Manufacturing Processes

ME 335
432

Lecture #5
Metal Forming and
Sheet Metalworking
Chapters # 13-16
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for
Engineering Materials, 5th. Ed.

Chapters # 18-20
Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing:
materials; processes and systems, 4th. Ed.
Quiz
Extrusion
A characteristic of extrusion (from the Latin extrudere, meaning “to force
out”) is that large deformations can take place without fracture

Typical products made by extrusion are

railings for sliding doors, window frames, tubing
having various cross sections, aluminum ladder
frames, and numerous structural and architectural
shapes.

There are three basic types of extrusion. In the most common process (called direct
or forward extrusion), a billet is placed in a chamber (container) and forced through
a die opening by a hydraulically driven ram (pressing stem or punch), as shown in
Fig. 15.1. The die opening may be round, or it may have various shapes, depending
on the desired profile. The function of the dummy block shown in the figure is to
protect the tip of the pressing stem (punch), particularly in hot extrusion. Other
types of extrusion are indirect, hydrostatic, and impact extrusion
Indirect extrusion has the advantage of having no billet
container friction, since there is no relative motion.
Thus, indirect extrusion is used on materials with very
high friction, such as high strength steels.

The fluid pressure results in triaxial compressive stresses

acting on the workpiece and thus improved formability;
also, there is much less workpiece–container friction than
in direct extrusion
 Hot Extrusion
For metals and alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room temperature, or in
order to reduce the forces required, extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures
(Table 15.1). As in all other hot-working operations, hot extrusion has special requirements
because of the high operating temperatures.

Cold Extrusion
Developed in the 1940s, cold extrusion is a general term that often denotes
a combination of operations, such as direct and indirect extrusion and forging
(Fig. 15.12). Cold extrusion is used widely for components in automobiles, motorcycles,
bicycles, and appliances and in transportation and farm equipment.

Cold extrusion has the following advantages over hot extrusion:

• Improved mechanical properties resulting from work hardening, provided that the heat generated by plastic
deformation and friction does not recrystallize the extruded metal

• Good control of dimensional tolerances, reducing the need for subsequent machining or finishing operations

• Improved surface finish, due partly to the absence of an oxide film and provided that lubrication is effective

• Production rates and costs that are competitive with those of other methods of producing the same part, such
as machining. Some machines are capable of producing more than 2000 parts per hour.
Impact Extrusion
Impact extrusion is similar to indirect extrusion, and the process often is included in the cold-extrusion category. The
punch descends rapidly on the blank (slug), which is extruded backwards (Fig. 15.15). Because of volume constancy, the
thickness of the tubular extruded section is a function of the clearance between the punch and the die cavity.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
In hydrostatic extrusion, the pressure required in the chamber is supplied via a piston through an incompressible
fluid medium surrounding the billet (Fig. 15.3b). Pressures are typically on the order of 1400 MPa (200 ksi). The high
pressure in the chamber transmits some of the fluid to the die surfaces, where it significantly reduces friction.
Hydrostatic extrusion usually is carried out at room temperature, typically using vegetable oils as the fluid
(particularly castor oil, because it is a good lubricant and its viscosity is not influenced significantly by pressure).
Brittle materials can be extruded successfully by this method, because the hydrostatic pressure (along with low
friction and the use of small die angles and high extrusion ratios) increases the ductility of the material.
Extrusion Defects
Extrusion parameters
Surface Cracking Die Design
Extrusion defect (pipe, tailpipe, and fishtailing). Die Materials
Internal Cracking.(centerburst, center cracking, Lubrication.
arrowhead fracture, and chevron cracking,)
Die Design
The Drawing Process
In drawing, the cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced or changed by pulling (hence the term drawing)
it through a die called a draw die (Fig. 15.19). Thus, the difference between drawing and extrusion is that in
extrusion the material is pushed through a die, whereas in drawing it is pulled through it. Rod and wire
products cover a very wide range of applications, including shafts for power transmission, machine and
structural components, blanks for bolts and rivets, electrical wiring, cables, tension-loaded structural
members, welding electrodes, springs, paper clips, spokes for bicycle wheels, and stringed musical
instruments.
Die Design. The characteristic features of a typical die for drawing are shown in Fig. 15.21. Die angles usually
range from 6° to 15°.
Drawing can be used to reduce the diameter or wall thickness of seamless tubes and pipes, after the initial tubing has
been produced by some other process such as extrusion. Tube drawing can be carried out either with or without a
mandrel. The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used for diameter reduction, as in Figure 19.44. The term tube
sinking is sometimes applied to this operation.

The problem with tube drawing in which no mandrel is used, as in Figure 19.44, is that it lacks control over the inside
diameter and wall thickness of the tube. This is why mandrels of various types are used, two of which are illustrated in
Figure 19.45.
Drawing practice
As in all other metalworking processes, successful drawing requires proper selection of process parameters as well as other
considerations. A typical die for drawing and its characteristic features are shown in Fig. 6.66. The purpose of the land is to
size, that is, to set the final diameter of the product. Additionally, since the die is typically reground to extend its use, the land
maintains the exit dimension of the die opening.
Die angles usually range from 6° to 15°. Reductions in cross sectional area per pass range from about 10% to 45%; usually, the
smaller the cross section, the smaller is the reduction per pass. Reductions per pass greater than 45% may result in
breakdown of lubrication and deterioration of the product’s surface finish. Light reductions may also be taken on rods (sizing
pass) to improve dimensional accuracy and surface finish.

Bundle drawing. In this process, a number of wires (as many as several thousand) are drawn simultaneously as a bundle. To
prevent sticking, the wires are separated from each other by a suitable material, usually a viscous lubricant. The cross section
of the wires is somewhat polygonal because of the manner in which the wires are pressed together. The wires produced may
be as small as 4 mm in diameter, and can be made of stainless steels, titanium, and high-temperature alloys.

Dies and die materials.

Lubrication.

The following are the basic methods of lubrication used in wire drawing (see also Section 33.7):

• Wet drawing, in which the dies and the rod are immersed completely in the
Lubricant

• Dry drawing, in which the surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a
lubricant by passing it through a box filled with the lubricant (stuffing box)

• Metal coating, in which the rod or wire is coated with a soft metal, such as
copper or tin, that acts as a solid lubricant

• Ultrasonic vibration of the dies and mandrels; in this process, vibrations reduce
forces, improve surface finish and die life, and allow larger reductions per
pass without failure.
Defects in drawing
Defects in drawing generally are similar to those observed in extrusion (Section 6.4.4), especially center cracking. The
factors influencing center cracking are the same, namely, that the tendency for cracking increases with increasing die angle,
decreasing reduction per pass, friction, and the presence of inclusions in the material.
A type of surface defect in drawing is the formation of seams. These are longitudinal scratches or folds in the material
which can open up during subsequent forming operations, such as by upsetting, heading, thread rolling, or bending of the
rod or wire.
Because of inhomogeneous deformation that the material undergoes, a cold drawn rod, wire, or tube usually contains
residual stresses. Typically, a wide range of residual stresses can be present within the rod in three principal directions, as
shown in Fig. 6.65. For very light reductions, however, the surface residual stresses are compressive. Note that light
reductions are equivalent to shot peening or surface rolling (which induce compressive surface stresses; see Section 4.5.1),
thus improving fatigue life.
Sheet-Metal Forming Processes and Equipment

Products made of sheet metals are all around us. They include
a very wide range of consumer and industrial products, such as
beverage cans, cookware, file cabinets, metal desks,
appliances, car bodies, trailers, and aircraft fuselages (Fig.
16.1). Sheet forming dates back to about 5000 B.C., when
household utensils and jewelry were made by hammering and
stamping gold, silver, and copper. Compared to those made by
casting and by forging, sheet-metal parts offer the advantages
of light weight and versatile shape.
As described throughout this chapter, there are numerous
processes employed for making sheet-metal parts. However,
the term pressworking or press forming is used commonly in
industry to describe general sheet-forming operations,
Plates generally have a thickness of more than 6 mm (0.25 in.) and are used for structural applications, such
as ship hulls, boilers, bridges, machinery, and nuclear vessels. Plates can be as thick as 300 mm (12 in.) for
large structural supports, 150 mm (6 in.) for reactor vessels, and 100 to 125 mm (4 to 5 in.) for machinery
frames and warships.

Sheets generally are less than 6 mm thick and typically are provided to manufacturing facilities as coils—
weighing as much as 30,000 kg (33 tons)—or as flat sheets for further processing into various products. Sheets
typically are used for automobile and aircraft bodies, appliances, food and beverage containers, and kitchen
and office equipment.
Commercial aircraft fuselages and trailer bodies usually are made of a minimum of 1-mm (0.04-in.) thick
aluminum-alloy sheets. For example, the skin thickness of a Boeing 747 fuselage is 1.8 mm (0.07 in.) and of a
Lockheed L1011 is 1.9 mm (0.075 in.). Steel sheets used for automobile and appliance bodies are typically
about 0.7 mm (0.03 in.) thick. Aluminum beverage cans are made from sheets 0.28 mm (0.01 in.)
thick.
Shearing
Before a sheet-metal part is made, a blank of suitable dimensions first is
removed from a large sheet (usually from a coil) by shearing. This sheet
is cut by subjecting it to shear stresses, generally using a punch and a
die (Fig. 16.2a). The typical features of the sheared edges of the sheet
and of the slug are shown in Fig. 16.2b and c, respectively. Note that the
edges are not smooth nor are they perpendicular to the plane of the
sheet.

Shearing generally starts with the formation of cracks on both the top
and bottom edges of the workpiece (at points A and B, and C and D, in
Fig. 16.2a). These cracks eventually meet each other and complete
separation occurs. The rough fracture surfaces are due to the cracks;
the smooth and shiny burnished surfaces on the hole and the slug are
from the contact and rubbing of the sheared edge against the walls of
the punch and die, respectively.

The major processing parameters in shearing are

• The shape of the punch and die
• The speed of punching
• Lubrication
• The clearance, c, between the punch and the die.
Shearing Operations
The most common shearing operations are punching—where the sheared slug is scrap (Fig. 16.4a) or may
be used for some other purpose—and blanking—where the slug is the part to be used and the rest is
scrap

Die Cutting. This is a shearing operation that consists of the following basic processes (Fig. 16.4b):
• Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet
• Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces
• Notching: removing pieces (or various shapes) from the edges
• Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material.
Scrap in Shearing. The amount of scrap (trim loss) produced in
shearing operations can be significant and can be as high as
30% on large stampings (see Table 40.3).
Scrap can be a significant factor in manufacturing cost, and it
can be reduced substantially by efficient arrangement of the
shapes on the sheet to be cut (nesting, see Fig. 16.55).
Computer-aided design techniques have been developed to
minimize the scrap from shearing operations.
Characteristics and Type of Shearing Dies
Clearance. Because the formability of the sheared part can be influenced by the quality of its sheared edges, clearance
control is important. The appropriate clearance depends on
• The type of material and its temper
• The thickness and size of the blank
• Its proximity to the edges of other sheared edges or the edges of the original blank.

Clearances generally range between 2 and 8% of the sheet thickness, but they may be as small as 1% (as in fine blanking)
or as large as 30%. The smaller the clearance, the better is the quality of the edge. If the sheared edge is rough and not
acceptable, it can be subjected to a process called shaving (Fig. 16.9a), whereby the extra material from the edge is
trimmed by cutting, as also depicted in Fig. 21.3.
As a general guideline, (a) clearances for soft materials are less than those for harder grades; (b) the thicker the sheet,
the larger the clearance must be; and (c) as the ratio of hole diameter to sheet thickness decreases, clearances should be
larger. In using larger clearances, attention must be paid to the rigidity and the alignment of the presses, the dies, and
their setups.
Punch and Die Shape.

Compound Dies.
Miscellaneous Methods of Cutting Sheet Metal

There are several other methods of cutting sheets and, particularly, plates:
• Laser-beam cutting is an important process (Section 26.7) typically used with computer-controlled
equipment to cut a variety of shapes consistently, in various thicknesses, and without the use of any dies.
Laser-beam cutting also can be combined with punching and shearing. These processes cover different
and complementary ranges. Parts with certain features can be produced best by one process; some with
other features can be produced best by the other process. Combination machines incorporating both
capabilities have been designed and built. (See also Example 27.1.)

• Water-jet cutting is effective on many metallic as well as nonmetallic materials (Section 27.8).

• Cutting with a band saw; this method is a chip-removal process.

• Friction sawing involves a disk or blade that rubs against the sheet or plate at high surface speeds
(Section 24.5).

• Flame cutting is another common method, particularly for thick plates; it is

used widely in shipbuilding and on heavy structural component (Section 30.8).
Sheet-metal Characteristics and Formability
Cupping Tests. The earliest tests developed to predict sheet-metal formability were cupping tests (Fig. 16.13a).
In the Erichsen test, the sheet specimen is clamped between two circular, flat dies and a steel ball or round
punch is forced into the sheet until a crack begins to appear on the stretched specimen. The punch depth, d, at
which failure occurs is a measure of the formability of the sheet. Although this and similar tests are easy to
perform, they do not simulate the exact conditions of actual forming operations and hence are not particularly
reliable, especially for complex parts.
Forming-limit Diagrams. An important advance in testing the formability of sheet metals is the development of
forming-limit diagrams, as shown in Fig. 16.14. A forming-limit diagram (FLD) for a particular metal is constructed by
first marking the flat sheet with a grid pattern of circles (see Fig. 16.15), using chemical or photoprinting techniques.
The blank then is stretched over a punch (Fig. 16.13a), and the deformation of the circles is observed and measured in
regions where failure (necking and tearing) has occurred. Although the circles typically are 2.5 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in.)
in diameter, for improved accuracy of measurement, they should be made as small as is practical.
Bending Sheets, Plates, and Tubes
Bending is one of the most common industrial forming operations. We merely have
to look at an automobile body, appliance, paper clip, or file cabinet to appreciate
how many parts are shaped by bending. Furthermore, bending also imparts stiffness
to the part by increasing its moment of inertia. Note, for example, how corrugations,
flanges, beads, and seams improve the stiffness of structures without
adding any weight. As a specific example, observe the diametral
stiffness of a metal can with and without circumferential beads
(see also beading).
The terminology used in the bending of a sheet or plate is
shown in Fig. 16.16. Note that the outer fibers of the material are
in tension, while the inner fibers are in compression. Because of
the Poisson effect, the width of the part (bend length, L) has
become smaller in the outer region and larger in the inner region
than the original width (as can be seen in Fig. 16.17c). This phenomenon
may be observed easily by bending a rectangular rubber
eraser and observing the changes in its shape.
As shown in Fig. 16.16, the bend allowance, is the length
of the neutral axis in the bend; it is used to determine the length of
the blank for a part to be bent.
Springback. Because all materials have a finite modulus of elasticity, plastic deformation always is followed by
some elastic recovery when the load is removed (see Fig. 2.3). In bending, this recovery is called springback,
which can be observed easily by bending and then releasing a piece of sheet metal or wire. Springback occurs not
only in flat sheets and plates, but also in solid or hollow bars and tubes of any cross section. As noted in Fig.
16.19, the final bend angle after springback is smaller than the angle to which the part was bent, and the final
bend radius is larger than before springback occurs.
Compensation for Springback. Springback in forming operations usually is compensated for by overbending the part
(Fig. 16.20a and b). Several trials may be necessary to obtain the desired results. Another method is to coin the bend
area by subjecting it to highly localized compressive stresses between the tip of the punch and the die surface (Fig.
16.20c and d)—a technique known as bottoming the punch. Another method is stretch bending, in which the part is
subjected to tension while being bent (see also stretch forming, Section 16.6).
Miscellaneous Bending and Related Operations
Press-brake Forming.
Bending in a Four-slide Machine
Roll Bending.
Beading.
Flanging.
Roll Forming.
Tube Bending and Forming
Dimpling, Piercing, and Flaring.
Hemming and Seaming
Bulging.
Segmented Dies.
Stretch Forming.
Deep Drawing
Numerous parts made of sheet metal are cylindrical or box
shaped, such as pots and pans, all types of containers for
food and beverages (Fig. 16.30), stainless-steel kitchen sinks,
canisters, and automotive fuel tanks. Such parts usually are
made by a process in which a punch forces a flat sheet-metal
blank into a die cavity (Fig. 16.31a). Although the process
generally is called deep drawing (because of its capability for
producing deep parts), it also is used to make parts that are
shallow or have moderate depth. It is one of the most
important metalworking processes because of its widespread
use.
In the basic deep-drawing process, a round sheet-metal blank
is placed over a circular die opening and is held in place with
a blankholder, or hold-down ring (Fig. 16.31b). The punch
travels downward and forces the blank into the die cavity,
forming a cup.
Deep Drawability
In a deep-drawing operation, failure generally results from the thinning of the cup wall under high longitudinal tensile
stresses. If we follow the movement of the material as it flows into the die cavity, it can be seen that the sheet metal
(a) must be capable of undergoing a reduction in width due to a reduction in
diameter and
(b) must also resist thinning under the longitudinal tensile stresses in the cup wall. Deep drawability generally is
expressed by the limiting drawing ratio (LDR) as
 Earing. In deep drawing, the edges of cups may become
wavy—a phenomenon called earing

Drawbeads

Figure 16.36 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b)

Metal flow during the drawing of a box-shaped part while
using beads to control the movement of the material.
(c) Deformation of circular grids in the flange in deep
drawing.
OTHER DRAWING OPERATIONS
DEFECTS IN DRAWING

Sheet-metal drawing is a more complex operation than cutting or bending, and more things can go wrong. A number
of defects can occur in a drawn product, some of which we have already alluded to. Following is a list of common
defects, with sketches in Figure 20.24:

(a) Wrinkling in the flange. Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a series of ridges that
form radially in the undrawn flange of the workpart due to compressive buckling.

(b) Wrinkling in the wall. If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup, these
ridges appear in the vertical wall.

(c) Tearing. Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near the base of the drawn cup, due to high tensile
stresses that cause thinning and failure of the metal at this location. This type of failure can also occur as the metal is
pulled over a sharp die corner.

(d) Earing. This is the formation of irregularities (called ears) in the upper edge of a deep drawn cup, caused by
anisotropy in the sheet metal. If the material is perfectly isotropic, ears do not form.

(e) Surface scratches. Surface scratches can occur on the drawn part if the punch and die
are not smooth or if lubrication is insufficient.
Spinning
Spinning is a process that involves the forming of axisymmetric parts over a mandrel by the use of various tools and
rollers—a process is similar to that of forming clay on a potter’s wheel.
Conventional Spinning. In conventional spinning, a circular blank of flat or preformed sheet metal is placed and held
against a mandrel and rotated while a rigid tool deforms and shapes the material over the mandrel
Design Considerations in Sheet-metal Forming

Blank Design. Material scrap is the primary concern in blanking operations. (See
also Table 40.6.) Poorly designed parts will not nest properly, and there can be considerable
scrap between successive blanking operations

Bending. In bending operations, the main concerns

are material fracture, wrinkling, and the inability to
form the bend. As shown in Fig. 16.56, a sheet-metal
part with a flange that is to be bent will force the
flange to undergo compression, which can cause buckling
(see also flanging, Section 16.6). This problem
can be controlled with a relief notch cut to limit the
stresses from bending, or else a design modification
as shown in the figure can be made to eliminate the
problem. Right-angle bends have similar difficulties,
and relief notches also can be used to avoid tearing
(Fig. 16.57).
Reading assignment chapters
Chapters # 13-16
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th. Ed.

Chapters # 18-20
Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: materials; processes and systems, 4th. Ed.