ASSIGNMENT MINI TEST

STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

What is Stress-Strain Curve?
Stress-Strain Curve, as the name suggests, it’s basically related to
material’s stress and strain. It is defined as the curve or a graphical
representation of a material’s stress and its strain and understood
the relationship between stress and strain. Whenever a load acts on
a body, it produces stress as well as strain in the material.
Let’s use a football as an example. When you try to squeeze it, it
offers resistance. The resistance offered is the induced stress while
the change in dimension represents the strain.
Strain causes stress. When applying force that leads to deformation,
a material tries to retain its body structure by setting up internal
stresses.

A solid is assumed to be a rigid body, but in real life, no body is

perfectly rigid. All the solids change their shape when force is applied
to them. For example, whenever a spring is compressed. The spring
changes its size but comes back to its original position as soon as the
force is removed. This property of solids is called elasticity and the
deformation which is caused in this process is called elastic
deformation. Some materials do not exhibit elastic properties. For
example, if a force is applied to a puddle of mud, it just changes its
shape without resistance. These bodies are called plastic and the
property is called plasticity.

Why Stress Strain curve is required?

The importance of stress strain curve is very crucial, as it establishes
the relationship between stress and strain. We can easily understand
the behaviour of any material with respect to the application of
stress.
 Selection of right material is based on stress strain curve.
 In various industry, material selection is one of the main criteria
and this diagram helps for the selection.
 From vehicle to airplane, medical appliances etc., precision
materials are required and this is selected based on stress
strain curve only.
 It gives deformation point as well as criteria so that application
can be easily studied.
 It describes many properties of materials like Young’s modulus,
ultimate tensile strength, the yield strength etc.
 It also gives material strength, elasticity, strain energy,
elongation, toughness etc.
 In case of fabrication, this curve helps a lot during its operation.
However, before going to the stress strain curve, we will try to
understand what is stress and strain and relation between stress vs
strain.
Basics of Stress
When forces are applied to bodies that are elastic in nature, a
temporary deformation is caused in them which depends on the
nature of the material. This deformation is usually not visible, but it
produces a restoring force that tends to bring back the body to its
natural state. The magnitude of the restoring force is equal to the
force that is applied to the body. Stress has been defined as the
restoring force per unit area.
Stress , σ = F/A
Where,
σ = Stress applied
F = Applied force
A = Area of force application
The SI Unit of stress is given by N/m2 or Pascal(Pa). The dimensional
formula of stress is [ML-1T-2].
Stress can be classified into three categories. Consider an example to
understand how forces act in these stresses:
Tensile/Compressive Stress: In this kind of stress, the force is
perpendicular to the cross-section of the cylinder. The restoring force
per unit area in this case is called tensile stress. In case, the forces
cause the cylinder to compress. The restoring force per unit will be
called compressive stress.
Shearing Stress: When the force is applied parallel to the cross-
sectional area of the cylinder. The restoring force per unit area
developed. In this case, it is called shearing stress.
Hydraulic Stress: When force is applied to the whole body. The
restoring force per unit area developed, in this case, is called
Hydraulic Stress.
Strain
Whenever forces are applied such that they cause stress in the
material. These forces bring changes in the dimension of the object.
Strain is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
For example, in the previous case of a cylinder, different kinds of
stress bring about different changes in the dimensions of the
cylinder. In the case of compressive or tensile stress, the length of
the cylinder is changed. Application of force incurs deformation on
the body. Strain is related to the deformation and it is defined as the
ratio of deformation of the body in the direction of force application
to the initial dimensions of the body.
The strain is written, as follows,
ϵ=δl/L
Where,
ϵ: Strain due to stress applied
δl: Change in length
L: Original length of the material.
Remember the followings,
 Strain is a dimensionless quantity.
  Tensile strain means the change in length by the tensile stress
application.
 Compressive strain means the change in length by the
application of compressive strain.
In the case of shearing stress,
Shearing Strain= x/l = tan theta
Here, theta is the angular displacement of the cylinder from its mean
position. When hydraulic stress is applied, the body changes its
volume. In this case, volumetric strain is used. Volumetric Strain=
Delta V/V

Stress vs Strain
Stress vs strain relation is stated with the use of Hooke’s law,
Stress is proportional to strain and it is known as Hooke’s Law.
Hence, we can write as per Hooke’s Law,
Stress ∝ Strain
σ∝ε
σ=Exε
E=σ/ε
E = (Fn / A) / (dl / lo)
Where
E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2) (lb/in2, psi)
Modulus of Elasticity, or Young’s Modulus, is commonly used for
metals and metal alloys and expressed in terms 106 lbf/in2, N/m2 or
Pa. Tensile modulus is often used for plastics and is expressed in
terms 105 lbf/in2 or GPa.

Stress Strain Diagram

Let’s try to understand stress-stress curve with a stress strain
diagram. Let’s take an example of steel to study the deformation in
the application of stress to have a clear idea.
There are several points of interest in the diagram above:
OA: Proportional limit,
A: Elastic limit,
B: Upper yield point,
C: Lower yield point,
D: Ultimate strength,
E: Fracture point or the breakpoint,
Different material has different stress-strain graph and it looks
different based on the characteristics. We will learn all these in brief
later.
Now, we will discuss all the points in detail. So, how does this curve
generated?
The stress strain curve is plotted in Universal Testing Machine (UTM).
In this machine, there are two claws to hold the material and apply
uniform pressure to deform.
The force applied and the strain produced is recorded until a fracture
occurs. The two parameters are then plotted on an X-Y graph to get
the familiar graph.
Here, stress is applied to the steel and provide a gradual tension up
to its failure. The entire process is plotted in a curve and the same is
known as stress-strain curve of steel.
Relationships between stress and strain can be plotted on a graph for
most of the materials. In this experiment, the force is gradually
increased, and it produces the strain. The values of the stress and the
strain are plotted on a graph. This graph is called the stress-strain
curve. These curves vary from material to material and are very
helpful in giving a fair idea of how the material performs in different
load conditions.

The stress-strain curve is a graph that shows the change in stress as

strain increases. It is a widely used reference graph for metals in
material science and manufacturing.

There are various sections on the stress and strain curve that
describe different behaviour of a ductile material depending on the
amount of stress induced.

Parts of Stress Strain Curve

The stress strain curve describes many engineering parameters, like
  Proportional Limit
 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
 Elastic Point & Yield Point
 Plastic Behavior
 Necking
 Fracture
 Yield strength
 Ultimate Tensile Strength
 Young’s Modulus
 Age Hardening
 Modulus of Resilience
 Toughness

Basic of Stress Strain Curve

In this graph, as the stress increases, the strain also increases. Steel is
considered for the example of stress-strain curve as it is a little
complex rather than brittle material. Stress-strain curve for brittle is
so simple & we will learn after ductile material.
Stress is proportional to strain, as per Hooke’s Law. That means,
If tensile stress is increased, strain or length will increase
If tensile stress is decrease, strain or length will decrease
Based on the application of stress, various points are created in the
stress strain curve, let’s describe.
Description of Stress Strain Curve
The points in the stress strain curve are as follows,
Proportional Limit
All the metals behave like an elastic material up to a specific range. It
means after the application of stress; the material returns back to its
original dimension or shape. The point up to which the material
behaves this proportionality is called the proportional limit.
This proportional limit depends on the followings,
 Type of materials
 Material strength
  Grain size
 Working temperature
 Corrosion
In this proportional limit,

 No permanent deformation
 Metal behave like a spring
When the machine pulls the object at the ends, the object
experiences tensile stress. Up to the proportionality limit, it obeys
Hooke’s law and the ratio of stress and strain is constant.
This constant is called as Young’s modulus of elasticity in material
science.

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Young modulus of elasticity = longitudinal stress / strain
Hence, Young modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of
longitudinal stress to strain within the proportional limit of a
material.
 This modulus is also called as modulus of resilience.
 If Young’s modulus is more, force required will be more.
Refer young’s modulus value of few commonly used materials,
Material Young’s Modulus Pa (N/m2)
Steel 200 x 109
Copper 110 x 109
Iron 91 x 109
Brass 91 x 109
Glass 55 x 109
 Elastic Point
When the tensile force is increasing further, stress will increase
beyond the proportionality limit. After this limit, a small portion of
stress strain curve acts elastically. That means, in this region, if
tensile stress is removed from the material, it will return to its
original length.
 In this portion, the relationship between stress and strain
deviates and so it doesn’t obey Hooke’s law.
 The strain is increased at a faster rate with respect to stress.
 A mild flattening region in created on the curve.
 Removal of tensile stress, metal returns it original length.
 The change in length within this elastic limit, is temporary.

Yield Strength & Yield Point

If we increase the tensile force on the metal further, tensile stress
will increase and the material will cross the elastic limit and start to
deform or yield. This point where deformation starts is called as yield
point and the stress which creates this deformation is known as yield
strength.
 It is the maximum stress beyond which the elongation becomes
plastic.
 Beyond this point, permanent deformation starts.
 In the yield strength point, with a very little application of loads
results in large deformation.
 Below the yield point, the material can return back to its
original length if the load is removed.
 The yield point is two types – upper yield point & lower yield
point.
 In the case of the upper yield point, stress requirements are
maximum for the starting of plastic deformation.
  In the case of lower yield point, lower stress required to
maintain plastic deformation.

 After yield strength, Hooke’s law is deviated and different

material acts differently. To avert this problem, a new term,
proof stress is introduced.
 Proof Stress is nothing but a parallel line to the straight portion
of stress strain curve at a strain value of 2%.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress value before its
failure and it is the highest stress value in any curve.
 It is denoted as UTS.
 It’s basically the maximum resistance to fracture.
 UTS can be decided precisely for all kinds of materials.
  UTS is used as a main stress for brittle material’s design
calculation.
Plastic Behavior
After the elastic point, the elasticity of the material is lost and strain
hardening region in the curve started.
 At yield strength point, plastic deformation starts.
 Once the material is taken out from the machine, it will not be
able to return to its original shape or length.
Strain Hardening
Material experiences a very high rate of plastic deformation after
yield point. After ultimate tensile strength, ductile material can be
able to support load up to a very small extent. Once the material
yields, strain harden starts, it increases the strength of the material.
 Strain harden is seen between yield point and ultimate tensile
strength.
 Brittle material may not have yielding behavior that means
strain hardening is not applicable.
 In strain hardening, molecules are obstructing each other and
rearranged. This rearrangement helps the metal to increase its
strength.

Necking
Necking means simply the formation of neck. When the plastic
deformation continues, with increasing the tensile stress, the
material starts to form its neck, that is narrowing its cross section.
This phenomenon is called as necking.
The stress-strain curve also shown the region where necking occurs.
Its starting-point also gives us the ultimate tensile strength of a
material.
Ultimate tensile strength shows the maximum amount of stress a
material can handle. Reaching this value pushes the material towards
failure and breaking.
Neck formation happens at the weakest point of the material.
Starting point of necking gives us the UTS of a material.

Fracture
In the necking region, plastic deformation happens. In this region of
the stress-strain curve, no need to increase the load further, to
experience the plastic deformation. A fracture occurred at the neck.
The point at which fracture happens is known as the fracture point.
Fracture creates two shapes, a cup & cone at either end.
The fracture point is denoted by E on the stress-strain curve.

Modulus of Resilience
The modulus of resilience is the amount of strain energy per unit
volume (i.e., strain energy density) that a material can absorb
without permanent deformation results. The modulus of resilience is
calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve up to the elastic
limit

Toughness
Age hardening

GP : Guiner & Preston

(1) GP I Zone: After quenching from solid solution the
alloy contains regions of solute segregation or
clustering. GP was the first to detect this cluster of
atoms using X-ray technique. Therefore it is known as
GP zone. The clustering may produce local strain , so
that the hardness of GP zone is higher than solid
solution.
(2) With further ageing, the hardness is increase by the
ordering of copper atoms on the (100) plane of the
matrix. This structure is known as GP *2+ or Ɵ’’ .
 (3) Then after definite precipitate platelets of CuAl2 or
Ɵ’ , which are coherent with the matrix for on the {100}
planes of the matrix. The coherent precipitate produce
an increased strain field in the matrix and increase the
hardness.
(4) Further ageing, the equilibrium phase CuAl2 (Ɵ) is
formed from the lattice (Ɵ‘). These particles are no
longer coherent with the matrix, and therefore the
hardness is lower.

At Low Temperature Aging : Faster Nucleation rate and

slower growth rate .
Results Fine Precipitates
 At High Temperature Ageing: Nucleation rate is slow and
fast growth rate. Results into Coarse Precipitates.

Coherent and Non-coherent Precipitates

(a) A Non-Coherent precipitate has no relationship
with the crystal structure of the matrix
(b) A coherent precipitate there is a definite
relationship between Precipitate and the matrix.

HALL PETCH RELATION

The Hall–Petch relationship tells us that we could achieve
strength in materials that is as high as their own theoretical
strength by reducing grain size.

σy = Yield Stress
σo = Friction Stress or resistance of the lattice to
dislocation motion
k = Locking Parameter or the hardening contribution from
the grain boundary (strengthening Coefficient)
d = grain diameter, σo & k are material constants
k= σy/1/(D)1/2.
K = σy x (D)1/2 [ MPa (m) (1/2)]
Hall – Petch Constants

Materials σ0 k
Copper 25 0.12
Titanium 80 0.40
Mild Steel 70 0.70
Ni3Al 300 1.70

Stress-Strain Curve of Other Materials

Ductile vs. Brittle – Stress-strain curves
If a material breaks without any plastic deformation, the material is
known as a brittle material. On the other hand, all ductile materials
experience plastic deformation before failure.
We can distinguish ductile vs brittle – stress-strain curves, as below,
Description Ductile Material Brittle Material
Plastic Deformation Undergo plastic No plastic
deformation before deformation or
failure negligible plastic
deformation before
failure
Elongation Elongation is more Very less elongation
Energy absorb Energy absorb Less energy absorbs
before fracture is
high
Wire Wire can be made Not recommended
from this kind of
material
Bending It can bend Difficult due to
failure
Shear Fracture Better shear fracture Not good
Crack Crack propagates Crack propagates
slowly fast
Forming Process Forming process can Very difficult
be done
Life Longer life if it is Comparatively short
subjected to fatigue life if it is subjected
loading. to fatigue loading.
Examples Mild steel Cast iron
Copper Concrete
Aluminum Ice
Silver Stone
Rubber Ceramics
Many Plastics Glass etc.

Conclusion
Hence, we have got a basic concept of stress, strain, and stress-strain
curve along with a detailed explanation.