Annals of Gadaa System: An Ethnographic Perspective

Dr. Chala Wata Dereso1, Dr. Shashi Kant2, Mandho Genale Udo3
Dr. Maheswaran M4.
1*
College of Education and Behavioral Science, Department of Educational Planning &
Management, Bule Hora University, Ethiopia.
2
College of Business and Economics, Department of Management, Bule Hora University, Ethiopia.
3
College of Business and Economics, Department of Logistics, Bule Hora University, Ethiopia.
4
College of Business and Economics, Department of Accounting and Finance, Bule Hora
University, Ethiopia.
*Corresponding author email: skant317@gmail.com
Abstract
Ethnography has long been recognized as a scientific description of people and culture in their natural setting. A few
studies have examined annals of the Gadaa system. This study attempts to contribute to a better understanding of
Gadaa system by reviewing related researches at antecedent, present and future levels. The majority of studies were
confined to Borana zone but our research work was particularly based on the studies conducted in Guji zone. So it is
unique in itself. Drawing on perspectives of records of Gadaa system, the researcher identified the researches year by
year and reviewed the items measured, approach used, contribution and research gap. Researchers find that were as
“Guji” Gadaa” studies in period between 1977-2007based on structuralism have a constructivist ontology.
Furthermore, the results indicate that from 2010-2020, research approach used in Gadaa studies shifted from natural
positive realism to over-positive critical realism and after that to critical theory of historical realism. The author also
discussed the further challenges and new approach need to be adopted.

Keywords: Ethnography, Annals, Gadaa System, Ontology, Post-Positivism.

1.1 Introduction
The first inscription belongs to the Gadaa system of the Guji Oromo of Southern Ethiopia written
by University of Chicago Anthropologist John Hinnant in 1977. His research work thematic area
was Guji (African people) -- Rites and ceremonies and their Ethnology. In continuation of his
previous study John H. (1978) studied Guji Gada as a Ritual System through the perspectives of
Age, Generation and Time. John H. manifested that “Gada system divides the stages of life, from
childhood to old age, into a series of formal steps, each marked by a transition ceremony defined in
terms of both what is permitted and what is forbidden. The aspect of Gada system which throws the
concept of age-grading into confusion is that of recruitment. Recruitment is based on the
maintenance of one socially-defined generation between father and son”.
Before the twentieth century, no significant research work was properly written because of the
regional marginalization of Oromia region. At the last of the first decade of twentieth-century study
on Ethnicity and Interethnic Relations on Guji and Gedeo manifested by the research thesis of

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 1
Annals of Gadaa System: An Ethnographic Perspective www.bhu.edu.et/jikds

Regassa (2007). But because of the shadow of regional politics encroachment in the field of
literature writing, Regassa research was submitted to the University of Toromso in Norway in 2007
but published recently (2019) in form of the book. Regassa study deals with ethnicity and inter-
ethnic relations in African context, with particular emphasis on the new ‘Ethiopian Experiment’ of
ethnic politics. The study challenges the already existing thoughts on ethnicity, which map the
concept on contours of polar extremes and suggests an approach to transcend the
primordialist/constructivist perspectives. His study makes use of ethnicity both in analytical and
political contexts.

Table 1 –Research Review of Studies between years 1977-2007.

Researchers Items measured Approach Contribution Research Gap
Hinnant J. (1977) Ethnology Anthropological Rites; Results remain
view ceremonies. contingent on the
USA experience
Hinnant J. (1978) Guji Gada as a Anthropological Age-Set; This research
Ritual System, view Generation set. emphasizes only
Age and on transition
Generation set ceremony
Regassa A. (2007) Ethnicity and Primordialist and Challenges the Ethnic
inter-ethnic constructivist already existing Federalism is
relations perspectives, thoughts on used in drawing
Ethnic political ethnicity the contours of
view nationalism based
on post-colonial
African leadership
view. So having
Ethnocentric
view.
Source: Researcher own framework on the base of review of “Guji” Gadaa” studies
(1977-2007)

1.2 Analysis of Advancement in Research Approaches (1977-2007): Before the above researches
have structuralism basics as constructivist ontologism believes that realities are constructed in the
frame of mental and multiple perceivable structures (i.e. realities come into a variety of forms in
societies and they are experienced differently) but they are comprehensible in special places and
locations (although reality elements are most common among many people and cultures) and their
contents and forms depend on the people or groups who form these structures, even if they are not
all correct, but they are informative. Structures and their related realities can change. This situation is
because of a lack of idealism and may be overcome by positivism.

1.3 After 2010: Generalized to Particularized

At the start of the twenty-first contrary first detailed research works on Gada Democratic Pluralism
with a particular reference to the Guji Socio-Cultural and politico-Legal System comes by the
outstanding efforts of Jemjem and Dhadacha (2011) and published itself in Ethiopia by Addis
Ababa Rela Printing Press. The research has proved that the genesis of the Gadaa System was not a
spontaneous incident but through processes and experiences. Mythologies trace back the genesis of
formal administration to a matrilineal society before which there was unorganized life of humankind

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 2
Shash kant etal. Journal of Indigenous Knowledge and Development Studies (JIKDS)

as a social animal where only the fittest can survive. The research found out that, among the Oromo
nation, Guji tribe has been ruled by 74 Abbaa Gadaas from 5 luba (party). It is about 665 years since
Guji alone started ruling under the Gadaa System as people of a separate territory.
After the work on Democratic Pluralism, Berisso (2012) comes with his research on Guji-Oromo
culture and discusses why nine is considered a special number in Guji Oromo Culture philosophy.
In his exceptional work “The Riddles of Number Nine in Guji Oromo Culture philosophy in Africa
Philosophy” Berisso depicted that “In Guij-Oromo culture (southern Ethiopia), the number nine
has special significance. It is associated with critical times, with ghosts, and with illness and death.
This is evident in Guji-Oromo proverbs, in children's games, and when a woman is pregnant with
and gives birth to her ninth child.”
Later on Sustainable Development Indigenous practices of Guji Gada, Teshome (2016) in his study
manifested Indigenous ecological knowledge in perspectives of pastoralist perception on rangeland
management and degradation in Guji Zone. Teshome A. conducted a particular study to explore
range management practices and pastoralists’ views on degradation and its impact on local livelihood
in south Ethiopia. The study shows the use of enclosure and herd mobility in basic traditional
practice as well as the effectiveness of community indigenous knowledge in assessing and
monitoring rangeland degradation. After Jemjem and Dhadacha (2011) work on Gada Democratic
Pluralism with a particular reference to the Guji Socio-Cultural and politico-Legal System second
most prominent work on Guji Gada comes out by the writing of Roba (2019) on the area of
Politico-legal systems. His research was conducted to investigate the indigenous mechanisms of
preserving sacred natural sites in Guji Oromo, southern Ethiopia. Particularly, the study was
conducted in Guji zone, Adoolaa Reeddee and Annaa Sorraa districts. The study demonstrated
customary laws and oral declaration, taboos, customary punishment and social banishment that are
used as indigenous mechanisms used to preserve sacred natural sites in the study area.

Table 2 –Research Review of Studies Between years 2010-2020.

Researchers Items measured Approach Contribution Research Gap
Jemjem And Socio-Cultural Mythologies Genesis of Some part of study is
Dhadacha (2011) and politico- trace Gadaa System based on Mythologies
Legal System; trace; questioning on
Democratic modern Oromo
Pluralism scholars
Berisso T. (2012) Indigenous Culture Riddles of Proverbs based study;
ecological philosophy; Number Nine lacks empirical back-up
knowledge Conceptual in Guji Culture
paper philosophy
Teshome, A. Perspectives of Structure Sustainable Lack of empirical
(2016) pastoralist questionnaires, Development; analysis; only study
perception on key Indigenous three pastoral and agro-
rangeland respondents ecological pastoral districts of the
management and and direct knowledge Guji zone
degradation observation.
Roba, G.O (2019) Guji Socio- Interview (in Investigate the subject is highly
Cultural and depth and key indigenous sensitive, respondents
politico-Legal informants’ mechanisms of may be
System interview), preserving inhibited in exchanging
focus group sacred natural beliefs; Costly – one

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 3
Annals of Gadaa System: An Ethnographic Perspective www.bhu.edu.et/jikds

discussion and sites in Guji group seldom isn’t

transect walk Oromo; enough.
demonstrate
customary laws
and oral
declaration.
Source: Researcher own framework on base of review of “Guji” Gadaa” studies (2010-
2020)
1.4 Inter-paradigm analyses (1977-2007 to 2010-2020)
When we move from top to down in table 2, (post-positivism to positivism manifestation is seen)
researchers reached from natural positive realism (the issue is to investigate visual external
phenomena) to over-positive critical realism (the issue is to study external reality, but it claims that it
can be probably understood) and then to critical ethnography (advocates for marginalized groups)
and finally, it gets to relative structuralism (which assumes social fact as pluralism and sometimes
contrasting and that is the fruit of humans’ mind, but it can change as their creators get more
awareness). Therefore, the adoption of structuralism after 2010 brings paradigms in Gadaa's
researches.

1.5 Gadaa Reformist Related Studies (2008-2020)

In his manuscript on Foundations of a State in Oromia, Jalata (2008) tries to apply Gadaa Principles
in the Twenty-First Century. In his study, he explores the process of state formation in historic
oromia to identify the essence and characteristics of 'Gadaa' (Oromo democracy) and the 'Moottii'
(kingdom) system. After that, his work focuses on explaining the impacts of global imperialism,
Ethiopian colonialism, and the role of the Oromo clientele class. Finally, he illustrates the urgency of
developing a national 'Gumii oromiyaa' (oromo national assembly) to transform the unwritten
oromo constitutional order into a written one. Anthropologist Dejene (2009) conducted his research
on gender and culture in southern Ethiopia. He ethnographically analyzed the Guji-Oromo women’s
customary rights. His research demonstrates that Guji-Oromo women have more subtle cultural
and economic rights than is immediately apparent. Women actively participate in the ritual aspect of
the Gada Generation Grade system, but they are marginally involved in political activities. To
understand the position of Guji women in their society, myths and stories about men and women,
gender-based division of labor, and the general discourses about gender are analyzed and discussed
in his manuscript
In sub-Saharan African countries where are proclaimed but in several circumstances not translated
into practice, it appears vital to look into alternatives that can fill governance deficits. Against this
backdrop, Tesfaye (2012) works come with a focus on bridging the peripheral Gadaa rule to the
mainstream Constitutional Order of the 21st Century Ethiopia. The main objective of his study is to
respond to the search for an alternative solution to hurdles the democratization process, Africa as a
region as well as Ethiopia as a country faces, through African indigenous knowledge of governance,
namely the Gadaa System. Accordingly, institutional and fundamental principles analyzed in this
article indicate that indigenous system of governance such as the Gadaa System embraces
indigenous democratic values that are useful in 21st century Ethiopia. Later on, Ketema (2015)
examines the mediating role of the indigenous Oromo Gada system in the common management of
natural resources. The study revealed that the Gadaa system played a significant role in the
democratization of nature conservation via the development of different natural resource
management institutions and by enacting different rules and regulations under the Oromo Gada
system.

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 4
Shash kant etal. Journal of Indigenous Knowledge and Development Studies (JIKDS)

In his master thesis, Balli (2015) studied the ethnic conflicts in the Guji and Borana Zones of
Oromia National Regional State located at the southern pastoral low land of Ethiopia. The main
objective his study was to investigate, describe, and analyze the major common and newly prevailing
causes of the ethnic conflicts, impacts of ethnic conflicts and management mechanisms among
them. In peacekeeping attempt made by a formal institution is less effective than the one made by
“Jaarsummaa” (an indigenous mechanism) in establishing lasting sustainable peace, social relation, and
harmonization among the conflicting ethnic groups (Guji, Borana, Gabra and Garri). In their study,
Bacha A., Kuto L. and Taye (2016), revealed that participatory governance is rooted in the Gadaa
system by focusing on “Manbadha” general assembly of the oromo. The concept ‘Manbadha’ (literally
meaning wide house) is used by the Arsii Oromo to mean Gadaa general assembly. The finding of
their research revealed that the Gadaa system is participatory when analyzed from the perspective of
roles of age grades, decentralization approach, gender issues and openness for the mass. The result
of their study reveals that the current polity of the country shall utilize the Gadaa system of the
oromo to boost the democratization process of the country and enhance peoples’ engagement in
decision-making.

To investigate Gadaa power transfer, which is performed every eight years among the Oromo
society in general and Gujii Oromo, in particular, Lelisa (2018) revealed by the study, power (Baallii)
transfer is a ritual celebration passing through different steps and concluded by sacrificial activities
from giving and taking Abbaa Gadaa’s peacefully. In his study, Lelisa indicated that
in Gadaa Democracy power transferred peacefully through the fair, free and periodic election.
Finally, he explored how the Oromo nation developed this amazing and exemplary philosophy for
self-rule, self-determination and sustainable development. Alemayehu et al. (2018), on their study on
“QUTTOO” traditional practice” among the Guji Oromo tried to reconstruct the history of Quttoo
tradition of the Guji Oromo. Quttoo is an ornament material usually worn by the Guji girls before
getting married. Generally, the Quttoo tradition is an umbrella for the Guji women particularly, the
girls to protect them from different human violence and ideological inferiority.
Gudina (2018), in his LL.M Thesis, studied the Gadaa Indigenous Governance System in Light of
Modern Democratic Constitutional Principles. In his study, he tries to analyze Gadaa indigenous
governance system which has been formulated and practiced by Oromo people, by comparing it
with modern democratic constitutional principles, elements and values.

Study of Mokona (2018), on Guji Girja Gada System and Contemporary Challenges and Solomon
Gutema (2017) study on Prospects and Challenges of Gadaa System as a Black Covenant in Modern
Constitutional Administration appraises that the Gadaa system is a covenant for the Oromo people.
Since all Oromo, in all age groups will give their consent to select or elect their
representatives/leaders. Since the people put limitations on the powers of elected representatives
through the principles of Gadaa administration and as the nation have Gadaa system as a guarantee
to make their leaders accountable and transparent both legally and politically in their day to day
official decisions. Berisso (2018) in his study reveals the Oromo Gadaa system as a democratic
system based on periodical elections that are held every eight years with a clear term limit; peaceful
transfer of political power; equitable distribution of power across generations and down to the
community; rule of law and accountability; separation of politics from religion; social integration and
peacebuilding roles; a period of testing and the presence of check and balance system.
Tadesse (2018), studied and showed the Relevance of Gadaa Values and Practices in Current
Development by depicting that “Despite their advancement and intensiveness, existing scientific
studies did not pay adequate attention to the relevance of Indigenous social values and customary
practices in the current societal development context”. His study dedicates to investigating the Gada

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 5
Annals of Gadaa System: An Ethnographic Perspective www.bhu.edu.et/jikds

values and practices associated with socio-economic wellbeing, environmental protection and
examining the relevance of Gada values and practices in current societal development. In studying
the Gadaa system as a model form of democracy, Jemjem (2020) manifested to the preservation of
the unparalleled features of Guji Gadaa System because of its continuous, relentless and shifting
influences on domestic colonizers and still upholding the unprecedented legacy of world's
democracy. From extensive assessments, Jemjem experienced several impressions about the Gadaa
System of the Oromo nation in general. However, he also observed some exceptions in the Gadaa
of Guji Oromo among other Oromo tribes.

Table 3 –Research Review Base on Gadaa Reform Studies between the years 2008-2020.

Researchers Items measured Approach Contribution Research Gap

Jalata A. (2008 Impacts of global Radical , Marxist and 'MOOTTII' On Ethnocentric
imperialism, Ethnocentric (kingdom) approach tries to
Ethiopian approach system; applying Gadaa
colonialism, role 'Gumii oromiyaa' Principles in the
of the Oromo ; Twenty First
clientele class on Refining and Century
the process of adapting of
state formation. certain 'Gadaa'
principles to the
state formation
Bacha A., Kuto Age grades, DECENTRALIZATION ‘MANBADHA’; Lacks empirical
L. and Taye G., gender issues APPROACH; Investigation of back-up. reality is
(2016), INTERVIEW, FOCUS participatory a fact, but it
GROUP DISCUSSION, governance can probably be
OBSERVATION; embedded in perceived
Critical Realism Gadaa system
Tesfaye Z. Democracy and Futuristic Approach Bridging the Highly criticize
(2012) rule of law, peripheral Gadaa the
indigenous rule to the Constitutional
knowledge of mainstream Order
governance, Constitutional
namely the Order of the 21st
Gadaa System. Century Ethiopia
Dejene N. Gender and Ethnographic Ethnographic Ethical issues,
(2009) culture; Analysis analysis of Guji- especially of
customary laws Oromo women’s confidentiality,
customary rights may appear
Ketema D. Natural resource Meticulous Mediating role of Difficult to get
(2015) management; conceptual analysis Gada system for concise and
documentation Critical realism commons precise
of indigenous management of conclusions
knowledge natural resources
Balli G. (2015) Ethnic conflicts, Purposive and Ethnic Conflict Low flexibility in
impacts of ethnic snowball (non- and Its the response's
conflicts; probable) sampling Management in choice; chain

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 6
Shash kant etal. Journal of Indigenous Knowledge and Development Studies (JIKDS)

management techniques; Pastoralist referral sampling;

mechanisms qualitative method Communities; hidden
“Jaarsummaa” population
Lelisa E. (2018) Oromo Observation, Power (baallii) Dependent on
Indigenous discussion and transfer the observer's
Philosophy ; interview; qualitative impartiality ;
Case of method Logistically
74thGujii difficult to
Oromo Gadaa organize as many
Power Transition actions are in
private and over
a long period
Alemayehu D, Guji customary local elders, women Quito tradition Not be
Bursano H., laws, QUTTOO and youths orally role for Guji representative of
Wale K., Bekele traditional data sources; women in all population ;
T., Alemu B. and practice Reformed dualism protecting them Lack validity and
Kenea A.(2018) and objectivism from different reliability
human violence
and ideological
inferiority.

Gudina G. 71st ballii wal- Observation and Gadaa Longer

(2018) irra fudhuu interviews; Natural Indigenous verification
(power transfer) realism Governance process to
System in Light extract compared
of Modern information ;
Democratic Participants
Constitutional biasness
Principles
Mokona N. Guji Girja Gada Epistemological Guji Girja Gada Temptation at
(2018) System System and the analysis stage
Contemporary of counting how
Challenges many said one
thing and how
many the other
(strays into
quantitative
territory)
Emiru S. (2017) Gadaa System as Sociological and Gadaa System as Longer
a Black Covenant Anthropological; a Black Covenant verification
qualitative method; in Modern process to
dialects Constitutional extract compared
Administration information ;
critical
pluralism,
Berisso T.(2018) Oromoo Gadaa Review of literature Gadaa is Dependent on
system; and his own considered a the impartiality

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 7
Annals of Gadaa System: An Ethnographic Perspective www.bhu.edu.et/jikds

periodical experiences democratic and of experiences

elections; Rule of just system
law
Tadesse E. environmental Qualitative research Relevance of Difficult to get
(2018) protection; Gada method Gadaa Values concise and
values; dialectic and Practices in precise
between Modern Current conclusions
and indigenous Development ;
elements relevance of
indigenous
developmental
values and
practices
Jemjem U. Ontological; iterative Preservation of Study design is
(2020) style of eliciting and the unparalleled iterative;
categorizing features in Gadaa
responses System of Guji

Source: Researcher own framework on the base of review of “Gadaa” Reform studies
(2008-2020)

1.6 Analysis of Advancement in Research Approaches used in Gadaa Reformist Studies

(2008-2020): When we move from the top to the down of table 3, researches reaches from
objectivism and dualism (which enable the researcher that how phenomena are real and how they
work) to reformed objectivism and dualism that leads to starting of positivism in Gadaa studies
(which is close to fact) and are more extensive in which knowledge is assumed as a phenomenon
which is in the interaction between the researcher and test-takers or respondents). It is
epistemologically important for the advent of a new Constructivist epistemological paradigm.

1.7 New Approach Need to be Adopted:

Flanagan (2013) claims that the scientific method is the most powerful tool for discovering truths
about the world, exploring new theories and performing their empirical validation. Therefore,
scientific research is the process of performing systematic and intensive inquisitions, which aims to
discover and interpret the facts that are inserted in a certain reality. Regarding its approach, scientific
research can be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative research is concerned with aspects of reality
that cannot be quantified, focusing on the understanding and explanation of the dynamics of social
relations. Maxwell (2013) advocates that qualitative research works with the universe of meanings,
motives, aspirations, beliefs, values and attitudes, which corresponds to a deeper space of
relationships, processes and phenomena that cannot be reduced to the workability of the variables.
In qualitative research, the researcher is both the subject and the object of his research. Borrego et
al. (2009) analyze the presence of quantitative, qualitative and mixed research methods in
engineering education. As in the case of the above works of literature, most of the studies are based
on interviews. Alshenqeeti (2014) critically assesses the value and limitations of interviewing as a
research instrument. He looks at the practical issues of adopting interviews and he discusses the
validity and reliability of interviews in research studies. So before the above studies depend on the
validity and reliability of interviews.

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 8
Shash kant etal. Journal of Indigenous Knowledge and Development Studies (JIKDS)

In the end, qualitative researches fit comfortably into the post-positivist tradition common to many
contemporary kinds of research. After the advent of positivism in social sciences, quantitative
researches form the basis for objective exploration and complex assumptions. In either approach,
intense and fundamental disagreement about both philosophical assumptions and the nature of data.
Increasingly, some researchers are interested in blending the two traditions, attempting to get the
advantages of each. Social research is richer for the wider variety of views and methods that the
analysis generates. The eclectic approach is thus may be an option in social sciences researches.

1.8 Further challenges and Recommendations

It is recommended that, finally, to get benefit from Gadaa system, researches must be given
attention to Gadaa System. Gadaa researchers may lose their original taste paradoxically because
they may face regional aspiration biases and ethnocentric feelings. Researchers need to work hard to
undertake extensive researches more than any time to dig out and preserve the prominent values of
the Gadaa System and teach to the world; therefore, it recommends that Universities should include
an introduction to Gadaa System as a “common course” in the curriculum and it has to give as one
subject starting from elementary to secondary school so that all the generation have sufficient
knowledge about Gada to maintain Gadaa values and proper transfer of values down through
generations.

Acknowledgment:
We would like to acknowledge and thank Bule Hora University for providing the authors with
valuable Gadaa literature to complete this research.

References
Alemayehu D., Bursano H., Wale K., Bekele T., Alemu B. and Kenea A. (2018), A History of
Quttoo traditional practice among the Guji Oromo: The Case of Bule Hora District, West Guji
Zone, Southern Ethiopia. International Journal of Asian History, Culture and Tradition 5(1), 32-45.

Alshenqeeti, H. (2014). Interviewing as a data collection method: a critical review. English Linguistics
Research, 3(1), 39-45.

Bacha A., Kuto L. and Taye G., (2016), An investigation of participatory governance embedded in
Gadaa system: Manbadha general assembly of the Arsii Oromo in focus, Journal of Languages and
Culture, 7(10), 93-104.

Balli G. (2015) Ethnic Conflict and Its Management in Pastoralist Communities: The Case of Guji
and Borana Zones of Oromia National Regional State, 1970-2014, Master degree thesis, Addis
Ababa University.

Berisso T. (2018) The Oromoo Gadaa System: Why Considered Democratic? , Gadaa Journal/
Barruulee Gadaa , 1(1), 23-32.

Berisso, T. (2000). The riddles of number nine in Guji-Oromo culture. Journal of Ethiopian
Studies, 33(1), 49-66.

Borrego, M., Douglas, E., & Amelink, C. (2009). Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research
methods in engineering education. Journal of Engineering Education, 98(1), 53-66.

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 9
Annals of Gadaa System: An Ethnographic Perspective www.bhu.edu.et/jikds

Dejene N. (2009), Gender and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: An Ethnographic Analysis Of Guji-
Oromo Women’s Customary Rights, African Study Monographs, 30(1), 15-36,

Emiru S. (2017), Harnessing Gadaa System as a Black Covenant in Modern Constitutional

Administration: Appraisal of Prospects and Challenges, Sociology and Anthropology 5(1): 52-62.

Flanagan, T. (2013). The scientific method and why it matters. C2C Journal, 7(1), 4-6.
Gudina G. (2018), Gadaa Indigenous Governance System in Light of Modern Democratic
Constitutional Principles, LL.M Thesis, Addis Ababa University.

Jalata A. (2008), Foundations of a State in Oromia: “Applying Gadaa Principles in the Twenty First
Century” Journal of Oromo Studies, 15(2)133-189.

Jemjem Udessa(2020) , Gadaa System: A Model Form of Democracy, Journal of Indigenous

Knowledge and Development Studies (JIKDS), BHU, 1 (1).

Jemjem, U., & Dhadacha, G. (2011). Gadaa democratic pluralism with particular reference to the
Guji Socio-cultural and Politico-legal systems. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Rela Printing Press.

John H., 1977: “The Gada system of the Guji of Southern Ethiopia", The University of Chicago,
Chicago.

John H., 1978: “The Guji: Gada as a Ritual System", in: P.T.W Baxter and U. Almagor, (eds.), Age,
Generation and Time: Some Features of East African Age Organizations, New York: St. Martin's
Press, 207-244.

Ketema D. (2015), Beyond the commonality and expression of Oromo civilization: the mediating
role of Gada system for commons management of natural resources, International Journal of Current
Research, 7 (9), 54-61.

Lelisa E. (2018), Oromo Indigenous Philosophy (Gadaa System): The Case of 74thGujii Oromo
Gadaa Power Transition, Historical Research Letter , 45(4), 67-78.

Maxwell, J. (2013). Qualitative research design: an interactive approach. London, United Kingdom:
Sage.

Mokona N. (2018), Guji Girja Gada System and Contemporary Challenges, International Journal of
Innovative Research & Development. 7(12), 43-51.

Roba, G. O. (2019). Indigenous mechanisms of preserving sacred natural sites in Guji Oromo,
Adoola Reedde and Anna Sorra districts, southern Ethiopia. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 5(1), 1609765.

Regassa A. (2007) Ethnicity and Interethnic Relations: The Ethiopian Experiment and the case of
the Guji and Gedeo. M.A Thesis submitted to Department of philosophy in Indigenous Studies
(Unpublished). University of Toromso in Norway.

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 10
Shash kant etal. Journal of Indigenous Knowledge and Development Studies (JIKDS)

Ta’a, T. (2016). The Gadaa system and some of its institutions among the Booranaa: a historical
perspective. Ethiopian Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities, 12(2), 81-97.

Tadesse E. (2018), Relevance of Gadaa Values and Practices in Current Development, Arts Social Sci
J, 9 (3), 42-52.

Tesfaye Z., Old Wine In New Bottles: Bridging The Peripheral Gadaa Rule To The Mainstream
Constitutional Order Of The 21st C. Ethiopia, Joornaalii Seeraa Oromiaa [Jil.4, Lakk. 1] Oromia Law
Journal, 4 (1), 1-37.
Teshome, A. (2016). Indigenous ecological knowledge and pastoralist perception on rangeland
management and degradation in Guji Zone. Consilience, Journal of Sustainable Development, 15(1), 192–
218.

Volume 03 Issue 01 August 2021 ISSN (Online) 2708-2830 ISSN (print) 2707 – 7640 11