Plank’s quantum theory of Blackbody

radiation
• The findings in the blackbody radiation led
Plank to come with the following postulates;
a. Radiant energy is quantized. i.e. energy
radiated in the form of energy packets called
photons. Radiant energy is emitted in small
packets called quanta
b. Energy associated with quanta is
proportional to the frequency of radiation.
thus, E = nhf , where n = 1, 2, 3….. etc.
 Cont..
• Photon: is a packet or bundle of energy
c
• Energy of a photon: E = nhf and f =
λ
nhc
Thus, E =
λ
where; h = planks constant (6.626x10−34 Js)
λ = wavelength of light radiation
f = frequency of the radiation or photon,
c = the speed of light
n = principle quantum number
E = energy (J)
EINSTEIN QUANTUM THEORY OF LIGHT
Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory.
According to Einstein light radiation consist of tiny packets of energy called quanta.
Photon
Photon is the single quantum of light radiation which travels with the speed of light.
The energy of a photon is given by E.

E=hf
where
f –frequency of light radiation
h – Plank’s constant.
Further, Einstein assumed that one photon of suitable frequency (=fo or >fo) can eject
only one photoelectron from the metal surface.
He suggested that the energy of a single photon cannot be shared among the free
electron in the metal.
Only one electron can absorb the energy of a single photon.
 Einstein Quantum theory of light
• It was thought that if a more intense (brighter)
light shone on a metal, then the electrons would
be knocked out with greater kinetic energies than
if a faint light was shone on a metal.
➢ It was observed that this did not happen at all
• The intensity of light made no difference to the
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
• Also it was observed that the electrons were
emitted immediately when light was shone on
the metal-there was no time delay
 Cont...
• Einstein solved this problem by proposing that:
i. Light is made of packets of energy called quanta (now
called photons) which interacted with the electrons in
the metal like particles instead of waves.
ii. Each incident photon will transfer all its energy to one
electron in the metal
iii. For a specific color of light (i.e. Certain wavelength or
frequency) the energy of photons is given by;
E = hf
nhc
E=
λ
 Work function (𝐰𝐨 )
• Work function (wo ) of the metal is the energy needed to
knock an electron out of the metal
i.e. wo = hfo
• This is the characteristics of a substance
• If the energy of the photon is less than wo ,therefore the
amount of energy left over as kinetic energy (K.E) of the
emitted electron would be the difference between the
incoming photon’s energy and the energy needed to knock
out the electron (work function of metal)
i.e. K.E = E - wo
1
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = hf - wo
2
 Cont..
• The work function is different for different
element
• The smaller the work function, the easier it is
for electrons to be emitted from the metal.
• Metals with low work functions make good
conductors i.e. The electrons are attached less
strongly to their surroundings and can move
easily through these materials. This reduces the
resistance of the material to the flow of current
that is it conducts well
 Einstein photoelectric equation
1
mvmax 2 = hf - wo
2
where; m = mass
h = plank’s constant
f = frequency of photon
wo = work function
 Properties of photons:
i) A photon travels at a speed of light c in vacuum.
(i.e. 3 x 10-8 m/s)
ii) It has zero rest mass. i.e. the photon can not exist at rest.
E h
iii) The kinetic mass of a photon is, m = 2 =
𝑐 cλ
E h
iv) The momentum of a photon is, p = =
𝑐 λ
v) Photons travel in a straight line.
vi) Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the
photon; so the energy of the photon does not change when
photon travels from one medium to another.
 Cont..
vii) Wavelength of the photon changes in
different media; so, velocity of a photon is
different in different media.
viii) Photons are electrically neutral.
ix) Photons may show diffraction under given
conditions.
x) Photons are not deviated by magnetic and
electric fields.
 Emission of Electrons
• The work function of a metal depends upon the type of the metal
and its temperature.
• To free electrons from metals, energy may be supplied by any one
of the following methods.
1. Thermionic Emission:
• When current is passed through a filament so that it gets heated
sufficiently, free electrons from the metal of the filament get
emitted. Such emission occurs in diode, triode and TV tube (
Cathode ray tube ).
2. Field Emission:
• When a metal is subjected to strong electric fields of the order of
108 V / m, electrons get emitted from the metal.
3. Photoelectric Emission:
• When electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high frequency is
incident on a clean metal surface, free electrons are emitted from
the surface.
• This method is called photoelectric emission and the electrons so
emitted are called the photo electrons.
 Photoelectric effect
• Is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from
mainly metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X –
rays, γ – rays, UV rays, Visible light and even Infra Red
rays) of suitable frequency.
• The electrons emitted by this effect are called
photoelectrons.
• The current constituted by photoelectrons is known
as photoelectric current.
Note: Non metals also show photoelectric effect.
Liquids and gases also show this effect but to
limited extent.
• It was theoretically explained by A.Einstein
 Cont..
• According to his theory , when a photon of
energy hf is incident on the surface of a metal
plate, a part of its energy is used up to remove an
electron from the inside to outside the metal
surface. The rest of the energy is used up in
increasing the K.E of the emitted electron
• Thus according to the law of conservation of
energy , we have
Energy of incident photon = maximum K.E of the electron + work function of the metal
 Cont..
1
hf = mvmax 2 + wo
2
1
mvmax 2 = hf - wo
2
1
But mvmax 2 = eV
2
Then, eV = = hf - wo
hf wo
V= − (v is accerelating potential)
e e
• The graph of V and f will be straight line, with the
h wo
slope = and − will be the intercept
e e
The graph of V and f
 Cont..
1
• Also mv 2 = hf - wo where wo = h fo
2
1
mv 2 = hf - h fo
2
1
mv 2 = h(f – fo )
2
where, fo = threshold fequency
 Threshold frequency (fo )
• Is the minimum frequency of incident radiation
below which there is no photo electric emission
• For photo electric emission to occur, frequency of
incident light f must be greater than the
threshold frequency (fo ) i.e. f>fo .
• The velocity of the ejected electrons depends on
the frequency and not on the intensity of light.
• The number of emitted electrons depends on the
number of photons falling on the surface, hence
upon the intensity of the incident light
 Laws of Photoelectric Emission
• The following are three Laws of Photoelectric Emission:
1. The photo electric current (the no. of photoelectrons
per second) is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light of a given frequency, provided that the
frequency is greater than the threshold frequency
2. The velocity of the photo electrons is independent of
the intensity of the incident light but depends only on
the frequency of the incident light
3. The rate of emission of the electrons is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident light
 Other Laws of Photoelectric Emission
❑ The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
directly proportional to the frequency provided the
frequency is above the threshold frequency.
❑ The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
independent of the intensity of the incident light.
❑ The process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous.
i.e. as soon as the photon of suitable frequency falls on
the substance, it emits photoelectrons.
❑ The photoelectric emission is one-to-one. i.e. for every
photon of suitable frequency one electron is emitted
Experimental Set-up to study
Photoelectric Effect
 Operation
• The device consists of an evacuated glass tube
• Glass transmits only visible and infra-red lights
but not UV light.
• Quartz transmits UV light.
• The incident light of fixed frequency and fixed
intensity is allowed to fall on the plate through
a quartz window, then photo electrons are
emitted and accelerated and collected by the
cathode and the current starts to flow in the
outer circuit.
 1. Effect of Intensity of Incident Light on
Photoelectric Current
• For a fixed frequency the photoelectric
current increases linearly with increase in
intensity of incident light.
 2. Effect of Potential on Photoelectric Current
• For a fixed frequency and intensity of incident light, the
photoelectric current increases with increase in +ve potential
applied to the anode.
• When all the photoelectrons reach the plate A, current becomes
maximum and is known as saturation current.
• When the potential is decreased, the current decreases but does
not become zero at zero potential.This shows that even in the
absence of accelerating potential, a few photoelectrons manage to
reach the plate on their own due to their K.E.
• When –ve potential is applied to the plate A w.r.t. C, photoelectric
current becomes zero at a particular value of –ve potential called
stopping potential or cut-off potential.
• When the potential is decreased, the current decreases but does
not become zero at zero potential.
❑ Intensity of incident light does not affect the stopping potential.
Stopping potential or cut-off potential
• Is the retarding potential for which the photo electric
current becomes zero.
• Is the minimum voltage required to stop the electrons
with maximum kinetic energy from escaping from the
metal surface
• Below this potential no photoelectric current is
observed irrespective of the intensity of incident
radiations.
1
Emax = mvmax 2 = eVo
2
Emax
Vo =
e
where Vo is Stopping potential
Graph of Potential and Photoelectric
Current
3.Effect of Frequency of Incident Light
on Photoelectric Current
• For a fixed intensity of incident light, the
photoelectric current does not depend on the
frequency of the incident light.
• Because, the photoelectric current simply
depends on the number of photoelectrons
emitted and in turn on the number of photons
incident and not on the energy of photons.
4. Effect of Frequency of Incident Light
on Stopping Potential
• For a fixed intensity of incident light, the
photoelectric current increases and is saturated
with increase in +ve potential applied to the
anode.
• However, the saturation current is same for
different frequencies of the incident lights.
• When potential is decreased and taken below
zero, photoelectric current decreases to zero but
at different stopping potentials for different
frequencies.
• Higher the frequency, higher the stopping
potential. i.e. Vs α ν
Graph of Photoelectric Current and
Potential
 From the graph
• It can be seen from the figure that for a given
intensity, stopping potential depends on
frequency and is thus independent of intensity
of light.
• Also, for a given frequency, maximum
saturation current depends on the intensity of
light and is thus independent of its frequency.
 5. Threshold Frequency
• The graph between stopping potential and
frequency does not pass through the origin. It
shows that there is a minimum value of
frequency called threshold frequency below
which photoelectric emission is not possible
however high the intensity of incident light
may be.
• It depends on the nature of the metal emitting
photoelectrons.
 Cont..

• Photo electric effect helps us to know plank’s

constant (h) and work function of the metal
X- rays
 X – RAYS
• In 1895 Rontgen was working with a discharge tube in
darkened room when he noticed glowing material on
the other side of the room.
• He discovered that the glow was produced only when
the discharge tube was operated and found that
covering the tube made no difference.
• The tube was emitting invisible penetrating radiations
which were unknown and hence named X – rays.
• X – ray is a form of electromagnetic radiations with
wavelength 1𝑥10−11 to 1𝑥10−8 𝑚.
• The wavelength is shorter than those of ultraviolet rays
and longer than those of gamma rays.
 Production of X – rays
• First X – rays were produced when the cathode
rays hit the end of the glass tube.
• In modern time x – rays are produced whenever
fast-moving electrons hit a solid usually a heavy
metal.
• Therefore in cathode ray tube x – rays are
emitted at the anode and from all parts of the
glass wall struck by the beam of electron.
• In order to produce the localized source of x –
rays it is necessary to focus the cathode rays into
small spot on the target.
 X – rays tube
• X – ray tube is made of the glass envelope with hot
filament, cathode that give off electrons and the target that
attached to the fins or coolant system to cool down the
target or else it can melt due to the heat produced.
• The intensity of X – rays produced depends on the number
of electrons hitting the target per second which in turn
depends on the value of heater current.
• The efficiency of x – rays production is increased by using a
target material of high atomic number.
NB:
➢ Only about 0.2% of the energy of the cathode ray beam is
converted into x – rays, the rest is changed into internal
heat energy.
➢ The target is therefore made of tungsten with high atomic
number and melting point.
Parts of X – rays tube.
 TYPES OF X – RAYS
i. Hard X – ray
• They are produced by high voltage hence greater
voltage of the bombarding electrons.
• They have short wavelength and high penetrating
power.
ii. Soft X – ray
• They are produced by low voltage hence small
energy of bombarding electrons.
• They have longer wavelength and low
penetrating power.
 PROPERTIES OF X – RAYS
i. They are not deflected by electric or magnetic field
(They are neutral)
ii. They affect photographic plate and cause glow on a
screen of zinc sulphide.
iii. They cause fluorescence in material such as rock salt,
calcium compounds or uranium glass.
iv. They penetrate matter. The extent of penetration
depends on the density and the thickness of matter.
v. They liberate electrons from air (Ionize air)
vi. They travel in straight line with the velocity of light
vii. They are electromagnetic waves of very short
wavelength
 USES OF X – RAYS
i. In medicine
• They are used to take internal structure of the
body e.g. Stomach, Liver, Brain and bones.
ii. In industry
• They are used extensively for internal
examination of industrial material e.g. In
detection of flaws and other weakness in metal
casting and welded joints
iii. In Arts
• They are used to study the crystal structure
hence known as crystallography
 DANGERS/ HAZARDS OF X – RAYS
• The following are the hazards caused by X – rays;
i. They produce deep-seated burns
ii. They destroy living cells
iii. They cause unpredictable chemical changes
iv. They cause serious diseases sometimes many
years after the time of radiation
v. They can cause genetic disorder which may
become apparent in subsequent generations.
 PRECAUTIONS OF X – RAYS
i. Small amount of X – rays when taking x – ray photograph
of body parts is allowed
• But prolonged or repeated exposure is harmful. Usually
blood doesn’t recover from the damage caused by
radiations and accumulative effects of small doses are very
serious.
ii. Avoid unnecessary exposure to X – rays
iii. All apparatus generating radiations of this kind should be
enclosed in lead casing of sufficient thickness to absorb
all stray radiations.
iv. When x – rays photograph must be used for medical
investigations, cares must be taken to ensure that the
dose is far below that harmful level
v. Care must be taken to avoid taking x – rays pictures of
glowing foetus/ fetus because the rapid dividing cells are
readily damaged by x – rays than stable ones.
The cut off wavelength or short wave limit (λ min)

This is the minimum wavelength of x-radiations which corresponds to the maximum

energy of the X-rays produced by electrons which have given out all their K.Æ• on a
single encounter with the target nucleus

ENERGY OF X – RAY:

Energy of an electron striking the atom of the target is eV where e = electronic charge.

V = p.d across the X-ray tube.

If a direct collision is made with a target atom and the energy is absorbed then on
quantum theory X-rays produced hence a maximum energy hV

Therefore

eV = 1/2mV2 = hV

eV = hc/ λ minimum

λmin = hc/eV
 Example

Calculate the wavelength of most energetic X-rays produced by a tube

operating at 1.0 x 105V.
 Example
1. An X-ray tube operated at a d.c potential
difference of 40kv, produces heat at the
target at the rate of 720W. Assuming
0.5% of the energy of the incident
electrons is converted into X-radiation,
calculate;
(i) the number of electrons per second
striking the target
(ii) the velocity of the incident electrons
e
Given that: = 1.8 x 1011 ckg −1
m
 Exercise
1. (a) (i) Briefly explain the production of X-rays
(ii) list down any three uses of X-rays
(iii) How are the intensity and penetrating
power of an X-ray beam controlled
(b) An X-ray tube operated at a d.c potential
difference of 60kv, produces heat at the target at the
rate of 840W. Assuming 0.65% of the energy of the
incident electrons is converted into X-radiation,
calculate;
(i) the number of electrons per second striking the
target
(ii) the velocity of the incident electrons
(iii) the energy of incident electrons
 Cont..
2. The work function of sodium is 2.0eV. If the
quantum energy in the incident Emw is
3.2 x 10−19 J and that the electrons are just
liberated from the metal. Calculate threshold
frequency and threshold wavelength.
3. Caesium has the work function of 1.9eV
(i) find its threshold wavelength
(ii) the maximum energy of the liberated electrons
from the metal illuminated by light of wavelength
4.7 x 10−7 m
(iii) stopping potential
 Cont.…
4. If a photo emissive surface has a threshold wavelength
0.65 μm. Calculate
(i) its threshold frequency
(ii) its work function
(iii) the maximum speed of the emitted
electrons
5. (a) Yellow light has a wavelength of 6 x 10−17 m. How
many photons are emitted per second by yellow lamp
rated 10W
(b) Light of wave length 5 x 10−7 m fall on Potassium
surface whose work function is 2eV. What is the
maximum K.E in eV of photoelectrons that are
emitted.
 Cont...
6. When Caesium is illuminated by light of
wavelength 4.46 x 10−7 m electrons are
liberated with maximum K.E equal to
1.4 x 10−19 J. Calculate.
(a) the threshold frequency for caesium
(b) the work function of Caesium in eV
(c) the stopping potential in volts
 Cont..
7. The maximum wavelength that can cause electron
emission from a certain metal is 5.0x 10−7 m.
Determine its,
(i) work function of a metal
(ii) the maximum energy of electron emitted by
radiation of wavelength 4.2 x 10−7 m from metal
8. When a radiation of frequency 5.4 x 1014 Hz is
shone on a metal surface. The maximum energy of
the electron emitted is 1.2 x 10−19 J. If the same
surface is illuminated with radiation of
6.6 x 1014 Hz. The maximum energy of the emitted
electron is 2.0 x 10−19 J. use this information to
calculate the Plank’s constant
 Cont..
9. Use the following table of results to plot the
suitable graph of V against f and then
answer the question that follows;
f (x 1014 )Hz 6.6 6.0 5.4 5.1 4.5

V (volts) 0.65 0.49 0.35 0.26 0.14

find (i) find the plank’s constant

(ii) the work function of metal used
(iii) the threshold wavelength
 Cont..
10.Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of electron
accelerated through a potential of 200 volts.
Given that; e = 1.6 x 10−19 C
m = 9.1 x 10−31 kg
h = 6.63 x 10−34 Js
11. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength for the
beam of electron whose energy is 200 eV.
Given that; m = 9.1 x 10−31 kg
h = 6.63 x 10−34 Js
 Cont..
12.Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with a particle of mass 1g moving
with velocity of2.0 x 105 C cms −1 .
Given that; m = 9.1 x 10−31 kg
h = 6.63 x 10−34 Js
13. Find the wavelength for a beam of electrons
whose kinetic energy is 100 eV
 Cont..
14. Calculate the radius of the hydrogen atom in its
stable state. What is the velocity of electron in its first
orbit?
Given that: m = 9.11 x 10−31 kg
h = 6.63 x 10−34 Js
e = 1.6 x 10−19 C
K = 9 x 109 Nm2 C −2
15. Calculate the total energy of the electron of
hydrogen atom in second orbit.
Given that: m = 9.11 x 10−31 kg
h = 6.63 x 10−34 Js
e = 1.6 x 10−19 C
K = 9 x 109 Nm2 C −2