Chapter 13 - Sinusoidal Alternating Waveforms: Introductory Circuit Analysis Robert L. Boylestad

Chapter 13 – Sinusoidal Alternating
Waveforms
Introductory Circuit Analysis

Robert L. Boylestad
13.1 - Introduction
Alternating waveforms
The term alternating indicates only that the waveform
alternates between two prescribed levels in a set time
sequence.
13.2 – Sinusoidal ac Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
 Generation
An ac generator (or alternator) powered by water power,
gas, or nuclear fusion is the primary component in the
energy-conversion process.
 The energy source turns a rotor (constructed of alternating
magnetic poles) inside a set of windings housed in the stator
(the stationary part of the dynamo) and will induce voltage
across the windings of the stator.
d
eN
dt
Sinusoidal ac Voltage Characteristics
and Definitions
 Generation
 Wind power and solar power energy are receiving
increased interest from various districts of the world.
The turning propellers of the wind-power station are connected
directly to the shaft of an ac generator.
Light energy in the form of photons can be absorbed by
solar cells. Solar cells produce dc, which can be
electronically converted to ac with an inverter.
 A function generator, as used in the lab, can generate and
control alternating waveforms.
Sinusoidal ac Voltage
 Definitions
 Waveform: The path traced by a quantity, such as
voltage, plotted as a function of some variable such as time,
position, degree, radius, temperature and so on.
 Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at
any instant of time; denoted by the lowercase letters (e1, e2).
Peak amplitude: The maximum value of the waveform as
measured from its average (or mean) value, denoted by the
uppercase letters Em (source of voltage) and Vm (voltage drop
across a load).
 Definitions
Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value of a
function as measured from zero-volt level.
 Peak-to-peak value: Denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p, the full
voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the
positive and negative peaks.
Periodic waveform: A waveform that continually
repeats itself after the same time interval.
 Definitions
Period (T): The time interval between successive
repetitions of a periodic waveform (the period T1 = T2 = T3), as
long as successive similar points of the periodic waveform
are used in determining T
 Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period
of time
Frequency: (Hertz) the number of cycles that occur in 1 s
1
f  (hertz, Hz)
T
 Defined polarities and direction
 The polarity and current direction will be for an instant in
time in the positive portion of the sinusoidal waveform.
 In the figure, a lowercase letter is employed for polarity and
current direction to indicate that the quantity is time
dependent; that is, its magnitude will change with time.
13.4 - The Sine Wave
The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform
whose shape is unaffected by the response characteristics of R,
L, and C elements.
The voltage across (or current through) a resistor, coil, or
capacitor is sinusoidal in nature.
The unit of measurement for the horizontal axis is the degree.
A second unit of measurement frequently used is the radian
(rad).
1 rad  57.296  57.3

The Sine Wave
 If we define x as the number of intervals of r (the radius)
around the circumference of a circle, then
C = 2r = x • r and we find x = 2
Therefore, there are 2 rad around a 360° circle, as
shown in the figure.
The Sine Wave
 The quantity  is the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter.
 For 180° and 360°, the two units of measurement
are related as follows:
The Sine Wave
 The sinusoidal wave form can be derived from the
length of the vertical projection of a radius vector
rotating in a uniform circular motion about a fixed point.
 The velocity with which the radius vector rotates
about the center, called the angular velocity, can be
determined from the following equation:
The Sine Wave
The angular velocity () is:


t
Since () is typically provided in radians per second, the
angle  obtained using  = t is usually in radians.
The time required to complete one revolution is
equal to the period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform.
The radians subtended in this time interval are 2.
2 or
   2f
T
13.5 – General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
 The basic mathematical
format for the sinusoidal
waveform is:
where:
Am is the peak value of the
waveform
 is the unit of measure for
the horizontal axis
General Format for the Sinusoidal
Voltage or Current
 The equation  = t states that the angle  through which the
rotating vector will pass is determined by the angular velocity of
the rotating vector and the length of time the vector rotates.
 For a particular angular velocity (fixed ), the longer the radius
vector is permitted to rotate (that is, the greater the value of t ),
the greater will be the number of degrees or radians through
which the vector will pass.
 The general format of a sine wave can also be as:
General Format for the
Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
For electrical quantities such as current and voltage, the
general format is:
i = Imsint = Imsin
e = Emsint = Emsin
where: the capital letters with the subscript m represent the amplitude,
and the lower case letters i and e represent the instantaneous value of
current and voltage, respectively, at any time t.
13.6 – Phase Relations
If the waveform is shifted to the right or left of 0°:
where:  is the angle (in degrees or radians) that the waveform has
been shifted
If the wave form passes through the horizontal axis with a
positive-going (increasing with the time) slope before 0°:
If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a

positive-going slope after 0°:
Phase Relations
The terms lead and lag are used to indicate the relationship
between two sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency
plotted on the same set of axes.
The cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve by 90.
The sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve by 90.
90 is referred to as the phase angle between the two waveforms.
Phase Relations
If a sinusoidal expression should appear as
e = - Emsin t
the negative sign is associated with the sine portion of
the expression, not the peak value Em .
Phase Measurements
 When determining the phase measurement we first note that each
sinusoidal function has the same frequency, permitting the use of
either waveform to determine the period.
 Since the full period represents a cycle of 360°, the following ratio
can be formed:
13.7 – Average Value
Understanding the
average value using a
sand analogy:
The average height of
the sand is that height
obtained if the distance
form one end to the
other is maintained
while the sand is
leveled off.
Average Value
The algebraic sum of the areas must be determined,

since some area contributions will be from below the
horizontal axis.
Area above the axis is assigned a positive sign and area
below the axis is assigned a negative sign.
The average value of any current or voltage is the
value indicated on a dc meter – over a complete cycle
the average value is the equivalent dc value.
13.8 – Effective (rms) Values
 How is it possible for a sinusoidal ac quantity to deliver a net
power if, over a full cycle the net current in any one direction is
zero (average value = 0).
 Irrespective of direction, current of any magnitude through a
resistor will deliver power to that resistor – during the positive
and negative portions of a sinusoidal ac current, power is being
delivered at each instant of time to the resistor.
 The net power flow will equal twice that delivered by either
the positive or the negative regions of sinusoidal quantity.
Effective (rms) Values
 The formula for power delivered by the ac supply at
any time is:
 The average power delivered by the ac source is just

the first term, since the average value of a cosine
wave is zero even though the wave may have twice
the frequency of the original input current waveform.
 The equivalent dc value is called the effective value
of the sinusoidal quantity
or
and
or
Where: Im and Em are max (peak) values

 Instrumentation
 A true rms meter will read the effective value of any
waveform and is not limited to only sinusoidal
waveforms.
 You should make sure that your meter is a true rms
meter, by checking the manual, if waveforms other
than purely sinusoidal are to be encountered.
13.9 – AC Meters and Instruments
The d’Arsonval movement employed in dc meters can be
used to measure sinusoidal voltages if the bridge rectifier
is placed between the signal to be measured and the
average reading movement.
AC Meters and Instruments
 The bridge rectifier, composed of four diodes (electronic
switches), will convert the input signal of zero average value to
one having an average value sensitive to the peak value of the
input signal.
 Most DMMs employ a full-wave rectification system to convert
the input ac signal to one with an average value.
 Digital meters can also be used to measure non-sinusoidal
signals, but the scale factor of each input waveform must first
be known. (The scale factor is normally provided by the
manufacturer in the operator’s manual.)
AC Meters and Instruments
 For frequency measurements, the frequency
counter provides a digital readout of the sine, square,
and triangular waves.
The amp-clamp is an instrument that can measure
alternating current in the ampere range without having
to open the circuit.
An oscilloscope provides a display of the waveform
on a cathode-ray tube to permit the detection of
irregularities and the determination of quantities such
as magnitude, frequency, period, dc components.
13.10 – Applications
(120 V at 60 Hz) versus (220 V at 50 Hz)
 In North and South America the most common available ac
supply is 120 V at 60 Hz, while in Europe and the Eastern
countries it is 220 V at 50 Hz.
 Technically there is no noticeable difference between 50 and
60 cycles per second (Hz).
The effect of frequency on the size of transformers and the role
it plays in the generation and distribution of power was also a
factor.
The fundamental equation for transformer design is that the
size of the transformer is inversely proportional to frequency.
 A 50 HZ transformer must be larger than a 60 Hz (17% larger)
Applications
120 V versus 220 V
Higher frequencies result in concerns about arcing, increased
losses in the transformer core due to eddy current and
hysteresis losses, and skin effect phenomena.
Larger voltages (such as 220 V) raise safety issues beyond
those of 120 V.
 Higher voltages result in lower current for the same demand,
permitting the use of smaller conductors.
 Motors and power supplies, found in common home appliances and
throughout the industrial community, can be smaller in size if supplied
with a higher voltage.
Applications
Dangers of high-frequency supplies
 Remember a microwave cooks meat with a frequency of 2.45
GHz at 120 V.
 Standing within 10 feet of a commercial broadcast band AM
transmitter working at 540 kHz would bring disaster.
 Bulb savers
 When the light bulb is first turned on, the filament must absorb
the heavy current caused by the light switch being turned on.
 To save the filament from this surge an inductor is placed in
series with the bulb to choke out the spike down the line.

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Chapter 13 - Sinusoidal Alternating Waveforms: Introductory Circuit Analysis Robert L. Boylestad

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Chapter 13 – Sinusoidal Alternating

Introductory Circuit Analysis

1 rad  57.296  57.3

If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a

The algebraic sum of the areas must be determined,

 The average power delivered by the ac source is just

Where: Im and Em are max (peak) values

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