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Unit-Ii: Fundamental of Ac Circuits

1. The document discusses fundamentals of alternating current (AC) circuits, including definitions of key terms like amplitude, phase, frequency, and RMS and average values of AC signals. 2. It also covers topics like complex representation of impedance, steady state analysis of series RL, RC, and RLC AC circuits, resonance, power calculations, and three-phase circuits. 3. Fundamentals of how AC voltages and currents are generated are described, along with conventions used for voltage and current polarity in AC circuits.

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Abhay kushwaha
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
45 views

Unit-Ii: Fundamental of Ac Circuits

1. The document discusses fundamentals of alternating current (AC) circuits, including definitions of key terms like amplitude, phase, frequency, and RMS and average values of AC signals. 2. It also covers topics like complex representation of impedance, steady state analysis of series RL, RC, and RLC AC circuits, resonance, power calculations, and three-phase circuits. 3. Fundamentals of how AC voltages and currents are generated are described, along with conventions used for voltage and current polarity in AC circuits.

Uploaded by

Abhay kushwaha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS
Unit-II: Fundamentals of A.C. circuits

Alternating current and voltage,


Concept of notations ( i, v, I, V),
Definitions of amplitude, phase, phase difference,
RMS value and average value of an AC signal,
Complex representation of impedance,
Steady state analysis of ac circuits consisting of RL, RC and
RLC (series),
Resonance in series RLC circuit, power factor and
Power calculation in RL, RC and RLC circuits,
three-phase circuits: numbering and interconnection (delta or mesh
connection) of three phases,
Relations in line and phase voltages and currents in star and delta
AC Fundamentals
 Previously you learned that DC sources have fixed polarities and constant
magnitudes and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction

 In contrast, the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in


magnitude and thus produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in
direction.
 Sinusoidal ac Voltage

One complete variation is referred to as a cycle.


Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive peak amplitude,
decreases to zero,
changes polarity,
increases to a negative peak amplitude,
then returns again to zero.

 Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals, it is called a periodic


signal.
 Symbol for an ac Voltage Source

Lowercase letter e is used


to indicate that the voltage varies with time.
Sinusoidal ac Current

 During the first half-cycle, the  During the second half-cycle, the
source voltage is positive voltage polarity reverses
 Therefore, the current is in the  Therefore, the current is in the
clockwise direction. counterclockwise direction.
 Since current is proportional to voltage, its
shape is also sinusoidal
GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGE

An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy


to electrical energy in the form of alternating current

Principle: A conductor moving relative to a


magnetic field develops an electromotive
force (EMF) in it. (Faraday's Law).

This emf reverses its polarity when it moves


under magnetic poles of opposite polarity.
Generating AC Voltages
Generating AC Voltages
Generating ac Voltages (Method A)
 One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant
angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field

 The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut

 its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field.
Generating ac Voltages
 Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive,

Time Scales  Often we need to scale the output voltage in time.


 The length of time required to generate one cycle depends on the
velocity of rotation.
600 revolutions in 1 minute = 600 rev / 60 s
= 10 revolutions in 1 second.

The time for 1 revolution = one-tenth of a second


= 100 ms
Generating ac Voltages (Method-2)
 AC waveforms may also be created electronically using function (or signal)
generators.
 With function generators, you are not limited to sinusoidal ac. gear.

 The unit of Figure can produce a variety of variable-frequency waveforms,


including sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, and so on.
 Waveforms such as these are commonly used to test electronic
Instantaneous Value
 As the coil voltage changes from instant to instant. The value of voltage at any
point on the waveform is referred to as its instantaneous value.

 The voltage has a peak value of 40 volts  at t = 0 ms, the voltage is zero.
 The cycle time of 6 ms.  at t=0.5 ms, the voltage is 20V.
Voltage and Current Conventions for ac
 First, we assign reference polarities for the source and a reference direction for
the current.
 We then use the convention that, when e has a positive value, its actual polarity is the
same as the reference polarity, and when e has a negative value, its actual polarity is
opposite to that of the reference.
 For current, we use the convention that
when i has a positive value, its actual
direction is the same as the reference
arrow,
 and when i has a negative value, its actual
direction is opposite to that of the
reference.
Voltage and Current Conventions for ac
Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
 Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
 Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

 Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.


 In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894).
Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Frequency Ranges:
 The range of frequencies is huge.
 Power line frequencies, for example, are 60 Hz in North America and 50 Hz
in many other parts of the world.
 Audible sound frequencies range from about 20 Hz to about 20 kHz.
 The standard AM radio band occupies from 550 kHz to 1.6 MHz
 The FM band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz.
 TV transmissions occupy several bands in the 54-MHz to 890-MHz range.
 Above 300 GHz are optical and X-ray frequencies.
Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
 Period:  The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.

 It is the inverse of frequency.

 The period of a waveform can be measured between any two corresponding


points ( Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to
establish on an oscilloscope trace).
Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):


It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Peak Value

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum


value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em


The Basic Sine Wave Equation

The voltage produced by the previously described generator is:

• Em: the maximum coil voltage and


• α : the instantaneous angular position of the coil.

 For a given generator and rotational velocity, Em is constant.)


 Note that a 0° represents the horizontal position of the coil and that one
complete cycle corresponds to 360°.
Radian Measure

 In practice, q is usually expressed in radians per second,


 Radians and degrees are related by :

For Conversion:
Relationship between ω, T, and f

 Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either:

 Substituting these into:

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time:

 We could replace the angle α as:


Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts

 If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t =0 s, it has a phase shift.
 Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right
Phasor Difference
 Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different
waveforms of the same frequency.

 The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and
the other is lagging.
AC Waveforms and Average Value
 Since ac quantities constantly change its value, we need one single numerical
value that truly represents a waveform over its complete cycle.

Average Values:  To find the average of a set of marks for example, you add
them, then divide by the number of items summed.
 For waveforms, the process is conceptually the same. You
can sum the instantaneous values over a full cycle, then
divide by the number of points used.
 The trouble with this approach is that waveforms do not
consist of discrete values.
Average in Terms of the Area Under a Curve:

Or use area

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