Software Processes and

Agile Practices

COURSE NOTES
Table of Contents
Course Overview 4
Module 1: Introduction to Processes 5
Processes and Practices 6
The Importance of a Process 6
Life Cycles and Sub-Processes 6
Processes and Phrases 7
Tasks and Task Dependencies 8
Practices 10
Software Engineering Activities 11
Specification Activities 12
Design and Implementation Activities 13
Verification and Validation Activities 13
Project Management Activities 14
Summary of Software Engineering Activities 16
Module 2: Process Models 17
Module Overview 18
Linear Models 18
Waterfall Model 18
V-Model 20
Sawtooth Model 21
Iterative Models 22
Spiral Model 22
Parallel Models 24
Unified Process Model 24
Prototypes 28
Last Word on Prototypes 30
Continuous Delivery 31
Microsoft Daily Build 32
Last Word on Continuous Delivery 33
Process as a Tool: Choose the Right Tool for the Job! 34
Module 3: Agile Practices 35
Using Agile with Process Models 36
Agile Practices 37
Scrum 37
Three Pillars of Scrum 37
Sprints and Scrum Events 38
Scrum Roles 39
Scrum Development Team 39
Definition of “Done” 40
Extreme Programming (XP) 40
Practices 40

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 2

 Practice 1: The Planning Game 41
Practice 2: Small Releases 41
Practice 3: System Metaphor 42
Practice 4: Simple Design 42
Practice 5: Continuous Testing 42
Practice 6: Refactoring 43
Practice 7: Pair Programming 43
Practice 8: Collective Code Ownership 44
Practice 9: Continuous Integration 44
Practice 10: 40-Hour Work Week 44
Practice 11: On-Site Customer 44
Practice 12: Coding Standards 44
Additional Management Ideas 44
Drawbacks 45
Module 4: Other Practices 46
Other Agile Methodologies 47
Lean Software Design 47
Seven Principles of Lean 48
Eliminate Waste 48
Amplify Learning 48
Decide as Late as Possible 49
Deliver as Fast as Possible 49
Empower the Team 49
Build Quality In 50
See the Whole 50
Additional Principles from Lean Software Developers 50
Warranty 51
Kanban 51
Tracking Tasks 51
Tracking Product Requirements 52
Course Resources 53
Optional Resources 53
Glossary 57

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 3

Course Overview

Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:

(a) explain different process models for structuring

software development.
(b) determine which process model works best for
different software development projects.
(c) apply the fundamentals of Agile software development
practices, such as Extreme Programming (XP) and
Scrum.

This course examines software development processes and

agile practices. The material starts with key process concepts
and then transitions into established processes and practices
that are successfully used in industry. For instance, you will
learn the concept of iterative processes, followed by
established process models such as the Unified Process
model. The last half of this course will focus on the application
of practices—specifically, Agile practices—to support
development processes.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 4

Module 1: Introduction to Processes

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

(a) summarize the concept of a process.

(b) define the process terms: life cycle, phase, activity, task,
work product, resource, and role.
(c) understand the hierarchical relationships of: processes,
phases, activities, and tasks.
(d) differentiate between how tasks consume, use, and
produce resources and work products.
(e) determine how practices align with a process.
(f) define and identify a practice and a methodology.
(g) summarize key software engineering activities.
(h) recognize the inputs and outputs of each activity.
(i) summarize the phases of an example software
engineering process.
(j) identify the software engineering activities in each phase.
(k) define project management tasks and activities that are
ongoing throughout all phases: risk management,
performing estimation, and allocating resources.
(l) understand the differences between expressing,
gathering, and eliciting requirements.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 5

Processes and Practices

The Importance of a Process

Establishing a process is a key starting point for every software
development project. A process organizes the work on a
software product into distinct phases. In general, the work that
is undertaken for a project will transition from one phase to the
next. Each phase has specific activities and tasks that must be
performed. By creating distinct phases with clear steps and
deliverables, the use of processes structures the software
development in a manner that provides clarity for everyone
involved.

Creating software is more like authoring a cookbook than

following a specific recipe. There is no prescribed formula to
writing a cookbook; recipes must be collected, organized, and
tested. Recipe testing may lead to further refinements,
experiments, and improvisations. Rejection of some recipes
may require backtracking to the collection phase. And, if
successful, a cookbook may have a long life cycle involving
multiple editions in which corrections are made, and new
recipes are added.

Similarly, software development requires continuous evaluation

and decision making while moving through each phase of a
given project. This continues well past the initial development
project. A software product, just as with a cookbook, can have
a long life cycle involving multiple versions with improved
features and resolved defects.

Life Cycles and Sub-Processes

A software life cycle process refers to a process that covers
the entire spectrum of software development, from the
product’s initial conception to its eventual retirement. A life
cycle process is an all-encompassing approach to software
development, which may include sub-processes for major
releases and product evolution. Of particular interest for this
course is building a new product, which requires a process that
organizes how to get the product from an idea in the client’s
mind to working software that an end-user experiences. The
software life cycle processes presented in this course will focus
on this software development problem.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 6

Processes and Phrases
As noted before, a process is divided into multiple phases. For
example, the phases of a process to create a software product
may be:

• Specification
• Design and Implementation
• Verification and Validation

Phases—or milestones—within a process need only be

identified in a logical manner and organized so that the phases
contribute to the completion of the process.

Phrases, Activities, and Tasks

For example, consider the Verification and Validation phase

identified previously; one of the activities within might be
Executing Tests. Tasks related to the activity of executing tests
could include:

• writing test framework code

• designing tests
• writing tests
• running tests

Tasks are where the real work gets done, no matter what
process is used. Tasks are the small, manageable units of work
for the project. They are the building blocks for completing an
activity, finishing a phase, and ultimately completing a process.

Last Word on Phrases

Adopting and adapting a suitable process will be key in

structuring the work for a successful project.
Designing a process can start from scratch or may be based on
one of the many process models that have already been used
successfully. A variety of process models will be presented
during this course.

Every process model will have phases; however, there are major
differences between models in terms of what activities
constitute their phases and the sequencing of the phases.
Three types of process models are:

• Linear process models – phases that happen

sequentially, one after another

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 • Iterative process models – phases that are repeated in
cycles
• Parallel process models – activities that occur
concurrently

Tasks and Task Dependencies

As introduced above, tasks are the most basic unit of work that
will be managed. Tasks in software development include small
pieces of work, such as:

• write source code for a feature

• design a feature
• write documentation
• install a library
• test a feature

Tasks often have dependencies—for example, a task that must

wait for another task to complete is said to be dependent on
that other task. Dependencies will impose a specific order for
tasks to be completed. It is important to understand and
sequence dependent tasks appropriately.

For example, imagine a process that has been divided into

three phases:

1. Specification

2. Design and Implementation

3. Verification and Validation

An activity within the second phase might be “designing user

interfaces.” Tasks within this activity would be ordered to
reflect any identified dependencies. One task is to design the
user interface look. Another task is to design the user interface
behaviour, which depends on having the look established.

Although this is a small example, it does illustrate the need to

identify all task dependencies, to avoid doing tasks out of
order and wasting resources.

Tasks and Roles

Ultimately, it is specific people who perform the tasks. However

when assigning tasks, it is good practice to assign them to
roles rather than a specific person (e.g., Sam) or even a specific

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 8

position (e.g., Software Engineer). There are very good reasons
to approach assignment of tasks in this manner. First, even
over a specific phase, people can change in an organization, so
assigning tasks to roles is more constant over the life of the
project. Second, setting tasks to roles will help avoid any
perceived personal choices that can occur when assigning tasks
to specific people instead of a given role.

A role is job-related activity assigned to a person. As

mentioned above, a team member named Sam may have a job
title “Software Engineer”; however, one of his roles is to
program. Any given development team will have multiple
members who can perform many roles, such as:

• graphic designer
• programmer
• tester
• project manager
• product owner

Each role on a team describes specific skills that are needed to

accomplish any given responsibility or task. For example, a
programmer may write code for a certain feature and this
might then be assigned to our example team member Sam,
who is a Software Engineer. A tester will be assigned to test
that feature, and this role may be filled by a Junior Developer
named Theresa.

A role performs a task.

Tasks and Work Products

A work product is an output produced by completing a specific

task. Work products, of course, do include the final product,
but they also include other intermediate outputs such as
design documentation, requirements documents, source code,
test cases, and project management artifacts such as status
reports and sign-off forms.

Since work products are outputs of tasks, we can say that a

task produces a work product.

Work Products as Outputs and Inputs

As mentioned, some tasks depend on other tasks. So, the work

product output of an earlier task will also be the input for a
subsequent task. For example, the output of a task to design a

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 9

feature becomes the input for a task to write the source code
for that feature.

Not only does a task produce work products as output, it also

uses work products from another task as input.

Tasks and Resources

Completing any given task requires resources to advance or

fund it, such as time, people, technology, knowledge, and
money.

A task consumes resources.

Practices
Practices are strategies used to execute processes smoothly.
Practices contribute to the effectiveness of a development
process. For instance, a manager can follow proven
management practices for: scheduling and organizing tasks,
minimizing resource waste, and tracking completed work.
Additionally, estimating tasks, holding daily meetings,
improving communication, and doing periodic reviews of the
project are all practices that can help a process run well. A
developer can follow established development practices for:
preparing effective tests, maintaining simplicity, and
conducting technical reviews, to ensure a quality product with
low defects.

Practices are often gathered into a methodology. Put another

way, a methodology is a set of practices. Methodologies based
on the philosophy outlined in the Agile Manifesto are known as
Agile methodologies. Scrum is an example of an Agile
methodology. It is an iterative and incremental software
development methodology for managing product development.
All the practices associated with Scrum adhere to Agile
principles and philosophy.

The Agile Manifesto provides the philosophy, and an Agile

methodology provides a set of day-to-day practices that align
with that philosophy.

Practices and Process

Certain practices lend themselves to particular phases in a

process. For example, within the Specification phase of a
software life cycle process, practices designed to help elicit
needs and express requirements are useful.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 10

Other practices are useful throughout the entire process, such
as those that pertain to project management, such as having
daily meetings, monitoring how productive the team
accomplishes work, and keeping everyone aware of
outstanding items that still need to be completed. Specific
practices will be examined later in this course as Agile
methodologies are presented.

Adopting good practices reduces wasted resources. Effective

planning and communication prevents duplicating work or
producing a feature that is not needed. Good practices then
help to keep the project on schedule and on budget.

Processes and practices are flexible and customizable.

Combine various aspects of processes and practices to create
something customized to your development needs. Finally, be
open to making adjustments that refine the processes and
practices to best fit your project and product.

Software Engineering Activities

A process is made up of phases. A phase is made up of

activities. An activity is made up of tasks.

This lesson will look at activities directly related to software

engineering. Understanding software engineering activities will
provide a more complete picture of how software products are
made.

We have already identified that tasks produce work products

that can become the inputs to other tasks. Since related tasks
comprise an activity, an activity too has work product inputs
and outputs (i.e., the initial input(s) into the related tasks and
the final output(s) upon the completion of those tasks).
Additionally, just as tasks have dependencies, so too do
activities. For example, the activity of “creating tests” will result
in a work product output that will enable the next activity of
“executing tests” to begin.

Instructor’s Note
As the software engineering activities are discussed, they will be
grouped into generalized phases to give concrete examples of
how the activities can belong to the phases of a process.

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Specification Activities
A specification phase is often a starting point for developing a
software product. These activities focus on the requirements
for the product. In a linear process model, specification
activities might happen once at the beginning of the process;
however, in iterative or parallel models, specification activities
can be revisited multiple times to capture updated client needs
and suggested product improvements. A software product
manager plays a significant role in specification activities.

Specification activities usually include:

• identifying ideas or needs

• eliciting requirements
• expressing requirements
• prioritizing requirements
• analyzing requirements
• managing requirements
• formulating potential approaches

The importance of identifying ideas or needs should not be

underestimated. While it may seem self-evident, thoroughly
understanding the idea or need that drives development will
help to create a great software product.

Once the core idea of the product is understood, the next steps
are to define the requirements.

1. Elicit requirements (probe for them)

2. Express requirements (write them down in a structured
way)
3. Prioritize requirements (rank them by importance)
4. Analyze requirements (check them for clarity,
consistency, completeness))
5. Manage requirements (organize, reuse, reference them )

Software engineering activities place an emphasis on having a

good initial set of requirements to guide development work.
The Client Needs and Software Requirements course within
this specialization is devoted to the activities and practices to
form effective requirements.

The final activity, formulating potential approaches, allows the

product team to outline a strategy, consider alternatives, and
further refine their next steps.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 12

Design and Implementation Activities
 
These are activities accomplished by the development team to
design and implement the software product. Managers need to
track and monitor the work products that result from these
activities.

Design and implementation activities can include:

• designing the architecture

• designing the database
• designing interfaces
• creating executable code
• integrating functionality
• documenting

These are all activities that happen before any programming

can begin. Having a design for the software architecture,
related databases, and interfaces will improve the ability of
developers to work together towards a common goal. Once
programming begins, programmers should be integrating or
combining their code at regular intervals to ensure compatible
functionality. Internal documentation will help new developers
when they join the team or enable existing team members to
work on development of unfamiliar aspects of the product.

Verification and Validation Activities

Constant verification and validation of the product will ensure
that its development is on the right track.

Verification and validation activities include:

• developing test procedures

• creating tests
• executing tests
• reporting evaluation results
• conducting reviews and audits
• demonstrating to clients
• conducting retrospectives

Verification typically consists of internal testing and technical

review activities that ensure that the product does what it is
intended to do, according to the documented design and
requirements.

Validation activities such as demonstrating to clients help to

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 13

check that the product meets the needs of the client and/or the
end users. With iterative or parallel process models, feedback
at this stage can be incorporated into new specifications to
improve the product through the next cycle of development.

Both the product and the process can also be improved.

Conducting retrospectives is an activity to identify areas to do
better next time. Retrospective exercises with the development
team will generate ideas for improving the process and the
product.

Project Management Activities

Although the example phases represent a natural flow through
software development, there are also ongoing project
management activities that generally occur in parallel to the
activities discussed above.

Project management activities usually include:

• creating a process
• setting standards
• managing risks
• performing estimations
• allocating resources
• making measurements
• improving the process

Creating a process is an important part of managing a project

because it sets the initial phases for development. A process
provides a structure of expected activities and work, which help
to guide a team through a product development project.

Along with a process, setting standards is needed to ensure

the team’s activities are performed consistently. The team
needs a clear set of expectations on aspects of development
like coding conventions, documentation levels, testing
strategies, and when work should be considered done. A
development team may set a standard that work for a feature is
considered done, for example, when the implemented source
code follows a specified convention, when the documentation
has been provided to the developers and end-users, or when
features has been tested.

Another project management activity is managing risks. This

requires constant analysis and mitigation of potential risks
(e.g., business, technical, managerial, scheduling, and security
risks). Inputs for managing risks may require historical project

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 14

records, project estimates, the software’s detailed design, and
the life cycle process. Any part of the project that may be
considered vulnerable to failure would be an input work
product for managing risks. The output work product is a risk
plan that outlines potential risks and mitigation strategies.
Ongoing risk review will identify and mitigate new risks that
may emerge throughout the development process.

Furthermore, effective project management relies on

performing estimations. Estimation is a critical activity in
software development since development timelines are based
on estimates of how long it takes to complete tasks. When
estimates are too inaccurate, a schedule can be severely
compromised. Tasks involved in the estimation activity include
collecting data for estimates, performing estimate calculations,
and evaluating estimates. For example, performing an estimate
for the duration of a given task is itself a task with an input
work product of collected, historical, task-duration
measurements. The output work product is the estimated
duration itself, which can be used in subsequent scheduling
tasks.

The activity for allocating resources ensures that people, time,

money, and equipment are deployed to do a required task.
Assigning tasks and creating a work schedule are both tasks
with the resource allocation activity.

Making measurements is another important project

management activity. This involves tasks like defining usable
metrics, calculating data, and analyzing metric data. Metrics
are used to track and assess the quality of the product and/or
the process.

Improving the process is a critical part of effective project

management. It is important to recognize that, like the
product, improvements can also be made to the development
process. It is as important to test and review the process, as it
is to test and review the product. Measurements are useful
inputs for calculations to determine how the process can be
improved.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 15

Summary of Software Engineering Activities

Outlining these software engineering activities provides an idea

of how they contribute toward developing a software product
or managing a software project.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 16

Module 2: Process Models

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

(a) explain the need to consider various process models.

(b) fully describe a linear model including its strengths and
weaknesses, and its phases in the correct order. This includes:
a. understanding the similarities and differences of the
linear models: Waterfall, V-Model, and Sawtooth.
(c) fully describe an iterative model including its strengths and
weaknesses. This includes:
a. understanding how phases relate to iteration in the
iterative Spiral model.
(d) fully describe a parallel model including its strengths and
weaknesses. This includes:
a. describing the specific phases associated with Unified
Process models.
b. understanding how Unified Process models can
accommodate parallel activities, but that phases
cannot happen in parallel.
(e) list and describe the five types of prototypes: illustrative,
exploratory, throwaway, incremental, and evolutionary.
(f) differentiate between prototypes, including:
a. evolutionary and incremental,
b. illustrative and exploratory, and
c. illustrative and throwaway.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 17

Module Overview

Process models for software development have evolved

alongside advancements in computing power. While it may be
tempting to adopt the latest innovations in software
development process models, it is worthwhile to gain a
perspective of the relative strengths and weaknesses of each
model. A project may find that some process models are more
complex or comprehensive than needed. For instance,
developing a membership database system for a local non-
profit may be easily done with a simple process model; in fact,
following a more advanced process model may result in more
overhead than the organization can afford to undertake.

Linear Models

In this lesson, three linear process models will be introduced,

defined, and described in detail. These models are: the
Waterfall model, the V model, and the Sawtooth model. The
strengths and weaknesses of each model will be examined.

Linear process models follow a pattern of completing phases,

one by one, with no return to prior phases. The product is
essentially specified, designed, developed, and released with
no opportunity to revisit earlier phases. Linear processes are
best suited to projects where very little feedback or refinement
expected. Successful projects following a linear process model
are well understood from the start.

In the early days of computing, the process of software

development did not favour quick experimentation, so there
was more emphasis on detailed, upfront design. Linear process
models fit into this early way of thinking.

Waterfall Model
The Waterfall model is a linear process model, which has each
phase producing an approved work product that is then used
by the next phase. It is as if the work product goes over a
waterfall into the next phase, and this continues until the end
of the process. There are modified variants of the Waterfall
model that allow flows to prior phases, but the dominant flow
is still forward and linear.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 18

Based on the waterfall process shown, at the end of the
analysis phase, there is an output work product, a
requirements document. This document is formally approved
and then fed into the next phase: design. This passing of work
continues from phase to phase until the software product is the
final output.

Benefits and Drawbacks

The Waterfall model does have benefits, even in today’s

development projects. This process is easy to understand. It
clearly defines deliverables and milestones. It emphasizes the
importance of analysis before design, and design before
implementation. It can be adopted for well-specified parts of
the product that can be outsourced.

The Waterfall model is not very adaptable to changes, however.

That is, it is not amenable to Agile principles. Modern software
development is often very dynamic; flexibility with respect to
changing needs and emerging technologies is valued. The
Waterfall model focuses on knowing all the requirements up
front. It is simply not designed to address mid-stream changes
easily or without great cost, because it would require revisiting
earlier phases. In addition, testing occurs late in the process,
and defects found late tend to be more difficult and costly to
fix.

Under the Waterfall model, the client does not see the product
until close to the end of development. The developed product

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 19

may not match what the client had envisioned.

V-Model
The V-model is another linear process model. It was created in
response to what was identified as a problem of the Waterfall
model; that is, it adds a more complete focus on testing the
product. The distinguishing feature—and namesake—of the V-
model are the two branches that turn a linear structure into a
“V” shape. Like the Waterfall model, the V-model begins with
analysis and the identification of requirements, which feeds
product information into the design and implementation
phases. The analysis and design phases form the left branch of
the V. The right branch represents the integration and testing
activities. As testing work proceeds up the right branch, some
level of the product (on the right side) is actively verified
against the corresponding design or requirements (on the left
side).

Benefits and Drawbacks

The V-model has the same advantages and disadvantages as

the Waterfall model in that it is straightforward to understand,
but it does not accommodate change well. However, allowing
the development team to verify the product at multiple levels in
explicit phases is an improvement over the Waterfall model.

Summary

In both the Waterfall model and the V-model, the client does

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 20

not see the finished product until everything is virtually
complete. The next evolution in linear processes is devising a
way to involve the client in the development process.

Sawtooth Model
The Sawtooth model is also a linear process model, but unlike
the Waterfall and V models, the client is involved to review
intermediate prototypes of the product during the process. As
the process proceeds linearly, there are phases that involve the
client in the top section of the diagram and phases that involve
only the development team in the bottom section, which
creates a jagged “sawtooth” pattern.

Benefits and Drawbacks

Having the client involved earlier in the process increases the

likelihood that the product will meet the client’s needs; this is a
definite advantage of the Sawtooth model compared the
Waterfall model and the V-model. However, like them, the
Sawtooth model is still a linear process, so there is a limit to
incorporating anything more than incremental changes.

Last Word on Linear Process Models

The main thing linear process models have in common is their

sequential organization of phases. Development happens in a
simple and straightforward way. Not being able to revisit early
stages such as analysis or design results in the inflexibility of
these models. Decisions made early in the process will
constrain the final product.

Early linear process models subscribe to a manufacturing view

of a software product, i.e., it is machined and assembled
according to certain requirements and once produced, the
product only requires minor maintenance upkeep, like an

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 21

appliance. The emphasis then is on getting all the
requirements at the beginning of the process and not changing
them afterwards. In reality, developing a software product is
more of a creative endeavour, which necessitates
experimentation and constant rework.

Linear process models are a legacy from an era when

computing power was relatively expensive compared to human
labour. So, programming was efficient for computers, but not
necessarily for people. The cycle time between writing a line of
code and seeing its result could be hours. Trying small
programming experiments to quickly test out ideas were not
practical. Linear process models fit into a mode of thinking—
get things right the first time and avoid rework.

As previously noted, these linear models can still be useful for

certain situations, for example, developing simple, well-defined
products or work products. Indeed, more advanced process
models still have certain phases that happen linearly.

Iterative Models

Iterative process models differ from linear process models in

that they are designed for repeating stages of the process. That
is, they are iterative or cyclical in structure.

The advantage of iterative processes is the ability to loop and

revisit previous phases (and their activities) as part of the
process. Each “loop back” is an iteration, hence it is called the
“iterative process.” Iterations allow for client feedback to be
incorporated within the process as being the norm, not the
exception. Iterative process models are readily amenable to
Agile practices, yet they also embody sequential portions
reminiscent of linear process models.

Here, we examine an iterative process model: the Spiral model.

Spiral Model
The Spiral model was introduced by Barry Boehm in 1986. The
model outlined a basic process in which development teams
could design and successfully implement a software system by
revisiting phases of the process after they had been previously
completed.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 22

A simplified version of the Spiral model has four phases, which
have associated goals: determine objectives, identify and
resolve risks, develop and test, and plan the next iteration.
Taken in order, the four phases represent one full iteration.
Each subsequent iteration has the sequence of the four phases
revisited. And each iteration results in a product prototype,
which allows the development team to review their product or
the client to offer feedback. Early iterations lead to product
ideas and concepts, while later iterations lead to working
software prototypes. The Spiral model is commonly charted
with the four phases appearing as quadrants, and an outward
growing spiral to indicate progression through the phases.

Drawbacks of the Spiral Model

Estimating work can be more difficult, depending on the

duration of the iteration cycle in the Spiral model. The longer
the iteration cycle, the further into the future one needs to plan
and estimate for; lengthy iterations can introduce more
uncertainty in estimates. It is easier to estimate the effort on
small things and plan for two weeks ahead than to estimate the
effort needed on many big things for several weeks ahead.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 23

Also, the Spiral model requires much analytical expertise to
assess risks. These extensive risk-assessment tasks can
consume a great deal of resources to be done properly. Not all
organizations will have the years of experience, data, and
technical expertise available for estimation and risk
assessment.

Last Word on Spiral Model

This simplified description of the Spiral model introduced the

idea of an iterative process. Work is done in iterations that
allow for revisions of the product at certain specific intervals.
The ability to harness a repetitive process to make further
refinements to a product is a clear advantage over the earlier
linear models.

Parallel Models

The Spiral model is a true iterative process for software

development, which means that the product is built in a
repeated series of phases and product refinements are
introduced at specific phases within the cycle. Parallel
processes use a similar style of iteration—products are built in
iterations—however, parallel processes allow for more
concurrency of activities and tasks.

Unified Process Model

The Unified Process model is an iterative model of software
development. Its basic structure has sequential phases within a
repeatable cycle. Within most of the Unified Process model’s
phases, work happens in small iterations until the phase is
deemed complete. Usually, phases are deemed complete when
a milestone, a specific and identifiable point in a project, is
reached.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 24

While the general structure of the Unified Process is iterative,
the model allows for tasks done in one phase to also occur in
another. So, a requirements task or activity can happen in more
than just some specific phase; it can happen throughout the
phases. This also means that, for example, a requirements
task, an architecture design task, and a test development task
can happen in parallel with the same phase. In contrast, the
Waterfall model is linear; these tasks would be organized into
specific, separate phases, with no parallelism for those tasks.

Phases within the Unified Process Model

The Unified Process model has four phases; each phase have
distinct aims.

1. Inception phase
2. Elaboration phase
3. Construction phase
4. Transition phase

Inception phase. This first phase is meant to be short—

enough time to establish a strong enough business case and
financial reason to continue on to the next phases and make
the product.

To do this, the inception phase typically calls for the creation of

basic use cases, which outline the main user interactions with
the product. Also defined are the project’s scope and potential
project risks. The inception phase is the only phase in Unified
Process model that does not happen in iterations. If the
inception phase is long, this might suggest wasted time over
analyzing the requirements.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 25

The completion of the inception phase is marked by a lifecycle
objective milestone. The work product for achieving this
milestone is a reasonable description of product viability and
the readiness to move on to the next phase of the process.

Elaboration phase. The Unified Process focuses on the

importance of refining the product’s architecture over time.
Architecture is a set of designs upon which the software
product is built. So, the goal of the elaboration phase is to
create design models and prototypes of the product as well as
to address risks. This phase is also the first of the phases to
incorporate small iterations within the phase.

Besides defining the system architecture, developers refine the

requirements conceived earlier in the inception phase. They
also develop key requirements and architecture documentation,
such as use case diagrams, and high-level class diagrams.
This phase gives the foundation on which actual development
will be built.

Building a prototype will likely require several iterations before

the requirements and architecture models are deemed
complete enough to move on.

At the end of the elaboration phase, developers deliver a plan

for development in the next phase. This plan basically builds
on what was developed during the inception phase; it
integrates everything learned during elaboration phase so that
construction can happen effectively.

Construction phase. Similar to the preceding phase, the

construction phase has iterations and focuses on building upon
the previous work so far. This is where the software product
begins to take shape.

Since the Unified Process model is a parallel process, when the

construction phase begins, elaboration phase work will still
continue. The only difference is that the emphasis on the work
may change.

Testing and programming activities may have been important

in the elaboration phase (for technical feasibility studies or to
set up the development environment), but they become even
more important in construction phase. Similarly, assessing
risks is important in inception phase, but it’s less important in
the construction phase.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 26

In the construction phase, full use cases are developed to drive
product development. Uses cases are a technique, consisting of
a set of possible sequential interactions between users and
systems to identify, clarify, and organize functionalities of a
product. These use cases are more robust than the ones
initiated in inception phase, and they offer more specific
insights into how the product should support end-user tasks.

The product is built iteratively throughout the construction

phase until it is ready to be released. At that point, the
development team begins transitioning the product to the
client and/or end users.

Transition phase. During this phase the development team

receives feedback from users. The transition phase reveals how
well the product design measures up against users’ needs. By
gathering user feedback, the development team can make
improvements to the product—for example, bug fixes and
further releases.

Upon completing the transition phase, it is possible to cycle

back through the phases of the Unified Process again, for
example, there may be a need to create further releases of the
product or to incorporate user feedback as a means of
influencing the plans for later development.

Last Word on Unified Process Model

Unified Process model is an example of a parallel process that

features iterations. Activities like requirements, design, and
implementation can happen at the same time, and they all drive
the product to a “release” stage. However, once the product is
released, the process can begin another cycle to refine and
improve the product.

Iterations also happen within phases; for example, the

elaboration phase may lead to several iterations of design
before the work product is ready for the construction phase.
The Unified Process is well suited to large projects where
iterations can allow the product to grow naturally beyond the
original inception for the product.

You may notice a pattern of evolving ever-more advanced

processes, but this does not mean that simpler processes are
outdated! While earlier linear and iterative processes may be
less sophisticated than modern parallel processes, the older
processes are still frequently used in simpler situations.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 27

Prototypes

Developing software products through a series of intermediate

prototypes is a common practice featured in many software
development processes.

There are five types of prototypes, they are:

1. Illustrative
2. Exploratory
3. Throwaway
4. Incremental
5. Evolutionary

Illustrative prototype. This is the most basic of all prototypes.

They could be drawings on a napkin, a set of slideshow slides,
or even a couple index cards with components drawn out. The
essence of an illustrative prototype is to get a basic idea down.
.
Illustrative prototypes can give the development team a
common idea to base their work on or focus on getting a
system’s “look and feel” right without investing much time or
money into developing a product. Use illustrative prototypes to
weed out the problematic ideas or as a guide for later
development.

Illustrative prototyping can involve storyboarding, or

wireframes. They are all meant to show how a system will work
or illustrate a concept using only diagrams and pictures.

DID YOU KNOW?

Some prototypes go as far as “faking” their functionality by

having a human control some of the functionality of the
system behind the scenes. This is like being the “person
behind the curtains,” as in the movie Wizard of Oz.

Exploratory Prototyping. Exploratory prototyping puts the

focus on more than just the product’s look and feel. By
building working code, the development team can explore what
is feasible—fully expecting to throw the work out after learning
from the prototype. With more time, a more comprehensive
look at what the product will look like can emerge, as well as
an understanding of the effort needed to build that product.

Exploratory prototyping is expensive in terms of consuming

resources, but it is used because it is better and less costly
than finding out later in the process that a product solution

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 28

just cannot work. The usual motivation behind exploratory
prototyping is that the product developers want to study the
feasibility of a product idea. Unlike illustrative prototyping,
which is only concerned with what the product looks like,
exploratory prototyping is about how realizable it is to develop
the product or how useful the product may be, before
committing further effort to the idea.

Throwaway Prototype. The first version of almost any product

is bound to have various problems. So, why not just build a
second, better, version from scratch and toss away the first?
These first versions of products are known as throwaway
prototypes.

There is value in a throwaway prototype. There could be many

useful lessons and problems revealed in the first version that
can be avoided in a second version. Throwaway prototypes
allow the opportunity to learn from past mistakes. This affords
the chance to build the software product on a more robust
second-generation architecture, rather than a first-generation
system with patches and fixes.

A common feature of illustrated, exploratory, and

throwaway prototypes is that none of the effort to
build the prototypes will end up in the final version of
the product. Lessons are learned from the effort, but
the development resources put into building the
prototype are essentially lost.

The final two types of prototypes will demonstrate how

development effort in building a prototype can contribute to
the final product. The key is to have working software for each
successive prototype, any of which could be released as a
version of your software product.

Incremental Prototype. When a product is built and released in

increments, it is an incremental prototype. Incremental
prototyping works in stages, based on a triage system. “Triage”
means assessing each of the system’s components and
assigning a priority. Based on that priority, a product’s
components are added incrementally from “most important” to
“least important.”

Priorities for a software product’s features are based on three

categories: “must be done,” “should be done,” and what “could
be done.” Core features are assigned the highest priority—must

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 29

do. All the non-critical supporting features are “should do”
items. Remaining extraneous features are the lowest priority—
could do.

Based on these priorities, the initial iterations of incremental

development focus on delivering “must do” priorities. The
resulting software product with the core features could be
released as a complete first-generation incremental prototype.

As resources permit, features under the “should do” priority

can be developed for a similar second-generation incremental
release, followed by a third release with features from the
“could do” category. The end result of these iterations is a
series of incremental prototypes from essential basic features
to fully featured.

Notice how incremental prototyping is an iterative process of

software development.

Evolutionary Prototype. The final type of prototype is the

evolutionary prototype. This prototype approach is very similar
to incremental prototypes, but the difference is found in the
first-generation prototype. In evolutionary prototyping, the
first-generation prototype has all the features of the product,
even though some features may need to “evolve” or be refined.
A comparable first-generation incremental prototype has only a
basic set of core features.

Both incremental and evolutionary prototyping are ways to

make working software that can be shown at regular intervals
to gain further feedback. In practice, both approaches can be
blended. A major benefit is the morale boost for the
development team as they see the working product early and
are able to contribute improvements over time.

Last Word on Prototypes

Given the different types of processes, think about how
prototyping might fit into the Spiral model and Unified Process
model.

In the Spiral model, a first iteration may be the creation of an

illustrative prototype. This could be accomplished with a few
drawings on paper to sketch an idea of how the system will
work. The same illustrative prototype could work for the
inception phase of the Unified Process. Prototypes help to
better visualize what the product does and therefore make
feature decisions based on what the product might look like.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 30

Subsequent iterations could build on the illustrative prototype
with either an incremental or an evolutionary prototype
approach. Using the first iteration—an idea written on a few
pieces of paper—further testing of the idea, outlining some key
features, and the next prototype will take shape. Before long, a
prototype is ready that can be taken to a client or potential
investors to prove that the product is conceptually viable.

The core idea behind all prototyping is to gain feedback on

versions of the product.

Continuous Delivery

In incremental or evolutionary prototyping, the product gets

added to or refined through iterations over time. The idea is to
start with a basic product. Over time, successive prototypes are
constructed. Typically, these prototypes are delivered to the
client for feedback. However, this notion of delivery may be ad
hoc and labour intensive. For example, it might take much
manual work for developers to build and integrate the code
into a runnable prototype, which may only run on the
developer’s environment, machine, or device, rather than as a
product of the client.

Continuous Delivery applies automation so that intermediate

releases of working software can be more disciplined and
frequent. This allows developers to more easily deliver versions
of a product continuously as it is constructed. The aim is to
have working software that is tested, ready to run, and
releasable to others. For example, whenever a developer
commits a code change, it will be automatically built,
integrated, tested, released, and deployed. Ideally, the time
from making a product change to having it tried by an end user
can be short and frequent. Problems arising in any of these
automated steps can be noticed earlier, rather than later.

Versions that are not ready are not forced to be released.

Typically, releases of prototypes are placed in specific
channels. For example, there can be a developer channel for
the day-to-day releases that developers generate. There can be
a test channel for a wider group internal to a company. There
can be a stable channel for releases that are more “proven.”
Different expectations of feedback and tolerances to issues
could occur on each channel.

The Continuous Delivery practice fits well with iterative process

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 31

models like the Unified Process. The most relevant phase is the
construction phase where there can be multiple, short
iterations to make the functionality of the product through a
series of prototypes that are continuously delivered.

Within any of these iterations, the development team would

work on a number of tasks to construct the next prototype for
release, including detailed design, writing code, and making
test cases. Determining which features are the focus for each
iteration could be guided by a prototyping approach that is
incremental, evolutionary, or both.

In the Unified Process, the architecture or high-level design of

the product would be mostly modeled in the elaboration phase.
Detailed design defines models that describe specific lower-
level units, relations, and behaviours in the product. Ultimately,
developers take these models, make decisions on algorithms
and data structures to write or generate the code, and prepare
corresponding test cases.

To support Continuous Delivery, automated tools are used to

build and integrate the code, run low-level tests, package the
product into a releasable form, and install or deploy it to a test
environment. For example, building the code might require
other dependent code to be rebuilt. To be fast, especially for
large software products, the build automation has to be smart
enough to only rebuild what’s really necessary.

As code is written, features start to take form within the

product. Continuous Delivery ensures there is a releasable
prototype ready for end users and clients to try by the end of
the iteration.

Should the project be abandoned, there would still be a

releasable product in theory even if incomplete.

Product quality would also improve. Through the iterations, the

product is checked in small, frequent doses, rather than all at
once.

Microsoft Daily Build

For the Microsoft Daily Build, each “iteration” of the
construction phase is laid out in a day, hence the “daily build.”

The point of the Microsoft Daily Build is to ensure that the

programmers are all in sync at the beginning of each build
activity. By following a process that makes the developers

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 32

integrate their code into the larger system at the end of every
day, incompatibilities are detected sooner rather than later.

To control this, Microsoft uses a system of continuous

integration. When a developer writes a piece of code and
wants to share that code remotely with anyone else on the
team, the code must first be put through an automatic testing
process, which ensures that it will work with the project as a
whole.

All the developers can easily see how their work fits into the
product as a whole, and how their work affects other members
of the team.

Continuous integration not only keeps developer morale up,

but it also increases the quality of the product. The daily build
does this by giving developers the ability to catch errors
quickly before they become a real problem. A successful build
allows overnight testing to proceed, with test results reported
in the morning. At Microsoft, as an incentive for successful
daily builds, a developer whose code breaks the build must
monitor the build process until the next developer to break the
build comes along.

Last Word on Continuous Delivery

Continuous delivery can be incorporated into an iterative
process like the Unified Process to release incremental or
evolutionary prototypes.

Combinations of approaches, like the Unified process with

prototyping and Continuous delivery, can create a powerful tool
for projects where regular feedback is valuable, product quality
is important, and issues should be caught early. This
combination approach is clearly a significantly more robust
process than, say, the Waterfall model, but it may not fit every
situation. There will be circumstances, especially on small,
short-term projects, where setting up the required
infrastructure for such a process would take more time than it
is worth.

Smaller projects may benefit from more simple linear

processes, such as the Waterfall, V, or Sawtooth models.
However, linear processes are too simplistic for very large
projects.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 33

Process as a Tool: Choose the Right Tool for the
Job!
Keep an open mind when selecting a process to fit your project.
It is a mistake to think that iterative or parallel software
process models are always the best tools for the job.
Depending on the situation, a different process could be more
effective. Also, aspects of different processes can be combined
to better suit the needs of the project. Do what works best for
your projects!

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 34

Module 3: Agile Practices

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

(a) understand how linear, iterative, and parallel

processes work with Agile principles.
(b) describe the 12 principles of Extreme
Programming (XP), and how they fit within Agile
methods.
(c) recognize what types of projects will work best
with Extreme Programming (XP), and which ones
will not.
(d) understand the role of a system metaphor.
(e) describe the difference between an acceptance test
and a unit test.
(f) understand the goals of paired programming.
(g) describe the Scrum practices: sprints, product
backlog, sprint review, Scrum product owner,
Scrum master, and Scrum development team.
(h) describe how Scrum focuses on management.
(i) understand the process for establishing and
maintaining the product backlog, and who is
responsible for defining, prioritizing, and changing
requirements.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 35

Before continuing please be clear about with the terms that
have already been covered.

Software processes structure software development work into

phases. For example, the Unified Process model is an iterative
process that organizes the timeline for a product into cycles of
phases, where each phase typically has iterations. A process
describes the expected outcomes from the activities done in
the phases, so it establishes “what” needs to be done. For
example, use cases are initially outlined within the inception
phase of the Unified Process. Software practices are techniques
for “how” to develop software products or manage software
projects effectively. For example, early in a process, there are
practices for how to prioritize the product requirements.
Software methodologies are defined groups of practices.

Using Agile with Process Models

Given the process models to organize work in software

development, how can Agile principles apply?

One Agile principle refers to early and continuous delivery, so

that there is enough opportunity for close collaboration and
feedback to improve the product. The Waterfall and V models
only truly delivers to the client at the end of the development
process, which is not early integration. As well, comprehensive
documentation is not a major focus in Agile development, but
the Waterfall and V models relies heavily on documentation and
approving it when moving between phases. The culture of
contracts and sign-offs is also not Agile. While the Sawtooth
model does provide a couple of prototypes to the client during
the process, it is not enough. So, the described linear process
models do not work well with Agile principles and practices.

Iterative process models work much better with Agile practices

because they allow for reflection and improvement. Iterative
models also allow frequent and continuous releases to gather
feedback. These releases are then refined and improved in the
next iteration. Short iterations and small releases are aspects of
Agile. So, the Spiral model with shorter iterations and Unified
Process model with its iterations within phases would work well
with Agile principles and practices.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 36

Agile Practices
Practices are techniques, guidelines, or rules that help to
develop the software product or to manage the software
project.

Practices based upon the Manifesto for Agile Software

Development are called Agile practices. Agile practices align
with Agile principles. For example, the Agile development
practice of having small releases fits with the Agile principle of
delivering working software frequently. The Agile management
practice of arranging a review meeting at the end of each
iteration with the client fits with the Agile principle of satisfying
the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable
software.

Practices are organized into methodologies. Methodologies

consisting of Agile practices are called Agile methodologies.
The remaining of this course will examine three popular
methodologies, Extreme Programming, Scrum, and Lean, as
well as a management practice called Kanban that works well
with these methodologies.

Scrum

Scrum is an Agile methodology consisting of lightweight

management practices that have relatively little overhead. Its
practices are simple to understand but very difficult to master
in their entirety. Scrum uses an approach that is both iterative
and incremental. There are frequent assessments of the
project, which enhances predictability and mitigates risk.

Three Pillars of Scrum

Scrum is based on three pillars:

• transparency
• inspection
• adaptation

With transparency, everyone can see every part of the project,

from inside the team and outside the team. Scrum encourages
frequent inspection of work products and progress to detect
undesirable deviations from expectations. The inspections,
however, do not happen so frequently to impede development.
Ken Schwaber, a Scrum trainer and author, says “Scrum is like a

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 37

mother-in-law, it points out all your flaws.” Developers
sometimes are hesitant to adopt scrum because it points out
everything they are not doing right. When a deviation is
detected, the team must adapt and adjust to correct the
problem. Important is agreeing on standards for the project
such common terminology and definitions such as the meaning
of “done.”

Sprints and Scrum Events

The project timeline consists of a sequence of consecutive
sprints. A sprint is an iteration, whereby an increment of
working software is delivered to the client at the end. Each
sprint is “time-boxed” to a consistent and fixed duration. That
fixed duration is chosen at the start of the project, and is
typically one or two weeks.

To enable the three pillars, Scrum outlines four required

techniques or events that happen within a sprint:

• sprint planning (to set expectations for the sprint)

• daily scrums (to ensure work is aligned with these
expectations)
• sprint review (to gain feedback on completed work)
• sprint retrospective (to identify what to do better in the
future)

Sprint planning occurs at the beginning of a sprint to

determine what will be completed in that sprint. This planning
sets a sprint goal, a high-level view of what will be done. The
plan also identifies the particular requirements to complete and
the associated developer tasks. To keep the team focused on
the plan, daily scrums are brief meetings held early each day,
when each team member outlines what they did previously,
what they will work on, and what may be blocking their
progress. To encourage brevity and avoid long meetings, the
daily scrums are conducted with the team standing up. So, the
daily scrum is also known as the daily stand-up meeting. A
sprint review happens at the end of a sprint to show the
working software to the client and gain feedback. A sprint
retrospective gives an opportunity to reveal lessons learned
that can be addressed to improve future work.

Once sprint planning is done, work proceeds according to the

sprint goal, determined requirements, and identified tasks. To
avoid disturbing work in progress during the sprint, major new
requirements changes are noted for later.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 38

Scrum Roles
Scrum defines some key roles for a scrum team. Besides
software developers, there is a product owner and a scrum
master.

The product owner is the one person who is responsible for the
product. All product requirements for the developers must
come through this role. The list of requirements for the
product is gathered in a product backlog, which the product
owner is responsible for. The product owner also determines
the priorities of these requirements and ensures the
requirements are clearly defined.

The scrum master makes sure the scrum team adheres to

scrum practices, by assisting the product owner and the
development team. For the product owner, this help includes
suggesting techniques to manage the product backlog, to
attain clear requirements, and to prioritize for maximum value.
For the development team members, this help includes
coaching the team to self-organize and remove roadblocks. The
scrum master also facilitates the four events above within a
sprint.

Depending on the situation, there are various mappings for a

client and software product manager to these roles. In a large
organization or a large product, the client, software product
manager, product owner, and scrum master can be all different
people. In a small start-up company, there may be significant
overlap.

Naturally, the client could be the product owner, who

determines the requirements and accepts the completed work.
However, with clients inexperienced with defining clear
requirements for developers, a software product manager may
represent the client and take on the product owner role
instead. A leader could be the scrum master to facilitate scrum
practices by the team. In a small company, a software product
manager with leadership qualities may need to take on the
scrum master role. In any case of involvement, it is important
for software product managers to understand the scrum roles
and their responsibilities.

Scrum Development Team

The developers on a scrum team, also known as the scrum
development team, must be self-organizing. No one outside
the development team, not even the scrum master or product

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 39

owner, tells them how to turn the backlog of requirements for
a sprint into developer tasks to produce an increment of
working software. Scrum development teams are small, ideally
between three and nine people. They are self-contained,
consisting of everyone and everything needed to complete the
product. Also, each member generally takes on mixed tasks,
like doing both coding and testing, rather than having
dedicated coders and testers. There are no special sub-teams.
Everyone on the team is responsible for the team’s work
products. Accountability rests with the entire team.

Definition of “Done”
An important definition in scrum is the meaning of being
“done.” The whole scrum team must agree to that definition.
Typically, a requirement for a feature is considered done when
it is coded, tested, documented, and accepted. A sprint aims to
get the expected requirements to be truly done, or “done
done,” rather than having the required features in half-done
states or delivering software that does not work. To get a
requirement done requires communication, integration, and
synchronization by the team members. Half-done work might
arise when a member works independently on something just
to be busy, rather than helping to bring closure to each
requirement. This may mean sometimes going slow to ensure
that each requirement is truly done.

Extreme Programming (XP)

Practices
Extreme Programming (XP) is an Agile methodology consisting
of effective development practices to achieve client
satisfaction. The practices focus on constantly delivering
software, responding to change, effective teamwork, and self-
organization. These practices follow the principles outlined in
the Agile Manifesto. Besides encouraging simplicity,
communication, and feedback, XP fosters respect and courage.

Everyone is valued and respected for what they individually

bring to the project, be that business experience, domain
expertise, or development skills. Everyone is considered equal,
so that the client, software product manager, and development
team members are all on the same level, working together.

As for courage, the following quote is very fitting.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 40

We will tell the truth about progress and estimates. We don’t
document excuses for failure because we plan to succeed. We
don’t fear anything because no one ever works alone. We will
adapt to changes whenever they happen.
— Extreme Programming, 1999

To apply XP, there are 12 practices to follow. The practices

work together, so following all of the practices gives the
greatest benefit.

Practice 1: The Planning Game

The client and development team work together in planning the
product. This entails a larger planning session at project
initiation and smaller sessions at each iteration. The larger
session determines the product’s required features, their
priorities, and when they should be released over time. A
smaller session focuses on the features to be completed in an
iteration and determines the development tasks needed.

Practice 2: Small Releases

Releases must occur as frequent as possible to gain plenty of
feedback, which is best achieved if releases are small in terms
of required new functionality. The required features should be
prioritized to deliver value to the client early. The client and
development team need to strike the right balance between
what the client wants completed first and what can be
developed early. Smaller releases also allow estimates to be
more certain; it is easier to look a week or two ahead, rather
than months. So, in the extreme, keep the iterations very short.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 41

Practice 3: System Metaphor
A system metaphor makes it easier to explain the product to
someone else; it can be an analogy to describe the product to
someone who is not technical. For example, the desktop
metaphor in graphical user interfaces helps to explain
computer interactions in terms of something more familiar in
the real world. Another example is the shopping cart metaphor
in online shopping, which builds upon a concept from real-
world shopping. A metaphor can also describe the product
implementation to someone more technical. For example, the
pipes and filters metaphor for software architecture helps to
explain how a product implementation is structured around
connecting and driving computing elements with information
flows.

Practice 4: Simple Design

Focus on the simplest design that works to satisfy the client’s
needs. Requirements change, so it would be wasteful in making
elaborate designs for something that will change. Design what
is needed to make the required features work. Do not over-
engineer the design for a future that may not come. So, in the
extreme, make the simplest thing that works.

Practice 5: Continuous Testing

In XP, tests are prepared for a required feature or functionality
before its corresponding source code is written. This focuses
efforts first on understanding what is required, making the
user or programmatic interface to it simple, and preparing
suitable tests to verify that the required behaviour has been
achieved. If the test was difficult to write, it is a sign to rework
the interface or original requirement. The implementation of
the required feature or functionality comes afterwards. This
practice is referred to as Test-Driven Development or TDD.
Automating the tests will allow them to be executed
continuously. So, in the extreme, write tests first and run them
all the time.

There are two main types of tests involved: acceptance tests

and unit tests. An acceptance test is for the client to verify
whether a product feature or requirement works as specified
and thus acceptable. An acceptance test typically involves
something an end user does, touching a large part of the
product. Such a test can be automated or can be a set of
instructions and expected results that a human follows. A unit

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 42

test is written and run by developers to verify whether low-level
functionality works correctly. A unit test is typically specific,
like testing an algorithm or data structure in some module of
the software implementation.

Consider a social media application with a required feature that

an end user can post a message. An acceptance test for this
feature would involve actions that end users do, like initiating a
post, entering a message, and submitting the post. The test
would check that the actions basically work for some trial data.
Underlying this feature, and the product in general, is low-level
functionality to store posts. Unit tests would more thoroughly
check that this functionality works, such as dealing with
international characters or very long texts.

Practice 6: Refactoring
Refactoring is a practice to restructure the internal design of
the code without changing its behaviour. The aim is to improve
the design in small steps, as needed, to allow new product
requirements to be added more easily, thus adapting to
change. For example, refactoring could gradually reorganize
the code to allow easier extension. A large, unwieldy module
can be decomposed into smaller, more cohesive, more
understandable pieces. Unnecessary code can be removed. As
refactoring proceeds, the unit tests are run repeatedly to
ensure that the behaviour of the code stays the same.

If refactoring is deferred or not done, then changes become

more and more difficult. The undone work is like incurring an
obligation, known as technical debt, to be “paid” in the future.
A small amount may be fine to keep advancing the product, but
a crisis could happen if a sufficiently large amount
accumulates.

Practice 7: Pair Programming

To ensure high quality, XP employs pair programming, where
two developers work side-by-side at one computer to work on a
single task, like writing the code for a required feature. In
regular code reviews, a developer writes some code, and after
completion, another developer reviews it. Instead, in pair
programming, the code is reviewed all the time by always
having another pair of eyes to consider each edit. This brings
together complementary skills and perspectives when solving a
problem or generating alternatives. Riskier but more innovative
ideas can be pursued, aided by the courage brought on by
having a partner. Pairing a senior and junior developer can

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 43

foster learning, where the senior one imparts strategic advice
and the junior one offers a fresh perspective. In general, the
pairs are not static but change dynamically. So, in the extreme,
do code reviews all the time.

Practice 8: Collective Code Ownership

Although a specific pair of developers might initially implement
a particular piece of the product, they do not “own” it. To
encourage contributions, other team members can add to it or
any other part of the product. Thus, the produced work is the
result of the team, not individuals. So, project success and
failure resides with the team, not on specific developers.

Practice 9: Continuous Integration

In XP, developers combine their code often to catch integration
issues early. This should be at least once daily, but it can be
much more frequent. With tests written first, the tests can also
be run frequently to highlight pending work or unforeseen
issues.

Practice 10: 40-Hour Work Week

XP aims to be programmer-friendly. It respects the developer’s
balance of work and life. At crunch time, up to one week of
overtime is allowed, but multiple weeks of overtime would be a
sign of poor management.

Practice 11: On-Site Customer

The client is situated near the development team throughout
the project to clarify and answer questions.

Practice 12: Coding Standards

All the developers agree to and follow a coding standard that
specifies conventions on code style, formatting, and usage.
This makes the code easier to read, and it encourages the
practice of collective ownership.

Additional Management Ideas

Beyond the 12 basic practices, XP also suggests giving the
team a dedicated, open work space, with people working
together in person. Multiple computers are situated in the

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 44

middle of the room, available for use by everyone. A meeting
table and lots of wall space for whiteboards or sticky notes
allows the team to collaborate and brainstorm.

The open work space allows people to move around. It

encourages communication, propagates knowledge, and
enables flexible work relationships, so everyone eventually
learns how to work on all parts of the product, without a heavy
focus on technical documentation.

A final management idea is to change XP itself. That is, fix XP

when it breaks. While adopting all the basic practices is touted
to maximize the benefits, not all the practices will work for
every project or team. When a practice does not work, change
it. Retrospective meetings are a way for the team to discuss
what is working and what is not. Gather data to support what
practices to adopt.

Drawbacks
One limitation is that XP is intended and suited for small
development teams, for example, no more than ten people. As
well, having a client available on-site with the development
team may not be possible to arrange.

Also, XP does not offer practices to define the architectural

design of the software. Instead, this design emerges in
response to changing requirements and refactoring, using the
system metaphor as a guide. This approach would produce
working software early, but it might involve more rework than
if some effort was spent to plan the architecture.

Pair programming is a major change to many developers. Some

teams thrive in such a collaborative environment, while others
do not. The practice requires respectful personalities that work
well together. In reality, not everyone is compatible with
everyone else.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 45

Module 4: Other Practices

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

(a) understand that Agile practices are apt to change

because technology changes and evolves.
(b) explain Agile Practices other than Scrum and Extreme
Programming, such as: Dynamic Systems Development
Method, Feature-Driven Development, Behaviour-
Driven Development, and Scrumban.
(c) describe the differences between Unified Process and
Agile Unified Process.
(d) describe the practices of Lean, including: eliminating
waste, amplifying learning, deciding as late as
possible, delivering as fast as possible, empowering
the team, building quality in.
(e) understand that “amplifying learning” is about seeking
alternate solutions that vary in features, but is
independent of technical aspects like programming
languages.
(f) understand what “seeing the whole” means.
(g) setup a Kanban board, from identifying initial tasks to
completing them.
(h) explain what “done” means from a Kanban perspective.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 46

Other Agile Methodologies

Software engineering methodologies have evolved over the

years. While Scrum and Extreme Programming are very popular
and widely used in industry, other Agile methodologies have
also been proposed with practices to address particular
limitations.

For example, one variation is called the Agile Unified Process,

or AgileUP. As its name suggests, this Agile methodology
combines Agile practices with the Unified Process model.
AgileUP applies the principles of Agile to increase developer
morale and improve collaboration. It uses Agile practices, such
as test-driven development and small releases to supplement
the basic Unified Process. Like the Unified Process, AgileUP
uses the same structure of phases. The methodology
emphasizes simplicity, empowering people, and customizing
the methodology to suit each project’s needs.

In general, use a process, methodology, or practice that suits

the needs of the product, team, and project. This may entail
closely following something already established or starting
there and customizing it as needed.

Other Agile methodologies include:

• Dynamic Systems Development Method

• Feature-Driven Development
• Behaviour-Driven Development
• Scrumban

Lean Software Design

One Agile methodology that has gained increasing attention is

Lean Software Development. Its origin is inspired by the
manufacturing industry where Lean production grew out of the
“Toyota Production System.” At Toyota, their approach was
used effectively to reduce waste in the production process and
increase the quality of their vehicles.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 47

Seven Principles of Lean
Lean Software Development, or Lean for short, provides an
Agile methodology that enables the effective creation of better
software. Lean is based on seven principles:

• eliminate waste
• amplify learning
• decide as late as possible
• deliver at fast as possible
• empower the team
• build quality in
• see the whole

These principles can be effective for both small and large

projects.

Eliminate Waste
How can software development be wasteful? Consider the
potential waste of time and effort that can arise from: unclear
requirements, process bottlenecks, product defects, and
unnecessary meetings. These are deficiency wastes.

Waste can also be disguised as efficiency because being “busy”

does not always equate with being “productive.” A busy team
not focused on developing core, required features can easily
produce “extra” features that interfere with the core
functionality of the end product. Coding can be wasteful if it is
not planned to be a released. Anything that does not add value
to the product is considered waste and should be identified
and eliminated.

Amplify Learning
Explore all ideas thoroughly before proceeding with actions.

Do not settle and focus on a single idea before fully exploring

other options. This principle seeks to find the best solution
from a number of alternatives. Lateral thinking generates
alternative approaches, and the more alternatives that are
considered, the greater the likelihood that a quality solution
will emerge. The biological mechanism of natural selection is a
good metaphor for amplified learning. The most successful
solutions emerge from the widest variety of alternatives. This
exploration will lead to building the right product.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 48

The principle also encourages running tests after each build of
the product. Consider failures as opportunities to amplify
learning on how to improve.

Decide as Late as Possible

Only make decisions after having all the information.

Deciding as late as possible allows the exploration of many

alternatives (amplify learning) and selection of the best solution
based on the available data.

Early, premature decisions sacrifice the potential for a better

solution and the “right product.”

Deliver as Fast as Possible

There is a relationship between Lean principles. Eliminating
waste requires thinking about what you are doing; therefore,
you must amplify learning. Amplified learning requires
adequate time to consider alternatives; therefore, you must
decide as late as possible. Deciding as late as possible requires
focused productive work; therefore, you must deliver as fast as
possible.

Delivering as fast as possible is chiefly concerned with evolving

a working product through a series of rapid iterations. Each
release can focus on core product features, so time and effort
are not wasted on non-essential features. Frequent releases
provide opportunities for the client to give feedback for further
refinements.

Empower the Team

The best executive is one who has sense enough to pick good
people to do what he wants done, and self-restraint enough to
keep from meddling with them while they do it.
— Theodore Roosevelt
The first four Lean principles deal with the process of
developing the right product. The remaining three principles
describe how the process can be made efficient.

Lean aims to empower teams that follow its practices. It

encourages managers to listen to their developers, instead of
telling the developers how to do their work. An effective
manager lets the developers figure out how to make the
software.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 49

Build Quality In
Aim to build a quality product.

Ways to build quality software include: conducting reviews of

the work products, preparing and running automated tests,
refactoring the code to simplify its design, providing useful
documentation, and giving meaningful code comments.

Developing a quality solution reduces the amount of time

developers must devote to fixing defects. By proactively
applying this principle to build quality into the product, the
development team eliminates waste in time and effort.

See the Whole

Maintain focus on the end-user experience.

A quality product is cohesive and well designed as a whole.

Individual components must complement the entire user
experience.

Additional Principles from Lean Software

Developers
Mary and Tom Poppendieck wrote about these seven principles
in their 2003 book, Lean Software Development: An Agile
Toolkit. Over time, the Lean community has added other
principles.

Use the Scientific Method

Initiate experiments to collect data and test ideas.

This principle encourages software product managers to base

product features on real user data, rather than relying on
hunches, guesses, or intuition. Collecting and analyzing this
data allows clients and software developers to make informed
choices about the product. Gain credibility by backing potential
decisions with data.

Encourage Leadership

Enable individual developers to be courageous, innovative,

inspirational, and collaborative. This principle extends
empowering the team to bring out the best in each person on
the team.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 50

Warranty
Mary and Tom Poppendieck wrote this warranty in their 2003
book, Lean Software Development: An Agile Toolkit:

Lean principles are warranted to be tried and proven

in many disciplines, and when properly applied, they
are warranted to work for software development.
Proper application means that all of the lean
principles are employed and that thinking tools are
used to translate them into agile practices
appropriate for the environment. This warranty is
invalid if practices are transferred directly from
other disciplines or domains without thinking, or if
the principles of empower the team and build
integrity in [emphasis added] are ignored (p. 186).

In essence, it will not work to use controlling management

practices to enable Lean. While the core of Lean is about
eliminating waste and improving the product, the most
effective way to achieve that is to empower the development
team to implement the product the way they want and ensure
quality in the product’s construction.

Kanban

Kanban is a technique to organize and track project progress

visually, which is widely used even outside Agile or Lean
software development. Kanban is a Japanese word, which
loosely translated means board or signboard. So, the Kanban
technique uses a board, with a set of columns labeled by the
stages of completion.

Tracking Tasks
Kanban can track the status of tasks completed by a team. So,
for simple tasks, suitable column labels for the stages of
completion would be “To Do”, “Doing”, and “Done.” Initially, all
the required tasks are written on sticky notes and placed in the
“To Do” column. As work proceeds and a task to do enters the
“doing state,” its sticky note is pulled from the “To Do” column
to the “Doing” column. When that task is done, the sticky note
then moves from the “Doing” column to the “Done” column. For
the required tasks, the board easily shows their states at a
glance to the entire team. The team has full visibility of what
needs to be done, what is being done, and what has been

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 51

done. It is motivating to see the tasks march steadily across the
board and useful to see when a task appears blocked.

Tracking Product Requirements

Kanban can be used effectively with Scrum. For example, the
board above can track the status of the developer tasks that
are planned to be done within a sprint. As well, Kanban on a
different board can track the status of individual requirements
on the product backlog through the stages of being considered
“done” in Scrum. Here, example column labels for the stages of
completion could be: “Backlog,” “Analysis,” “Design,” “Tests,”
“Coding,” “Review,” “Release,” and “Done,” following the phases
of some software development process. Initially, the
requirements on the backlog are written on sticky notes and
placed in the “Backlog” column. As work proceeds, the
requirements march across the board, eventually landing in the
“Done” column. The requirements will move at different rates
across the board toward completion.

In general, a requirement stays in a certain intermediate

column until the team actually has the capacity to start the next
stage for it. That is, a requirement is generally “pulled” into the
next column. However, one tactic is to have a special “Next”
column just after “Backlog”, so that a client or product owner
can take a high-priority requirement off the backlog and
explicitly “push” it into the development process to be worked
on in a sprint. In this way, Kanban can be used to organize
work as well as tracking work.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 52

Course Resources

Optional Resources

• Ambysoft. (2014). The agile unified process.

http://www.ambysoft.com/unifiedprocess/agileUP.html

• Ambler, S. (2014). Feature driven development (FDD)

and agile modeling.
http://www.agilemodeling.com/essays/fdd.htm

• Anderson, D. (2012, November). Lean software

development.
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-
us/library/hh533841.aspx

• Atwood, J. (2006, May 9). The ten commandments of

egoless programming.
http://blog.codinghorror.com/the-ten-commandments-
of-egoless-programming/

• Axosoft. (2012, February 20). Intro to agile scrum in

under 10 minutes. [Video file].
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XU0llRltyFM

• Bandaru, V. (2013, September 27). How to manage the

“7 wastes” of agile software development.
https://www.scrumalliance.org/community/articles/201
3/september/how-to-manage-the-7-wastes”-of-agile-
software-deve

• Beck, K. (2002). Test-driven development: By example.

Addison-Wesley.

• Beck, K. and Andres, C. (2004). Extreme programming

explained: Embrace change.
Addison-Wesley.

• Boehm, B. (1988, May). A spiral model of software

development and enhancement.
IEEE Computer.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumb
er=59

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 53

• Boehm, D. (2000, July). Spiral development: Experience,
principles, and refinements.
CMU/SEI-2000-SR-008.
http://www.sei.cmu.edu/reports/00sr008.pdf

• Brewer, J., & Design, J. (2001). Extreme Programming

FAQ. http://www.jera.com/techinfo/xpfaq.html

• Coffin, R. and Lane, D. (2006, October 11). A practical

guide to seven agile methodologies, part 1.
http://www.devx.com/architect/Article/32761

• Coffin, R. and Lane, D. (2006, October 17). A practical

guide to seven agile methodologies, part 2.
http://www.devx.com/architect/Article/32836

• Cunningham, W. (2001). Manifesto for agile software

development.
http://www.agilemanifesto.org

• Cusumano, M. and Selby, R. (1997, June). How Microsoft

builds software.
Communications of the ACM.
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=255656.255698

• DeMarco, T. and Lister, T. (2013). Peopleware:

Productive projects and teams.
Dorset House.

• Devi, V. (2013, January 23). Traditional and agile

methods: An interpretation.
https://www.scrumalliance.org/community/articles/201
3/january/traditional-and-agile-methods-an-
interpretation

• Hutagalung, W. (2006). Extreme Programming.

http://www.umsl.edu/~sauterv/analysis/f06Papers/Huta
galung/

• IEEE. (2006, July 28). IEEE standard for developing a

software life cycle process.
IEEE Std 1074-2006.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumb
er=1665059

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 54

• McConnell, S. (1996, July). Daily build and smoke test.
IEEE Software.
http://www.stevemcconnell.com/ieeesoftware/bp04.htm

• McLaughlin, M. Agile methodologies for software

development.
https://www.versionone.com/agile-101/agile-
methodologies/

• Parnas, D. L. and Clements, P. C. (1986, February). A

rational design process: How and why to fake it.
IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumb
er=6312940

• Pfeiffer, T. (2012, March 2). Why waterfall was a big

misunderstanding from the beginning.
https://pragtob.wordpress.com/2012/03/02/why-
waterfall-was-a-big-misunderstanding-from-the-
beginning-reading-the-original-paper/

• Poppendieck, M. and Poppendieck, T. (2003). Lean

software development: An agile toolkit.
Addison-Wesley.

• Rico, D. F. (2005). Short History of Software Methods.

http://ww.davidfrico.com/rico04e.pdf

• Scott, K. (2001, December 28). Overview of the unified

process.
http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=24671

• Scrum.org. (2014). Scrum guides.

http://www.scrumguides.org

• Uml-diagrams.org. (2015). UML use case diagrams.

http://www.uml-diagrams.org/use-case-diagrams.html

• Uml-diagrams.org. (2015). UML class and object

diagrams overview.
http://www.uml-diagrams.org/class-diagrams-
overview.html

• VersionOne (2014) 8th annual state of agile survey.

https://www.versionone.com/pdf/2013-state-of-agile-
survey.pdf

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 55

• Wells, D. (2013). Extreme programming: A gentle
introduction.
http://www.extremeprogramming.org

• Wikipedia. Behavior driven development.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior-
driven_development

• Wikipedia. Dynamic systems development method.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_systems_develop
ment_method

• Wikipedia. Minimum viable product.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_viable_product

• Wikipedia. Scrumban.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrumban

• Wikipedia. Software development process.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_pr
ocess

• Wikipedia. Test-driven development.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-driven_development

• Wujec, T. (2010, February). Build a tower, build a team.

[Video file].
http://www.ted.com/talks/tom_wujec_build_a_tower

• Wujec, T. (2013, June). Got a wicked problem? First, tell

me how you make toast. [Video file].
http://www.ted.com/talks/tom_wujec_got_a_wicked_pro
blem_first_tell_me_how_you_make_toast

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 56

Glossary

Word Definition

Acceptance Test A test that verifies that a product requirement has

been satisfied. It can be automated or a script for a
human to conduct.

Activity A set of related tasks.

Ad Hoc Developing software reactively, without a plan.

Development

Adaptation Responding to changes.

Agile A philosophy for developing software that is based

on the values and principles of the Manifesto for
Agile Software Development.

Agile Manifesto A declaration of the values and principles for

software development that follows the Agile
philosophy.

Agile Practices Techniques, rules, or guidelines that are based on

the Agile Manifesto to make software development
or management more effective.

Agile Unified A methodology that combines the Unified Process

Process model and Agile practices.

Analysis, An activity to ensure quality requirements, without

Requirements ambiguity.

Analyze Examine methodically and in detail to discover

insights or potential improvements.

Architecture The structure of a software system in terms of

components, connections, and constraints.

Backlog In Scrum, a prioritized list of features and

functionalities for a product, maintained by the
product owner.

Change-Friendly A product that is easily adaptable to change.

Client Satisfaction That the client is happy with the product provided,
so it solves their problem, addresses their needs,
and meets their expectations.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 57

Coding Standard A set of guidelines or conventions to be followed by
software developers on the formatting, style, and
usage for source code in a particular programming
language.

Collective A practice to encourage anyone on the development

Ownership team to contribute to any part of the product. The
team, not individuals, own the product’s successes
and failures.

Construction The phase in the Unified Process model in which the

focus is on implementing the product.

Continuous A practice to produce valuable software in short

Delivery iterations to ensure that the software can be reliably
released at any time.

Continuous A practice where developers combine their code

Integration frequently into a shared repository to detect build
issues or incompatibilities early.

Cross-Functional The development team is self-contained, consisting

of all the skills needed to complete the product.

Cycle A complete loop of the Unified Process model

through its phases.

Design and The phase of a software process where you design

Implementation the organization of the product and implement that
design.
Phase

Documentation Documents that describe the product for the

developers or end users.

Elaboration The phase in the Unified Process model in which the

focus is on an architectural model or prototype to
later drive product implementation.

Elicitation, An activity to gain the vision and needs of the client

Requirements and explore with them the ideas, concepts, and
features for the product.

Estimation A rough calculation of something, for example, the

anticipated effort needed for a requirement or the
time needed for a task.

Evolutionary A working prototype from a sequence of prototypes,

Prototype where the first begins with all features in basic form
and subsequent prototypes further refine those
features.

Exploratory A working prototype to learn about the feasibility of

Prototype a product idea.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 58

Expression, An activity to describe the needed product features
Requirements from the client in a structured way.

External Documentation that is intended to be used by users

Documentation of the product.

Extreme An Agile methodology that focuses on practices for

Programming effective software development, including pair
programming and test-driven development.

Illustrative A simple prototype to depict product ideas in a low-

Prototype fidelity form, potentially on disposable media.

Inception The initial phase in the Unified Process model in

which key requirements are outlined and the
business case, scope, and risks are identified.

Incremental A working prototype from a sequence of prototypes,

Prototype where the first begins with a core set of features and
subsequent prototypes add more features as
resources permit. Features are triaged into
categories of “must do”, “should do”, and “could do”
to determine the order of release.

Input Work A work product that is required for an activity to

Product occur.

Inspection A procedure to review a work product for flaws.

Integration Combining software written by different developers

into a coherent whole.

Interface A boundary across which two separate entities

communicate, for example, the connection between
two software components or the visual presentation
that an end user interacts with to use the product.

Internal Documentation that is intended to be used by

Documentation members of the development team for a product.

Invariant A property that remains unchanging.

Iteration One instance of a repetition.

Iterative Process A kind of process with repeated sequences of

phases.

Kanban In software development, a visual way to organize

and track required work through their stages of
completion.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 59

Life Cycle The life span of a product.

Life Cycle Process A process to develop and manage a software product

from its initial conception to its retirement.

Linear (Process) A conceptual representation of a linear process.

Model

Linear Process A kind of process that advances from one phase to

another sequentially and only when the previous
phase has completed.

Managed That processes and practices are followed to

organize the work of everyone involved in the
software project.

Management, An activity whereby requirements are organized for

Requirements reference and reuse, for example, ensuring
requirements are traceable to tests and source code.

Methodology A defined set of practices to perform software

development.

Metric A way to measure that a product or process meets

some quality or characteristic.

Metric Data Data acquired from calculating metrics on a product

or process.

Microsoft Daily A practice from Microsoft in which all software must

Build be integrated at the end of the day.

Monitoring The tracking of a project’s progress and the

product’s quality.

Output Work A work product that is generated by an activity.

Product

Pair Programming A practice where two developers work side-by-side

on a task at the same computer.

Parallel Process A kind of process in which activities can happen

across phases and concurrently with other activities.

Phase A distinct period or stage in a process.

Planning A procedure done to make plans that organize and

schedule upcoming work.

Practices Techniques, rules, or guidelines to make software

development or management more effective.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 60

Prioritization, An activity to organize the list of requirements based
Requirements upon what is of higher value and should be
completed earlier.

Process An organization of the development of software into

distinct phases or stages.

Process Model A conceptual representation of the phases of a

process.

Product Owner In Scrum, the role responsible for the product

backlog.

Project An endeavour to complete a product including its

planning, development, operation, and evolution.

Project Consists of parallel and ongoing activities to manage

Management and plan work throughout development.
Phase

Prototype A preliminary form or version of the software

product, from which other forms are developed.

Refactoring A practice to restructure the internal design of the

code without changing its behaviour, to allow future
changes to be easier.

Requirement A specific description of your client’s needs, such as

a desired capability to be implemented in the
product.

Resource Something that improves, advances, or funds a task.

Retrospectives A way to reflect and review the development of a

product and its process to identify lessons learned to
improve future work.

Review To reflect on something and determine what was

good and what can be improved upon.

Risk Management Identifying and mitigating risks before they occur.

Risk Plan A course of action that outlines the solution if an

issue should occur. Also known as an action plan.

Role A job-related activity that a person takes on.

Sawtooth Model A linear process model, with specific phases that

involve the client.

Scrum An iterative and incremental Agile methodology for

managing software development.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 61

Scrum Events In Scrum, occurrences facilitated by the scrum
master, including sprints, sprint planning, daily
scrums, sprint review, and sprint retrospective.

Scrum Master In Scrum, the role responsible for organizing and

facilitating Scrum practices by the product owner
and the development team.

Scrum Team Consists of everyone responsible for making a

software product using Scrum practices, including
the product owner, the scrum master, and
development team members.

Self-Organizing A development team that is empowered to decide

how to implement the product and determine on
their own who will take on each required task.

Software See Activity.

Engineering
Activity

Specification The phase of a process when the idea for the

Phase product is conceived, including a definition of what
the product does.

Spiral Model A risk-driven process model by Boehm that iterates

through four phases.

Sprint In Scrum, an iteration over a short time period,

whereby an increment of working software is
delivered to the client at the end for feedback.

Standardize To adopt development practices that ensure

consistency or compatibility.

Sub-Process A smaller process within a larger process.

Sub-Teams A smaller team within a larger team.

System Metaphor A practice to explain the product simply to someone

else, through familiar concepts or by analogy.

Task Dependency A relationship that specifies the ordering of tasks.

Task A small, manageable unit of work to be completed.

Test-Driven A practice where tests are prepared for a required

Development feature or functionality before its corresponding
source code is written.

Throwaway A full version of a product, intended to be replaced

Prototype by a subsequent version.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 62

Transition The phase in the Unified Process model in which the
software product is fully delivered and deployed.

Transparency That everyone can see every aspect of the project.

Triage A procedure to classify requirements or requests, for

example, into “must do”, “should do”, “could do”
priorities.

Unified Process A use-case-driven, architecture-focused, iterative and

Model incremental software development process.

Unit Test A test written and run by developers to verify

whether a low-level functionality works correctly.

User Story A short, structured description of a product

requirement that outlines who wants the
requirement, what the requirement is, and why the
requirement has value.

V-Model A linear process model, which focuses on verifying

the product at multiple levels.

Validated That the released software product satisfies the

client.

Validation See Validated.

Velocity The number of units of work that can be completed

over a given time interval.

Verified That the released software product meets all the

specified requirements.

Verification See Verified.

Verification and The phase of a software process when the product is

Validation Phase tested for whether it meets the requirements and the
product is reviewed for whether it satisfies the client.

Waterfall Model A linear software development process, typified by

phases where approved work products are passed
from one phase to the next.

Work Product An output produced by completing a specific task. A

work product can also be consumed as an input for
another task.

Software Processes and Agile Practices | 63

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Software Processes and Agile Practices | 64