Advanced Composition

Moulay Ismail University
School of Arts & Humanities

Department of English
Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
Instructors: M. Yachoulti, D. Ridouni & F. Boulaid
COURSE DESCRIPTION
1. Course aims and objectives

As a follow up to 1st , 2nd and 3rd semesters writing courses, this course aims at consolidating
the sub-skills involved in writing and introducing students to the basics of research paper writing. Put
differently, the objective of the course is threefold
- First, through intensive practice of the items introduced, this course aims at developing the
students’ ability to apply the knowledge and skills acquired in the contexts of paragraph
writing, composition 1 and composition 2
- Second, the course aims at reinforcing the students’ ability to organize information and
ideas into meaningful, coherent and convincing pieces of writing
- Last but not least, the objective of the course is to prepare and equip students with
techniques and tools required for their research project
2. Teaching method
There is no prescribed textbook for this course; yet students can learn from the lectures and in-class
practical exercises. Attendance is highly recommended and students are expected to learn from samples
of writings examined in class. They are also required to write various assignments, both in class and as
part of their homework.
3. Assessment
The end of the semester, the two-hours written exam will consist of a variety of exercises similar to
those seen and done in class
4. Course structure and contents

The course will cover the following elements:
Weeks Contents
Week 1  Paragraph analysis: Theory and practice
Week 2 & 3  The multi-paragraph essay (organization, outline)
Week 4  Argumentative essay – revisited
Week 5  Introduction to research (definition, purpose, characteristics, places,
types )
 Steps for writing research paper
- Selecting a topic
- Narrowing the topic
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- Stating the objective/ thesis
Week 6  Steps for writing research paper
- Compiling a bibliography
Week 7 & 8  Steps for writing research paper
- What is a literature review?
- Why write a literature review?
- What is involved in writing a literature review?
- Steps to writing an effective literature review:
- Writing a Literature Review
 Compiling information for the literature review- Note taking

Week 9-10  Types of notes: Summarizing, paraphrasing & quoting
Week 11  Documentation and referencing : Citation
References
 Books
 Folse, Keith S. 2010. Great Writing 2: Great Paragraphs. Third Edition. USA: Heinel
Cengage Learning
 Folse, Keith S. Muchmore-Vokoun, April and Solomon, Elena Vestri 2010. Great Writing:
Great Essays. Third Edition. USA: Heinel Cengage Learning
 Laurence M. Behrens, Leonard J. Rosen 2013. Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum
(12th Edition) 12th Edition. Santa Barbara : University of California,
 Oshima Alice. 2006. Introduction to Academic Writing, Fourth Edition (The Longman
Academic Writing Series, Level 4). USA: Pearson
 Oshima Alice. 2007. Introduction to Academic Writing, Third Edition (The Longman
Academic Writing Series, Level 3). USA: Pearson
 Websites
http://www.thepunctuationguide.com/brackets.html
 https://polytechnic.k-state.edu/writingcenter/docs/MLA_APA_Side_by_Side.pdf
 www.ibo.org/globalassets/.../effective-citing-and-referencing-en.
 http://www2.bakersfieldcollege.edu/dmoton/Note%20Cards.htm
 https://www.westerntc.edu/sites/default/files/studentlife/documents/NarrowingaTopic.pdf
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
PARAGRAPH ANALYSIS
I. What is paragraph analysis
Paragraph analysis is the process of examining the way in which a paragraph is organized and
recognizing the technique(s) used by the author to achieve the purpose for which the piece written
has been produced. Analyzing a paragraph means understanding how its parts make up a whole.
II. The purpose of paragraph analysis

The purpose behind analyzing a paragraph is to become familiar with the different patterns of
organization and the language used in writing, as well as the purposes which can be achieved using
these patterns. For example, a writer whose purpose is to discuss an idea will organize his/her
paragraph in a way that s/he thinks is the most convincing for the reader. S/he will also use language
that s/he thinks is appropriate for achieving his/her purpose. (In our case, the purpose is also to
recognize the characteristics of a well-written paragraph so that it may be used as a model.)
III. Stages of paragraph analysis

A. Purpose : In the first stage of paragraph analysis, we try to state what the purpose of a
paragraph is and how this purpose is achieved. For example, the purpose a writer may be to
convince the reader of the dangers of careless driving through describing an accident, discuss
the causes and effects of such driving or compare the way drivers behave in two different
countries. Thus, the same purpose may be achieved through the use of various techniques of
writing (narration, description, argumentation, etc.)
B. Organization : In discussing the organization of a paragraph, we consider how its different

parts (clauses, sentences, etc.) are related and whether they make up a coherent whole. In this
stage of analysis, we also try to understand the functions of different sentences in the
paragraph. For example, a sentence whose function is to introduce the theme of the paragraph
is the topic is its ‘topic sentence’ and a sentence that summarizes it is its ‘concluding
sentence’.
C. Coherence and Unity

- Coherence refers to the relationships that link the meanings of parts of sentences (e.g. clause) and
sentences in a piece of writing. Thus a coherent paragraph is one in which these relationships are
logical and clearly expressed and in which the supporting sentences develop the main topic of
the paragraph. This main topic (idea) is stated in the topic sentence. Coherence may be realized
through the use of:
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a. Intersentential ( between sentences) or intrasentential ( within sentences) linking devices
such as ‘therefore’, ‘however’, ‘so’, because’, finally, etc.;
b. Pronoun reference: anaphoric (referring backward) or cataphoric (referring forward), using
pronoun (‘he’, ‘it’, etc.) 1
c. Reminders of the topic (i.e. words and groups of words which repeat, or are related to, the
main topic);
d. Details: They are sentences which clarify supports in the paragraph by elaborating on,
explaining, or illustrating the support sentences.
- Unity in a piece of writing is closely related to coherence, so that a coherent paragraph is a

unified one. This characteristic of a paragraph is achieved through the use of reminders of the
topic and unity of theme (i.e. when all sentences in the paragraph deal with one and the same
theme)
D. Language: The language used in a piece of writing contributes to achieving the purpose of
the writer. Diction (words and expressions) and the type of sentences (long, short, simple or
complex) may help to strengthen the coherence and unity of a paragraph when used
effectively.
NOTE: Paragraph analysis is NOT a comprehension exercise meant to check your understanding of a
paragraph. Rather, it is a test of your ability to see how a paragraph is organized and how its different
parts relate to each other. It is also meant to get you to recognize the different purposes of writing
and how they may be effectively achieved.
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Anaphora – a tie where an element in a text is connected with some previously mentioned element, pointing
back to the text, cf.
- Mr. Kaplan rose, inspiration in his eyes. His smile was so wide that his face seemed to be one ecstatic
cavern. He cast majestic glances to both sides, as if reading the tribute in the faces of his fellow students.
Cataphora – a tie where an element in a text is connected to an element that follows later in the text, when an
item points forward to the text,
- This is how you get the best results. You let the berries dry in the sun, till all the moisture has gone out
of them. Then you gather them up and chop them very fine.
Note: in a cohesive ties not only single elements are involved, but also a large chunks of text, typical of the
demonstrative ‘this’ as in our example.
Cataphoric reference is often signalled in writing with a colon (:)
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Paragraph Analysis : Practice
Love and hate are two very distinct and powerful emotions, but surprisingly they share several
important similarities. First, both of these emotions develop from a concern for self. For instance, a
mother’s love has a selfish motive because through reproduction she is extending her power to create
life in her own image. Similarly, hate is clearly linked to selfish motives. One way to make oneself
feel superior is to despise people who are different racially, religiously or economically; most
prejudice can be described in this way. A second similarity between these extremes is their
destruction of rational thinking. The powerful love between American divorcee Mr. Simpson and
King Edward VIII eventually led him to abdicate the throne of England. This action was irrational
because it was guided by his emotions. Hate too has this power over people. Violent acts like child
abuse and most murders are motivated by hate and are irrational acts. Finally, love and hate share the
ability to inspire major changes. Often due to the insight gained from love, people make dramatic
changes in their beliefs and lifestyles. Likewise, hate can deeply alter our beliefs and influence our
actions. Realizing that because of their complexity love and hate do have much in common, people
should cultivate love and defend themselves against hate.
Purpose The purpose of the paragraph to be analyzed is to show how love and hate, two seemingly
distinct emotions, may still be considered as similar. This purpose is achieved through listing and
illustrating similarities that exist between the two emotions.
Organization The paragraph contains fourteen sentences of which the first one is the topic sentence
and the last one is the concluding sentence. Sentence 2, 6 and 11 are three supports of the topic
sentence. Each of these three supports is followed by a number of sentences which serve either as
illustrations or elaborations on each support.
Coherence and unity

Coherence is achieved in the paragraph through the use of a number of devices. For example, the
author used listing words (‘First’, ‘Second’, and’ Finally’). He used linking words to achieve
intersentential coherence (‘For instance’, ‘One way…’, ‘Likewise’) and intrasentential coherence
(‘but’, ‘because’, ‘and’). There are also examples of anaphoric reference (‘they’ in sentence one, and
‘she’ in sentence three).
Unity is also achieved in the paragraph through the frequent use of reminders of the topic (‘emotion’,
‘love’, ‘hate’, ‘despise’, ‘violent acts’, etc.) and the fact that all sentences are related to the topic of
the paragraph.
Language Overall, the language used in this paragraph is simple to understand for general reader.
Therefore, we may say that it is not addressed to any specific audience, although most of vocabulary
is related to the field of psychology. Some vocabulary items are typical of the words used in
comparison and contrast (‘distinct’, ‘similarly’, ‘similarities’, ‘share’, etc.). Except for two or three
sentences, the sentences follow a rather short and simple pattern, which adds to the simplicity and
clarity of the paragraph.
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Practice: Write your own analysis of the following paragraphs considering their purpose,
organization, coherence and unity, and language.
Homework is an important part of the learning process in middle school. 1 One reason is that
homework gives students additional practice of skills covered in class. 2 Middle school classes are too
short to teach a new concept and practice it sufficiently for students to master. 3 Students need both
guided practice in class and independent practice at home. 4 Another reason for homework is that it
provides time to complete longer assignments. 5For example, the ideal composition process allows
time for students to think and to reflect on their ideas, as well as time to revise and to proofread their
writing. 6Also, reports and special projects often require research that cannot always be done at school.
7 In addition, since all students do not work at the same speed, giving students time at home to finish
work keeps them from falling behind. 8 Finally, the most important reason for homework is that it
ensures review. New material and old material are practiced in daily assignments. 9 Students who do
their homework daily are prepared for tests and make better grades. 10In conclusion, not only is
homework essential to mastering new skills and maintaining previously learned skills, but it also
guarantees constant review and provides time for longer assignments, as well as additional time for
students who need it.11 Students, do your daily homework, make better grades, and learn more!
---------------------------------------
1 Because cell phones and driving are a deadly mix, I am in favor of a ban on cell phone use by
drivers. The most obvious reason for this ban is to save lives. 2 Every year, thousands of drivers are
killed because they are talking on cell phones instead of watching the road while they are driving. 3The
first reason should be enough to support a ban on cell phones when driving, but I have two other
reasons. 4My second reason is that these drivers cause accidents that kill other people. 5Sometimes
these drivers kill other drivers; sometimes they kill passengers or even pedestrians. 6These drivers
certainly don’t have the right to endanger others’ lives! 7Finally, even in cases where there are no
injuries or deaths, damage to cars from these accidents costs us millions of dollars as well as countless
hours of lost work. 8To me, banning cell phones while driving is common sense. 9In fact, a wide
range of countries has already put this ban into effect, including Australia, Brazil, Japan, Russia, and
Turkey. 10Driving car is a privilege, not a right. 11We must all be careful drivers, and talking on a
cell phone when driving is not safe.
---------------------------------------
Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) was one of South America’s greatest generals and one of the most
powerful people in world political history. In Spanish, Simon Bolivar is often called El Liberator,
which means, “the Liberator”. Spanish is the main language in at least twenty –two countries. This
nickname is very good one because his planning and military actions helped to gain independence from
Spain for six countries: Bolivar (1809), Colombia (1819), Ecuador (1820), Panama (1821), Peru
(1821), and Venezuela ( 1811). In fact, Bolivia is named for him. These six countries are approximately
the same size as modern Europe. So the independence of such a large area was an amazing military and
political feat. Although Bolivar’s name as not as well-known outside Latin America , people there
remember him as perhaps the most important person in their history.
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
EXPLORING THE ESSAY: A REVIEW

I. What is an essay?
- An essay is a short collection of paragraphs that presents facts, opinions and ideas about a topic.
- Topics of an essay can range from a description of a visit to the beach to an argument for (or against)
tax increase
- An essay usually has three to ten paragraphs. Each paragraph discusses one idea, often stated in the
topic sentence of the paragraph. This idea is related to the topic of the whole easy.
- Essays are everywhere- in books, magazines, newspapers and other printed material.
II. Kinds of essays

- There are many different methods or ways to write an essay.
- The method that a writer chooses is often based on the topic of the essay. The writer needs to
consider what kind of essay will convey his or her ideas in the clearest and most accurate way.
- The five common kinds of essays are narrative, compare and contrast, cause and effect, descriptive
and argumentative
- It is important, however, to note that many writers use more than one method within the same essay.
This comes after one learns about these essay methods separately and becomes comfortable with
them. Then, he/she can experiment with weaving them together to produce well-written essays in
English
III. Parts of an Essay

A. Introduction Paragraph: The introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of your essay. It
introduces the main idea of your essay. A good opening paragraph captures the interest of
your reader and tells why your topic is important.
B. Supporting Paragraphs: Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay. They
develop the main idea of your essay. Like all good paragraphs, each supporting paragraph
should have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence
C. Summary Paragraph: The summary paragraph comes at the end of your essay after you have
finished developing your ideas. The summary paragraph is often called a "conclusion." It
summarizes or restates the main idea of the essay. You want to leave the reader with a sense
that your essay is complete
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IV. How to write parts of the essay
A. Writing the introduction?

The introduction is the first part of an essay, usually the first paragraph. The introduction does
not have to be written first however. Some writers design and write this part of the essay last or at
another point in their writing process. The introduction for most essays is one paragraph. This
introductory paragraph usually consists of three parts:
1. The hook
2. Connecting information
3. The thesis statement (or writing plan)
1. The hook is the opening statement or statements of an essay. Just as people use a hook at the
end of a fishing pole to catch a fish, writers use a hook to catch the reader’s attention. If a hook
does its job well, readers will want to read the rest of the essay after they have read the hook.
Writing a good hook is not easy. It requires a great deal of thought and practice. There are many
ways to write a hook
a. Ask a question: If readers want know the answer to the question, they are ‘hooked’ and will
read the essay. For example, a writer might begin an essay about the need for more government
regulation of the medicine with this question:
- Do you know how many children are raped in Morocco every day?
Most readers will not know the answer to this question but they will probably be interested and
want to find about the topic
b. Use an interesting observation: Here is an example:

- Asian economists are not sleeping nowadays
This observation makes readers want to know economists are not sleeping well. This hook leads
to the main idea of the essay, which will highlight the three main causes of recession in Asia.
c. Use a unique scenario to catch readers’ attention: Here is an example

- Travelling at more than one hundred miles an hour, he feels as though he is not moving. He is
engulfed in complete silence. For a moment, it is as if he has entered another dimension
d. Begin with a famous quote. Here is an example:

- “I have a dream”
Many readers may think that this hook will lead to a discussion of Martin Luther King’ life or
his struggles. In fact, the hook begins an essay on the topic of sleep patterns
e. Use a surprising or shocking statistics : Here is an example:

- Over 20,000 people in the United States are killed in alcohol-related accidents every year
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2.Connecting information: After the hook, the writer usually writes connecting information;
usually two or three sentences that connect the reader to the topic. These sentences can be
background information about the topic . The following sentences are from the example essay on
the importance of education
Indeed, if Gandi has long ago recongnised the inportance of education for societies,
it is only because education is the premise of progress in every society. Actually
Education and learning play an indispensable role in shaping the lives of individuals
and the society at large.
From these sentences, the reader has a good idea of what the topic might be- unpleasant
household chores.
3. Thesis statement: The thesis statement or writing plan is usually the last part of the introduction. It is
usually one sentence long. In the thesis statement, the writer tells the reader what to expect in the
essay. Basically, there two kinds of thesis statement. – stated and implied(they may also called
direct and indirect thesis statement )
a- Stated thesis statement. Some writers want to give a specific outline of their essays in their
thesis statements. Here is an example
- The main problem facing South American Countries are lack of job opportunities for citizens,
increasing demand for better health care and limited university programs for poor students
b- Implied thesis statement: Other writers are not so direct. Discussing a similar topic as the
previous example, these writers might use this statement
- The important problems facing South American countries toady require immediate attention
NB: Both stated and implied thesis statements are acceptable. It is up to the writer or instructor to
decide which approach to take
How to state the thesis of your essay?

- Before you begin your research for your paper, you need to compose a thesis statement that
describes the viewpoint you are going to express and support in your paper.
- A thesis statement is usually made of a controlling idea and the supporting evidence, reasons or
the focus of the argument.
 Cell phone use while driving should be banned for it creates an unsafe environment not only for
drivers using cell phones but also for other people in nearby vehicles.
 Ancient Greek culture is reflected in the lives of present day Greeks.
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Topic Controling idea Supporting evidence, reassons, matrtials or
the focus of the argument
Cell phone use while should be banned for it creates an unsafe environment not only
driving for drivers using cell phones but also for other
people in nearby vehicles.
Ancient Greek culture is reflected in the lives of present day Greeks
A thesis statement must not be an indisputable fact or an opinion that cannot be proven as it would
be difficult to write a research paper to prove the following thesis statements:
 The United States was the first nation to land on the moon. [indisputable fact]
Some common errors students make when composing thesis statements.
a- A thesis cannot be a fragment; it must be expressed in a sentence.

 Poor: How life is in a racial ghetto.
 Better: Residents of a racial ghetto tend to have a higher death rate, higher disease rates, and higher
psychosis rates than do any other residents of American cities in general.
b- A thesis must not be in the form of a question. (Usually the answer to the question could be
the thesis.)
 Poor: Should eighteen-year-old males have the right to vote?
 Better: Anyone who is old enough to fight in a war is old enough to vote.
c- A thesis must not contain phrases such as “I think.” (They merely weaken the statement.)
 Poor: In my opinion most men wear beards because they are trying to find themselves.
 Better: The current beard fad may be an attempt on the part of men to emphasize their male
identity.
d- A thesis must not contain elements that are not clearly related.
 Poor: All novelists seek the truth; therefore some novelists are good psychologists.
 Better: In their attempt to probe human nature, many novelists appear to be good psychologists.
e- A thesis must not be expressed in vague language.

 Poor: Hemingway's war stories are very good
 Better: Hemingway's war stories helped create a new prose style.
f- A thesis should not be written in figurative language.

 Poor: The amazons of today are trying to purge all the stag words from the English language.
 Better: Today, many feminists are trying to eliminate the use of sexually-biased words from public
use.
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Practice
A- For each of the following thesis statements, provide the topic, controlling idea and
then Supporting evidence, reassons, matrtials or the focus of the argument
1. Violent video games should be made illegal, for they might incite some people to commit
violent acts.
2. An after-school job can be harmful to teenagers as working not only reduces opportunities for
social and recreational time but also takes valuable time away from schoolwork.
3. Marijuana should be legalized since legalization would eliminate the black market for that drug.
4. Welfare benefits for single mothers should not be eliminated, for the benefits are needed to
prevent hunger and poverty among our country’s most helpless citizens—our children.
B- Keeping in mind the above thesis development guidelines, analyze the following
statements and identify the reason(s) you think they do or do not work as good
thesis statements. Suggest a revision for those you you think don’t make good
thesis stataments . Have a look at the sample
 Drug use is a serious problem in today’s world.

It is not a good thesis. It expresses a point that everyone would probably agree with; it does not state
an assertion that anyone would want to argue. The statement is also too broad, and it contains the vague
phrase “in today’s world.” Avoid using such vague or fuzzy phrases. The suggested version could be as
follows: Noadays, drug use has become a serious threat in Meknes middle schools
1. Television has had a serious impact in today’s society.

2. An evaluation of the benefits of cloning
3. In this essay I am going to talk about the potential problems if the administration restructures
the Social Security program.
4. Have you ever considered why people are so rude when they drive, especially at rush hour?
5. How to grow beautiful orchids?
6. I think it is interesting how many people enjoy horror movies.
7. If you don’t care about spending a little bit more money, I think you’ll agree that dinner is a
much more satisfying experience at The House of Prime Rib than at Sizzler’s.
8. Advertisers like to use beautiful models in their ads to sell their products.
9. This paper will consider the reasons why detective fiction is worth reading.
10. I believe that the federal government should give more money to breast cancer research.
11. Writing an essay can be a fairly easy process.
V. Writing the body

- The body of an essay is the essay’s main part. It usually consists of three or four paragraphs between
the introduction and conclusion. The body follows a plan of organization that the writer usually
determines before she or he starts writing. This varies depending on the kind of essay you are writing
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- You can write the organizational plan of your essay in an outline. An outline not only organizes your
thoughts, but it also keeps you on track once you begin to write. The most common type of outline
follows these characters in this order
I. Topic sentence 1 II. Topic sentence 2 III. Topic sentence 3

A. Argument 1 A. Argument 1 A. Argument 1
B. Argument 2 B. Argument 2 B. Argument 2
C. Argument 3 C. Argument 3 C. Argument 3
VI. Writing the conclusion

Some people think that writing the conclusion is the hardest part of writing an essay. For others, writing the
conclusion is easy. When you write a conclusion, follow these guidelines.
 Let the reader that this is the conclusion:

- In conclusion ….., From the information given,……. To summarize
Sometimes the first sentence of the paragraph restates the thesis or main idea of the essay
- As previously noted, there are numerous problems that new parents face today
 Do no introduce new information in the conclusion. The conclusion should help the reader to reconsider
the main ideas that you have given in the essay. A new information in the concluding paragraph will
sound like a continuation of the body of the essay
 Many writers find the conclusion difficult to write. It requires a great deal of thought and creativity, just
as writing a good hook or thesis statement does. The kind of essay you are writing may determine the
way you end the essay; however, the following ideas can be helpful for an essay
a- The final sentence or sentences an essay often give a suggestion, opinion or a prediction about the
topic of the essay
 Suggestion:- In order for young people to successfully learn a language, parents need to encourage
them at an early age
 Opinion: - learning a second language at an early age is , in effect, a smart choice
 Prediction: - if more young people were bilingual, perhaps they would better understand the complex
world around them
b- Sometimes, the final sentence or sentences simply say that the issue has to be discussed in the essay
with so many strong, persuasive facts that the answer to the issue is now clearer
- Once aware of the this information, any reader would agree that bilingual education is an excellent
educational opportunity
Practice: Read the following essay and answer the questions below
The importance of education
Mahatma Gandhi says “Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever”.
Indeed, if Gandi has long ago recognized the importance of education for societies, it is only because
education is the premise of progress in every society. Education and learning play an indispensable role in
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shaping the lives of individuals and the society at large. Put differently, investing in education is the most
effective way of boosting economic growth, reducing poverty and improving people’s health.
Human labour is essential for economic growth. A highly educated labour force further stimulates
economic growth. Additionally, a highly educated labour force can easily adapt to new working
environments and conditions. In view of that, it is evident that education serves as the driving force for
innovation of new products and services. Educated workers exchange ideas in the work place and come up
with new ideas that help in the growth of the economy.
Education reduces poverty in a number of ways. One way of reducing poverty is by creating
employment opportunities for educated people. Through employment, one is able to afford a decent living.
Education helps to increase economic security, create income opportunities and improve livelihoods of the
economic disadvantaged by providing sustainable environmental management mechanisms. Education
further alleviates poverty through skills acquired in the learning process. Skills such as carpentry, plumbing
and masonry are relevant in non-formal economies. One can acquire these skills through technical and
vocational training.
Educated people are health conscious and live longer than their counterparts. First, educated people
engage in healthy habits such as eating a balanced diet, exercising regularly and going for medical
checkups. In other words, without education, few people would invest in their health. Second, education
serves to create room for technological advancements in the field of medicine and agriculture. Nowadays,
advanced technology used for conducting surgery has replaced traditional methods. This has caused an
improvement in people’s general health and an increased life expectancy. Finally, most developing
countries have a low life expectancy compared to developed countries. This can be attributed to high
illiteracy levels present in developing countries. This translates to poor health and poor eating habits.
In conclusion, education is the only means of alleviating poverty, improving people’s health and
increasing economic growth. Improving literacy levels in marginalized societies will go a long way in
improving human living standards.
Answer the following questions to see if the essay respects the techniques discussed
1. How many paragraphs does this essay have? Which paragraph is the introduction? And which one is
the conclusion? Which paragraphs make up the body?
2. Can you find a sentence in paragraph 1 that tells readers what to expect in paragraphs 2,3 &4 ?
Underline it in your essay
3. What is the main idea of paragraph 2? Can you find the sentence that introduces it? Underline it in
your essay. Highlight the arguments that support it
4. Underline the TS of paragraph 3 & 4 then highlight the sentences that support them
5. Look at the last paragraph. Find the sentence that restates the thesis.
Practice
- Based on the above-discussed techniques, write an essay on one of the following topics
 Should cloning be legalized in Morocco?
 Should abortion be legalized in Morocco?
 Are you for or against mercy killing (euthanasia)?
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
OUTLINING
I. Definition
- Outlining is both a way of planning and a means of inventing.
- Any outline may provide the plan for an essay but as soon as you start making an outline, you will begin
to see new possibilities in your subject.
- You may discover new ways of dividing or grouping information. You can estimate whether you have
adequate information to develop each major point.
- You will know whether there is a plan for the information which will be appropriate for your tentative
thesis. If not, you may decide to revise you thesis.
II. Uses /functions of an outline

- Aids in the process of writing
- Helps you organize your ideas
- Presents your material in a logical form
- Shows the relationships among ideas in your writing
- Constructs an ordered overview of your writing
- Offers a convenient way of testing a proposed organization
- Serves as complete communication in itself
- May be used as an aid to efficient reading
III. Types of outlines

- Outlines are classified by their format or wording
A. Format: The alphanumerical outline versus scratched outline:
a- The alphanumerical outline. This is the most common outline and usually instantly
recognizable to most people. The formatting follows these characteristics:
 Roman Numerals (I, II, III, IV, etc)

 Capitalized Letters(A, B, C, D, etc)
 Arabic Numerals(1, 2, 3, 4, etc)
 Lowercase Letters(a, b ,c, d, etc)
b- The scratched outline: This is an informal outline. It is only a rough list of the main points
(and sub-points as well) of an essay. This type of an outline will help you organize
information while you are still gathering it
14
B. Wording: The topic outline versus full sentences outline
a- The topic outline: The items in a topic outline are words or brief phrases
b- The full sentence outline: Full sentences are required at each level of the outline. This outline
is most often used when preparing a traditional essay
IV. Characteristics of an outline

A. Parallelism: Each heading and subheading should preserve parallel structure. If the first heading is a
verb, the second heading should be a verb. Example:
I. Choose desired colleges
II. Prepare application
B. Coordination: All the information contained in Heading 1 should have the same significance as the
information contained in Heading 2. The same goes for the subheadings (which should be less significant
than the headings). Example:
I. Visit and evaluate college campuses

II. Visit and evaluate college websites
A. Note important statistics
B. Look for interesting classes
C. Subordination: The information in the headings should be more general, while the information in the
subheadings should be more specific. Example:
I. Describe an influential person in your life

A. Favorite high school teacher
B. Grandparent
D. Division: Each heading should be divided into 2 or more parts. Example:
I. Compile resume
A. List relevant coursework
B. List work experience
C. List volunteer experience
NB: Technically, there is no limit to the number of subdivisions for your headings; however, if you seem to
have a lot, it may be useful to see if some of the parts can be combined.
V. A sample Alphanumeric Outline

The college application process
Introduction
A. Hook
B. Connecting information
C. Thesis statement
15
Body
I. Choose desired colleges
A. Visit and evaluate college campuses
B. Visit and evaluate college websites
1.Look for interesting classes
2.Note important statistics
II. Prepare application
A. Write personal statement
1. Choose interesting topic
2. Include important personal details
a. Volunteer work
b. Participation in varsity sports
B. Revise personal statement
III. Compile resume
A. List relevant coursework
B. List work experience
C. List volunteer experience
1.Tutor at foreign language summer camp
2.Counselor for suicide prevention hotline
Conclusion
A. Restate the thesis :………………………………………

B. Opinion :………………………………
Practice :
1- Prepare an outline for the following essay using phrases or sentences

The Benefits of Regular Exercise
Almost everywhere people turn, whether it is to a newsstand, television or billboard, advice for
guarding and improving health bombards people. Although much of this advice is commercially motivated
by those eager to sell vitamins, natural foods and reducing gimmicks , some of it, especially that
advocating a regular exercise program, merits serious attention. Such a program, if it consists of at least
thirty minutes three times a week and if a person's physician approves it, provides numerous benefits.
Regular exercise releases tension, improves appearance, and increases stamina
The first of these benefits, the release of tension, is immediate. Tension builds in the body because
of an over accumulation of adrenaline produced by stress, anxiety, or fear. Doctors agree that performing
calisthenics or participating in an active sport such as tennis or volleyball for thirty minutes releases
tension. If a person swims, jogs or rides a bicycle for half that time, he or she should sleep better at night
and have a better temperament the next day. In addition, after the release of tension, petty irritations and
frustrations should be less troubling. For example, an employee upset by the day's work and by traffic
16
congestion may rush home, argue with the family, and eat excessively. Taking about thirty minutes to
release frustrations through physical exercise could help him or her to avoid this behavior.
An improved appearance, which is a second benefit of regular exercise, is not as
immediately apparent as a better disposition. Exercise takes perhaps a month or longer to show its results
in a trimmer, firmer figure. Improvement, however, will come. A person who is ten pounds overweight, for
instance, may be able during this time to burn away most excess fat and to tighten muscles, thereby
reshaping the physique. Having improved muscle tone and even posture, he or she will wear clothes more
attractively and comfortably. Combined with a sensible diet, an exercise program will also improve a
person's skin tone. This improved appearance will provide confidence and favorably impress others.
In addition to the self-confidence engendered by an improved appearance, increased physical
strength produces stamina. A stronger, healthier body is obviously more capable of working harder and , in
fact, of withstanding normal fatigue then a tense, weak one. A worker who exercises should be able to
complete a forty-hour week and still retain enough energy for mowing the grass, painting the garage, or
cleaning windows. Similarly, the student who goes to school, keeps house and perhaps works part time
should accomplish tasks efficiently. Equally important, this stamina helps to ward off illnesses such as
colds and influenza. Altogether, improved endurance is one of the most important benefits of a regular
exercise program.
Although easy solutions to the goals of losing weight and achieving an attractive, energetic body
saturate the media, actually acquiring these benefits is not easy. The rewards, however, are fully worth the
effort of an established exercise program that makes a person feel relaxed, look healthy, and have adequate
strength for strenuous as well as routine activities.
2- Use the sample outline provided before to write an essay on college application process
3- Develop an outline for one of the following topics
 Should cloning be legalized in Morocco?

 Should abortion be legalized in Morocco?
 Are you for or against mercy killing (euthanasia)?
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The Benefits of Regular Exercise
Introduction
A. Hook: In recent years many people have become increasingly aware of the need for physical fitness. Almost
everywhere people turn, whether it is to a newsstand, television or billboard, advice for guarding and
improving health bombards them.
B. Connecting information: Although much of this advice is commercially motivated by those eager to sell
vitamins, natural foods and reducing gimmicks , some of it, especially that advocating a regular exercise
program, merits serious attention. Such a program, if it consists of at least thirty minutes three times a week
and if a person's physician approves it, provides numerous benefits.
C. Thesis: Regular exercise releases tension, improves appearance, and increases stamina
Body
I. Regular exercise releases tension

A. Performing calisthenics or participating in an active sport such as tennis or volleyball for thirty minutes helps
release tension
B. Swimming , jogging or riding a bicycle for half that time helps to sleep better at night
C. Realizing tension prevents irritations and frustrations
1. Day's work
2. Traffic congestion
a. Arguing with the family
b. Eating excessively
II. Regular exercise improves appearance

A. A month regular exercising results losing weight
1. Burning away most excess fat
2. Tightening muscles
3. Reshaping the physique
B. A regular exercising allows wearing clothes attractively and comfortably
C. A regular exercise programwith a sensible diet improve a person's skin tone
D. Improved appearance provides self-confidence and impresses others
III. Regular exercise increases stamina

A. A stronger, healthier body is capable of working harder andwithstanding normal fatigue
1. A worker who exercises should be able to complete a forty-hour week and still retain enough energy for
mowing the grass, painting the garage, or cleaning windows.
2. A student who goes to school, keeps house and perhaps works part time should accomplish tasks
efficiently
B. Stamina helps to ward off illnesses such as colds and influenza.
Conclusion
A. Opinion
B. Restating the thesis
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY REVISTED
I. What is an argumentative essay?

- In an argumentative essay, the writer’s purpose is to persuade the reader to agree with his or her opinion
about a controversial topic.
- In an argumentative essay, sometimes called persuasive essay, the writer states his or her opinion, gives
reasons to support it and tries to convince the reader that he or she is right.
- The topic you choose for an argumentative essay should have two sides. In other words, your topic should
have pro-arguments and counterarguments
II. How to convince your reader? Counterargument and refutation /Handling counterarguments
- In order to win the readers’ respect and attention, and perhaps even their agreement, you have to anticipate
(guess) their counterarguments: objections, alternatives, challenges, or questions.
- To anticipate counterarguments, try to imagine a reader’s point of view on the subject, knowledge about the
subject, and familiarity with the issue.
- There are three strategies in anticipating counterarguments: acknowledging, accommodating, and refuting
counterarguments.
II.1. Acknowledging counterarguments

- Acknowledging counterarguments is a strategy used to let your readers know that you are aware of the
objections and questions they may have about the claim you want to argue.
- By listing these possible objections and questions and discussing them, you appear to have explained the
issue thoroughly; and readers will respond positively to your writing.
II.2. Accommodating counterarguments

- Careful argumentative writers often acknowledge their readers’ objections, questions, and alternative
causes or solutions.
- Occasionally, however, they may go even further; they accept these counterarguments and even incorporate
them in their own arguments. This is a very disarming strategy to readers.
II.3. Refuting counterarguments

- Your readers’ objections and questions cannot always –or all of them- be accommodated. Sometimes, they
have to be refuted.
- When you refute a counterargument, you are asserting that it is wrong and you are arguing against it.
- Keep in mind, however, that refutation should not be delivered arrogantly or dismissively. You should not
dismiss readers’ counterarguments with a wave of the hand.
19
- Making concessions in an argument, if handled effectively, can strengthen your position rather than weaken
it. The trick here is to adopt restrained tone and keep in mind that you are advancing an argument, not
having one.
Look at this example
Counter argument Opponents of mandatory uniforms say that students who wear school uniforms cannot
express their individuality. This point has some merits on the surface Accommodating counterarguments .
However, as stated previously, school is a place to learn, not to flaunt wealth and fashion. Refutation
Sample of counter argument and refutation sentences starters
Counter Argument Sentence Starters…

 Some will say that (my thesis) is not true because…
 Some people might say that…
 Some will argue…
 Those on the other side of the issue may say that.
 It’s true that…
 While it is true that…
 Admittedly…
Refutation Sentence Starters…

 That is not the case. As we see (bring up new evidence)…
 While that may be the case, (my thesis) is still true because…
 That point is true, but it is unimportant because…
 Nevertheless, my point still stands because…
 However, that point is not important because…
Transition words: but, yet, however, nevertheless, still
Practice:
Activity I Imagine that you are having an argument with a friend about your topic. S/he disagrees with your
opinion. What do you think will be the strongest argument against your point of view? How will respond to
this counterargument? Your answer is your refutation
 Some people believe that children are too materialistic these days. For example, they may be too interested
in wearing brand-name clothes and shoes. ………………………………………..………………..……….
 Proponent of cloning believe that it is the best available way to help a sterile couple to have children.
………………………………………………………………………………………..
 People who are against sexual abortion argue that it is a mere violation of the basic human rights which is
the right to live……………………………………………………………….
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A Sample Argumentative Essay: The School Uniform Question
Individualism is a fundamental part of society in many countries. Most people believe in the right to
express their own opinion without fear of punishment. This value, however, is coming under fire in an
unlikely place-the public school classroom. The issue is school uniforms. Should public school students be
allowed to make individual decisions about clothing, or should all students be required to wear a uniform?
School uniforms are the better choice for three reasons.
First, wearing school uniforms would help make students’ lives simpler. They would no longer have
to decide what to wear every morning, sometimes trying on outfit after outfit in an effort to choose.
Uniforms would not only save time but also would eliminate the stress often associated with this chore.
Further, uniforms promote organization, neatness and efficiency. Parents and students agree that getting the
morning off right is the key to a productive and happy day.
Second, school uniforms influence students to act responsibly in groups and as individuals.
Uniforms give students the message that school is a special place for learning. In addition, uniforms create
a feeling of unity among students. For example, when students do something as a group, such as attend
meetings in the auditorium or eat lunch in the cafeteria, the fact that they all wear the same uniform gives
them a sense of community. Even more important, statistics show the positive effects that school uniforms
have on violence and truancy. According to a recent survey in a large school district in Florida, incidents of
school violence dropped by 50 percent, attendance and test scores improved, and student suspensions
declined approximately 30 percent after school uniforms were introduced.
Finally, school uniforms would help make all the students feel equal. Students' standards of living
differ greatly from family to family, and some people are well-off while others are not. People sometimes
forget that school is a place to get an education, not to promote a "fashion show:' Implementing mandatory
school uniforms would make all the students look the same regardless of their financial status. School
uniforms would promote pride and help to raise the self-esteem of students who cannot afford to wear
expensive clothing.
Opponents of mandatory uniforms say that students who wear school uniforms cannot express their
individuality. This point has some merit on the surface. However, as stated previously, school is a place to
learn, not to flaunt wealth and fashion. Society must decide if individual expression through clothing is
more valuable than improved educational performance. It is important to remember that school uniforms
would be worn only during school hours. Students can express their individuality in the way that they dress
outside of the classroom.
In conclusion, there are many well-documented benefits of implementing mandatory school

uniforms for students. Studies show that students learn better and act more responsibly when they wear
uniforms. Public schools should require uniforms in order to benefit both the students and society as a
whole.
1. The topic of this essay is school uniforms. What is the hook in the first paragraph?
2. What is the thesis statement?
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3. Paragraph 2, 3 and 4 each give a reason for requiring school uniforms. There reasons can be found in
the topic sentences of each paragraph. What are the reasons?
- Paragraph 2:……………………………………………………………………………
- Paragraph 3:……………………………………………………………………………
- Paragraph 4:……………………………………………………………………………
4. In paragraph 4, what supporting information does the writer give to show that uniforms make students
equal?
5. Which paragraph presents a counterargument –an argument that is contrary to, or opposite of, the
writer’s opinion?.............................. what is the counterargument?
6. The writer gives a refutation of the counterargument by showing that it is invalid, what is the writer’s
refutation?
7. Write the sentence from the concluding paragraph that restates the thesis.
8. Reread the concluding. What is the writer’s opinion about this issue?
III. Organizational patterns of an argumentative essay
I. Introduction
- Hook
- Connecting information
- Thesis statement
II. Body
Plan A
- Paragraph 1: Pro argument 1 with supports
- Paragraph 3: Counter arguments+ refutation
Plan B
- Paragraph 1: Counter arguments + refutation
Plan C
- Paragraph 1: Counter arguments + refutation + Pro argument 1
- Paragraph 2: Counter arguments + refutation + Pro argument 2
- Paragraph 3: Counter arguments + refutation+ Pro argument 3
III. Conclusion
- The conclusion will include the restatement of the thesis statement
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IV. Things to remember about writing the argumentative essay
 Language focus
In an argumentative essay, good writers are aware of how their arguments sound. Are they too strong? Not
strong enough? Certain words can help control the tone of the argument.
 Asserting a Point: Strong modals such as must and had better help writers to assert their main points.
When you use these words, readers know where you stand on an issue . e,g.
- The facts clearly show that researchers must stop unethical animal testing
- People who value their health had better stop smocking now
 Acknowledging the Opposite Point : Weaker modals such as may, might, could, can and would help
writers make an opposing opinion sound weak. e,g.
- Some citizens may be against mandatory military service, but those who do serve in the military often have
a strong sense of pride and strong personal satisfaction
 Avoid faulty logic

Logic can help prove your point and disprove your opponent’s point and perhaps change the
reader’s mind about an issue. If you use faulty logic, readers will not believe you or take your position
seriously. To persuade readers, try to these errors in your writings
 Sweeping Generalizations: words such as all, always and never are too broad and cannot be supported
- All Americans eat fast food
 Event related only by sequence: when one event happens, it does not necessarily cause a second event
to happen, even if it follows the other in time
- Henry went to the football game and then he had a car accident. Therefore, football games cause car
accidents.
 Inappropriate authority figures: using famous names may help you prove or disapprove your point.
However, be sure to use the name logically and in the proper context
- Madonna is a good singer. As a result, she would make a good orchestra conductor
 Hasty generalizations: making quick judgments based on inadequate information
 Loaded words: avoid emotionally packed words. Try to persuade your reader using logical arguments
not emotional rants
 Either /Or arguments: when you argue a point, be careful not to limit the outcome choices to only one
or three. In fact, there are often a multitude of choices. When offer two scenarios, you are essentially
trying to frighten the reader into your beliefs.
- The instructor must either return the tests or dismiss the test
Practice
- Write an argumentative essay about one of the following topics

 Are you for or against corporal punishment in primary schools
 Are you for or against volunteering
 Euthanasia should be instituted after consulting the patient
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
PERCEPTION OF RESEARCH TYPES
I. Definitions of research
The following are some of the most important definitions of research:
 John W. Best has rightly said, “The secret of our cultural development has been research, pushing
back the areas of ignorance by discovering new truths, which, in turn, lead to better ways of doing
things and better products.”
 “Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual
process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose and form and always
researching to truth.” J. Francis Rummel
 “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or implications
with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of research should be an
authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the field studied.” P.M. Cook
 “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of carrying on the
scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually
resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or conclusion.” John W.
Best
 “Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions
and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.”
Clifford Woody
 “Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and
systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts , analyse their
sequences , interrelationships and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate
theoretical frame of reference , develop new scientific tools , concepts and theories which would
facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.” P.V. Younge
II. Characteristics of research
- Research begins with a question in the mind of the researcher (either direct or indirect)
- Research requires the identification of a problem, stated in clear, unambiguous terms
- Research implies an organization (plan, outline)
- Research deals with a main problem through sub-problems (ex, phenomenon, its causes and its
consequences )
- Research deals with facts and their meanings (interpretations which are based on evidence)
- To qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics:
24
 Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
 Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), we set up our study in
a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is
done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely
difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where
such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control
external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.
 Rigorous-you must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
 Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever we conclude on the basis of our
findings is correct and can be verified by us and others.
 Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
 Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
III. Why should I participate / do research?

- This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless there are
some motivating factors.
- Some of the motivations are the following:
a. to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like better
employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc.
b. to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or become a
scientist in a research institution
c. to get a research position in countries like U.S.A., Canada, Germany, England, Japan, Australia,
etc. and settle there
d. to solve the unsolved and challenging problems
e. to acquire respectability
f. to get recognition
g. curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event (to get joy of doing some creative work)
h. curiosity to find new things
i. to serve the society by solving social problems
25
IV. Importance of research
- Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems, events,
phenomena and processes occur every day.
- Practically, implementable solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that
arise.
- Scientists have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and
applications.
- Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena.
- Some important avenues of research are:
1. Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of them.
2. It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving problems.
3. Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government
to prepare a budget.
4. It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the
quality of products.
5. It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new stars,
etc.
6. Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and
processes such as cloning have been discovered only through research.
7. Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek
solution to social problems.
8. Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious
V. Where does research occur? Who does it ? How long it takes?

- Research is conducted in many settings: educational institutes, laboratories, classrooms, libraries, the
city streets, foreign cultures, etc.
- Research is done by researchers, who are professors from education, natural sciences or social
sciences, experts, and students of graduate or undergraduate programmes from related and multiple
disciplines.
- Some research is of short duration. Other research is spread over a long period of time.
VI. What are research Types?

- When carrying out research, our purposes are different. Therefore research types will vary according
to our purposes.
- The major research types will fall under application, objectives, inquiry mode, and sometimes we
may use mixed method research.
26
A. In terms of application
1. Pure research
a. Also called as the fundamental or the theoretical research.
b. Is basic and original.
c. Can lead to the discovery of a new theory.
d. Can result in the development or refinement of a theory that already exists.
e. Helps in getting knowledge without thinking formally of implementing it in practice based on the
honesty, love and integrity of the researcher for discovering the truth.
2. Applied research
a. Based on the concept of the pure research.
b. Is problem oriented.
c. Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems.
d. Provides evidence of usefulness to society.
e. Helps in testing empirical content of a theory.
f. Utilizes and helps in developing the techniques that can be used for basic research.
g. Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions.
h. Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of generalization.
B. In terms of objectives
1- Exploratory research
a. Involves exploring a general aspect.
b. Includes studying of a problem, about which nothing or a very little is known.
c. Follows a very formal approach of research.
d. Helps in exploring new ideas.
e. Helps in gathering information to study a specific problem very minutely.
f. Helps in knowing the feasibility in attempting a study.
2- Descriptive research
a. Simplest form of research.
b. More specific in nature and working than exploratory research.
c. It involves a mutual effort.
d. Helps in identifying various features of a problem.
e. Restricted to the problems that are describable and not arguable and the problems in which valid
standards can be developed for standards.
f. Existing theories can be easily put under test by empirical observations.
g. Underlines factors that may lead to experimental research.
h. It consumes a lot of time.
i. It is not directed by hypothesis.
3- Explanatory research
a. Quite similar to the descriptive research.
b. Identifies the causes of the problems and then solutions for these problems.
c. Related to causal relations.
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d. It is directed by hypothesis.
e. Can be done only where knowledge is advanced.
4- Correlation research
a. Identifies variables that relate to one each other
b. Measures the form of the relationship between two variables or more
c. Identifies the type of association between two variables or more
d. Identifies the direction or the degree of this relationship
e. Gives indication how one variable predicts another
C. In terms of mode of inquiry

1. Qualitative research
a. Conducted to have an insight and better understanding of not only about the current situation is b
ut also why it is so.
b. More open and responsive to the research participants.
c. Uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies,
d. Offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory studies.
2. Quantitative research
a. Means the data is analyzed in terms of numbers.
b. Involves the collection of numerical data.
c. Predicts and explains data in the form of statistical analysis.
d. Uses the numerical method to analysis and interpret the results.
e. Finds out the relationship among quantifiable variables and the results are inferred
3. Mixed methods research

a. Collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data.
b. Mix two forms of data in different ways.
c. Give priority to one or both forms of data.
d. Can be in a single study or in multiple phases of a study.
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
STEPS FOR WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS
There are ten steps involved in writing a research paper. However, the focus is only the first six ones
- Step 1: Select a topic

- Step 2: Narrow the topic
- Step 3: State the objective /or thesis
- Step 4: Form a preliminary bibliography
- Step 5: Prepare a working outline (prepare topics you want to discuss)
- Step 6: Start taking notes
- Step 7: Outline the paper
- Step 8: Write a rough draft
- Step 9: Edit your paper
- Step 10: Write the final draft
I- Tips for Selecting a Research Topic

 Choose a topic that interests you personally! Your progress will be faster (and more fulfilling). By
choosing a topic that has meaning in the wider context of your own life, you may find the answer to a
question or solve a problem, in addition to advancing your studies. motivation is very important
 Scan current magazines and journal for topic ideas. Try browsing recent issues of magazines and
journals in the field you are studying to develop a feel for the research questions that are of current
importance to scholars in the field. Newspapers also tend to report current developments in public policy
and can often spark interest in a particular issue.
 Be flexible - unforeseen circumstances may require a shift of focus. It is probable that in the course of
a research project you will have to modify your topic at least once. Sometimes a topic that seems
interesting at the beginning of a project turns out to be not so interesting once you learn more about the
subject.
 Get an early start. Procrastination can be hazardous! An early start will give you time to maneuver if
you hit a snag and have to modify your research strategy.
 Don't be shy about talking with your instructor! If you cannot find a suitable topic, or if your
preferred topic poses problems that seem insoluble, be sure to talk to your professor to discuss
difficulties before investing too much time and effort in the project. Your professor/ supervisor has the
advantage of many years of experience in the discipline you are studying.
29
Topics to be avoided
 Too broad. Hieroglyphics is too broad a topic, but how original Egyptian hieroglyphics are protected will
work.
 Too narrow By contrast also avoid a topic that is too narrow, one for which little information is available.
For example, metric cooking conversions is too narrow; it can be explained in a few sentences or even a
chart. The complexity of national metric conversion, however, has sufficient breadth for a suitable topic.
 Too trivial Topics may not be meaningful enough to others.
 Too subjective Topics that are too personal to you may not be as meaningful to others.
 Too controversial You could have a tendency to get bogged down in arguments and support.
 Too familiar Topics too familiar to you may bore others. They also may lead you to skip over
information that you take for granted but others need to know.
 Too technical You may become too overwhelmed learning the technical language of what you are writing
about.
 Too factual Your project should be more than just recitation of facts.
 Too new A new topic may have inadequate and insufficient resources.
 Too regional Local topics generally lack sufficient resources for a well-developed project.
II- How to narrow your topic

I. Things to consider before narrowing the topic
- As you narrow your topic, consider many of the same things as you did when you selected your broad
topic
1- The requirements of the assignment
- What are the content and length requirements set for topic selection ? (Your objective is to narrow your
topic to a focus and size that enables you to provide in-depth, detailed coverage of the topic within the
page requirements of the assignment).
2- Your personal interests
- You will be spending a lot of time with this topic. Make sure that this is something that genuinely interests
you. This will make the research and writing process more enjoyable, and the finished work will reflect
your sincerity and conviction.
3- Audience and purpose
- What aspects of the topic would most be most interesting and important to your audience?
- What aspects of the topic would be new to the audience? Avoid tired topics that your audience and your
instructor are already thoroughly familiar with.
II. Tips to narrow the topic

- The best way to narrow your topic is to apply a few of the old familiar question words, like who, what,
where, when, why, and how.
- If those questions do not help you narrow your topic sufficiently, proceed to the next step. Ask the
analytical questions: How did this come to be? What are the causes? What are the results? What happens
next? How does this compare? How does this contrast? What is the value? These questions will help you
think through your topic. Then let your mind make connections.
30
 Too broad : Hip hop dancing. (what )
 Better, but still too broad: Hip hop as therapy. (what)
 Narrowed topic: Hip hop as therapy in Japan. (what and where)
 Better: Hip hop as therapy for delinquent youth in Japan. (what, where, who)
 Too broad : Reading

 Better, but still too broad: Reading Habits
 Narrowed topic : Youths Reading Habit
 Better : Reading Habits of Youths in Morocco
 Too broad: Sports are enjoyable.

 Better, but still too broad: Swimming is enjoyable. (what sport is enjoyable?)
 Narrowed topic: Swimming is enjoyable because _______. (why is swimming enjoyable?)
Pratice :
1- Evaluate the following topics
– Family problems in 1990s
– Sexuality education in Morocco
– Online friendship
– Personal information sharing online
– Women’s health
– Men’s life expectancy
2- Use the following ideas and narrow each one separately into a specific research topic
– Tourism
– Career
– Transportation
– Migration
– School
– Pollution
– Education
– Religion
– Technology
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
STEPS FOR WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS:

COMPILING BIBLIGRAPHY
I. What is a Bibliography?
- A bibliography is a listing of books, articles and other sources used in finding information for your term
paper, Master thesis or any other type of serious academic writing project.
- The purpose of a bibliography is to allow the reader to check your sources of information and to
provide a list of sources for further study of the topic.
- These sources could be books, magazines, newspapers, encyclopedias, pamphlets, videos, audiotapes,
interviews, CD-ROMS or internet resources such as w1orld wide web sites.
II. Form and Content of a bibliography
a. The bibliographic form should be correct and consistent. The chosen style should be used throughout
the bibliography.
b. A bibliography should be characterized by Quality, quantity and variety

 Quality – A good bibliography should include the most important standard works on the topic and other
works which have a clear connection to the given topic.
 Quantity – A good bibliography should include the best known publications on the topic; those that are
repeatedly mentioned in bibliographies at the end of articles, essays and in books. The number of titles
listed should be large enough to make the bibliography a useful research tool.
 Variety – A good bibliography should include books and articles, and may include Internet resources.
Depending on your topic, you might also want to include government documents, maps, statistics or
references to interviews that you have conducted. Again, depending on your topic, you might want to
include both primary (diaries, letters, first-hand accounts, public opinion surveys, laboratory studies)
and secondary (published interpretations of primary materials).
III. The Steps to Compiling a Good Bibliography

1. Find Relevant Materials
- Once you begin research on a given topic, check the following sources for relevant materials:
 Library Catalogs
 for books availaible
 for books at other universities and institutions
32
 Bibliographies (book length lists of articles and books on a subject)
 Article indexes
 for journal or magazine articles on your topic
 different indexes cover different subjects
 remember that not every article you find in the article index is available in this library
 Encyclopedias
 Books that deal with a special topic will usually have a list of works cited at the back of the volume
2. Compose the bibliography entry

- While checking your sources, write down, photocopy, or print the following information for each
source you find.
Collect this information for each printed Collect this information for each Web Site:
source
 Author’s name  author and editor’s names (if available)
 title of the publication (and the title of the  title of the page (if available)
article if it's a magazine or encyclopedia)  the company or organization who posted
 date of publication the webpage
 the place of publication of a book  the Web address for the page (called a
 the publishing company of a book URL)
 the volume number of a magazine or  the last date you looked at the page
printed encyclopedia
 the page number(s)
3. Apply the Required Bibliographic Style

- There is more than one way to write up a bibliography.
 APA (American Psychological Association) - used in the social sciences
 Chicago Manual of Style - used in the humanities and social sciences
 MLA (Modern Language Association) - used in literature and the humanities
 Turabian Style - a variation of the Chicago style used in many disciplines in humanities, social
sciences and natural sciences
IV. American Psychological Association (APA): Basics

Basics
- Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered
title, References.
- Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore
spaces and other punctuation.)
- Only the initials of the first and middle names are given.
- If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The.
- For dates, spell out the names of months in the text of your paper, but abbreviate them in the list of
works cited, except for May, June, and July. Use either the day-month-year style (22 July 1999) or the
33
month-day-year style (July 22, 1999) and be consistent. With the month-day-year style, be sure to add
a comma after the year unless another punctuation mark goes there.
- Hanging Indentation: All APA citations should use hanging indents, that is, the first line of an entry
should be flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented 1/2".
- Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation: The APA guidelines specify using sentence-style
capitalization for the titles of books or articles, so you should capitalize only the first word of a title
and subtitle. The exceptions to this rule would be periodical titles and proper names in a title which
should still be capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume
number which, with the title, is also italicized.
- If there is more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. If there are
more than six authors, list only the first one and use et al. for the rest.
- Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the name of the author. Place a period
after the closing parenthesis. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter
works within longer works.
A. Books
Basic Format for Books: Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle.
Location: Publisher.
 Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal
publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
a. Edited Book
 Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York,
NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
b. A Translation
 Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities. (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory,
Trans.). New York, NY: Dover. (Original work published 1814)
c. Edition Other Than the First

 Helfer, M. E., Kempe, R. S., & Krugman, R. D. (1997). The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
B. Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
Basic Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. A. Editor & B.
B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.
34
 O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: A metaphor for
healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life
cycle (pp. 107-123). New York, NY: Springer.
C. Multivolume Work
 Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York, NY:
Scribner's.
D. Encyclopedia & Dictionary
Basis Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volume,
pages). City of publication: Publishing company.
 Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508).
Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
 Pettingill, O. S., Jr. (1980). Falcon and Falconry. World book encyclopedia. (pp. 150-155).
Chicago: World Book.
 Tobias, R. (1991). Thurber, James. Encyclopedia americana. (p. 600). New York: Scholastic
Library Publishing.
E. Magazine & Newspaper Articles
Basic Format: Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume
number(issue number if available), inclusive pages.
Note: Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical includes a
volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without "pp." If the periodical
does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers.
Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA
style.
 Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of
Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.
 Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
 Kalette, D. (1986, July 21). California town counts town to big quake. USA Today, 9, p. A1.
35
 Kanfer, S. (1986, July 21). Heard any good books lately? Time, 113, 71-72.
 Trillin, C. (1993, February 15). Culture shopping. New Yorker, pp. 48-51.
F. Website or Webpage
Basic Format:
- Online periodical:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month
day, year, from full URL
- Online document:
Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL
Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use
"n.d." (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line after
a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no period
following a URL.
Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.
 Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved
January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html
 Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998,
from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website:
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html
Note: If a document is contained within a large and complex website (such as that for a university or a
government agency), identify the host organization and the relevant program or department before giving the
URL for the document itself. Precede the URL with a colon.
 Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-
being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from
http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
 GVU's 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/gvu/usersurveys/survey1997-10/
36
 Health Canada. (2002, February). The safety of genetically modified food crops. Retrieved March
22, 2005, from http://www.hc-
sc.gc.ca/english/protection/biologics_genetics/gen_mod_foods/genmodebk.html
 Hilts, P. J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions, most people flunk out. New York
Times. Retrieved November 21, 2000, from http://www.nytimes.com
PRACTICE
I. Write a reference list using APA style for the following sources
 A book published in 1991 in Oxford written by Professor John Sinclair. The title of the book is:
Corpus, concordance and collocation and the publisher was Oxford University press.
 Jonathan Mills wrote this newspaper article. It was in the Guardian newspaper on Saturday November
6th this year. The title is: Divorced couple fights for frozen embryos.
 An article in the journal: Applied linguistics. It was written in 1985 by E Bialystock and M
Sharwood-Smith. The title of the article is: Interlanguage is not a state of mind. It was published in
volume 6 and it is from page 101 to page 117.
 A book by Lyle Bachman and Adrian Palmer written in 1996. The title is: Language testing in
practice. It is published by Oxford University Press in Oxford.
 A website with no author or date. We used the webpage on January 16, 2009. Title: WWW user
survey. The URL is http://www.usersurvey.www/webpages
 An article in an online magazine Psychology Today, June 2009. You read the article online
yesterday. The title of the article is Mental reserves keep brain agile. The author’s name is John
Brody. The URL is http://www.psychologytoday.com
II. In this list, the APA style is used. There is at least one mistake in every entry. Correct
them and check your answers with your classmates .
1- Brett, P. 1994. A genre analysis of the results sections of sociology articles. English for
Specific Purposes, 13, 47-59.
2- Bridgeman, B., & Carlson, S. B. Survey of academic writing tasks. Written Communication,
1, 247-280.
37
3- Campbell, A. F. (1983). Organise your English. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
4- Clyne, M. (1983). Culture and discourse structure. In Smith L. E.(Ed.), Readings in English as
an international language (pp. 163-167). London: Prentice Hall.
5- Collinson, D. J. (1982). Writing English. Wildwood House.
6- Dudley-Evans, A. (1984). "A preliminary investigation of the writing of dissertation titles". In
G. James (Ed.), The ESP classroom: Methodology, materials and expectations (pp. 40-46).
Exeter: University of Exeter.
7- Cookson, L. (1984). Writing. London: Hutchinson.
8- Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills. Cambridge.
9- Hamp-Lyons, L. & K. B. Courter (1984). Research matters. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
10- Hamp-Lyons, L. & Heasley, B. (1987). Study writing. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
11- Hilts, P. J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions, most people flunk out. New
York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
12- American Dietetic Association. (2004). EatRight.org Home Page. Retrieved June 16, 2004.
13- Fitzgibbon, M. and Stolley, M. (2000, December). Minority women: The untold story. In
NOVA Online: Dying to be thin. Retrieved June 27, 2004,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/thin/minorities.html
III. Using APA Style, arrange the following bibliographical data appropriately, using the
right punctuation and capitalization.
1. An article published in the tenth volume, sixth issue of the periodical drama review. The article
entitled shakespeare's genius revisited was written by graham wilson, published in 1976, it appeared
on pages 224 through 256.
2. A book, edited by edward bailey and philip powell and entitled the practical writer. The book was
published in new york by newbury house in 1984
3. A book, written by michael mc carthy, entitled discourse analysis for language teachers. It was
published in 1991 by cambridge university press in cambridge.
4. An article, published in 1987 as part of a book entitled how conversation works, edited by robert
kaplan and published by oxford university press at oxford. The title of the article is a corpus of
english conversation, written by john brown. The article appeared on pages 95 through 156.
5. A book, written by peter taylor and david cameron. It was published in 1988 by pergamon press in
london under the title analysing conversation rules and structure of discourse.
6. A third cycle thesis entitled learning behaviour among moroccan university students. The thesis was
submitted at sidi mohamed ben abdallah university in 1989 by ahmed bentahar.
38
7. A 4th year monograph submitted in 1990 by halima ajadi at the fes faculty of letters under the title
imagery in shakespeare's king lear
8. A book written by driss tadili and five other people. The book was published by afrique orient in
casablanca in 1992 and entitled the moroccan economy under stress an analysis
9. An article which appeared on pages 345 through 370 of the second volume, second issue of the
international review of applied linguistics. The article, written by catherine robson was published in
1992 under the title teaching speech acts to learners of english as a second language.
10. A book edited by ali mazrui, published by the university of California press at san francisco in 1978.
the title is political values and the educated class in Africa
11. A book wtitten by sheila morgan and william yorkey. Published in 1992 by longman in london and
entitled working with words
12. A book written by jb pride, a carter, and sd williams under the title sociolinguistic aspects of english,
published in 1995 by cambridge university press in Cambridge
13. A book edited by bs bloom, f marton, g pask and wg perry, entitled forms of intellectual and
vocational development. Published in 1992 by the scottish academic press at Edinburgh
14. An article published in 1995 in the british journal of sociology, third volume, issue 33, pages 234-
250. The title of the article is understanding familiarity in language.
15. An article written by alan bennett and john davidson. Published in 1989 in the journal of personality
and social psychology, tenth volume, fifth issue, pages 34-68. The title of the article is some signals
and rules for turn taking in english
16. An article that was published as part of a book in 1996. The book, entitled analysing everyday
conversation was edited by mh goodwin and published by oupat oxford. The article, entitled using
speech acts to do things and written by g jefferson, appeared on pages 145 though 190
17. An article that was published in 1987 in the american Sociological review, volume eight, issue six,
pages 23 through 56. The article was entitled argument as a natural category.
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
STEPS FOR WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS:

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
I. What is a literature review?

A literature review is a survey of everything that has been written about a particular topic, theory, or research
question. It may provide the background for larger work, or it may stand on its own. Much more than a
simple list of sources, an effective literature review analyzes and synthesizes information about key themes
or issues
Book Review Annotated Bibliography Literature Review
Analyzes and evaluates a Summarizes relevant sources and Surveys all relevant literature to
particular book. explains the significance of that determine what is known and not
source to the research question. known about a particular topic
II. Why write a literature review?

- To discover what has been written about a topic already
- To determine what each source contributes to the topic
- To understand the relationship between the various contributions, identify and (if possible)
resolve contradictions, and determine gaps or unanswered questions
III. What is involved in writing a literature review?

- Research – to discover what has been written about the topic
- Critical Appraisal – to evaluate the literature, determine the relationship between the sources and
ascertain what has been done already and what still needs to be done
- Writing – to explain what you have found
IV. Steps to writing an effective literature review:

A. Gathering sources Focus your topic: A literature review aims to cover all of the research on a
given topic. If the topic is too large, there will be too much material to cover it adequately.
B. Read with a purpose: Although you will need to briefly summarize sources, a good literature
review requires that you isolate key themes or issues related to your own research interests.
C. Evaluating sources For each book or article consider:
i. Credentials: Is the author an expert?
ii. Argument/Evidence: Does the evidence support the conclusion? Is the argument or
evidence complete? When comparing sources, consider:
iii. Conclusions: Does all research arrive at the same conclusion or are there differing
opinions? What evidence or reasoning are the differences based on?
iv. Gaps or omissions: What questions are raised by the literature?
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Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
NOTE-TAKING
I- Preliminaries
- Effective note taking from lectures and readings is an essential skill for university study.
- Good note taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant points that you can
integrate with your own writing and speaking.
- Good note-taking reduces the risk of plagiarism. It also helps you distinguish where your ideas came
from and how you think about those ideas.
- Effective note-taking requires:
 recognizing the main ideas
 identifying what information is relevant to your task
 having a system of note taking that works for you
 reducing the information to note and diagram format
 where possible, putting the information in your own words
 recording the source of the information
II-Note-taking strategies
1. Be selective and systematic: As you take notes from a written source, keep in mind that not all of a
text may be relevant to your needs. Think about your purpose for reading.
 Are you reading for a general understanding of a topic or concept?
 Are you reading for some specific information that may relate to the topic of an assignment?
2. Identify the purpose and function of a text: Whether you need to make notes on a whole text or
just part of it, identifying the main purpose and function of a text is invaluable (very important) for
clarifying your note-taking purposes and saving time.
 Read the title and the abstract or preface (if there is one)
 Read the introduction or first paragraph
 Skim the text to read topic headings and notice how the text is organized
 Read graphic material and predict its purpose in the text
- Your aim is to identify potentially useful information by getting an initial overview of the text
(chapter, article, pages) that you have selected to read.
- Ask yourself: will this text give me the information I require and where might it be located in the
text?
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3. Identify how information is organized Most texts use a range of organizing principles to develop
ideas. While most good writing will have a logical order, not all writers will use an organizing
principle. Organizing principles tend to sequence information into a logical hierarchy, some of which
are:
 Past ideas to present ideas
 The steps or stages of a process or event
 Most important point to least important point
 Well known ideas to least known ideas
 Simple ideas to complex ideas
 General ideas to specific ideas
 The largest parts to the smallest parts of something
 Problems and solutions
 Causes and results
4. Include your thoughts

- When taking notes for an assignment, it is also helpful to record your thoughts at the time. Record
your thoughts in a separate column or margin and in a different color to the notes you took from the
text. This includes
 What ideas did you have about your assignment when you read that information?
 How do you think you could use this information in your assignment?
III- Researching and Note taking

- After you have done some prewriting to generate ideas, the next step in the process is gathering
information on the topic you’ve chosen to write about.
- Taking notes precludes you the following:
i. Losing information. While researching, you may find a perfect passage to quote in a book, but a
week later when you start writing your paper, this passage is impossible to find. Similarly, you may
find a great source on a database, but when it’s time to collect that source in the library, your limited
notes prevent you getting your hands on the actual book or journal. Even the most simple fact,
quotation, or bit of information is easy to forget when you’re under a deadline and trying to write a
good paper quickly.
ii. Losing citation information. Often, in a rush to get out of the library or speed up the research
process, students cut corners when taking notes on the bibliographic and citation information for
sources. This loss is often disastrous. You may find yourself using materials from a book to prove
some major arguments in your paper, only to realize at the end that you have to take ideas out of the
paper since you can’t properly attribute their sources on your works cited page.
iii. Inability to have regular access to a source. Some of the best sources in a library are found in the
reference section (they typically have the code “REF” before the call numbers). These sources
cannot be checked out of the library; they are meant to be accessible to any student at any
time. Since you can’t take these books home with you, good note taking is essential. Also, the
typical academic library only lets you borrow a source for a very limited number of days. You’ll
need the information longer than that, so you need to master the skills of taking notes thorough
enough for you to complete your paper without having the actual book in hand.
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IV- Note-taking system
These research perils are very easy to overcome if you develop a good system of note taking
A. Research Cards
- In research writing, the most common and convenient way to take notes on your sources is to use note
cards. In fact, many professors require their students to use note cards and submit them with their
final paper to see how they gathered their data; others may have them submit their research cards
throughout the term to make sure that they are making progress in your research.
- Note cards are very handy (convenient) because students can easily store them for use later; they’re
small and easy to transport, and they’re more durable than paper, so they don’t get wrinkled and
ripped while you’re transporting them from library to home and back again.
- A typical set of cards contains two different types: bibliography cards and note cards.
1. Bibliography Cards:
- The bibliography (work cited) card should be the first card you fill out whenever you find a source
you plan to use.
- It needs to be thorough and accurate—don’t cut corners to save a few minutes.
- The bibliography card below is an example.
Note the following key elements to this card.

 A is the full bibliographic entry for the source in either proper MLA or APA format. This entry
is EXACTLY how it will be reprinted in the works cited page of your paper. It is a bit time
consuming to do it this way, but it will save you a lot of time during your paper draft, and it will
virtually eliminate any mistakes you’d make while compiling the works cited list at a later date.
43
 B is a summary of the source. On larger papers, you’ll read so many sources (even though you
won’t use all of them…), that it will be hard to tell the difference between them later on. This
summary should help you recall later on which source you’re dealing with. It could include a brief
description of the major arguments you’re drawing on and what made the source good enough for
you to use, or even just a physical description like “the blue book with all the good graphs in the
back!”
 C is a source number. Every source you pick up should have its own number assigned to it. The
first book you pick up is number 1. Finish the bibliography card and start taking notes from this
source. The next source is number 2. Finish that bibliography card and take all the notes out of that
source next. This seems very simple at this stage, but the source numbers become a life saver when
we get to the note cards below.
2. Note Cards:
- Note cards are the actual notes themselves.
- Every bit of information and personal reflection you have from a source needs to be documented in a
note card.
- As a general rule, you should only make one note per card, and you should try whenever possible to
keep the entire note on the front side of the card.
Note the following elements on this note card.
 A is the topic heading for the note card. The topic heading lets know at a glance exactly what type
of information is on this card. Here, it says “Television Advertising/Direct Quote” to let you know
the type of information on the card and whether the card contains a quotation, paraphrase, or
summary. The topic heading should ultimately correspond to specific points on your outline. Your
card could even have a topic heading such as “II.B.2 Television History/Direct Quote.” The
“II.B.2” tells you that this will ultimately be used in that specific point of the outline
44
 B is the source number. This number corresponds to the source number of the bib card for the
source the note comes from. By using this simple system of source numbers, you’ll never have to
write any bibliographic information on your note cards. If you see the number 7 in that corner, just
flip to the bib card with a number 7 on it for the corresponding bibliographic information. This
system will save you hours of copying the same bib notes repeatedly.
 C is the note itself. This is the most important part of the note taking process, obviously. You will
need to take different types of notes: direct quotes, paraphrases, statistics, dates/historical facts, and
personal thoughts.
 D is the citation information, in proper MLA or APA format. Note that you’ve included the
author’s last name (or an abbreviation of the title if no name is give), just as you would in the body
of your paper. Following proper documentation format at this stage will make citing sources easier
when you write your paper. The most important detail on this part of the note card is the page
number. Get in the habit of always including page numbers in your note cards. If the page number
isn’t part of your note, you will not be able to provide an accurate in-text citation.
3. Electronic Note Taking:

- Many students have access to computers or even laptops they can take right into the library while
researching, and this makes word processor software another avenue of note taking. E-notes can be
very handy because you can simply cut and paste the information directly into your paper, saving a
lot of time fishing through your sources while you write your draft. The key to electronic note taking,
as with note cards, is to remain as organized as possible. If you have dozens of saved word files
sprawled around your desktop or on several different thumb drives, these notes will be of no real
value to you when it comes time to draft your paper.
Consider the following tips while taking notes on a computer:
i. Organize: You must decide how you want to organize your e-notes before you begin taking
them. Here are three options:
a- You can have one large file that contains all of your notes, so you always know where they
are. If you chose to do this, you must have a way to separate your ideas visually on your
screen; this can be done through using outline features, using bold or underlined headings and
subheadings, or simply inserting page breaks between each note.
b- You can save separate files for each note you take. This will lead to dozens of individual saved
files, but if they are clearly named, it can be an easy way to find the exact quote you’re looking
for later on in the writing process.
c- You can save separate files for each source you’re taking notes out of. If you take ten notes out
of one book you’re using, save all of that as one file. Later on, you simply open that book’s
note file, and you’ll find all the information you thought to copy down.
ii. Track the Original Location: The author and page number of every note you take must be tracked
during your note taking. You could simply use MLA or APA style parenthetical citations to track the
author and page number, or you could use a system more akin to the note cards mentioned above.
iii. Bibliographic Information: Just as note cards start with detailed bib cards, your electronic notes must
begin with electronic bibliographic information. Every bit of information you may need for a works
45
cited page should be copied down during note taking. The way you take down this information
depends on how you took your e-notes:
d- If you decided to take all your notes on one large file, you could use the bibliographic
information as a way to organize your notes visually. Each time you start a new source in this
large file, you being that section with a full works cited-type entry for that source.
e- If every note is its own save file, you could organize them all in one “folder” along with a
separate save file which contains nothing but the bibliographic information. This way, each
folder contains all the notes and works cited information you’ll need.
f- If you opt to make each source its own file, the top of that document should contain the
bibliographic information.
iv. Backups! Make sure that you make backup copies of all of your notes. Data loss and computer
crashes are very commonplace events and one could be catastrophic if it lost all of your notes. Email
the notes to yourself, so they’re sitting on a server somewhere, put them on separate thumb drives,
even store them on a friend’s computer until the paper is finished.
4. Copies and Print Outs:

- Another way to keep track of your sources is to simply have full copies of the sources with you at all
times. Virtually every library will give you access to a photocopier, so you can make copies of the
sources you’re using. This is especially important for print versions of journal articles and reference
books which can’t be checked out. You’ll still want to keep good notes using one of the methods
above, but having the source on hand can be very important during the writing process. Many
databases now allow you email yourself whole articles and files, so you can save on print costs (and
trees) by keeping electronic version of the sources you’re using.
NB:
 The system detailed above is just one way to organize your notes.
 You can experiment it with variations and differences as your college career continues.
 Modify your note taking system to suit your needs and your own learning style.
 The key to any note taking system you develop, however, is consistency.
 Don’t use one system for taking notes and saving bibliographic information for one source and
another system for another source. That type of variation will cause you to miss key information and
lead to more work (and headaches) for you later.
46
Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
TYPE OF NOTES : 1) SUMMARIZING
I. Preliminaries
 Summarizing is a powerful reading strategy. It increases comprehension and retention of information
 When you summarize, you restate the most important information of a text, using your own words.
 Summarizing is:
• Keeping: Keep only the important information and main ideas.
• Deleting : Do not include supporting details in your summary
• Paraphrasing: Use your own words!!!
II. Definition
A Summary may be defined as “a brief restatement, in your own words, of the content of a passage (a
group of paragraphs, a chapter, an article, a book). This restatement should focus on the central idea of the
passage. (…..) ( a )complete summary will indicate, in condensed form, the main points in the passage that
support or explain the central idea. It will reflect the order in which these points are presented and the
emphasis given to them. It may even include some important examples from the passage. But it will not
include minor details. It will not repeat points simply for the purpose of emphasis. And it will not contain
any of your own opinions or conclusions” (Laurence M. Behrens, 1994 ).
III. Qualities of a good summary

A good summary should be comprehensive, concise, coherent, independent and objective. These qualities
are explained below:
A. A summary must be comprehensive. You should isolate all the important points in the original
passage and note them down in a list. Review all the ideas on your list, and include in your summary
all the ones that are indispensable to the author's development of his/her thesis or main idea.
B. A summary must be concise. Eliminate repetitions in your list, even if the author restates the same
points. Your summary should be considerably shorter than the source. You are hoping to create an
overview; therefore, you need not include every repetition of a point or every supporting detail.
C. A summary must be coherent. It should make sense as a piece of writing in its own right; it should
not merely be taken directly from your list of notes or sound like a disjointed collection of points.
D. A summary must be independent. You are not being asked to imitate the author of the text you are
writing about. On the contrary, you are expected to maintain your own voice throughout the
summary. Don't simply quote the author; instead use your own words to express your understanding
of what you have read. After all, your summary is based on your interpretation of the writer's points
or ideas. However, you should be careful not to create any misrepresentation or distortion by
introducing comments or criticisms of your own.
47
E. A summary must be Objective : Objectivity could be difficult to achieve in a summary. Writing a
summary requires you to select some aspects of the original and leave out others. Therefore, your
interpretation of a passage may differ from another person’s. Still, despite all this, it’s possible to
produce a reasonably objective summary of a passage if you make a conscious, good-faith effort to be
unbiased and to prevent your own feelings on the subject from coloring your account of the author s
text
IV. Functions of a summary

- Writing a summary is an excellent way to understand what you read. This in itself is an important
goal of academic study. If you don t understand your source material, you won’t be able to refer to it
usefully in a paper.
- Summaries help you understand what you read because they force you to put the text into your own
words.
- Practice with writing summaries also develops your general writing habits, because a good summary,
like any other piece of good writing, is clear, coherent, and accurate.
- Summaries are useful to your readers. It is helpful to a reader who hasn’t t seen or read or who
doesn’t t remember the content of a piece of writing.
- Summaries help in writing the literature review of your research paper. For instance, you can
include and demonstrate your understanding of a theory or idea by summarizing it.
V. Writings that need a summary

- The types of writing that involve summary:
 Academic Writing Critique papers summarize material in order to critique it.
 Synthesis papers summarize to show relationships between sources.
 Analysis papers summarize theoretical perspectives before applying them. Research papers: note-
taking and reporting research require summary.
 Literature reviews: overviews of work are presented in brief summaries.
 Argument papers summarize evidence and opposing arguments.
 Essay exams demonstrate understanding of course materials through summary.
VI. Writing a summary

A. Steps involved in writing a summary
- Like any other skill, the ability to summarize improves with practice. Here are a few pointers to get you
started. They represent possible stages, or steps, in the process of writing a summary. These pointers are
not meant to be ironclad rules; rather, they are designed to encourage habits of thinking that will allow
you to vary your technique as the situation demands.
 Examine the context. Note the credentials, occupation and publications of the author. Identity the
source in which the piece originally appeared. This information helps illuminate the author’s
perspective on the topic he is addressing.
 Note the title and subtitle. Some titles are straightforward; the meaning of others become clearer as
you read. In either case, titles typically identify the topic being addressed and often reveal the
author’s attitude toward that topic .
48
 Identify the main point. Whether a piece of writing contains a thesis statement in the few paragraphs
or builds its main point without stating it up front, look at the entire piece to arrive at an
understanding of the overall point being made.
 Identify the subordinate points. Notice the smaller sub-points that make up the main point, and
make sure you understand how they relate to the main point if a particular sub-point doesn’t clearly
relate the main point you’ve identified, you may need to modify your understanding of the main
point.
 Break the reading into sections. Note which paragraph make up a piece’s introduction, body and
conclusion. Break up the body paragraph into sections that address the writer’s various sub-points.
 Distinguish between points, examples, and counterarguments. Critical reading requires careful
attention to what the writer is doing well as what he or she is saying. When a writer quotes
someone else or relays an example of something, ask yourself why this is being done. What point is
the example supporting? Is another source being quoted as support for a point or as counterargument
that the writer sets out to address
 Watch for transitions within and between paragraphs. In order to follow the logic of a piece of
writing as well as to distinguish between points, examples and counterarguments, pay attention to the
transitional words and phrases writers use. Transitions function like road signs preparing the reader
for what’s next.
 Read actively and recursively. Don’t treat reading as a passive, linear progression through a text.
Instead, read as thought you are engaged in a dialogue with the writer. Ask questions of the text as
you read, make notes in the margin, underline key ideas in pencil, put question or exclamation marks
next to passages that confuse or excite you. Go back to earlier points once you finish a reading, stop
during your reading to recap what’s come so far and move back and move back and forth through a
text.
B. Techniques involved in writing a summary

Summarizing paragraphs
1. The statement what the paragraph is about. That is, the statement of the theme of the paragraph
2. The division of the theme into parts. That is to say, the division of the paragraph into sections and
the writing of the sentence for each situation
3. The expansion of each of the section sentence
4. The writing of the forts and the final draft of the summary of the whole paragraph with special
attention given to the linking words
Summarizing Shorter Texts (ten pages or fewer)

1. Formulate a single sentence that summarizes the whole text.
2. Write a one-sentence summary of each paragraph.
3. Write a paragraph (or more): begin with the overall summary sentence and follow it with the paragraph
summary sentences.
4. Rearrange and rewrite the paragraph to make it clear and concise, to eliminate repetition and relatively
minor points, and to provide transitions. The final version should be a complete, unified, and coherent
whole
49
Summarizing Longer Texts (eleven pages or more)
1. Outline the text. Break it down into its major sections--groups of paragraphs focused on a common
topics – and list the main supporting points for each section.
2. Write a one or two sentence summary of each section.
3. Formulate a single sentence to summarize the whole text, looking at the author's thesis or topic
sentences as a guide.
4. Write a paragraph (or more):begin with the overall summary sentence and follow it with the section
summary sentences.
5. Rewrite and rearrange your paragraph(s) as needed to make your writing clear and concise, to
eliminate relatively minor or repetitious points, and to provide transitions. Make sure your summary
includes all the major supporting points of each idea. The final version should be a unified, complete,
and coherent whole
VII. How long should a summary be?

 The length of a summary depends both on the length of the original passage and on the use to which the
summary will be put. If you are summarizing an entire article, a good rule of thumb is that your
summary should be no longer than one-fourth the length of the original passage. Of course, if you were
summarizing an entire chapter or even an entire book, it would have to be much shorter than that.
 In general, summaries should be between 10 to 25 percent of the original text’s length (1 percent for
novels). If the summary is more than 25% of the original text’s length, you need to delete more details
and keep only the important information.
- Highlight or underline necessary information. Write your summary
a. “The movement toward education by computer is developing fast. Massive Open Online Courses, called
MOOCs, are changing how people learn in many places. For years, people could receive study materials
from colleges or universities and take part in online classes. But such classes were not designed for many
thousands of students at one time, as MOOCs are.”
b. The English were not the first Europeans to land their ships on American soil. The Vikings had discovered
North America in the 11th century. Columbus landed in the Bahamas in 1492 for Spain, and the French
began expeditions to the New World in 1524. But the first English presence in North America is important
because the thirteen English colonies that would later be established eventually became the country now
known as the United States of America.
c. If you are reading this right now, you are taking part in the wonder of literacy. Because of printed words,
people can send information across both time and space. Ideas are put in writing and sent to readers across
thousands of miles and years. Because of writing, the words of distant people can influence events, offer
knowledge, and change the world. Much of the credit for the development of this phenomenon can be
attributed to one man
50
- Summarize the following passage in no more than 120 words
There are so many lessons one can learn about life from a dog. Imagine this scenario: it is raining heavily
outside and you need to leave for someone's house. The dog is up and eager, to go with you. You tell it to
stay home. As you leave, you see it squeezing out through the gap in the doorway. You scold it and order it
back home. Then at every turn you make, you suddenly see it following you sheepishly at a distance. It
follows at the risk of being reprimanded for the sore reason of being somewhere nearby. How else can we
experience so selfless an instance of love and faithfulness? We can learn a lifelong lesson from this sincere
warm display of perpetual companionship.
Observe the eating habits of your dog. It does not eat, except when hungry. It does not drink, unless it is
thirsty. It does not gorge itself. It stops eating when it has had enough.
A dog also sets a perfect example of adaptability. If it is moved to a strange place, it is able to adapt itself
to that place and to its thousand peculiarities without a murmur of complaint. It is able to learn and adapt to a
new family's ways and customs. It is quick and ready to please. Man, being accustomed tocomfort and wealth
will be lost if suddenly stripped of all he is accustomed to.
A dog also teaches us a thing or two about, unselfish love. When a dog knows death is approaching, it
tries, with its last vestige of strength, to crawl away elsewhere to die, in order to burden its owners no more.
A dog does things with all vigor. However, when there is nothing to do, it lies down and rests. It does not
waste its strength and energy needlessly. Many working people are burning the candles at both ends. Many
suffer nervous breakdowns due to stress. Perhaps, they should learn to rest like a dog does
------------------------------------------------------------------
Valentine's Day is a holiday celebrated on February 14. In America, Europe and now many countries, it is the
traditional day on which lovers express their love for each other by sending Valentine's Day cards, presenting
flowers or offering confectionery.
This special day is most closely associated with the mutual exchange of love notes in the form of `valentines'.
These are Valentine symbols that include the heart-shaped outline, doves and the figure of the winged Cupid.
The popularity of Valentine's Day cards in 19th-century America was a harbinger of the future
commercialization of holidays in the United States.
Esther Howland, the woman who produced the first commercial American valentines in the 1840s, sold a
then mind-boggling $5,000 in cards during her first year of business. The valentine industry in the United
States has been booming ever since. The United States Greeting Card Association estimates that
approximately one billion Valentine's Day cards are sent each year worldwide, making this day the second
largest card-sending holiday following behind Christmas and New Year cards. Card giving goes back to
when the English settlers first arrived in the United States. As it was against the law to display affection in
public at that time, giving cards to loved ones was a way of showing one's affection without doing something
illegal and inviting public ridicule.
The United States Greeting Card Association estimated that women purchase approximately 85 percent of all
valentines. In addition to cards, there are millions of boxes of chocolates and bouquets of roses purchased,
mostly by men. Today, Valentine's Day beaus give their girls flowers, candy, cards, jewelry or some other
gift. A candlelight dinner usually follows, either homemade or at a romantic restaurant. Children and families
51
celebrate too. Children make hearts and valentine crafts in school to bring to their mothers and fathers, and
the family might have a special dinner and celebrate the love that keeps them together.
Many people feel that Valentine's Day is too commercialized. They ask if we need just that one day to show
our loved ones we love them. They feel that we should not need an excuse to show our love. In fact, love
should be shown every day. Moreover, it does not serve a good purpose for millions of people to spend more
than what they can afford on just one day.
On that day, shops begin to see the dollar sign as they cash in on the occasion. Everywhere are thousands of
different cards with all those endearing words. Big massive teddies sit in shop windows clutching a big red
heart with loving words. Florists are working through the night tying ribbons around dozens of red roses and
running out to deliver. Restaurants are fully booked with the men treating their lady to a romantic dinner.
This is typically what a Valentine's Day is today
52
Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
TYPE OF NOTES : 2)PARAPHRASING
I. What is paraphrasing?
- Paraphrasing means using your own words to describe somebody else’s argument
- "A paraphrase is a restatement, in your own words, of a passage of text. Its structure reflects the
structure of the source passage. Paraphrases are sometimes the same length as the source passage,
sometimes shorter. In certain cases-- particularly if the source passage is written in densely
constructed or jargon-laden prose--the paraphrase may be even longer than the original. . . . Keep in
mind that only an occasional word (but not whole phrases) from the original source appears in the
paraphrase, and that a paraphrase's sentence structure does not reflect that of the source ( Rosen and
Behrens 1994 p580 )
II. Why paraphrasing?

- Paraphrasing is a technique used to avoid plagiarism.
- The passage is too long to use as a quotation and you don’t want to be accused of plagiarizing
- The register of writing is not suitable (for example informal than informal )
- The language is not suitable, too technical or too difficult for the target audience or dense, abstract,
archaic, or possibly confusing
III. How to paraphrase? Some useful Techniques

- Make sure that you understand the source passage.
- Rearrange your own sentences so that they read smoothly. Sentence structure, even sentence order, in
the paraphrase need not be based on that of the original. A good paraphrase, like a good summary,
should stand by itself.
- Your paraphrase can be longer or shorter than the original.
- Concentrate on the meaning and not on the words to get the paraphrase in your own "voice."
- Exclude unnecessary information and include only what is important to your topic. Keep the essential
meaning to the original
- Use your own words and don’t merely substitute synonyms for words
- Look up any technical words that you don’t know. Understand all specialized vocabulary. Don’t
include your own comments
- Introduce your paraphrase with a signal phrase. If you don’t use a signal phrase, cite your source after
words
- Use some or all of the paraphrasing techniques listed below:
53
TECHNIQUE ORIGINAL SENTENCE PARAPHRASED
SENTENCE
Change word form or part of American news coverage is When American
speech. frequently biased in favor of journalists cover events, they
Western views. often display a Western bias.
Use synonyms of Budget shortfalls at the state Higher university tuition costs
"relationship words" such level have resulted in higher are due to lack of money in the
as contrast, cause, tuition costs at universities. state budget.
or effect, and substitute a
word or phrase that conveys a
similar meaning.
Use synonyms of phrases and There was a resurgence of At the beginning of the 1980s,
words. tuberculosis at the start of the the incidence of tuberculosis
decade. increased.
Change the word order. Under the early admission Universities accept students
system, students are accepted before their high school
by colleges before they graduation under the early
graduate from high school. admission system.
Use reversals or negatives This unusual species is only This species is not found on
that do not change the found underwater. land
meaning.
Change passive voice to Passive Voice: The Active Voice: Over one-third of
active and move phrases and entrance exam was failed by the applicants failed the
modifiers. over one-third of the entrance exam.
applicants.
Do not change concept Gamma rays consist of high High-energy photons that do
words, special terms, or energy photons that have not have mass or charge form
proper names. neither mass nor charge. Gamma rays.
Eight Paraphrase Pitfalls
- Misreading the original

- Including too much of the original
- Leaving out important information
- Adding your opinion
- Summarizing rather than paraphrasing
- Substituting inappropriate synonyms
- Expanding or narrowing the meaning
- Forgetting to document
IV. Signal words

a. Alert your reader that the upcoming text contains information from an outside source. You can
introduce a paraphrase with the source’s name
54
 According to the policy book at Colorado State University, minors who are caught drinking
will be fined
b. Remember that there are a number of phrases that you can use for variety. Action verbs are
particularly useful as signal words
 Argues  Observes  Claims
 Suggests  Notes  Rejects
 Illustrates  Proves  Believes
V. Length of a paraphrase
- Paraphrases are generally about the same length as (and sometimes shorter than) the
passages on which they are based. But sometimes clarity requires that a paraphrase be
longer than a tightly compacted source passage.
PRACTICE
I. Which sentences are closest in meaning to the five sentences below?
1. 25% of adolescents who have one baby have a second baby within two years of the
first baby's birth.
a. 25% of babies are born to mothers who are adolescents.
b. One out of four adolescent mothers has another baby before the first baby reaches his
second birthday.
c. A quarter of adolescent mothers gives birth when their first born is two.
d. 25% of adolescent mothers become pregnant again when their first babies are two years
old.
2. It has been reported that the richest one percent of Americans own 40% of the
country's wealth.
a. The richest 1% are 40 times as wealthy as the rest of Americans.
b. If the gap between rich and poor continues to grow at the current rate, the richest one
percent will soon own 40% of the country's wealth.
c. 40% of the country's wealth is in the hands of only 1% of Americans.
d. 99% of Americans own 40% as much as the richest 1%.
3. The judge was relieved when the jury was finally ready to announce its verdict.
a. When the jury announced its verdict, the judge was relieved.
b. The judge asked the jury to arrive at a verdict.
c. The judge welcomed the prospect of an imminent verdict.
d. The jury welcomed the judge's relief.
4. Research data suggest that girls who witnessed maternal abuse may tolerate abuse as
adults more than girls who did not.
a. Women who witnessed the abuse of their mother as teens are more likely to become
abusive adults.
55
b. Women who observed the abuse of their mothers when they were young are more likely to
endure abuse themselves.
c. Women who were abused as children are more likely to abuse their own children.
d. Girls who testify about maternal abuse tolerate abuse as adults more readily.
5. Martha thinks that the issue of adolescent problems is important to write about.
a. Martha thinks that adolescents like to write about their problems.
b. Martha feels that writing about adolescent problems is worthwhile.
c. Martha believes that the dream of most adolescents is to write something important.
d. Martha thinks that adolescents can write about their problems.
II. Write your own paraphrase for the following sentences:

1. A local newspaper claims that 75% of all homeless people do not like homeless shelters
and prefer to live as they do now.
2. Ronny told his aunt that a bear had attacked him, which she found difficult to believe.
3. Anyone who has ever driven through the Mojave Desert knows that one should always
carry a supply of extra water.
4. Of the 138 million acres of land that Native Americans owned in 1887, 90 million acres
were taken away by whites by 1932.
5. A woman who was nominated by the president to head the department was quickly
approved by the board of trustees.
6. Today, people are worried about internet security.
7. Advocates of internet tracking believe that it helps marketers to understand what people
want.
8. People who oppose internet tracking believe that it is an invasion of privacy.
9. This information age will cause more and more people to become concerned with the
level of personal detail that can be found from the internet
10. People used to play football bareheaded. After many injuries, players began to use plain,
leather caps. Plastic helmets and masks appeared later. Still, many players were getting
hurt. To make helmets better, designers studied--- woodpeckers! Their tough, spongy
skulls became the model for modern football helmets
III. Read the following passage and paraphrase it by putting it into your own words.
- In American society, Introverts are outnumbered about three to one. As a result, they must
develop extra coping skills early in life because there will be an inordinate amount of
pressure on them to “shape up,” to act like the rest of the world. The Introvert is pressured
daily, almost from the moment of awakening, to respond and conform to the outer
world. Classroom teachers unwittingly pressure Introverted students by announcing that
“One-third of your grade will be based on classroom participation.” From Otto Kroeger and
56
Janet M. Thuesen, Type Talk: The 16 Personality Types that Determine How We Live, Love
and Work. New York: Dell Publishing, 1989.
- In 1610, Galileo Galilei published a small book describing astronomical observations that
he had made of the skies above Padua. His homemade telescopes had less magnifying and
resolving power than most beginners’ telescopes sold today, yet with them he made
astonishing discoveries: that the moon has mountains and other topographical features; that
Jupiter is orbited by satellites, which he called planets; and that the Milky Way is made up
of individual stars. From David Owen, “The Dark Side: Making War on Light Pollution,”
The New Yorker (20 August 2007): 28.
Possible Paraphrase
There is not a single correct answer, but you could paraphrase the above passage by writing
something like this:
- Otto Kroeger and Janet Thuesen in their book, Type Talk: The 16 Personality Types
that Determine How We Live, Love and Work argues that there are many more
extroverts than introverts in America. This puts a lot of pressure on introverts to fit
in and be like everybody else. Even in school, teachers add to this pressure by
making class participation part of the student's grade. Consequently, introverts have
to acquire additional skills to deal with these pressures.
- Galileo was able to make some amazing discoveries with his telescope. He made
discoveries about the moon, about Jupiter, and about the Milky Way. He was able to
do this with a telescope that was less powerful than even today's most basic
telescopes.
Read the following passages and paraphrase them by putting them into your own words.
1. "The Antarctic is the vast source of cold on our planet, just as the sun is the source of our heat,
and it exerts tremendous control on our climate," [Jacques] Cousteau told the camera. "The cold
ocean water around Antarctica flows north to mix with warmer water from the tropics, and its
upwellings help to cool both the surface water and our atmosphere. Yet the fragility of this
regulating system is now threatened by human activity." From "Captain Cousteau," Audubon
(May 1990):17.
2. The twenties were the years when drinking was against the law, and the law was a bad joke
because everyone knew of a local bar where liquor could be had. They were the years when
organized crime ruled the cities, and the police seemed powerless to do anything against it.
Classical music was forgotten while jazz spread throughout the land, and men like Bix
57
Beiderbecke, Louis Armstrong, and Count Basie became the heroes of the young. The flapper
was born in the twenties, and with her bobbed hair and short skirts, she symbolized, perhaps more
than anyone or anything else, America's break with the past. From Kathleen Yancey, English 102
Supplemental Guide (1989): 25.
3. Of the more than 1000 bicycling deaths each year, three-fourths are caused by head injuries.
Half of those killed are school-age children. One study concluded that wearing a bike helmet can
reduce the risk of head injury by 85 percent. In an accident, a bike helmet absorbs the shock and
cushions the head. From "Bike Helmets: Unused Lifesavers," Consumer Reports (May 1990):
348.
4. Matisse is the best painter ever at putting the viewer at the scene. He's the most realistic of all
modern artists, if you admit the feel of the breeze as necessary to a landscape and the smell of
oranges as essential to a still life. "The Casbah Gate" depicts the well-known gateway Bab el
Aassa, which pierces the southern wall of the city near the sultan's palace. With scrubby coats of
ivory, aqua, blue, and rose delicately fenced by the liveliest gray outline in art history, Matisse
gets the essence of a Tangier afternoon, including the subtle presence of the bowaab, the sentry
who sits and surveys those who pass through the gate. From Peter Plagens, "Bright Lights."
Newsweek (26 March 1990): 50.
5. While the Sears Tower is arguably the greatest achievement in skyscraper engineering so far,
it's unlikely that architects and engineers have abandoned the quest for the world's tallest
building. The question is: Just how high can a building go? Structural engineer William
LeMessurier has designed a skyscraper nearly one-half mile high, twice as tall as the Sears
Tower. And architect Robert Sobel claims that existing technology could produce a 500-story
building. From Ron Bachman, "Reaching for the Sky." Dial (May 1990): 15.
58
Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
TYPE OF NOTES : 3) QUOTATIONS

I. What is quoting?
- Quoting may be defined as taking the exact words from an original source
- You should quote material when you believe the way the original author expresses an idea
is the most effective means of communicating the point you want to make.
- If you want to borrow an idea from an author, but do not need his or her exact words, you
should try paraphrasing instead of quoting.
II. Classifying quotations

- Quotations can be direct or indirect.
 A direct quotation is one in which you record precisely the language of another.
 E.g: Franklin D. Roosevelt said, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself”
 An indirect quotation is one in which you report what someone has said without
repeating the words exactly as spoken (or written)
 E.g: Franklin D. Roosevelt said that we have nothing to fear but fear itself.
- The language in a direct quotation, which is indicated by a pair of quotation marks ( ),

must be faithful to the language of the original passage. When using an indirect quotation,
you have the liberty of changing words (although not changing meaning).
III. How to choose a quotation

- Use quotations when another writer s language is particularly memorable and will add
interest and liveliness to your paper.
- Use quotations when another writer s language is so clear and economical that to make
the same point in your own words would, by comparison, be ineffective.
- Use quotations when you want the solid reputation of a source to lend authority and
credibility to your own writing
IV. How often should I quote?
59
- Most of the time, paraphrasing and summarizing your sources is sufficient (but remember
that you still have to cite them!).
- If you think it’s important to quote something, an excellent rule of thumb is that for every
line you quote, you should have at least two lines analyzing it.
- When you quote too much, you risk losing ownership of your work: More easily than you
might think, your voice can be drowned out by the voices of those you ve quoted. So use
quotation sparingly, as you would a pungent spice. Nevertheless, quoting just the right
source at the right time can significantly improve your papers. The trick is to know when
and how to use quotations.
V. How to incorporating Quotations into Your Sentences

A- Quote Only the Part of a Sentence or Paragraph That You Need
B- Avoid Freestanding Quotations

- A quoted sentence should never stand by itself
- You need to introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that attributes the source, not in a
parenthetical citation but in some other part of the sentence beginning, middle, or end.
C- Incorporate the Quotation into the Flow of Your Own Sentence

There are at least four ways to integrate quotations.
1. Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence and a colon.

 Example:
- In "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For," Thoreau states directly his purpose for going
into the woods: "I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the
essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came
to die, discover that I had not lived."
 Example:
- Thoreau ends his essay with a metaphor: "Time is but the stream I go a-fishing in."
 Example:
- Albert Einstein reminds us all to never waste our life being selfish: “Only a life lived for
others is worth living.” If you use a complete sentence to introduce a quotation, you need a
colon after the sentence.
NB: Be careful not to confuse a colon (:) with a semicolon (;). Using a comma in this situation
will most likely create a comma splice, one of the serious sentence-boundary errors.
2. Use an introductory or explanatory phrase, but not a complete sentence, separated from
the quotation with a comma.
 Example:
60
- In "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For," Thoreau states directly his purpose for going
into the woods when he says, "I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to
front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not,
when I came to die, discover that I had not lived."
 Example:
- Thoreau asks, "Why should we live with such hurry and waste of life?"
- Homer Simpson shouted, “I am so smart! I am so smart! S-M-R-T! I mean, S-M-A-R-T!”
 NB: Use a comma to separate your own words from the quotation when your introductory
or explanatory phrase ends with a verb such as "says," "said," "thinks," "believes,"
"pondered," "recalls," "questions," and "asks" (and many more).
3. Make the quotation part of your own sentence without any punctuation between your
own words and the words you are quoting.
 Example:
- Thoreau argues that "shams and delusions are esteemed for soundest truths, while reality is
fabulous."
 Example:
- Adolf Hitler is an example of Shakespeare’s assertion that “madness in great ones must not
unwatched go.”
4. Use short quotations--only a few words--as part of your own sentence.

 Example:
- In "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For," Thoreau states that his retreat to the woods
around Walden Pond was motivated by his desire "to live deliberately" and to face only "the
essential facts of life."
 Example:
- Thoreau argues that people blindly accept "shams and delusions" as the "soundest truths,"
while regarding reality as "fabulous."
 NB: When you integrate quotations in this way, you do not use any special punctuation.
Instead, you should punctuate the sentence just as you would if all of the words were
your own.
VI. Quoting within quotes

- When you have "embedded quotes," or quotations within quotations, you should switch
from the normal quotation marks ("") to single quotation marks ('') to show the difference.
For example, if an original passage by John Archer reads:
 The Mountain Coyote has been described as a “wily” and “single-minded”
predator by zoologist Lma Warner.
- your quotation might look like this:
61
 As John Archer explains, “The Mountain Coyote has been described as a 'wily'
and 'single-minded' predator by zoologist Lma Warner.”
VII. Long quotes (How do I include long quotes in my paper ?)
- The exact formatting requirements for long quotations differ depending on the citation
style. In general, however, if you are quoting more than 3 lines of material, you should do
the following:
 change the font to one noticeably smaller (in a document that is mostly 12 point
font, you should use a 10 point font, for example)
 double indent the quotation -- that means adjusting the left and right margins so that
they are about one inch smaller than the main body of your paper
 if you have this option in your word-processor, "left-justify" the text. That means
make it so that each line begins in the same place, creating a straight line on the left
side of the quotation, while the right side is jagged
 do NOT use quotation marks for the entire quotation -- the graphic changes you
have made already (changing the font, double indenting, etc.) are enough to indicate
that the material is quoted. For quotations within that quotation, use normal
quotation marks, not single ones
VIII. Using ellipses

- An ellipsis is three periods in a row, and an ellipsis is used to indicate that material has
been deleted from a quotation.
- It's all right to delete material from a quotation, as long as the deleted material is not vital
to the meaning of the quotation and as long as the quoted words convey the same meaning
as they do in the source.
Ex: Dillard says that the weasel "bites his prey at the neck ... and he does not let go."
- When you use an ellipsis, realize that, in terms of the grammar of the sentence, the ellipsis
points are "invisible." In other words, the ellipsis is read in the same way that someone
would read a single space between words. Therefore, you must make sure that the words
before and after the ellipsis points make sense together, both logically and grammatically.
- You should use an ellipsis if the words you quote, as they appear in your essay, constitute
a complete sentence, but, in the original, the words you quote are only part of a longer
sentence.
IX. Using brackets or square brackets to add or substitute words

- Brackets allow the insertion of editorial material inside quotations. They can be used for
the following purposes:
A- Clarification : If the original material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear, brackets
can be used for clarification.
62
 The president stated that he “will not sign the bill they [Republican members of the
House] have been talking about.”
B- Translation : If a quotation includes a foreign word or phrase that might not be

understood, provide a translation in brackets. (Use parentheses for translations of
unquoted material.)
 Smith writes in his autobiography: “I seldom spoke in French class. When I did, I usually
just said je ne sais pas [I don’t know].”
C- Indicating a change in capitalization : In most contexts, it is acceptable to silently

change the first letter of quoted material from uppercase to lowercase, or vice versa. In
certain contexts, such changes must be indicated with brackets.
 “[T]his study has been widely cited, notwithstanding its dubious methodology.”
D- Objectionable content : If the original material contains language you deem

inappropriate for your audience, brackets can be used to remove it.
 He told them to “sit the [expletive] down.”
E- Brackets in the material being quoted : If the material being quoted already contains
brackets, this should be noted.
 Richardson finds support for his position in an earlier study by the Somesuch Foundation:
“The authors acknowledge that ‘during the four years he [George Clinton] was president,
average real wages were flat.’” (Brackets in original.)
X. Important Miscellaneous Information

1. Avoid long quotations. When you use long quotations, you are giving up space in your
essay to someone else, almost as if a guest speaker has entered your paper and is temporarily
pushing you aside. Don't let that speaker take away the spotlight from your own writing.
Besides, long quotations often contain material that is not necessary for the writer to make
his or her point.
2. Always use single quotation marks to indicate a quotation within a quotation, as when you
quote the words of a character who is speaking or when a quotation contains one or more
words that are in quotation marks in the original.
3. Avoid beginning a paragraph with a quotation. This is because paragraphs usually begin
with topic sentences, and beginning a paragraph with a quotation may limits what the writer
should talk about in the paragraph to only the quoted words. However, it's sometimes
effective to begin an introduction with a thought-provoking quotation.
4. Avoid ending a paragraph with a quotation. This is because quotations, especially when
they are used as supporting evidence, often require some explanation from the writer. Ending
a paragraph with a quotation does not allow for this explanation. In addition, a quotation at
63
the end of a paragraph often does not serve as an effective transitional sentence into the next
paragraph.
5. Never quote out of context. In other words, be careful not to present quoted words in a way
that gives the words a different meaning than what they convey in the original.
PRACTICE
I. Which of the following answers correctly integrates the quotation?
- As Emily Chestnut writes: "The larches were particularly yellow this autumn."
- As Emily Chestnut writes, "The larches were particularly yellow this autumn."
- As Andrew Nixon argues, "Algebra helps us to understand the underlying logic of math"
(55).
- As Andrew Nixon argues, "Algebra helps us to understand the underlying logic of math
(55)."
- I still remember Matthew Legrand's favourite thing to say, "If you want to avoid stating
the obvious, avoid stating the obvious!"
- He said, "Seymour: An Introduction is one of the most authentic and touching

documentaries I've ever seen."
- He said: "Seymour: An Introduction is one of the most authentic and touching

- He said "Seymour: An Introduction is one of the most authentic and touching

- James Sloane points out "pronouns are to language what variables are to symbolic logic"
(24).
- According to James Sloane "[P]ronouns are to language what variables are to symbolic
logic" (24).
- James Sloane points out that "pronouns are to language what variables are to symbolic
logic" (24).
64
II. Place quotation marks, commas, and other punctuation marks where they are required.
Place three lines under each word that should be capitalized. Write correct if the
sentence is correct.
1. The parakeet in the cage Walter explained is named Polly.

2. I wonder if you sell tape Pam asked.
3. We asked when Halley’s Comet would appear.
4. Sarah asked how do I add a text box?
5. This book he said was written by Barbara Tuchman.
6. Pass the ball Sam yelled. I can score a touchdown.
7. The dentist said you have no cavities.
8. Matthew said that he would do it for me.
9. This play Claire announced has been canceled.
10. Will you show me your pottery I asked the clerk. I would like to buy a gift for someone.
11. These Native American villages the guide explained were abandoned centuries ago.
12. Carol said I have started a new exercise program.
13. The test will begin in five minutes he announced.
14. Alex asked where is the nearest restaurant?
15. What an exciting film they exclaimed.
III. Read each of the following sentences carefully to determine whether it contains a direct
quotation that requires quotation marks or an indirect quotation. If the sentence
contains a direct quotation, write D on the blank. If it contains an indirect quotation,
write I. Place three lines under each word that should be capitalized. Place quotation
marks, commas, and other punctuation marks where they are required.
1. Carol complained that her sister was never on time. ______

2. I have notice that commented Bruce. ______
3. I wish she would hurry continued Carol. ______
4. Bruce thought that the delay might make them miss the movie. ______
5. He said that they should probably leave without her. ______
6. Maybe she has a reason said Carol. ______
7. I, however, object to the casual way she operates she added. ______
8. Beginning to worry Bruce decided that he should try to remain calm. ______
9. Let’s give her five more minutes he suggested. ______
10. That’s a good idea Carol agreed. ______
11. Justine asked Ramon if he would like to stay for dinner. ______
12. I hope the weather cooperates on the day of the party whined Martha. ______
13. It was the same old story repeating itself said Duane. ______
14. Oliver wondered if he could have some more porridge. ______
65
15. Our highways could be much safer declared Bob. ______
IV. Following are passages from four sources. Read each one, and then, as if you were
writing a paper, quote four sentences from each, one directly quoting the author’s
words and one indirectly quoting the author’s ideas. Finally, write a paraphrase and a
brief summary of each passage.
Source 1
In most cultures throughout history music, dance, rhythmic, drumming, and chanting have been
essential parts of healing rituals. Modern research bears out the connection between music and
healing. In one study, the heart rate and blood pressure of patients went down when quite music
was piped into their hospital coronary care units. At the same time, the patients showed greater
tolerance for pain and less anxiety and depression. Similarly, listening to music before, during or
after surgery has been shown to promote various beneficial effects-from alleviating anxiety to
reducing the need for sedation by half. When researchers played Brahms’ “Lullaby” to premature
infants, these babies gained weight faster and went home from the hospital sooner than babies
who did not hear the music. Music may also affect immunity by altering the level of stress
chemicals in the blood. An experiment at Rainbow babies and Children’s Hospital found that a
single thirty-minute music therapy session could increase the level of salivary IgA an
immunoglobulin that protects against respiratory infections
Institute of Notices Science with William Poole

The Heart of Healing. Atlanta:
Turner Publishing 1993 .134 print
 Direct quotation………………………………………………………………………………
 Direct quotation…………………………………………………………………………………..
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 2
Assuming they reach maturity with consciousness intact, the current crop of teenagers will have
spent years watching commercials. No one has done the numbers on what happens if you factor
in radio, magazine, newspaper advertisement, and billboards, but today’s teens probably have
spent the equivalent of a decade of their lives being bombarded by bits of adverting information.
In 1915, a person could go entire weeks without observing an ad. The average adult today sees
three thousand every day
James B Twitchell, Adcult USA. New York:

Columbia University Pres,s 1996 :2 print
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
66
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 3
Binge drinking, according to criteria used in periodic surveys by the Harvard research, is defined
as five or more drinks on one occasion for a man or four or more drinks on one occasion for a
woman. Students who reported one or two such episodes in the two weeks preceding the survey
were classified as occasional binge drinkers; those reporting three or more were considered
frequent binge drinkers.
Okies, Susan. “Survey 44% of College Students Are binge are binge drinkers.”
Washington Post 25 Mar. 2002: A6. Print
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 4
The image of kitchen God (alternatively know as the Heart God) usually stood above the family
above, from where he would observe the household. Every New Year, he was said to visit heaven
to give an account of the behavior of the family in the past year
Willis, Roy. Dictionary of World Myth. London:

Duncan Baird Publishers, 1995: 116. Print
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Source 5
The risk of stroke increases with the number of fast food restaurant in a neighborhood
…..Researchers found [ that] residents of neighborhood with the highest number of fast food
restaurants had a 13 percent higher relative risk of suffering ischemic strokes than those living in
areas with the lowest numbers of restaurants
American Heart Association “Number of fast

food Restaurants in neighborhood Associated with
Stroke Risk“ ScienceDaily. Science Daily LLC 20
Feb 2009. Web 24Feb 2009
67
 Parapharse ………………………………………………………………………………………
 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………
Meknes
S4 “ACIR”
DOCUMENTATION & REFRENCING

CITATION: DOCUMENTARY-NOTE STYLE & PARENTTHETICAL STYE
I. Preliminaries
- Referencing is a way of acknowledging the sources of information that you use to
research your assignments.
- You need to provide a reference whenever you draw on someone else's words, ideas or
research.
- You should also provide references for any graphic information you use. Films, television
programs, personal communications and online sources also need to be referenced.
- Not referencing other people's work can constitute plagiarism.
II. What is a Citation

- A citation is an indication (signal) in the text that this (material) is not ours; we have
“borrowed” it (as a direct quote, paraphrase or summary) from someone or somewhere
else. The citation in the text can be:
 In the form of an introductory phrase, or
 At the end of the statement, or
 Indicated by a superscript or bracketed number that leads to a similarly numbered
footnote or endnote.
III. Why cite/citations?

- Proper citation is a key element in academic scholarship and intellectual exchange. When
we cite we:
 Show respect for the work of others and help the reader to distinguish our work from
the work of others who have contributed to our work
 Give the reader the opportunity to check the validity of our use of other people’s work
or follow up our references, out of interest
 Show and receive proper credit for our research process
 Demonstrate that we are able to use reliable sources and critically assess them to
support our work
68
 Establish the credibility and authority of our knowledge and ideas
 Demonstrate that we are able to draw our own conclusions
 Share the blame (if we get it wrong).
IV. What to cite?
- As creators/authors, we are expected to acknowledge any materials or ideas that are not
ours and that have been used in any way, such as quotation, paraphrase or summary. The
term “materials” means written, oral or electronic products, and may include the
following.
• Text • Graphic • Interviews • Broadcasts
• Visual • Artistic • Conversations • Maps
• Audio • Lectures • Letters
NB: Basic and common knowledge within a field or subject does not need to be acknowledged.
However, if we are in doubt whether the source material is common knowledge or not, we should
cite!
V. Citation Styles
- Basically, there are also two major divisions within most citation styles: documentary-
note style and parenthetical style.
A- Documentary-note style
- It is the standard form of documenting sources. It involves using either footnotes or
endnotes so that information about your sources is readily available to your readers but
does not interfere with their reading of your work.
a- Using footnotes and endnotes

- With footnotes and endnotes, use the same number in both the body of the paper and in
the note itself.
- Notes are numbered sequentially throughout the paper and are superscripted.
- The number in the footnote is followed by a period and only the first line is indented.
- Endnotes stylistically look the same as footnotes, and are also numbered sequentially;
however, they appear at the end of the paper on a page entitled “Notes,” rather than at the
bottom of each page.
b- Numbering Footnotes and Endnotes

- Referential notes are numbered sequentially throughout a paper. Even if a specific
reference is used multiple times, reference notes must appear in numerical order. If using
footnotes, the note must always begin on the same page as the footnote marker, even if
the note extends onto a later page.
69
Page Page
Example of a footnote Example of endnotes page
After 9/11, the country looked toward Endnotes
President Bush for security and
guidance. Americans believed that he 1. Robert Sheer, “Electorate Is
had a clear understanding of how to Wising Up to the
fight terrorists, and that the war with Iraq Blunder” The Nation, 1 June
Iraq was a necessary battle in this war 2003, 24.
on terrorism. Now, however, the trust
that the American people have 2. Charles Bazerman, The
invested in the president for the last Informed Writer (Boston:
two and a half years is waning.1 Houghton Mifflin Company,
1981), 25.
1. Robert Sheer, “Electorate Is Wising 3. Christina Gorman, “Why So

Up to the Iraq Blunder” The Nation, 1 Many of Us Are
June 2003, 24. Getting Diabetes, Time, 30 Nov
2003, 24
NB:
- Both Footnotes and endnotes should be single-spaced. Font size should be 1 or 2 points
smaller than text font.
- The Latin abbreviation Ibid. should be used only when the same author and title are cited
as in the footnote immediately preceding. If the preceding footnote contains more than
one reference, Ibid. should not be used.
- In this system, the reference works list is called a bibliography, and has a different format
from the reference list associated with parenthetical style
B- Parenthetical (Author-Date) references

- In the parenthetical style, sometimes called the “author-date” style or “in-text” style,
references to sources are made in the body of the work itself, through parentheses. An
example of this would be the following sentence, taken from page 23 of a book written by
Professor Scott in 1999:
Professor Scott asserts that “environmental

reform in Alaska in the 1970s accelerated
rapidly as the result of pipeline expansion.”
(Scott 1999, 23)
70
- The reference consists of the author's last (or family) name, the year of publication of the
work, and the page number(s), if any. Author may mean editor, compiler, organization, or
multiple authors.
- No punctuation is used between the author's name and the date. A comma is used between
the date and the page number, and no abbreviation for "page" is included.
- In this system, the bibliography is called a reference list, and has a different format from
the bibliography associated with footnotes.
Examples:
 Citation: (Spence 1990, 207)
 Reference List: Spence, Jonathan. 1990. The Search for Modern China. New York:
Norton.
71

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What are the main components of a research paper?

What are the main components of a research paper?

What are the different steps involved in writing a literature review?

What are the different steps involved in writing a literature review?

Moulay Ismail University

School of Arts & Humanities

1. Course aims and objectives

4. Course structure and contents

 Compiling information for the literature review- Note taking

II. The purpose of paragraph analysis

III. Stages of paragraph analysis

B. Organization : In discussing the organization of a paragraph, we consider how its different

C. Coherence and Unity

- Unity in a piece of writing is closely related to coherence, so that a coherent paragraph is a

Cataphoric reference is often signalled in writing with a colon (:)

Coherence and unity

EXPLORING THE ESSAY: A REVIEW

II. Kinds of essays

III. Parts of an Essay

A. Writing the introduction?

b. Use an interesting observation: Here is an example:

c. Use a unique scenario to catch readers’ attention: Here is an example

d. Begin with a famous quote. Here is an example:

e. Use a surprising or shocking statistics : Here is an example:

How to state the thesis of your essay?

Some common errors students make when composing thesis statements.

a- A thesis cannot be a fragment; it must be expressed in a sentence.

e- A thesis must not be expressed in vague language.

f- A thesis should not be written in figurative language.

 Drug use is a serious problem in today’s world.

1. Television has had a serious impact in today’s society.

V. Writing the body

I. Topic sentence 1 II. Topic sentence 2 III. Topic sentence 3

VI. Writing the conclusion

 Let the reader that this is the conclusion:

II. Uses /functions of an outline

III. Types of outlines

 Roman Numerals (I, II, III, IV, etc)

IV. Characteristics of an outline

I. Visit and evaluate college campuses

I. Describe an influential person in your life

V. A sample Alphanumeric Outline

A. Restate the thesis :………………………………………

1- Prepare an outline for the following essay using phrases or sentences

 Should cloning be legalized in Morocco?

I. Regular exercise releases tension

II. Regular exercise improves appearance

III. Regular exercise increases stamina

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY REVISTED

I. What is an argumentative essay?

II.1. Acknowledging counterarguments

II.2. Accommodating counterarguments

II.3. Refuting counterarguments

Look at this example

Sample of counter argument and refutation sentences starters

Counter Argument Sentence Starters…

Refutation Sentence Starters…

Transition words: but, yet, however, nevertheless, still

In conclusion, there are many well-documented benefits of implementing mandatory school

III. Organizational patterns of an argumentative essay