Unit 3

UNIT 3
Major Ecosystems
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MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS

Structure
3.1 Introduction 3.5 Aquatic Ecosystem
Expected Learning Outcomes Aquatic Organisms
3.2 Forest Ecosystem Fresh Water Ecosystem
Lotic Ecosystems-Rivers
3.3 Grassland Ecosystem
Marine Ecosystems
3.4 Desert Ecosystem
Estuaries

3.6 Summary
3.7 Terminal Questions
3.8 Answers
3.9 Further Reading

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have studied about ecosystem and its structure. As you know
the world itself is very vast, and it represents a big ecosystem called biosphere. The word
ecosystem is made up of “eco” and “system”. Eco means the habitat, and system means a
complex set of interconnected components, both living and non-living. Here system also indicates
a functional property and hence an ecosystem can be considered as a functional unit of nature.

Ecosystems can be broadly divided into two main categories: terrestrial and aquatic. Major
terrestrial ecosystems include forests, grasslands and deserts while lakes, rivers, oceans,
estuaries and wetlands are collectively known as aquatic ecosystems. In this unit we will
discuss various types of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Besides, you will also study
about the importance of the forests, grasslands and aquatic ecosystems.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 differentiate between the major types of terrestrial ecosystems such as grasslands,
forests and deserts;
 describe general features and biota of grasslands, forests and deserts;
 describe importance of forests to human welfare;
 describe aquatic ecosystems and distinguish between freshwater ecosystems,
marine ecosystems and estuaries; and
 explain the difference between the biota of lakes, rivers and marine ecosystem. 45
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3.2 FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Now let us see as to what a forest is. The word forest is derived from the Latin
word ‘foris’ meaning outside, the reference being to village boundary fence that
must have included all uncultivated and uninhabited land. Today a forest is any
land managed for the diverse purpose of forestry, whether covered with trees,
The term taiga is
applied to the northern shrubs and climbers or not. The forest ecosystem includes a complex
range of coniferous assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities. The nature of soil,
forests. climate and local topography determine the distribution of trees and their
abundance in the forest vegetation. Characteristics of different types of forests
(Fig. 3.1) are described below:

Fig. 3.1: Types of forests

i) Coniferous forest: Cold regions with high rainfall and strongly seasonal
climates with long winters and fairly short summers are characterised by
boreal coniferous forest which is transcontinental. These forests are
characterised by evergreen plant species such as spruce. (Picea
glauca), fir (Abies balsamea) and pine trees (Pinus roxburghii / Pinus
strobes) and by animals such as the lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, porcupine,
squirrel, and amphibians like tree frogs and pond frogs.
The litter resultant from conifer needles is broken down very slowly and is
not particularly rich in nutrients. These soils are acidic and are mineral
deficient. The productivity and community stability of boreal forests are
lower than those of any other ecosystem.
ii) Temperate deciduous forest: The temperate forests are characterised
by a moderate climate and broad-leafed deciduous trees, which shed
their leaves in winter and grow new foliage in the spring. These forests
are characteristic of North America, Europe, Eastern Asia (including
China and Japan), Chile and part of Australia with a cold winter and an
annual rainfall of 75-150 cm. The precipitation may be fairly uniform
throughout year.
Trees are quite tall about 40-50 m in height and their leaves are thin and
broad. The predominant genera of this biome are maple (Acer), beech
(Fagus), oak (Quercus), hickory (Carya), basswood (Tilia), chestnut
(Castanea), and cottonwood (Populus). In Himalayas, the temperate
vegetation includes pines, cedars (Cedrus), fir and juniper trees along
46 with rhododendrons and willow (Salix).
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The common animals are deers, bears, squirrels, gray foxes, bobcats,
wild turkey and woodpeckers. Common invertebrates include
earthworms, snails, millipedes, coleoptera and orthoptera. Vertebrates The flora of tropical
rain forest is highly
include amphibians such as toad, salamander, cricket and frog, reptiles diversified: a sq. km
such as turtle, lizard and snake, mammals such as racoon, opossum, pig area may contain 300
and mountain lion, and birds like horned owl and hawks. different species of
trees - a diversity
iii) Temperate evergreen forest: Many parts of the world have a unparallel in any other
mediterranian type of climate which is characterised by warm, dry ecosystem. The
summers and cool, moist winters. These are commonly inhabited by low extremely dense
vegetation of the
evergreen trees having needle-like or broad leaves. These include tropical rain forests is
hemlock, yew and maple .Shrubs may range up to 3-4m in height. The vertically stratified
characteristic animals of temperate evergreen woodland chaparral are with tall trees often
mule, deer, brush rabbit, wood rat, chipmunk and lizard. covered with vines,
creepers, lianas,
iv) Temperate rain forest: The temperate rain forests are colder than any epiphytic orchids and
other rainforest and exhibit a marked seasonality with regard to bromeliads. Under the
tall trees there is a
temperature and rainfall. Rainfall is high, but fog may be very heavy which continuous evergreen
may actually represent a more important source of water than rainfall carpet, the canopy
itself. The diversity of plant and animals is much low as compared to their layer, some 25 to 35
warmer counterparts. metres tall. The
lowest layer is an
v) Tropical rain forest: Tropical rain forests occur near the equator, and are understory of trees,
among the most diverse communities on the earth. Both temperature and shrubs, herbs, ferns
and palms, all of
humidity remain high and more or less uniform. The annual rainfall which become dense
exceeds 200 cm and is generally distributed throughout the year. where there is a
break in the canopy.
The common vertebrates of tropical rain forests are the arboreal
amphibian Rhacophorus malabaricus, aquatic reptiles, chameleons,
agamids, geckos, many species of snakes and birds, and a variety of
mammal such as leopard, jungle cats, ant-eaters, giant flying squirrels,
monkeys and sloths.
vi) Tropical seasonal forest: Tropical seasonal forests occur in regions
where total annual rainfall is very high but segregated into pronounced wet
and dry periods. In exceedingly wet tropical seasonal forests, commonly
known as monsoon forests, the annual precipitation may be several times
that of the tropical rainforests. Teak is often a major large tree in the best
known tropical seasonal forests of India (central India) and South East
Asia. Bamboo is also an important climax shrub in these areas.
vii) Subtropical rain forest: In regions of fairly high rainfall but less
temperature difference between winter and summer, broad-leaved
evergreen subtropical forest is found. The vegetation includes mahogany,
palms, oaks, magnolias and tamarind, all laden with epiphytes (of
Pineapple and orchid families), ferns, vines and strangler fig. (Ficus
aureus). Animal life of subtropical forest is very similar to that of tropical
rainforests.
Importance of Forest
For humans, forests have been a source of multiple products, services and
recreation, and basis of the development of culture and civilisation. Apart from
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the source of fuel wood, they provide raw materials to various wood industries
like pulp and paper, composite wood, rayon and other man-made fibres,
matches, furnitures, shuttles and sport goods. Indian forests also provide
many other minor products such as essential oils, medicinal plants, resins
and turpentines , lac and shellac, katha and catechu, bidi wrappers and tasser
silk. Forests have great biological importance as reservoirs of genetic diversity
apart from playing an important role in regulating earth’s climate.

Forests provide habitat, and food as well as protection to wildlife species.

Forests enhance local precipitation and improve water holding capacity of soil,
regulate water cycle and maintain soil fertility by returning the nutrients to the
soil through litter. Forests check soil-erosion, landslides and reduce intensity
of flood and droughts. Forests, being home of wildlife are important assets of
aesthetic, touristic and cultural value to the society.

Forest Conservation

Urbanization, expansion of agriculture and extraction of timber pose serious

threats to forest worldwide. Certain forest conservation and management
processes have to be employed in the forests to maintain them. To get the
desired quality of timber or pulp for paper industry, monoculture forests of fast
growing trees such as poplars, certain conifers and eucalyptus have been
cultivated by human. Existing forests are strongly manipulated in order to
increase their yield of desired benefits. It includes weeding (the elimination of
species which might compete with the seedlings of the desired species),
thinning (eradication of individuals of the same species) and brashing
(removal of leafless lower branches especially in conifers). Forest
Management also includes the controlling of forest fire. Silviculture is a branch
of forestry which is concerned with the establishment, development, care and
reproduction of monocultures of valuable timber trees such as teak, sal,
sheesham and kel.

We will discuss in detail about all the above and issues related to forest in
Unit 5 titled Forest Resources.

SAQ 1
a) Fill in the blanks and complete the following statements :

i) The forest biomes comprise a complex assemblage of different

kinds of ……………………….

ii) Forests may be evergreen or …………………

iii) Tropical rain forests occur near the …………………….

b) What are the direct and indirect services provided by forest to us?

c) Write the major difference between temperate deciduous forest and

temperate evergreen forest.
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3.3 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

The grassland ecosystem is found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, In the central and
eastern parts of
not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert. Typical
Rajasthan, where the
grasslands are vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate rainfall is about 500
climates. The grass layer is sparse and consists mainly of annual grass mm per year and the
species. dry season is of six
to eight months, dry
The major difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in savanna grazing
the steppe is provided only during the brief wet season whereas in the ecosystems have
developed. The light
savannas forage is largely from grasses that not only grow during the wet
shade cast by the
season but also have a smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season. sparse population of
trees like
In arid to semi-arid tracts, active growth of vegetation is triggered each year by
Prosopis cineraria
the advent of the monsoon during June or early July. The biomass increases favours the growth of
to its peak value around September to October. Fruiting is completed by the grasses which in
November and subsequently the plants dry up. In subtropical parts of India the best-watered
areas can reach up to
which receive winter rains, there is usually a second flux of growth in
a height of 100 to 120
December and January. cm.
Economic Importance
India with just 2.4 per cent of the total land area of the world supports more
than half of the buffaloes, 15 per cent of cattle, 15 per cent of goats and 4
percent of sheep. The livestock wealth plays a crucial, role in Indian life. It is a
major source of fuel, draught power, nutrition and raw material for village
industries
Grassland ecosystems are important to maintain many domesticated and wild
herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel,
deer and zebra which provide food, milk, wool, hide or transportation to
humans.
Overgrazing has harmful ecological effects. The mulch cover of the soil is
reduced, microclimate becomes drier and the place is readily invaded by
xerophytic plants. Due to absence of humus cover, mineral soil surface is
heavily trampled when wetness produces puddling of the surface layer, which
in turn reduces the infiltration of water into the soil and accelerates its run off.
Thus, you can realise the importance of the grassland and now after having
read about this ecosystem you would like to know what desert biome is and
where it occurs? But before that you try SAQ.

SAQ 2
a) Discuss the importance of grassland ecosystem.
b) What are the harmful effects of overgrazing on the area?

3.4 DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall, or
sometimes in hot regions where there is more rainfall, but unevenly distributed 49
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in the annual cycle (Fig. 3.2). Deserts in temperate regions often lie in “rain
shadows”, that is, where high mountains block off moisture from the sea.
These areas thus receive meagre rainfall and along with low rainfall there are
fluctuations in temperature.

Deserts are found in

Australia, Arabia,
Turkestan and
Argentina. Thar desert
in Western India and
Pakistan, Gobi desert of
Mongolia, and Sinai
desert of Egypt are also
well known deserts

Fig. 3.2: Desert Ecosystem

The perennial plant species like creosote bush (Larrea), organ pipe cactus,
ferrocactus and spurges (Euphorbia) are scattered throughout the desert
ecosystem. In shallow depressed areas with salt deposits sarcobatus,
geesewood, seepwood and salt grasses are common. The annuals, wherever
present, germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season,
and not in summer and winter. This is an adaption to desert condition.
Animals such as reptiles and some insects are adapted to deserts, because
their impervious integuments and dry excretions enable them to get along on
the small amount of water. A few species of nocturnal rodents, for example,
excrete very concentrated urine and do not use water for temperature
regulation, and can live in the desert without drinking water. Other animals
such as camel must drink periodically but are physiologically adapted to
withstand tissue dehydration for appreciably long periods of time.
Because water is the dominant limiting factor, the productivity of any desert is
almost directly dependent on the rainfall. Where soils are suitable, irrigation
can convert deserts into some of our most productive agricultural land.
Whether productivity is continuous or is only a temporary ‘bloom’ depends on
how well human is able to stabilise biogeochemical cycles and energy flow at
the increased irrigation rates.
Among reptiles there occur two species of testudines (Loricata), 18 species of
lizards, and 18 species of snakes. Of the lizards, some species like Calotes
versicolor and Uromastyx hardwickii are predatory on the desert locust
inhabiting localised areas in Thar desert. Among predominant predatory birds
are two species of vultures,namely, White-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis)
and the White scavenger vulture, (Neophron percnopterus).
The mammalian fauna of Indian deserts (Box 3.1) includes many species,
some of which are rat-tailed bat, longer hedgehog, Indian hairy-footed gerbil,
50 wild boar, jungle cat and panthers.
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Box 3.1: Case study: Indian Desert
The Indian desert is one of the most heavily populated desert regions of
the world. According to 2011 census, population densities vary from 361
in Jhunjhunu to 17 persons/km2 in Jaisalmer district. The settlement
patterns are entirely compact or entirely spread.Villages are both with
compact settlements and spread homesteads (dhanis). Rural people
live in hamlets, small villages and dhanis or homesteads. The desert
society has multitude of caste and sub-castes. By and large villages
where some powerful local chieftains resided and constructed
fortresses, developed into towns, which became local trade centres.
The settled population in villages is mostly agro-pastoral. About three-
fourth of total workers in desert are engaged in cultivation and as
agricultural labour. Animal husbandry is followed as supplementary
occupation.
Total livestock population recorded an increase of 9.8 million during 1956
to 1981. During 1972-1983 livestock population increased by more than
42 per cent. The enormous increase in human and livestock population
has been depleting the natural resources at rapid rate.

SAQ 3
Tick mark the correct answer in the following statements.
a) Which animal drinks water periodically and is physiologically adapted to
withstand tissue dehydration for long period?
i) Lion
ii) Tiger
iii) Camel
iv) Elephant
b) Which biome experiences intense heat and strong wind with a great
desiccating action during April to June?
i) Tundra biome
ii) Desert biome
iii) Forest biome
iv) Grassland biome
c) On which animal Calotes and Uromastyx are predatory in Thar desert
i) desert locust
ii) desert gerbil

iii) desert dragon flies

iv) desert snakes

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3.5 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Global waters cover about three-quarters of the earth’s surface, either as
fresh water where salt content is less than 0.5 per cent or as saline water
where the salt content is more than 3.5 per cent, or as brackish water where
salt content is intermediate between fresh water and saline water. Because of
their salt content estuaries and oceans bear different kinds of organisms .It is
on this basis, that aquatic ecosystems are categorised into: (i) Fresh water
ecosystems- lakes, ponds, swamps, pools, springs, streams, and rivers;(ii)
Marine ecosystems - shallow seas and open ocean; (iii) Brackish water
ecosystems- estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

3.5.1 Aquatic Organisms

The organisms in the aquatic ecosystem are unevenly distributed but can be
classified on the basis of their life form or location into five groups as shown in
Fig. 3.3.The five groups are given as under:

Fig 3.3: Life Styles of Aquatic Organisms

i) Neuston: These are unattached organisms which live at the air-water

interface such as floating plants and several types of animals (see Fig.
3.3). Some spend most of their lives on top of the air-water interface,
such as water striders, while other spend most of their time just beneath
the air-water interface and obtain most of their food within the water, e.g.,
beetles and back-swimmers.
ii) Periphyton: These are organisms which remain attached or clinging to
stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the
bottom mud (Fig.3.3). Usually sessile algae and their associated group of
animals fall in this group.
iii) Plankton: This group includes both microscopic plants, chiefly algae
(phytoplanktons) and animals, primarily crustaceans and protozoans
(zooplanktons) found in all aquatic ecosystems, except certain swift
moving water. The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that
their distribution is controlled largely by currents in the aquatic
52 ecosystems. Most phytoplanktons and zooplanktons are capable,
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however, of at least some movement.

iv) Nekton: This group contains animals which are swimmers. The nektons
are relatively large and powerful as they have to overcome the water
currents (see Fig. 3.3). The animals range in size from the swimming
insects, which may be only about 2 mm long, to the largest animals that
have lived on earth, namely the blue whale.

v) Benthos: The benthos or the benthic organisms are those found living in
or on the bottom or benthic region of the water mass (Fig. 3.3).They
exhibit a variety of adaptations to the environment since the bottom is a
more heterogeneous habitat than either the open water or the surface.
Benthos includes crabs, lobsters and sponges.

SAQ 4
Match the terms used for defining groups of aquatic organisms given in
column A with their definitions given in column B.
Column A Column B
i) Neuston a) The group of plants and animals which are
found living in or on the bottom of an aquatic
ecosystem.
ii) Nekton b) Plants or animals that cling to rooted water
plants above the bottom mud.
iii) Benthos c) Animals and plants of minute size which
float in the aquatic ecosystems, seas,
rivers, ponds and lakes. These organisms
are incapable of independent movement
and depend on water currents for
movement.
iv) Plankton d) Aquatic animals that swim strongly and are The largest lake in
able to overcome water currents. the world, the lake
Superior in North
v) Periphyton e) Organisms associated with the surface film America has a
of water. surface area of
83,000 km2 and a
maximum depth of
3.5.2 Freshwater Ecosystem 307 metres. The
deepest lake, in the
world, Lake Baikal in
Fresh water ecosystem depends on the terrestrial ecosystems for large Siberia is nearly half
quantities of organic and inorganic matter which are constantly added into the area of Lake
them by the communities growing on nearby land. Superior, i.e., 31,500
km 2. It has, however,
The fresh water ecosystems can be conveniently divided into two main more than twice its
divisions: depth (706 metres).

i) Lentic (from ‘lenis’, calm) or standing or basin series ecosystems.

Examples of this division are lakes, pools, ponds, swamps and marshes.

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ii) Lotic (from ‘lotus’, washed) or running or channel series ecosystems.
Some lakes are formed Examples of this division are rivers, streams and springs.
in crater depressions of
extinct volcanoes and These two fresh water ecosystems have been described in the following
are called crater lakes. sections.
Lakes may also arise by
landslides blocking off Lakes are inland, depressions containing standing water. They vary
streams and valley. considerably in area and depth.
Lakes are not evenly
distributed on the earth Fresh water lakes of this earth hold 125×103m3 of water and have inflow as
but are grouped in
certain regions called
well as outflow. In addition they have various patterns of circulation within their
‘lake districts’ boundaries and so their water is not totally static. However, they do lack the
constant linear or turbulent flow characteristic of the rivers.
Lakes, Impoundments and Wetlands
Lentic ecosystems include all those systems which have a static body of
water. Lakes (Fig. 3.4) (Box 3.2), impoundments and wetlands are all lentic
ecosystems. Let us see how they differ from each other.

Fig. 3.4: Lake and its biota.

Lakes: Most lakes occur in regions which have recently been subjected to
geological changes, say within the past 20,000 years. However, a few lakes,
such as lake Baikal in Russia and Lake Tanganyanitia in Africa are ancient and
are estimated to have originated twenty million years ago.

Box 3.2: Case Study: Loktak Lake

Loktak Lake (Fig 3.5) is situated 38 km south of Imphal city, the capital of
Manipur State. The lake covers an area of about 286 sq. km .Main water
body of the lake is surrounded by shallow water, which stagnates over a
marsh/swamp land.
The characteristic feature of the Loktak Lake is the presence of floating
islands known as Phumdis. These are heterogeneous masses of soil
vegetation and organic matter, which occur in all sizes from a few
centimeters to about 2.5 m. They occupy about two-third of the surface
area of the lake.
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Free-floating plants, such as water hyacinth and partly decomposed

roots and rhizomes contribute greatly to its development. The largest
single mass of phumdis occupying an area of 40 sq. km constitutes
Keibul Lamjao National Park.

A number of streams originate from the hill ranges immediately to the

west of the lake and these streams flow directly into Loktak Lake. The
indirect catchment area covers catchments of five important rivers i.e.
Imphal, Iril, Thoubal, Sekmai and Khuga and is spread over an area of
7157 sq. km.The Lake has been the source of water for generation of
hydroelectric power, irrigation and water supply. A large population living
around the lake depends upon the lake resources for sustenance. The
staple food of Manipur is directly linked to Loktak Lake. The lake is rich in
biodiversity and was designated as a wetland of international importance
under Ramsar Convention in 1990. The Keibul Lamjao National Park, in
the southern part of the lake, is home to the endangered Manipur brow,
antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi), locally called Sangai. The lake has been
also the breeding ground of a number of riverine fishes and continues to
be a vital fisheries resource. It supports a significant population of
migratory and resident waterfowl.

Impoundments: They may be called offstem or onstem depending on how

these have been created. Onstem reservoirs – these are located in upland
areas and are formed by damming a stretch of river or stream in a suitable
river valley. In India only these types of impoundments are found. Offstem
reservoirs are built in low land areas by pumping water some distance from a
river or from an underground source.

Fig. 3.6: Wetland. 55

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Wetlands: Wetlands are permanently or periodically water covered areas
(Fig. 3.6, Box 3.3). They can be defined as submerged or saturated lands either
artificially created or natural, and either periodically or permanently covered up
to a depth of six metres by water which may be fresh, brackish or saline.

The wetlands may be classified into two categories:

I. Inland wetlands occur when inland is surrounded by land and contain
fresh water, e.g. bogs and swamps.
II. Coastal wetlands occur near the coast and contain saline or brackish
waters, e.g. mangrove swamps, mangrove forests.
Box 3.3: Case Study: Threats to wetlands in Assam
Almost 40% of all wetlands in Assam are under threat. A survey
conducted by the Assam Remote Sensing Application Center (ARSAC),
Guwahati, and the Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad has revealed
that 1367 out of 3513 wetlands in Assam are under severe threat due to
the invasion of aquatic weeds and several developmental activities. The
wetlands of Assam form the greatest potential source of income for the
state in terms of fisheries and tourism. Though the wetlands of Assam
have the capacity of producing 5,000 t/ha/yr of fish, around 20,000 t of
fish has to be imported to meet local demand. This is primarily due to
poor wetland management.

3.5.3 Lotic Ecosystems – Rivers

The lotic or flowing water habitats include rivers, streams and brooks. The
most outstanding features of such habitat is the continuously flowing water
which moulds the characteristics of the water bed and influences the
distribution of organisms within.
The two most important features are:
1) Rivers are open or heterotrophic systems, whereas lakes are closed or
self contained systems except for some gains or losses from inflowing or
outflowing streams;
2) Nutrients in a lake may be used several times, whereas in rivers, at any
point, plants and animals must avail of temporarily available nutrients.
Biota of Rivers
The biota of both the rapidly flowing and the slowly flowing sections of the river
are very distinct. Let us study the biota characteristic of river.
a) Animals: In the exposed rock surface habitats only those organisms are
found which have efficient mechanisms for staying in one place. These
include fresh water limpet, larvae or water penny (riffle beetles), fresh
water sponges and caddis flies.
The microhabitat formed in the spaces between rock fragments is slightly
sheltered. Here stone fly and dragonfly both of which are flattened and
have behavioural adaptations to hold them in place (i.e. clinging by instinct
to hard surface and orienting themselves along the current) are found
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In the microhabitat beneath rocks, where current is a weak, animal such
as annelids, flatworms, clams, some snail species and other insect
larvae are found.
In the rapidly flowing habitat, nekton occurs only in areas where current is
not too strong and include cold water fish species such as trout or
salmon. In areas where the current is very strong nekton are absent and
in such cases, the benthos may be many and varied and may form the
entire community.
b) Plants: Among the plants only small, well attached forms, such as
sessile algae can survive here. Thus, due to the presence of only a few
plants, the nutrient base for animals here is organic detritus washed into
the river from the drainage area.

3.5.4 Marine Ecosystems

A marine ecosystem is the largest and most stable system on the earth and is
of great ecological significance. The sea water is salty with an average 3.5%.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is 27% of the salt while rest other important minerals
are calcium, potassium and magnesium. An important factor in limiting the
production and distribution of marine life is light. Temperature remains almost
constant in ocean ranging from 2ºC in polar region to 32ºC or more in tropics.
The marine habitat is distinguishable into two different zones:(1) Benthic zone
– which forms the basin or floor of the ocean, regardless of depth; (2) Pelagic
zone – which represents the free water zone, filling the basin (see Fig. 3.7).

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Biota of Oceans
Life in the sea is not particularly abundant, though the diversity of organisms is
high. Almost every major group of animals and every major group of algae
occur somewhere in the oceans, with the exception of vascular plants and
insects. On the basis of depth-wise differences in life forms, the expanse of
marine ecosystems has been divided into littoral, neritic, pelagic and benthic
zones. Let us now read about biota of each one of these.
i) Biota of Littoral Zone: This zone is the shore region of the marine
ecosystems and is subject to violence of waves and tides, fluctuation of
water level and variability of temperature, light, salinity and moisture. In
common language supra littoral zone is termed as a beach. There are
few species of plants present in this zone.
Common animals found here are snails, clams, barnacles, crustaceans,
annelids, sea anemones and sea urchin. The animals here exhibit
zonation with respect to tides. Animals more resistant to desiccation
usually occurring at higher levels than those that are less resistant.
ii) Biota of the Neritic Oceanic Zone: This relatively shallow, coastal zone
is rich in species and high in productivity owing to factors such as
penetration of light to considerable depths and high concentrations of
nutrients.
The most productive phytoplanktons are the dinoflagellates and diatoms,
though red, brown and green algae attached to the bottom in the shallow
regions may be significant. The zooplanktons are usually similar to those
of the pelagic zone though some purely open-sea species are replaced
by neritic species.
Almost all commercial species of fish as well as whales, seals, sea-
otters, sea snakes and large squids are found here. Fishes are numerous
and include several shark species as well as sea trout and salmon.
A wide variety of animals among which are clams, shrimps, snails,
lobsters, crabs, sea cucumber, starfish, brittle stars, anemones,
sponges, bryozoa, annelids and foraminifera and exhibits more diversity
than those of the deeper waters.
iii) Biota of Pelagic Zone: Pelagic region constitutes 90 per cent of the total
ocean surface and is less rich in species and numbers of organisms than
the two regions discussed before.
The most abundant pelagic phytoplanktons are still the dinoflagellates and
diatoms which are the chief photosynthetic feeders, others are
carnivores. Sea cucumbers and sea urchins crawl on the floor eating
detritus and bacteria and serve as food for the carnivorous brittle stars
and crabs.
iv) Biota of Benthic Zone : It forms the floor of the ocean. Organisms here
are hetrotrophic Rooted animals are sea lilies, sea fan, sponges etc.
Snails and clams remain embedded in mud while starfish, sea
58 cucumbers and sea urchins move on its surface.
Unit 3 Major Ecosystems
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3.5.5 Estuaries
Eustuary is a very
All the rivers and lakes ultimately drain into the sea. However, many rivers important food source
and almost all the major
develop a highly specialized zone before joining the proper sea. This zone is
marine fisheries of the
called estuary. An estuary is a transitional zone between rivers and sea world are totally
representing unique ecological features and biotic communities. Estuaries are dependent on the
estuaries for their
the most productive ecosystems of the world. An estuary is semi-enclosed
continuance, because
part of the coastal ocean containing brackish water that has free connection the adult fishes often
with the sea on one side and on the other side it is connected with a river resort to estuaries for
laying eggs, i.e.,
mouth and receives fresh water. In India, estuaries can be seen in plenty along
spawning.
the coast of Kerala or in Sunderbans.
Features of Estuaries
The most dominant feature of the estuarine environment is the fluctuation in
salinity. Though salinity gradient exists sometime in an estuary but the pattern
of gradient varies seasonally, with the topography, with the tides and with the
amount of fresh water.
Biota of Estuaries
The estuarine community is a mixture of three components: Marine, Fresh
water and Brackish water, but overall estuarine diversity is still lower than that
of the river or marine community. This is because of tremendous variation in
the estuary’s physical environment. Thus, the great productivity of estuaries is
built on a narrow base.
The plants of the estuary are of four basic types: (i) Phytoplankton; (ii)
marginal marsh vegetation; (iii) mud-flat algae; (iv) epiphytic plants growing on
the marginal marsh vegetation. Diatoms and filamentous blue-green algae
found in high number are the sites of intense photosynthesis. Oysters, crabs
and some sea shrimps are also found.

SAQ 5
State whether the following statements are true or false :
a) The estuaries are characterised by high salt content in their substratum.
b) The estuaries do not support large organisms.
c) The estuaries are the most productive ecosystem of the biosphere.
d) Estuaries are a nursery ground for a large number of fishes.

3.6 SUMMARY
 Forests occupy approximately 40% of the land. The forest biomes can
be classified as coniferous forest, temperate deciduous forest,
temperate evergreen forest, temperate rain forest, tropical rain forest,
tropical seasonal forest, sub-tropical forest etc.

 Grassland ecosystems are found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm every

year. Grassland ecosystems are important to maintain the crop of many 59
Block 1 An Introduction to Environment and Environmental Studies
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domesticated and wild herbivores such as horses, buffaloes, camels,
deers, zebras which provide food, milk, wool, leather, transportation to
man.

 Desert ecosystems are found in the regions where rainfall of less than
25 cm.

 Ecosystems consisting of water as the main habitat are known as

aquatic ecosystems. There are three kinds of aquatic ecosystems –
fresh water, saline and brackish water ecosystems.

 Fresh waters are again of two types. The static water ecosystems are
called as lentic systems and are exemplified by various lakes
impoundments and wetlands. The lotic systems are characterised by
flowing water and are exemplified by rivers.

 Rivers are main channels which supply surplus rainwater from land to
sea. Each river has a slow moving and a fast moving zone. In slow
moving one main factor limiting the growth of organisms is the
availability of dissolved oxygen. In the fast moving waters the speed of
water current is the main factor limiting the growth.

 Saline ecosystems comprise all the oceans of the world and contain a
major portion of the total biomass of the earth. Oceans are also the main
reservoir of air and water vapour in the atmosphere.

 Estuaries are examples of brackish water ecosystems. Their salt content

varies seasonally. They are the most productive ecosystems of the world.
They are also the most delicately balanced ecological systems, because
the factors governing the functions of estuarine ecosystems are intricately
dependent upon each other. One should be careful before deciding to
dump garbage, sewage or industrial wastes into such ecosystems.

3.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe the importance of forests in our life.
2. Describe how desert plants and animals adapt themselves to the
conditions present in desert.
3. Discuss the economic importance of grassland ecosystem.
4. Discuss which is the most dynamic ecosystem in your view and why.
5. Give a brief account of marine and estuarine ecosystem.

3.8 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) i) Biotic communities, ii) Deciduous, iii) Equator
b) See Section 3.2 Importance of forest.
c) See Section 3.2. types of forest
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Unit 3 Major Ecosystems
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2. a) See Section3.3 Grassland Ecosystem
b) See Section 3.3 Grassland Ecosystem - Economic importance

3. c, 2. b, 3. a

4. i) e, ii) d, iii) a, iv) c, v) b

5. a) T, b) F, c) T, d) T

Terminal Questions
1. See Section 3.2 Importance of forest.

2. See Section 3.4 Desert ecosystem.

3. See Section 3.3 Grassland ecosystem.

4. Describe the ecosystem which you find is most dynamic in your view and
support your answer

5. See Section 3.5.4 Marine ecosystem.

3.9 FURTHER READING

1. Botkin, D. B. & Keler, E. A. 8th Ed. (2011) Environmental Science, Earth
as a Living Planet, New Delhi: Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.

2. Chiras, D. D. (2016) Environmental Science – A framework for decision

making, Burlington, M.A.: Jones and Barlet Learning.

3. Kormondy, E. J. (1969) Concepts of Ecology, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice

Hall.

4. Odum, E. P. 3rd Ed. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecology, USA: W.B.

Saunders.

5. Smith, R. L. and Smith, T. M., 9th Ed. (2015) Elements of Ecology,

London, Pearson.

Acknowledgement of Figures

1. Fig. 3.2 : Desert Ecosystem https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_ecology #/media/

File:Algeria_Sahara_Desert_Photo_From_Drone_5.jpg

2. Fig. 3.5 : Loktak Lake: www.flamingotravels.com/image/loktak_big.jpg

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