i
mportance
of errors in measurement or in making observations so that they can judge which
sources of
error are most important. Candidates should be familiar with simple means of es
timating
error, such as the errors intrinsic in measuring devices or in the observer s abil
ity to
observe, or in experiments where limitations of the method introduce errors (e.g
. heat loss
when trying to assess enthalpy change). They should be able to express these er
rors in
standard forms such as length = 73 mm ± 1mm, or temperature increase = 14 °C ± 4 °C.
Candidates should be able to suggest which of the sources of error described are
likely to
be systematic errors such as those resulting from thermometers that consistently
read 1 °C
above actual temperature, or candidates who read volumes to the wrong part of th
e
meniscus, as well as those which are likely to be random errors due to variabili
ty of
materials, or random variations in room temperature.
Drawing conclusions
draw conclusions from an experiment, giving an outline description of the main
features of the data, considering whether experimental data supports a given
hypothesis, and making further predictions;
draw conclusions from interpretations of observations, data and calculated valu
es;
make scientific explanations of the data, observations and conclusions that the
y have
described.
Hypotheses that are being tested in AS practical papers will be given, although
hypothesis
formulation is in skill B, and thus may be tested in the theory components.
Conclusions may be expressed in terms of support for, or refutation of, hypothes
es, or in
terms of the deductions or inductions that can logically be made from the data,
observations
or calculated values. Simple scientific explanations form a part of such conclu
sions and
therefore form a part of this practical assessment, in which the candidates will
be expected
to refer to knowledge and understanding gained in their theory part of the cours
e in order to
provide explanations of their practical conclusions.
Suggesting improvements
suggest modifications to an experimental arrangement that will improve the accu
racy
of the experiment or the accuracy of the observations that can be made;
suggest ways in which to extend the investigation to answer a new question;
describe such modifications clearly in words or diagrams.
38
Candidates suggestions should be realistic, so that in principle they are achieva
ble in
practice, although they may include the use of apparatus that is not available t
o the
candidate (e.g. a colorimeter). The suggestions may relate either to the appara
tus used, to
the experimental procedure followed or to the nature of the observations or the
means used
to make them. Candidates may include improvements that they have actually made
while
carrying out the experiment, such as repeating readings. The suggested modifica
tions may
relate to sources of error identified by the candidate or to other sources of er
ror. Extensions
of the investigation should only be proposed specifically to permit the answerin
g of a
specified new question.
PAPER 5
Paper 5 will be a timetabled, written paper focussing on the following higher-or
der experimental
skills:
planning;
analysis and evaluation.
This examination paper will not require laboratory facilities.
It should be stressed that candidates cannot be adequately prepared for this pap
er
without extensive laboratory work during their course of study.
In particular, candidates cannot be taught to plan experiments effectively unles
s, on a number of
occasions, they are required:
to plan an experiment;
to perform the experiment according to their plan;
to evaluate what they have done.
This requires many hours of laboratory-based work, and it also requires careful
supervision from
teachers to ensure that experiments are performed with due regard to safety.
The paper will consist of two or more questions totalling 30 marks. Candidates
will be required to
design an experimental investigation of a given problem. Such questions will no
t be highly
structured: candidates will be expected to answer using extended, structured wri
ting, illustrated
with appropriate diagrams, flow charts, tables or equations. Candidates may be
asked to express
a prediction in the form of a written hypothesis linking independent and depende
nt variables, or in
the form of a graph showing the expected outcome. There will be activities in w
hich candidates
will be given some experimental data and will be required to analyse, evaluate a
nd draw
conclusions from it. These questions also will not be highly structured: candid
ates will be
expected to decide for themselves the means that should be used to analyse, eval
uate and
conclude.
Some questions on this paper may be set in areas of chemistry that are difficult
to investigate
experimentally in school laboratories, either because of the cost of equipment,
such as
colorimeters or spectrometers, or because of restrictions on the availability of
samples and
materials such as expensive chemicals or biochemicals, or for safety reasons. N
o question will
require knowledge of theory or equipment that is beyond the syllabus. Informati
on that candidates
are not expected to know will be provided in the examination paper.
39
Mark scheme for Paper 5
Paper 5 will be marked using the generic mark scheme below. The expectations fo
r each mark
category are listed in the sections that follow.
Skill Approximate breakdown of marks
Planning 15 marks
Defining the problem 5 marks
Methods 10 marks
Analysis, conclusions and
15 marks
Dealing with data 8 marks
evaluation
Evaluation 4 marks
Conclusion 3 marks
Planning
Defining the problem
identify the independent variable in the experiment or investigation;
identify the dependent variable in the experiment or investigation;
express the aim in terms of a prediction or hypothesis, and express this in wor
ds or in
the form of a predicted graph;
identify the variables that are to be controlled.
Candidates will be provided with information about the aims of the investigation
or
experiment, and some background information relating to it. They should be able
to make
use of this information to identify the key variables in the investigation, and
to make a
quantitative, testable, falsifiable prediction of the likely outcome, based on t
he information
given and their knowledge and understanding of the topic under consideration. C
andidates
may be asked to express their prediction in the form of a sketch graph showing t
he
expected outcome. A list of key variables to control in order to test the hypot
hesis
effectively is required, and should include variables that might be expected to
have some
effect on the material involved (e.g. temperature), but not those likely to have
a trivial effect
(e.g. using the same test-tube).
Methods
describe the method to be used to vary the independent variable, and the means
that
they will propose to ensure that they have measured its values accurately;
describe how the dependent variable is to be measured;
describe how each of the other key variables is to be controlled;
explain how any control experiments will be used to verify that it is the indep
endent
variable that is affecting the dependent variable and not some other factor;
describe the arrangement of apparatus and the steps in the procedure to be foll
owed;
suggest appropriate volumes and concentrations of reagents;
assess the risks of their proposed methods;
describe precautions that should be taken to keep risks to a minimum;
draw up tables for data that they might wish to record;
describe how the data might be used in order to reach a conclusion.
The overall arrangement should be workable. It should be possible to collect th
e data
required without undue difficulty if the apparatus were assembled as described.
Words and labelled diagrams should be used for describing the apparatus and how
to use it.
The measuring instruments chosen should measure the correct quantity to a suitab
le
precision. Control experiments may be of the type where all factors are identic
al to the
experimental treatment, except that the value of the independent variable is zer
o, or they
may be of the type used to confirm that, for example, it is a catalyst that is c
ausing a
particular effect, where the catalyst is omitted or inactivated.
Candidates should be able to carry out a simple risk assessment of their plan, i
dentifying the
areas where accident or injury is most likely and areas where it would be most s
erious.
They should be able to use this to propose appropriate safety precautions specif
ically
related to the risks that they have identified e.g. the experiment gives off NO
fumes and
2
should be carried out in a fume hood.
40
Candidates should be able to describe the main steps that they would use in orde
r to get to
the point of being able to draw conclusions, including, as appropriate, preparat
ion of results
tables, proposed graphs to plot, key points to consider in any evaluation of the
method and
results, and reference back to the hypothesis.
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation
Dealing with data
identify the calculations and means of presentation of data that are necessary
to be
able to draw conclusions from provided data;
use calculations to enable simplification or explanation of data;
use tables and graphs to draw attention to the key points in quantitative data,
including
the variability of data.
Candidates should know how to choose and carry out calculations required to simp
lify or
make comparable data. These calculations might include the mean, median, mode,
percentage and percentage gain or loss. Candidates should also know how to choo
se and
construct appropriate data tables, including columns for calculated values, and
headings
including quantity and unit where appropriate. Similarly they should be able to
construct
suitable graphs displaying the independent variable on the x-axis and dependent
variable on
the y-axis, and fulfilling the criteria laid out in the AS section above.
Evaluation
identify anomalous values in provided data and suggest appropriate means of dea
ling
with such anomalies;
within familiar contexts, suggest possible explanations for anomalous readings;
identify the extent to which provided readings have been adequately replicated,
and
describe the adequacy of the range of data provided;
use provided information to assess the extent to which selected variables have
been
effectively controlled;
use these evaluations and provided information to make informed judgements on t
he
confidence with which conclusions may be drawn.
In a table or graph of data, candidates should be able to identify values which
are clearly
anomalous, and suggest strategies for dealing with such anomalies, including rep
eating the
experiment or omitting the affected replicate. Where investigations are set in
familiar
contexts, which it is expected that candidates will have explored during the cou
rse,
candidates may be asked to suggest possible causes for such anomalies (above and
beyond investigator error ), and will be rewarded for answers derived from their ow
n
experience of problems intrinsic in the particular investigation. Candidates wi
ll be expected
to have a knowledge of the advantages of replication of data, and the practical
limitations.
Candidates will be expected to be able to identify instances where it would have
been
sensible for the investigator to take readings at lower or higher values of the
independent
variable in order to give a complete range of values, and also situations where
there are
gaps in the range that reduce the information that can be provided from the inve
stigation
(e.g. around a key turning point). Candidates may be provided with information
that will
permit them to assess the extent to which particular variable have been effectiv
ely
controlled (e.g. the temperature recorded within each of a number of samples in
which it is
supposed to be the same). Candidates will be expected to be able to draw togeth
er all of
this information to permit them to make judgements about the reliability of the
investigation
and the trustworthiness of its outcomes. They should be able to state if the da
ta will permit
strong or weak support for or against, or indeed, proof or refutation of, a hypo
thesis, or is of
such poor quality that it cannot successfully be used to test the hypothesis.
41
Conclusions
draw conclusions from an investigation, providing a detailed description of th
e key
features of the data and analyses, and considering whether experimental data
supports a given hypothesis;
make detailed scientific explanations of the data, analyses and conclusions tha
t they
have described;
make further predictions, ask informed and relevant questions and suggest
improvements.
Key points of the raw data, graphical representations of it and calculated value
s should be
given, leading to a clear indication of the strength or weakness of any support
for or against
the hypothesis, or indeed, its proof or refutation. Detailed scientific explana
tions form a part
of such conclusions and therefore form a part of this higher-order practical ski
ll assessment,
in which the candidates will be expected to refer to knowledge and understanding
gained in
their theory part of the course in order to provide explanations of their practi
cal conclusions,
for example making detailed reference to the rate of effective collisions betwee
n particles
and substrates in explaining the conclusions made about a reaction-rate hypothes
is. Where
appropriate, candidates may be given the opportunity to ask questions based on t
heir
conclusions and thus to derive further predictions and hypotheses. Within famil
iar contexts
and in relation to the evaluations they have made, candidates may be offered the
opportunity to suggest how the investigation may be improved in order to increas
e the
confidence in drawing conclusions.
42
APPARATUS AND MATERIALS LIST
This list given below has been drawn up in order to give guidance to schools con
cerning the
apparatus that is expected to be generally available for examination purposes (P
aper 31 and
Paper 32). The list is not intended to be exhaustive: in particular, items (suc
h as Bunsen burners,
tripods, glass-tubing) that are commonly regarded as standard equipment in a che
mical laboratory
are not included. Unless otherwise stated, the rate of allocation is per candida
te .
Glassware should where possible conform to the quality specifications given, or
Supervisors
should otherwise satisfy themselves that the glassware used is of an appropriate
accuracy.
Two burettes, 50 cm
(ISO385 or grade B)
3
Two pipettes, 25 cm
(ISO648 or grade B)
3
One pipette, 10 cm
(ISO648 or grade B)
3
Teat/squeeze/dropping pipettes
One pipette filler
to 250 cm
Conical flasks: three within range 150 cm
3
3
One-mark graduated volumetric flask, 250 cm
(ISO1042 or grade B)
3
and 50 cm
Measuring cylinders, 25 cm
(ISO6706 or ISO4788 or grade B)
3
3
Wash bottle
Two filter funnels
Porcelain crucible, approximately 15 cm
, with lid
3
Evaporating basin, at least 30 cm
3
Beakers, squat form with lip: 100 cm
, 250 cm
3
3
Thermometers: -10 °C to +110 °C at 1 °C;
-5 °C to +50 °C at 0.2 °C
Plastic beaker, e.g. polystyrene, of approximate capacity 150 cm
3
Test-tubes (some of which should be Pyrex or hard glass) approximately 125 mm x
16 mm
Boiling tubes, approximately 150 mm x 25 mm
Clocks (or wall-clock) to measure to an accuracy of about 1s (Where clocks are s
pecified,
candidates may use their own wrist watches if they prefer.)
Balance, single-pan, direct reading, minimum accuracy 0.1 g (1 per 8-12 candidat
es) weighing to 300g
It is suggested that the following chemicals be used in the Centre as part of th
e practical course.
These chemicals may also be required for the practical examination. Practical e
xaminations may
also require chemicals that are not listed.
For titration
Acid/base titration
common laboratory acids (hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid)
a weak acid such as ethanoic or propanoic acid
sodium hydroxide
sodium carbonate
phenolphthalein indicator
methyl orange or screened methyl orange indicator or bromophenol blue indicator
Permanganate titration
potassium manganate(VII)
hydrogen peroxide
iron(II) sulfate or ammonium iron(II) sulfate
sodium nitrite
ethanedioic acid or its soluble salts
43
Iodine/thiosulfate titration
potassium manganate(VII)
potassium dichromate(VI)
hydrogen peroxide
potassium iodate(V)
starch indicator
For qualitative analysis
Bench reagents
aqueous ammonia (approximately 2.0 mol dm
)
3
aqueous sodium hydroxide (approximately 2.0 mol dm
)
3
hydrochloric acid (approximately 2.0 mol dm
)
3
nitric acid (approximately 2.0 mol dm
)
3
sulfuric acid (approximately 1.0 mol dm
)
3
aqueous potassium dichromate(VI) (approximately 1.0 mol dm
)
3
aqueous barium nitrate or aqueous barium chloride (approximately 0.1 mol dm
)
3
aqueous lead(II) nitrate (approximately 0.1 mol dm
)
3
aqueous silver nitrate (approximately 0.05 mol dm
)
3
aqueous potassium iodide (approximately 0.1 mol dm
)
3
potassium manganate(VII) (approximately 0.02 mol dm
)
3
limewater (a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide) and the equipment normally
used by the
Centre to test for carbon dioxide
red and blue litmus paper
splints and a Bunsen burner
aluminium foil
Inorganic analysis
the carbonates (where they exist), sulfates, nitrates and chlorides of the catio
ns listed in the
Qualitative Analysis Notes
the sodium and potassium salts of the anions listed in the Qualitative Analysis
Notes
Organic analysis
the reagents necessary to perform the reactions of alcohols (primary, secondary,
tertiary),
aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and esters listed in the theory syllabus
n.b. Tests for aldehydes may be performed by substituting glucose for the aldehy
de.
2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine reagent (Brady s reagent) is available from some suppli
ers for example,
Sigma-Aldrich, as a solution which may be air-freighted.
Preparation for the examination (Paper 31 and Paper 32)
Details of the specific requirements for apparatus and materials for a particula
r examination are
given in the Confidential Instructions which are sent to Centres several weeks p
rior to the
examination. These Instructions also contain advice about colour-blind candidat
es.
Supervisors are reminded of their responsibilities for supplying the Examiners w
ith the information
specified in the Instructions. Failure to supply such information may cause can
didates to be
unavoidably penalised.
The attention of Centres is drawn to the Handbook for Centres which contains a s
ection on
Science Syllabuses which includes information about arrangements for practical e
xaminations.
From 2010, detailed guidance on preparing the standard bench reagents and indica
tors will not be
given in the Confidential Instructions. The Confidential Instructions will refe
r Supervisors to the
following guidance notes in this syllabus document. The following hazard codes
are used where
relevant.
C = corrosive substance F = highly flammable substance
H = harmful or irritating substance O = oxidising substance
T = toxic substance N = dangerous for the environment
The attention of Centres is drawn to any local regulations relating to safety, f
irst-aid and disposal
of chemicals. Hazard Data Sheets should be available from your chemical supplier.
44
Guidance for the preparation of reagents for qualitative analysis and indicators
Hazard Label Identity Instructions
3
3
[H] dilute hydrochloric acid 2.0 mol dm
HCl Dilute 170
cm
of concentrated (35-37%;
3
3
approximately 11
mol dm
) acid [C] to 1
dm
.
3
3
[C] dilute nitric acid 2.0 mol dm
HNO
Dilute 128
cm
of concentrated (70% w/v) acid [C] [O]
3
3
to 1
dm
.
[H] dilute sulfuric acid 1.0 mol dm
H
SO
Cautiously pour 55
cm
of concentrated (98%) sulfuric
3
3
2
4
3
acid [C] into 500
cm
of distilled water with continuous
stirring. Make the solution up to 1
dm
with distilled
3
water. Care concentrated H
SO
is very corrosive.
2
4
[H] aqueous ammonia 2.0 mol dm
NH
Dilute 112
cm
of concentrated (35%) ammonia [C] [N]
3
3
3
3
to 1
dm
.
[C] aqueous sodium hydroxide 2.0 mol dm
NaOH Dissolve 80.0
g of NaOH [C] in each dm
of solution.
3
3
Care the process of solution is exothermic and any
concentrated solution is very corrosive.
3
3
[T]
0.1 mol dm
barium
0.1 mol dm
barium
Dissolve 24.4
g of BaCl
.2H
O [T] (or 26.1
g of
2
2
chloride
chloride
Ba(NO
)
[H] [O]) in each dm
of solution.
3
3
2
[H]
[or 0.1 mol dm
barium
[or 0.1 mol dm
barium
3
3
nitrate]
nitrate]
[H] [N] 0.05 mol dm
silver nitrate 0.05 mol dm
silver
Dissolve 8.5
g of AgNO
[C] [N] in each dm
of
3
3
3
3
nitrate
solution.
[T] [N] 0.1 mol dm
lead(II) nitrate 0.1 mol dm
lead(II)
Dissolve 33.1
g of Pb(NO
)
[T] [O] [N] in each dm
of
3
3
3
3
2
nitrate
solution.
[H] limewater saturated aqueous
Prepare fresh limewater by leaving distilled water to
calcium hydroxide,
stand over solid calcium hydroxide [H] for several
Ca(OH)
days, shaking occasionally. Decant or filter the
2
solution.
3
3
[T] [N] acidified aqueous
0.05 mol dm
K
Cr
O
Dissolve 14.8
g of K
Cr
O
[T] [N] in 50
cm
of
2
2
7 ,
2
2
7
potassium dichromate(VI)
0.05 mol dm
H
SO
1
mol dm
sulfuric acid [H] . Make the solution up to
3
3
2
4
3
1
dm
with distilled water.
The use of plastic gloves may be considered to
prevent contact with skin.
0.1 mol dm
potassium
0.1 mol dm
KI Dissolve 16.6
g of KI [H] in each dm
of solution.
3
3
3
iodide
[N] 0.02 mol dm
potassium
0.02 mol dm
KMnO
Dissolve 3.16
g of KMnO
[N] [O] [H] in each dm
of
3
3
3
4
4
manganate(VII)
solution.
starch indicator freshly prepared
Mix 2
g of soluble starch with a little cold water until a
aqueous starch
smooth paste is obtained. Add 100
cm
boiling water
3
indicator (approx. 2%
and stir. Boil until a clear solution is obtained (about
solution w/v)
5 minutes).
methyl orange indicator methyl orange indicator
Use commercially produced solution or dissolve 0.4
g
(pH range 2.9 to 4.6)
of solid indicator [H] in 200
cm
of ethanol (IMS) [F]
3
and make up to 1
dm
with distilled water.
3
bromophenol blue indicator bromophenol blue
Dissolve 0.4 g of the solid indicator [H] in 200
cm
of
3
indicator
ethanol (IMS) [F] and make up to 1
dm
with distilled
3
water.
[F] phenolphthalein indicator phenolphthalein
Dissolve 1.0 g of the solid indicator [H] in 600
cm
of
3
3
indicator
ethanol (IMS) [F] and make up to 1
dm
with distilled
water.
[T] [F] 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
freshly prepared
It is recommended that the phosphoric acid solution of
reagent
2,4-dinitrophenyl-
2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine [T] [C] [F] is used
hydrazine reagent
(available from e.g. Sigma-Aldrich). Dilute 50
cm
of
3
3
(Brady s reagent)
this solution in 450
cm
ethanol (IMS) [F] and make up
to 1
dm
with distilled water. Filter if necessary to
3
obtain a clear solution.
45
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS NOTES
[Key: ppt. = precipitate]
1 Reactions of aqueous cations
cation
reaction with
NaOH(aq) NH
(aq)
3
aluminium,Al
(aq) white ppt.
white ppt.
3 +
soluble in excess
insoluble in excess
ammonium,
no ppt.
NH
(aq)
ammonia produced on
+
4
heating
barium,
no ppt.
no ppt.
Ba
(aq)
(if reagents are pure)
2+
calcium,
white ppt. with high
no ppt.
Ca
(aq)
[Ca
(aq)]
2 +
2+
chromium (III),
grey-green ppt.
grey-green ppt.
Cr
(aq)
soluble in excess
insoluble in excess
3 +
giving dark green solution
copper(II),
pale blue ppt.
blue ppt. soluble in excess
Cu
(aq),
insoluble in excess
giving dark blue solution
2 +
iron(II),
green ppt. turning brown on
green ppt. turning brown on
Fe
(aq)
contact with air
contact with air
2 +
insoluble in excess
insoluble in excess
iron(III),
red-brown ppt.
red-brown ppt.
Fe
(aq)
insoluble in excess
insoluble in excess
3 +
lead(II),
white ppt.
white ppt.
Pb
(aq)
soluble in excess
insoluble in excess
2+
magnesium,
white ppt.
white ppt.
Mg
(aq)
insoluble in excess
insoluble in excess
2 +
manganese(II),
off-white ppt. rapidly turning
off-white ppt. rapidly turning
Mn
(aq)
brown on contact with air
brown on contact with air
2 +
insoluble in excess
insoluble in excess
zinc,
white ppt.
white ppt.
Zn
(aq)
soluble in excess
soluble in excess
2 +
[Lead(II) ions can be distinguished from aluminium ions by the insolubility of l
ead(II) chloride.]
46
2 Reactions of anions
ion reaction
carbonate,
CO
liberated by dilute acids
2
CO
2
3
chromate(VI),
yellow solution turns orange with H
(aq);
+
CrO
(aq)
gives yellow ppt. with Ba
(aq);
2
2 +
4
gives bright yellow ppt. with Pb
(aq)
2 +
chloride,
gives white ppt. with Ag
(aq) (soluble in NH
(aq));
+
3
Cl
(aq)
gives white ppt. with Pb
(aq)
2 +
bromide,
gives cream ppt. with Ag
(aq) (partially soluble in NH
(aq));
+
3
Br
(aq)
gives white ppt. with Pb
(aq)
2 +
iodide,
gives yellow ppt. with Ag
(aq) (insoluble in NH
(aq));
+
3
I
(aq)
gives yellow ppt. with Pb
(aq)
2 +
nitrate,
NH
liberated on heating with OH
(aq) and Al foil
3
NO
(aq)
3
nitrite,
NH
liberated on heating with OH
(aq) and Al foil;
3
NO
(aq)
NO liberated by dilute acids
2
(colourless NO (pale) brown NO
in air)
2
sulfate,
gives white ppt. with Ba
(aq) or with Pb
(aq) (insoluble in excess dilute
2 +
2 +
SO
(aq)
strong acids)
2
4
sulfite,
SO
liberated with dilute acids;
2
SO
(aq)
gives white ppt. with Ba
(aq) (soluble in excess dilute strong acids)
2
2 +
3
3 Tests for gases
gas test and test result
ammonia,
turns damp red litmus paper blue
NH
3
carbon dioxide,
gives a white ppt. with limewater
CO
(ppt. dissolves with excess CO
)
2
2
chlorine,
bleaches damp litmus paper
Cl
2
hydrogen,
pops with a lighted splint
H
2
oxygen,
relights a glowing splint
O
2
sulfur dioxide,
turns acidified aqueous potassium dichromate(VI) from orange to green
SO
2
47
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
Responsibility for safety matters rests with Centres. Attention is drawn to the
following UK
associations, websites, publications and regulations.
Associations
CLEAPSS is an advisory service providing support in practical science and techno
logy, primarily
for UK schools. International schools and post-16 colleges can apply for associ
ate membership
which includes access to the CLEAPSS publications listed below,
http://www.cleapss.org.uk.secmbfr.htm
Websites
http://www.chemsoc.org/networks/learnnet/Safety.htm
http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/NCBE/SAFETY/menu.html
http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/safety.html
Publications
Safeguards in the School Laboratory, ASE, 11
Edition, 2006
t h
Topics in Safety, ASE, 3
Edition, 2001
rd
CLEAPSS Laboratory Handbook, updated 2005 (available to CLEAPSS members only)
CLEAPSS Hazcards, 2005 update of 1995 edition (available to CLEAPSS members only
)
Safety in Science Education, DfES, HMSO, 1996
Hazardous Chemicals Manual, SSERC, 1997
Hazardous Chemicals. An interactive manual for science education, SSERC, 2002 (
CD)
UK Regulations
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH) 2002,
http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si2002/20022677.htm
, a brief guide may be found at
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg136.pdf
48

SUMMARY OF KEY QUANTITIES AND UNITS
The list below is intended as a guide to the more important quantities which mig
ht be encountered
in teaching and used in question papers. The list is not exhaustive.
Quantity Usual symbols SI unit
Base quantities
mass m kg, g
length l m
time t s
electric current I A
thermodynamic temperature T K
amount of substance n mol
Other quantities
temperature , t °C
volume V, v m
, dm
3
3
density kg m
, g dm
, g cm
3
3
3
pressure p Pa
frequency v, f Hz
wavelength m, mm, nm
speed of electromagnetic waves c m s
1
Planck constant h J s
electric potential difference V V
}
(standard) electrode
potential (E ) E V
redox
electromotive force E V
molar gas constant R J K
mol
1
1
half-life T
, t
s
½
½
atomic mass m
kg
{
}
a
atomic
relative
mass A
-
isotopic
r
molecular mass m kg
relative molecular mass M
-
r
molar mass M kg mol
1
nucleon number A -
proton number Z -
neutron number N -
number of molecules N -
number of molecules per unit volume n m
3
Avogadro constant L mol
1
Faraday constant F C mol
1
enthalpy change of reaction H J, kJ
standard enthalpy change of reaction H J mol
, kJ mol
1
1
ionisation energy I kJ mol
1
lattice energy - kJ mol
1
bond energy - kJ mol
1
electron affinity - kJ mol
1
rate constant k as appropriate
equilibrium constant K, K
, K
as appropriate
p
c
acid dissociation constant K
as appropriate
a
order of reaction n, m -
mole fraction x -
concentration c mol dm
3
partition coefficient K -
ionic product, solubility product K, K
, as appropriate
s p
ionic product of water K
mol
dm
2
6
w
pH
pH -
49
MATHEMATICAL REQUIREMENTS
It is assumed that candidates will be competent in the techniques described belo
w.
(a) Make calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and divis
ion of quantities.
(b) Make approximate evaluations of numerical expressions.
(c) Express small fractions as percentages, and vice versa.
(d) Calculate an arithmetic mean.
(e) Transform decimal notation to power of ten notation (standard form).
(f) Use tables or calculators to evaluate logarithms (for pH calculations), squ
ares, square roots,
and reciprocals.
(g) Change the subject of an equation. (Most such equations involve only the si
mpler
operations but may include positive and negative indices and square roots.)
(h) Substitute physical quantities into an equation using consistent units so a
s to calculate one
quantity. Check the dimensional consistency of such calculations, e.g. the units
of a rate
constant k.
(i) Solve simple algebraic equations.
(j) Comprehend and use the symbols/notations <, >, , /, , =, x (or <x>).
(k) Test tabulated pairs of values for direct proportionality by a graphical me
thod or by
constancy of ratio.
(l) Select appropriate variables and scales for plotting a graph, especially to
obtain a linear
graph of the form y = mx + c.
(m) Determine and interpret the slope and intercept of a linear graph.
(n) Choose by inspection a straight line that will serve as the least bad linear
model for a set of
data presented graphically.
(o) Understand
i. the slope of a tangent to a curve as a measure of rate of change,
ii. the area below a curve where the area has physical significance, e.g. Boltzma
nn
distribution curves.
(p) Comprehend how to handle numerical work so that significant figures are nei
ther lost
unnecessarily nor used beyond what is justified.
(q) Estimate orders of magnitude.
(r) Formulate simple algebraic equations as mathematical models, e.g. construct
a rate
equation, and identify failures of such models.
Calculators
If calculators are to be used, it is suggested that they should have the followi
ng functions:
+, -, ×, ÷,
x
, x
, x
, lg x. A memory function may be useful but is not essential.
2
y
50
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) USAGE IN
A LEVEL CHEMISTRY
The power of IT can be harnessed in Chemistry education by developing and extend
ing pupils
capabilities and enhancing the understandings of Chemistry concepts and processe
s.
The following areas are ones where it might be useful for students to gain expos
ure to the use of
IT in Chemistry:
1 Data Acquisition (Hardware)
Sensors and data loggers can be used in experiments to measure and store the var
iations of
physical quantities with time or with each other. Sensors and data loggers are
invaluable where
the timescales of the experiments are either very long or very short, or when mu
ltiple data have to
be acquired simultaneously. The use of an appropriate combination of sensors an
d data loggers
to collect the required data and the use of real time graphing of the collected
data allows students
to spent more time on the analysis and evaluation of the data. In the case of c
hemistry, data
loggers and sensors could be used for experiments such as those involving measur
ement of
temperature, pH, pressure or transmittance of light through solutions.
The following are some examples of the use of sensors and data loggers in standa
rd A level
Chemistry experiments:
the variation of pH during an acid-base titration
the variation of temperature in a thermometric titration e.g. heat of neutralis
ation
the variation of light transmittance through solutions in the investigation of
effects of
concentration on rate of reaction
the variation of pressure during a chemical reaction where one of the products
is a gas.
2 Data Analysis (Software)
A spreadsheet is the most commonly available application software suitable for t
he analysis of
data. The data may be added manually via the keyboard or imported from files.
One of the most
important uses of a spreadsheet is that it allows its data to be analysed graphi
cally. Two or more
sets of corresponding data can be plotted as histograms or as simple line graphs
. For example,
students can plot graphs on the variations of physical properties of elements ag
ainst the atomic
number using the spreadsheet. This is useful for students in visualising the tr
ends present in
periods and groups in the Periodic Table. Spreadsheets can also be used to help
students
investigate graphically the effects of concentration of reactants on the rate of
reaction. Simple
modelling of chemical systems, for example, on chemical equilibrium, can be carr
ied out using the
spreadsheet. Students can explore what-if situations in such cases.
3 Teaching Aids and Resources (Software)
Many multimedia software titles, CD-ROMs and Internet resources are available to
assist in the
teaching of Chemistry. Some of this software can be used for self-paced learnin
g for individual
students while others can be used for classroom demonstrations and lectures. Th
e use of
digitised images, digital video and three dimensional computer models produces g
reat realism in
the visualisation of chemical reactions, concepts and phenomena which are both v
isually
stimulating and dynamic for the learners and can greatly enhance the level of re
tention. Use of
simulations programs encourages the explorations of what-if situations, which can
precipitate a
better understanding of the interdependence of factors influencing a chemical pr
ocess.
51
ADVANCED LEVEL CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS
Certain Learning Outcomes of the Syllabus have been marked with an asterisk (*)
to indicate the
possibility of the application of IT. A brief commentary on some of these objec
tives follows.
References in the notes below are to Learning Outcomes.
1. ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY
1(c) offers an opportunity for the use of computer software to simulate the effe
ct on the mass
spectra due to the presence of isotopes. 1(g) allows the use of computer softwa
re to help
students to check whether an equation is balanced.
2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Computer software can be used to illustrate the nature and simulate the behaviou
rs of the
fundamental particles in electric and magnetic fields {2(a) and (b)}.
Computer graphics and models can be used in the visualisation of the shapes and
relative
energies of orbitals {2(f) and (g)}.
{2(i)(iii) and (k)} allows the use of a spreadsheet to analyse and visualise the
trends in ionisation
energies.
3. CHEMICAL BONDING
Computer software can be used effectively to help students to visualise the bond
ings, structures,
bond angles, orbital overlaps, s and p bonds and shapes of molecules {3(a), (b),
(c), (d) and (e)}.
Computer animation can be used to illustrate intermolecular forces {3(i) and (k)
}.
4. STATES OF MATTER
3-dimensional computer models can be used to illustrate structure of liquids and
crystalline solids
{4(d) and (e)}.
5. CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Sensors and data loggers can be used to investigate the heat changes during a ch
emical reaction
{5(a)}. The experimental results can be studied using spreadsheets and graphica
l displays.
Computer simulation can be used to illustrate the effects of bond enthalpy on th
e H of reaction.
Computer animations can be used to illustrate the process of dissolving.
6. ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Computer simulation can be used to model a simple cell and study its feasibility
based on E
values {6(g)(ii)} and also to illustrate electrolysis.
7. EQUILIBRIA
Computer simulation software and spreadsheet programs can be used to model a rev
ersible
reaction at equilibrium {7(a)}, and investigate the effects of changing the reac
tion conditions {7(b)}.
Computer simulations of acid-base titrations and titration curves can be used to
illustrate the
effects of the strength of the acid/base used {7(m)}.
52
8. REACTION KINETICS
Sensors and data loggers can be used to study the rate of reaction {8(b)}. Spre
adsheets and
graphical displays can be used effectively to help students in interpreting expe
rimental data
concerned with rate of reaction.
Computer software can be used to model the effects of concentration changes on t
he rate of
reaction {8(b)}. The Boltzmann distribution {8(c)} and the effect of temperature
{8(d)} can be
modelled using simulation software or spreadsheet programs.
Computer animations can be used to illustrate catalysis {8(e)(i)}.
9.1 THE PERIODIC TABLE: CHEMICAL PERIODICITY
Spreadsheets and graphical displays can be used to investigate the trends and va
riations of
properties within the groups and across the third period of the Periodic Table {
9.1(a)}.
9.5 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CHEMISTRY OF TRANSITION ELEMENTS
Computer software can be used to illustrate the electronic configurations {9.5(b
)} and shapes of
complexes, d orbital splitting and change in colour of complexes as a result of
ligand change.
Spreadsheets and graphical displays can be used to illustrate the trends in the
variation of some
properties of transition metals {9.5(d)}.
Electronic periodic table can be used to provide physical and chemical data of e
lements.
Digital video can be used to show reactions that are difficult or dangerous to c
onduct in the school
laboratory.
10. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Molecular visualisation software can be used to help students in visualising the
bonding types,
molecular shapes and structures of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, organic acids and
their derivatives,
carbonyl compounds, amines, and macromolecules. A good collection of three-dime
nsional
simple organic as well as complex biochemical molecular models is available on t
he Internet in the
PDB (Protein Data Bank) format. The VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language
) format allows
the visualisation of 3-D molecular models as well as molecular dynamics. These
two formats can
be easily viewed using standard web browsers with the appropriate plug-ins. Lim
ited user
interactions with models in these two formats are possible.
Pre-rendered, non-interactive animation movies on various topics such as organic
reaction
mechanism are also available on the Internet, mainly in the form of digital movi
e. Some common
formats are AVI (Audio Video Interleave), QT (QuickTime) and MPG (a highly comp
ressed digital
video as in Video CD). Shockwave movies are also available which can be interac
tive.
10.1 INTRODUCTORY TOPICS
Computer software can be used to help students in learning the nomenclature and
general formula
of organic compound {10.1(a)}.
Computer programs/graphics can be used to illustrate the shapes of molecules {10
.1(c) and (d)}.
Three-dimensional molecular models can be used to illustrate the concept of chir
ality and optical
isomerism {10.1(g)}.
10.2 HYDROCARBONS
Computer animations can be used to illustrate the various organic chemistry reac
tion mechanisms
{10.2(c), (d)(i), (d)(ii), (e), (j)(i) and (k)(i)}.
53
10.3 HALOGEN DERIVATIVES
Computer animations can be used to illustrate the mechanism of nucleophilic subs
titution
{10.3(b)}.
10.5 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
Computer animations can be used to illustrate the mechanism of nucleophilic addi
tion {10.5(b)}.
10.6 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES
Computer animations can be used to illustrate the hydrolysis of esters {10.6(h)}
.
10.8 POLYMERISATION
Internet resources can be used to provide current information on issues related
to disposal of
plastics {10.8(b)} and background information and examples on addition and conde
nsation
polymers.
54
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN
SYLLABUS/SCIENCE PAPERS
It is hoped that the glossary (which is relevant only to science subjects) will
prove helpful to
candidates as a guide, i.e. it is neither exhaustive nor definitive. The glossa
ry has been
deliberately kept brief not only with respect to the number of terms included bu
t also to the
descriptions of their meanings. Candidates should appreciate that the meaning o
f a term must
depend in part on its context.
1. Define (the term(s)...) is intended literally. Only a formal statement or eq
uivalent paraphrase
being required.
2. What do you understand by/What is meant by (the term(s)...) normally implies
that a
definition should be given, together with some relevant comment on the significa
nce or
context of the term(s) concerned, especially where two or more terms are include
d in the
question. The amount of supplementary comment intended should be interpreted in
the
light of the indicated mark value.
3. State implies a concise answer with little or no supporting argument, e.g. a
numerical
answer that can be obtained by inspection .
4. List requires a number of points, generally each of one word, with no elabo
ration. Where a
given number of points is specified, this should not be exceeded.
5. Explain may imply reasoning or some reference to theory, depending on the co
ntext.
6. Describe requires candidates to state in words (using diagrams where appropr
iate) the main
points of the topic. It is often used with reference either to particular pheno
mena or to
particular experiments. In the former instance, the term usually implies that th
e answer
should include reference to (visual) observations associated with the phenomena.
In other contexts, describe and give an account of should be interpreted more ge
nerally, i.e.
the candidate has greater discretion about the nature and the organisation of th
e material to
be included in the answer. Describe and explain may be coupled in a similar way
to state
and explain.
7. Discuss requires candidates to give a critical account of the points involve
d in the topic.
8. Outline implies brevity, i.e. restricting the answer to giving essentials.
9. Predict or deduce implies that the candidate is not expected to produce the
required answer
by recall but by making a logical connection between other pieces of information
. Such
information may be wholly given in the question or may depend on answers extract
ed in an
early part of the question.
10. Comment is intended as an open-ended instruction, inviting candidates to rec
all or infer
points of interest relevant to the context of the question, taking account of th
e number of
marks available.
11. Suggest is used in two main contexts, i.e. either to imply that there is no
unique answer
(e.g. in chemistry, two or more substances may satisfy the given conditions desc
ribing an
unknown ), or to imply that candidates are expected to apply their general knowledg
e to a
novel situation, one that may be formally not in the syllabus .
12. Find is a general term that may variously be interpreted as calculate, measu
re, determine
etc.
13. Calculate is used when a numerical answer is required. In general, working
should be
shown, especially where two or more steps are involved.
55
14. Measure implies that the quantity concerned can be directly obtained from a
suitable
measuring instrument, e.g. length, using a rule, or angle, using a protractor.
15. Determine often implies that the quantity concerned cannot be measured direc
tly but is
obtained by calculation, substituting measured or known values of other quantiti
es into a
standard formula, e.g. relative molecular mass.
16. Estimate implies a reasoned order of magnitude statement or calculation of t
he quantity
concerned, making such simplifying assumptions as may be necessary about points
of
principle and about the values of quantities not otherwise included in the quest
ion.
17. Sketch, when applied to graph work, implies that the shape and/or position o
f the curve
need only be qualitatively correct, but candidates should be aware that, dependi
ng on the
context, some quantitative aspects may be looked for, e.g. passing through the o
rigin,
having an intercept, asymptote or discontinuity at a particular value.
In diagrams, sketch implies that a simple, freehand drawing is acceptable: never
theless,
care should be taken over proportions and the clear exposition of important deta
ils.
18. Construct is often used in relation to chemical equations where a candidate
is expected to
write a balanced equation, not by factual recall but by analogy or by using info
rmation in the
question.
19. Compare requires candidates to provide both the similarities and differences
between things
or concepts.
20. Classify requires candidates to group things based on common characteristics
.
Special Note
Units, significant figures. Candidates should be aware that misuse of units and
/or significant
figures, i.e. failure to quote units where necessary, the inclusion of units in
quantities defined as
ratios or quoting answers to an inappropriate number of significant figures, is
liable to be
penalised.
56
Chemistry Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level

for use from 2009 in all papers for the above
syllabus, except practical examinations
Tables of Chemical Data
Important values, constants and standards
molar gas constant R = 8.31 J K
mol
1
1
the Faraday constant
F = 9.65 x 10
C mol
4
1
the Avogadro constant
L = 6.02 x 10
mol
23
1
the Planck constant h = 6.63 x 10
J s
3 4
speed of light in a vacuum c = 3.00 x 10
m s
8
1
kg
H
2 7
rest mass of proton,
mp = 1.67 x 10
1
1
kg
2 7
n
rest mass of neutron,
1
mn = 1.67 x 10
0
kg
e
3 1
rest mass of electron,
me = 9.11 x 10
0
-
1
electronic charge e = 1.60 x 10
C
1 9
molar volume of gas Vm = 22.4 dm
mol
at s.t.p
3
1
Vm = 24 dm
mol
under room conditions
3
1
(where s.t.p. is expressed as 101 kPa, approximately, and 273 K (0 °C))
ionic product of water
Kw = 1.00 x 10
mol
dm
1 4
2
6
(at 298 K [25 °C])
specific heat capacity of water
= 4.18 kJ kg
K
1
1
(= 4.18 J g
K
)
1
1
58
Ionisation energies (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) of selected elements, in kJ mol
1
Proton
Number First Second Third Fourth
H 1 1310 - - -
He 2 2370 5250 - -
Li 3 519 7300 11800 -
Be 4 900 1760 14800 21000
B 5 799 2420 3660 25000
C 6 1090 2350 4610 6220
N 7 1400 2860 4590 7480
O 8 1310 3390 5320 7450
F 9 1680 3370 6040 8410
Ne 10 2080 3950 6150 9290
Na 11 494 4560 6940 9540
Mg 12 736 1450 7740 10500
Al 13 577 1820 2740 11600
Si 14 786 1580 3230 4360
P 15 1060 1900 2920 4960
S 16 1000 2260 3390 4540
Cl 17 1260 2300 3850 5150
Ar 18 1520 2660 3950 5770
K 19 418 3070 4600 5860
Ca 20 590 1150 4940 6480
Sc 21 632 1240 2390 7110
Ti 22 661 1310 2720 4170
V 23 648 1370 2870 4600
Cr 24 653 1590 2990 4770
Mn 25 716 1510 3250 5190
Fe 26 762 1560 2960 5400
Co 27 757 1640 3230 5100
Ni 28 736 1750 3390 5400
Cu 29 745 1960 3350 5690
Zn 30 908 1730 3828 5980
Ga 31 577 1980 2960 6190
Ge 32 762 1540 3300 4390
Br 35 1140 2080 3460 4850
Sr 38 548 1060 4120 5440
Sn 50 707 1410 2940 3930
I 53 1010 1840 2040 4030
Ba 56 502 966 3390 -
Pb 82 716 1450 3080 4080
59
Bond energies
(a) Diatomic molecules
Bond Energy/kJ mol
1
H H 436
D D 442
N=N 994
O=O 496
F F 158
Cl Cl 244
Br Br 193
I I 151
H F 562
H Cl 431
H Br 366
H I 299
(b) Polyatomic molecules
Bond Energy/kJ mol
1
C C 350
C=C 610
C=C
840
520
C
C (benzene)
.
410
C H
C Cl 340
C Br 280
C I 240
C O 360
C=O 740
305
C N
C=N
610
C=N 890
N H 390
N N 160
N=N 410
O H 460
O O 150
Si Cl 359
Si H 320
Si O 444
Si Si 222
S Cl 250
S H 347
S S 264
60
Standard electrode potential and redox potentials, E
at 298 K (25
C)
o
o
For ease of reference, two tabulations are given:
(a) an extended list in alphabetical order;
(b) a shorter list in decreasing order of magnitude, i.e. a redox series.
(a) E
in alphabetical order
o
Electrode reaction E /V
Ag
+ e
Ag +0.80
+
Al
+ 3e
Al 1.66
3+
Ba
+ 2e
Ba 2.90
2+
Br
+ 2e
2Br
+1.07
2
Ca
+ 2e
Ca 2.87
2+
Cl
+ 2e
2Cl
+1.36
2
2HOCl
+ 2H
+ 2e
Cl
+ 2H
O +1.64
+
2
2
Co
+ 2e
Co 0.28
2+
Co
+ e
Co
+1.82
3 +
2 +
[Co(NH
)
]
+ 2e
Co + 6NH
0.43
2+
3
6
3
Cr
+ 2e
Cr 0.91
2+
Cr
+ 3e
Cr 0.74
3+
Cr
+ e
Cr
0.41
3 +
2 +
Cr
O
+ 14H
+ 6e
2Cr
+ 7H
O +1.33
2
+
3+
2
7
2
Cu
+ e
Cu +0.52
+
Cu
+ 2e
Cu +0.34
2+
Cu
+ e
Cu
+0.15
2 +
+
[Cu(NH
)
]
+ 2e
Cu + 4NH
0.05
2+
3
4
3
F
+ 2e
2F
+2.87
2
Fe
+ 2e
Fe 0.44
2+
Fe
+ 3e
Fe 0.04
3+
Fe
+ e
Fe
+0.77
3 +
2 +
[Fe(CN)
]
+ e
[Fe(CN)
]
+0.36
3
4
6
6
Fe(OH)
+ e
Fe(OH)
+ OH
0.56
3
2
2H
+ 2e
H
0.00
+
2
I
+ 2e
2I
+0.54
2
K
+ e
K 2.92
+
Li
+ e
Li 3.04
+
Mg
+ 2e
Mg 2.38
2+
Mn
+ 2e
Mn 1.18
2+
Mn
+ e
Mn
+1.49
3 +
2+
MnO
+ 4H
+ 2e
Mn
+ 2H
O +1.23
+
2+
2
2
MnO
+ e
MnO
+0.56
2
4
4
MnO
+ 4H
+ 3e
MnO
+ 2H
O +1.67
+
4
2
2
MnO
+ 8H
+ 5e
Mn
+ 4H
O +1.52
+
2+
4
2
NO
+ 2H
+ e
NO
+ H
O +0.81
+
3
2
2
NO
+ 3H
+ 2e
HNO
+ H
O +0.94
+
3
2
2
NO
+ 10H
+ 8e
NH
+ 3H
O +0.87
+
+
3
4
2
Na
+ e
Na 2.71
+
61
Ni
+ 2e
Ni 0.25
2+
[Ni(NH
)
]
+ 2e
Ni + 6NH
0.51
2+
3
6
3
H
O
+ 2H
+ 2e
2H
O +1.77
+
2
2
2
O
+ 4H
+ 4e
2H
O +1.23
+
2
2
O
+ 2H
O + 4e
4OH
+0.40
2
2
O
+ 2H
+ 2e
H
O
+0.68
+
2
2
2
2H
O + 2e
H
+ 2OH
0.83
2
2
Pb
+ 2e
Pb 0.13
2+
Pb
+ 2e
Pb
+1.69
4+
2 +
PbO
+ 4H
+ 2e
Pb
+ 2H
O +1.47
+
2 +
2
2
SO
+ 4H
+ 2e
SO
+ 2H
O +0.17
2
+
4
2
2
S
O
+ 2e
2SO
+2.01
2
2
2
8
4
S
O
+ 2e
2S
O
+0.09
2
2
4
6
2
3
Sn
+ 2e
Sn 0.14
2+
Sn
+ 2e
Sn
+0.15
4+
2 +
V
+ 2e
V 1.20
2+
V
+ e
V
0.26
3 +
2 +
VO
+ 2H
+ e
V
+ H
O +0.34
2 +
+
3 +
2
VO
+ 2H
+ e
VO
+ H
O +1.00
+
+
2 +
2
2
VO
+ 4H
+ e
VO
+ 2H
O +1.00
+
2 +
3
2
Zn
+ 2e
Zn 0.76
2+
All ionic states refer to aqueous ions but other state symbols have been omitted
.
62
(b) E
in decreasing order of oxidising power
o
(see also the extended alphabetical list on the previous pages)
F
+ 2e
2F
+2.87
2
S
O
+ 2e
2SO
+2.01
2
2
2
8
4
H
O
+ 2H
+ 2e
2H
O +1.77
+
2
2
2
MnO
+ 8H
+ 5e
Mn
+ 4H
O +1.52
+
2+
4
2
PbO
+ 4H
+ 2e
Pb
+ 2H
O +1.47
+
2 +
2
2
Cl
+ 2e
2Cl
+1.36
2
Cr
O
+ 14H
+ 6e
2Cr
+ 7H
O +1.33
2
+
3+
2
7
2
Br
+ 2e
2Br
+1.07
2
NO
+ 2H
+ e
NO
+ H
O +0.81
+
3
2
2
Ag
+ e
Ag +0.80
+
Fe
+ e
Fe
+0.77
3 +
2 +
I
+ 2e
2I
+0.54
2
O
+ 2H
O + 4e
4OH
+0.40
2
2
Cu
+ 2e
Cu +0.34
2+
SO
+ 4H
+ 2e
SO
+ 2H
O +0.17
2
+
4
2
2
Sn
+ 2e
Sn
+0.15
4+
2 +
S
O
+ 2e
2S
O
+0.09
2
2
4
6
2
3
2H
+ 2e
H
0.00
+
2
Pb
+ 2e
Pb 0.13
2+
Sn
+ 2e
Sn 0.14
2+
Fe
+ 2e
Fe 0.44
2+
Zn
+ 2e
Zn 0.76
2+
Mg
+ 2e
Mg 2.38
2+
Ca
+ 2e
Ca 2.87
2+
K
+ e
K 2.92
+
63
Atomic and ionic radii
(a) Period 3 atomic/nm ionic/nm
metallic Na 0.186 Na
0.095
+
Mg 0.160 Mg
0.065
2 +
Al 0.143 Al
0.050
3 +
single covalent Si 0.117 Si
0.041
4+
P 0.110 P
0.212
3
S 0.104 S
0.184
2
Cl 0.099 Cl
0.181
van der Waals Ar 0.192
(b) Group II
metallic Be 0.112 Be
0.031
2 +
Mg 0.160 Mg
0.065
2 +
Ca 0.197 Ca
0.099
2+
Sr 0.215 Sr
0.113
2 +
Ba 0.217 Ba
0.135
2 +
Ra 0.220 Ra
0.140
2+
(c) Group IV
single covalent C 0.077
Si 0.117 Si
0.041
4+
Ge 0.122 Ge
0.093
2 +
metallic Sn 0.162 Sn
0.112
2 +
Pb 0.175 Pb
0.120
2 +
(d) Group VII
single covalent F 0.072 F
0.136
Cl 0.099 Cl
0.181
Br 0.114 Br
0.195
I 0.133 I
0.216
At 0.140
(e) First row transition elements
single covalent Sc 0.144 Sc
0.081
3+
Ti 0.132 Ti
0.090
2 +
V 0.122 V
0.074
3+
Cr 0.117 Cr
0.069
3+
Mn 0.117 Mn
0.080
2 +
Fe 0.116 Fe
0.076
2+
Fe
0.064
3+
Co 0.116 Co
0.078
2+
Ni 0.115 Ni
0.078
2 +
Cu 0.117 Cu
0.069
2+
Zn 0.125 Zn
0.074
2+
64

65
The Periodic Table of the Elements
Group
I II
III IV V VI VII 0
1.0
4.0
H
He
hydrogen
helium
Key
1
2
6.9
9.0
relative atomic mass
10.8
12.0
14.0
16.0
19.0
20.2
Li
Be
atomic symbol
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
lithium
beryllium
name
boron
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
fluorine
neon
3
4
atomic number
5
6
7
8
9
10
23.0
24.3
27.0
28.1
31.0
32.1
35.5
39.9
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
sodium
magnesium
aluminium
silicon
phosphorus
sulfur
chlorine
argon
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
39.1
40.1
45.0
47.9
50.9
52.0
54.9
55.8
58.9
58.7
63.5
65.4
69.7
72.6
74.9
79.0
79.9
83.8
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
potassium
calcium
scandium
titanium
vanadium
chromium
manganese
iron
cobalt
nickel
copper
zinc
gallium
germanium
arsenic
selenium
bromine
krypton
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
85.5
87.6
88.9
91.2
92.9
95.9
101
103
106
108
112
115
119
122
128
127
131
I
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
rubidium
strontium
yttrium
zirconium
niobium
molybdenum
technetium
ruthenium
rhodium
palladium
silver
cadmium
tin
antimony
tellurium
xenon
indium
iodine
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
50
51
52
54
49
53
133
137
139
178
181
184
186
190
192
195
197
201
204
207
209
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
caesium
barium
lanthanum
hafnium
tantalum
tungsten
rhenium
osmium
platinum
gold
mercury
thallium
lead
bismuth
polonium
astatine
radon
iridium
*
55
56
57
72
73
74
75
76
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
77
Fr
Ra
Ac
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Unn
Uuu
Uub
Uuq
Uuh
Uuo
*
francium
radium
actinium
rutherfordium
dubnium
seaborgium
bohrium
hassium
meitnerium
ununnilium
unununium
ununbium
ununquadium
ununhexium
ununoctium
*
87
88
89
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
114
116
118
140
141
144
150
152
157
159
163
165
167
169
173
175
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
lanthanides
*
cerium
neodymium
promethium
samarium
europium
gadolinium
terbium
dysprosium
holmium
erbium
thulium
ytterbium
lutetium
p ras eo dy miu m
59
58
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
actinides
*
thorium
protactinium
uranium
neptunium
plutonium
americium
curium
berkelium
californium
einsteinium
fermium
mendelevium
nobelium
lawrencium
*
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103

TEXTBOOKS AND IT RESOURCES
The following books have been endorsed by CIE for use with this syllabus. They
have been
through an independent quality assurance process and match the syllabus content
closely.
Chemistry for Advanced Level by P. Cann & P. Hughes, (Edition 2002), published b
y John Murray
www.johnmurray.co.uk (ISBN 071958602X)
AS Level and A Level Chemistry (Edition 2004) by B. Ratcliff, H. Eccles, J. Raff
an, J. Nicholson,
D. Johnson, & J. Newman, published by Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.o
rg
(ISBN 0521544718)
The booklet Applications of Chemistry (reference SA97010105) has been written to
cover the
subject material of section 11 of this syllabus and is strongly recommended. It
is available from
the CIE Publications Office using the appropriate order form.
The booklets Teaching AS Chemistry Practical Skills (reference PSAS97010105) and
Teaching A2
Chemistry Practical Skills (reference PSA297010105) have been written to enable
teachers to
develop a coherent practical course to teach practical skills and support the th
eory syllabus. They
are available from the CIE Publications Office using the appropriate order form.
Teachers may also find reference to the following books helpful.
General chemistry
*Advanced Chemistry by P Matthews, published by Cambridge University Press,
(ISBN 0-521-42333-3 & 0421-42323-5)
Understanding Chemistry for Advanced Level (2nd Edition) by T. Lister & J. Rensh
aw, published
by Stanley Thornes (ISBN 0-7487-1978-4)
Chemistry in Context (4th Edition) by Hill & Holman, published by Nelson (ISBN 0
-17-448191-8)
Chemical Ideas (Salters Advanced Chemistry) by G. Burton, published by Heinemann
(ISBN 0-435-63105-5)
A-Level Chemistry (3rd Edition) by E. N. Ramsden, published by Stanley Thornes
(ISBN 0-7487-1688-2)
Advanced Chemistry through Diagrams by M. Lewis, published by Oxford University
Press,
www4.oup.co.uk (ISBN 0199141983)
Chemistry 1 by B. Ratcliff, D. Johnson, H. Eccles, J. Nicholson & J. Raffan, pub
lished by
Cambridge University Press (ISBN 0521787785)
Chemistry 2 by B. Ratcliff & H. Eccles, published by Cambridge University Press
(ISBN: 0521798825)
Calculations on AS/A Level Chemistry by J. Clark (Edition 2000) published by Pea
rson
Education Ltd (ISBN 0582411270)
Chemistry Facts and Practice for A Level by M. Parsonage, published by Oxford Un
iversity Press
(ISBN 978-0955545108)
Practical chemistry
Chemistry in Context Laboratory Manual and Study Guide (3rd Edition) by Hill & H
olman,
published by Nelson (ISBN 0-17-448231-0)
Experiments and Exercises in Basic Chemistry (3rd Edition) by S. Murov, publishe
d by John Wiley
(ISBN 0-471-27232-9)
ILPAC Advanced Practical Chemistry (second edition) edited by A. Lainchbury, J.
Stephens,
A. Thompson, published by John Murray (ISBN 0-7195-7507-9)
Classic Chemistry Experiments by Kevin Hutchings, (Edition 2000), published by T
he Royal
Society of Chemistry www.rsc.org (ISBN: 0854049193)
67
Classic Chemistry Demonstrations by Ted Lister, (Edition 1995), published by The
Royal Society
of Chemistry (ISBN 1870343387)
Cambridge Advanced Sciences, published by Cambridge University Press;
Teacher Materials Chemistry 1 CD-ROM by David Acaster, ISBN 978-0-521-61818-2
Teacher Materials Chemistry 2 CD-ROM by David Acaster, ISBN 978-0-521-61819-9
Teacher Materials Chemistry Options by Mike Wooster, Helen Harden, David Acaster
,
ISBN 978-0-521-68539-9
Microscale Chemistry by John Skinner, (Edition 1997), published by The Royal Soc
iety of
Chemistry (ISBN 1870343492)
Applications of chemistry
Contemporary Chemistry for Schools and Colleges by Vanessa Kind, published by Th
e Royal
Society of Chemistry
www.rsc.org
(ISBN 0854043829)
Learning About Materials, published by The Royal Society of Chemistry
www.rsc.org
(ISBN 0854049207)
Cambridge Advanced Sciences, published by Cambridge University Press:
Biochemistry by Richard Harwood, 978-0521797511
Environmental Chemistry by Alan Winfield, 978-0521787208
Gases, Liquids and Solids by Philip Matthews, 978-0521797504
Methods of Analysis and Detection by Anne McCarthy, 978-0521787246
Teacher Materials Chemistry Options CD-ROM by Mike Wooster, Helen Harden,
David Acaster, ISBN 978-0521-68539-9
These titles represent some of the texts available in the UK at the time of prin
ting this booklet.
Teachers are encouraged to choose texts for class use which they feel will be of
interest to their
students and will support their own teaching style.
*The book marked with an asterisk is also available from Cambridge University Pr
ess in a low
Priced Edition (ISBN 0-421-56698-3) from their local distributors in Africa, the
Caribbean,
Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. For a full list of distributo
rs in your local area
please contact Mark Ellwood at CUP: mellwood@cambridge.org, phone +44 1223 31239
3, fax
+44 1223 315052.
Many publishers are also producing videos and software appropriate for A-level C
hemistry
students.
Teacher s Resources on the Internet
Chemistry and Science Sites:
http://www.chemsoc.org
http://www.rsc.org
http://www.ase.org.uk
CIE run a free discussion group for teachers that can be joined by visiting the
CIE website
www.cie.org.uk
68

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General Certificate of Education (International) Syllabus

Advanced Level and Advanced Subsidiary Level

CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

Chemistry Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level

CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

CHEMISTRY 9701 A/AS LEVEL 2010

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