FIGURE 16.1 Examples of sheet-metal parts. (a) Stamped parts. (b) Parts produced by spinning.

Source: (a) Courtesy of Williamsburg Metal Spinning & Stamping Corp.

Sheet-Metal Forming Processes and Equipment q p

TABLE 16.1 General Characteristics of Sheet-metal Forming Processes (in alphabetic order)

FIGURE 16.2 (a) Schematic illustration of shearing with a punch and die, indicating some of the process variables. Characteristic features of (b) a punched hole and (c) the slug. (Note that the scales of (b) and (c) are different.)

FIGURE 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P. Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.

FIGURE 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various die-cutting operations on sheet metal. Lancing involves slitting the sheet to form a tab.

FIGURE 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fineblanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking. Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations.

FIGURE 16.6 Slitting with rotary knives. This process is similar to opening cans.

An example of Taylor-welded blanks FIGURE 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser butt welding and stamping. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

FIGURE 16.8 Examples of laser butt-welded and stamped automotive-body components. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

FIGURE 16.9 Schematic illustrations of the shaving process. (a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving combined in one stroke.

FIGURE 16.10 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.

FIGURE 16.11 Schematic illustrations (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a compound die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for punching the hole in the washer). (c) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a progressive die. (d) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.

TABLE 16.2 Important Metal Characteristics for Sheet-forming Operations

FIGURE 16.12 (a) Yield-point elongation in a sheet-metal specimen. (b) Lders bands in a low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for household products. Source: (b) Courtesy of Caterpillar, Inc.

FIGURE 16.13 (a) A cupping test (the Erichsen test) to determine the formability of sheet metals. (b) Bulge-test results on steel sheets of various widths. The specimen farthest left is subjected to, basically, simple tension. The specimen that is farthest right is subjected to equal biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of Inland Steel Company.

FIGURE 16.14 (a) Strains in deformed circular grid patterns. (b) Forming-limit diagrams (FLD) for various sheet metals. Although the major strain is always positive (stretching), the minor strain may be either positive or negative. R is the normal anisotropy of the sheet, as described in Section 16.4. Source: After S.S. Hecker and A.K. Ghosh.

FIGURE 16.15 The deformation of the grid pattern and the tearing of sheet metal during forming. The major and minor axes of the circles are used to determine the coordinates on the forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b. Source: S.P. Keeler.

FIGURE 16.16 Bending terminology. Note that the bend radius is measured to the inner surface of the bent part.

FIGURE 16.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on cracking as a function of the direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direction of the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90. Note also the narrowing of the top surface in the bend area (due to the Poisson effect).

TABLE 16.3 Minimum Bend Radius for Various Metals at Room Temperature

FIGURE 16.18 Relationship between R/T and tensile reduction of area for sheet metals. Note that sheet metal with a 50% tensile reduction of area can be bent over itself in a process like the folding of a piece of paper without cracking. Source: After J. Datsko and C.T. Yang.

FIGURE 16.19 Springback in bending. The part tends to recover elastically after bending, and its bend radius becomes larger. Under certain conditions, it is possible for the final bend angle to be smaller than the original angle (negative springback).

FIGURE 16.20 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations.

FIGURE 16.21 Common die-bending operations showing the dieopening dimension, W, used in calculating bending forces.

FIGURE 16.22

Examples of various bending operations.

FIGURE 16.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a press brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Courtesy of Verson Allsteel Company.

FIGURE 16.24 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) through (d) Bead forming with two dies in a press brake.

FIGURE 16.25 Various flanging operations. (a) Flanges on flat sheet. (b) Dimpling. (c) The piercing of sheet metal to form a flange. In this operation, a hole does not have to be pre-punched before the punch descends. Note, however, the rough edges along the circumference of the flange. (d) The flanging of a tube. Note the thinning of the edges of the flange.

FIGURE 16.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the roll-forming process. (b) Examples of roll-formed cross sections. Source: (b) Courtesy of Sharon Custom Metal Forming, Inc.

FIGURE 16.27 Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels or filling of tubes with particulate materials such as sand are often necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes during bending. Tubes also can be bent by a technique in which a stiff, helical tension spring is slipped over the tube. The clearance between the outer diameter of the tube and the inner diameter of the spring is small; thus, the tube cannot kink and the bend is uniform.

FIGURE 16.28 (a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding tubular blanks under internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched out to produce a T. Source: After J.A. Schey. (c) Steps in manufacturing bellows.

FIGURE 16.29 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins for aircraft can be made by this method. Source: (a) Courtesy of Cyril Bath Co.

FIGURE 16.30 The metal-forming processes involved in manufacturing a two-piece aluminum beverage can.

FIGURE 16.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process on a circular sheetmetal blank. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Process variables in deep drawing. Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indicated in the figure are independent variables.

FIGURE 16.32 Strains on a tensile-test specimen removed from a piece of sheet metal. These strains are used in determining the normal and planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.

TABLE 16.4 Typical Ranges of Average Normal Anisotropy, Ravg for Various Sheet Metals

FIGURE 16.33 The relationship between average normal anisotropy and the limiting drawing ratio for various sheet metals. Source: After M. Atkinson.

FIGURE 16.34 Earing in a drawn steel cup, caused by the planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.

FIGURE 16.35 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during the drawing of a box-shaped part while using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of circular grids in the flange in deep drawing.

FIGURE 16.36 An embossing operation with two dies. Letters, numbers, and designs on sheetmetal parts can be produced by this process.

FIGURE 16.37 (a) Aluminum beverage cans. Note the excellent surface finish. (b) Detail of the can lid, showing the integral rivet and scored edges for the pop-top.

FIGURE 16.38 Examples of the bending and embossing of sheet metal with a metal punch and with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Courtesy of Polyurethane Products Corporation.

FIGURE 16.39 The hydroform (or fluid-forming) process. Note that, in contrast to the ordinary deep-drawing process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup travels with the punch; in this way, deep drawability is improved.

FIGURE 16.40 (a) Schematic illustration of the tube-hydroforming process. (b) Example of tube-hydroformed parts. Automotive-exhaust and structural components, bicycle frames, and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are produced through tube hydroforming. Source: Courtesy of Schuler GmBH.

FIGURE 16.41 Hydroformed automotive radiator closure.

FIGURE 16.42 Sequence of operations in producing a tubehydroformed component: (1) tube as cut to length; (2) after bending; (3) after hydroforming.

FIGURE 16.43 Schematic illustration of expansion of a tube to a desired cross section through (a) conventional hydroforming and (b) pressure sequence hydroforming.

FIGURE 16.44 View of the tube-hydroforming press, with bent tube in place in the forming die.

FIGURE 16.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process. (b) Types of parts conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.

FIGURE 16.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the shear-spinning process for making conical parts. The mandrel can be shaped so that curvilinear parts can be spun. (b) and (c) Schematic illustrations of the tube-spinning process.

FIGURE 16.47 (a) Illustration of an incremental-forming operation. Note that no mandrel is used and that the final part shape depends on the path of the rotating tool. (b) An automotive headlight reflector produced through CNC incremental forming. Note that the part does not have to be axisymmetric. Source: After J. Jeswiet, Queens University, Ontario.

FIGURE 16.48 Types of structures made by superplastic forming and diffusion bonding of sheet metals. Such structures have a high stiffness-to-weight ratio. Source: (a) and (b) Courtesy of Rockwell International Corp., (c) Courtesy of Triumph Group, Inc.

FIGURE 16.49 (a) Schematic illustration of the explosive-forming process. (b) Illustration of the confined method of the explosive bulging of tubes.

FIGURE 16.50 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulseforming process used to form a tube over a plug. (b) Aluminum tube collapsed over a hexagonal plug by the magnetic pulse- forming process.

FIGURE 16.51 (a) A selection of common cymbals. (b) Detailed view of different surface textures and finishes of cymbals. Source: Courtesy of W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.

FIGURE 16.52 Manufacturing sequence for the production of cymbals. Source: Courtesy of W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.

FIGURE 16.53 Hammering of cymbals. (a) Automated hammering on a peening machine; (b) hand hammering of cymbals. Source: Courtesy of W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.

FIGURE 16.54 Methods of manufacturing honeycomb structures: (a) expansion process; (b) corrugation process; (c) assembling a honeycomb structure into a laminate.

FIGURE 16.55 Efficient nesting of parts for optimum material utilization in blanking. Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

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FIGURE 16.56 Control of tearing and buckling of a flange in a right angle bend. Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

FIGURE 16.57 Application of notches to avoid tearing and wrinkling in right-angle bending operations. Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

FIGURE 16.58 Stress concentrations near bends. (a) Use of a crescent or ear for a hole near a bend. (b) Reduction of severity of tab in flange. Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

FIGURE 16.17

FIGURE 16.59 Application of (a) scoring or (b) embossing to obtain a sharp inner radius in bending. Unless properly designed, these features can lead to fracture. Source: Courtesy of Society of Manufacturing Engineers Engineers.

FIGURE 16.60 (a) through (f) Schematic illustrations of types of press frames for sheet forming operations. Each type has its own characteristics of stiffness, capacity, and accessibility. (g) A large stamping press.
Source: (a) through (f) Engineers Handbook, VEB Fachbuchverlag, 1965; (g) Verson Allsteel Company.

FIGURE 16.61 Cost comparison for manufacturing a round sheetmetal container either by conventional spinning or by deep drawing. Note that for small quantities, spinning is more economical.

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Summary
Sheet metal processes are versatile; used on thin pieces Material parameters:
Quality of original sheared edge, Stretching capability, Resistance to thinning, Anisotrophy, Grain size, Yield point elongation

Transmit forces:
Solid tools & dies, flexible membrane, Electrical, Chemical, Magnetic, Gaseous

Thin sheet Issues:

Test methods Forming Limit Diagrams Design considerations for formability

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