Beta decay

Introduction to Nuclear Science

Simon Fraser University

Spring 2011

NUCS 342 — March 2, 2011

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 1 / 27

Outline

1 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 2 / 27

Outline

1 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

2 The decay rate

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 2 / 27

Outline

1 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

2 The decay rate

3 The selection rules

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 2 / 27

Outline

1 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

2 The decay rate

3 The selection rules

4 Branching ratios

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 2 / 27

Outline

1 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

2 The decay rate

3 The selection rules

4 Branching ratios

5 β-delayed particle emission

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 2 / 27

Outline

1 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

2 The decay rate

3 The selection rules

4 Branching ratios

5 β-delayed particle emission

6 The parity non conservation

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 2 / 27

 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

Based on the Fermi’s golden rule the probability for the decay with
electron momentum between pe and pe + dpe taking into account
distorted waves and Coulomb interactions is
1
λ(pe )dpe = g 2 | Mif |2 F (Zd , pe )(Q − Te )2 pe2 dpe (1)
2π 3 ~7 c 3
The electron/positron spectra as a function of momentum for
undistorted waves are symmetric with respect to
1p
p0 = 2me Q (2)
2
The electron spectra as a function of momentum for distorted waves
are shifted to lower momenta by Coulomb attraction.
The positron spectra as a function of momentum for distorted waves
are shifted to higher momenta by Coulomb repulsion.
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 3 / 27
 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

The statistical phase space factor for the three body decay

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 4 / 27

 The transition rate per fixed electron momentum

Distorted electron/positron spectra

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 5 / 27

 The decay rate

The total transition rate

The β-decay rate is equal to the integral of the transition rate per
fixed electron momentum over the entire electron spectrum.
Z ∞
1
λ = g 2 | Mif |2 F (Zd , pe )(Q − Te )2 pe2 dpe
0 2π ~7 c 3
3
Z ∞
1 2 2
= g | Mif | F (Zd , pe )(Q − Te )2 pe2 dpe (3)
2π 3 ~7 c 3 0

Since the integral is a sum this is consistent with λ being a sum of

the λ(pe ) over the continuous distribution of electron/positron
momenta.
The integral of the product of the Fermi function F (Zd , pe ) and terms
depending on electron energy/momentum is called the f function
Z ∞
1
f (Zd , Q) = 5 7 F (Zd , pe )(Q − Te )2 pe2 dpe (4)
me c 0
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 6 / 27
 The decay rate

The f -function

The f (Zd , Q) function depends on the atomic number of the

daughter Zd and the Q-value for the decay.

It represents the integrated number of states available for to the

electron and the neutrino which share the energy equal to the Q-value
of the decay.

Note that we neglected recoil of the daughter and neutrino mass,

these correction are available from more sophisticated theories.

The f (Zd , Q) function is calculable and tabulated.

Using the f (Zd , Q) function the decay rate is given by

ln(2) me5 c 4 2
λ= = g | Mif |2 f (Zd , Q) (5)
t1/2 2π 3 ~7

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 7 / 27

 The decay rate

The ft value

Let us look at the product of the f function and the β-decay half life.
For a decay, this product is refereed to as the ft-value

2π 3 ~7 1 1
ft = f (Zd , Q)t1/2 = 5 4
ln(2) 2 2
∝ 2 (6)
me c g | Mif | g | Mif |2

Note that the ft value is inversely proportional to the squared

strength of the weak interactions g 2 , thus the β decay can be used a
tool to study the weak force.

Note also that the ft value is inversely proportional to the square of

the nuclear matrix element | Mif |2 thus the β decay can be used as a
tool to study the nuclear structure.

We are going to set aside the study of the weak interactions but we
will discuss the impact of the nuclear structure.
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 8 / 27
 The selection rules

Conservation of angular momentum

The conservation of angular momentum in the β-decay requires that

J~p = J~d + ~L + ~S (7)

with J~p and J~d being the spin of the parent and the daughter and

~L = L~e + L~ν (8)

being the orbital angular momentum of the leptons and

~S = S~e + S~ν (9)

being the spin angular momentum of the leptons.

We distinguished two types of β decay, the Fermi decay with ~S = ~0

and the Gamow-Teller decay with ~S = ~1

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 9 / 27

 The selection rules

Fermi β decay

In the Fermi decay mode the conservation of angular momentum

requires that the spin of the baryons to point in the same direction
before and after the decay.

Fermi decay
S=0

n p e−

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 10 / 27

 The selection rules

Gamow-Teller β decay

In the Gamow-Teller decay mode the conservation of angular

momentum requires that the spin of the baryons to point in the
opposite direction before and after the decay. This decay mode is
sometimes called the spin-flip mode.

Gamow−Teller decay
S=1
p

n e− ν

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 11 / 27

 The selection rules

The impact of small mass of the leptons

Let us investigate the implication of the small mass of the electron
and neutrino in the following way:
1 let us assume a decay with angular momentum L of 1~
2 let us assume that the decay occurs at the nuclear surface at r = 5 fm
3 let us see what is the implication for the energy of the leptons.

For the maximum angular momentum for the emission from the
surface
L Lc
L = rp =⇒ p = =⇒ E = pc = (10)
r r
For L = 1~ and r = 5 fm
~c 197 [MeV fm]
E= = ≈ 20 [MeV] (11)
r 5 [fm]
The above implies that leptons are emitted preferentially with no
orbital angular momentum.
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 12 / 27
 The selection rules

The impact of small mass of the leptons

Leptons (electron and neutrino) are light

The lepton orbital angular momentum L can be different than zero if:
1 Leptons are emitted at high energy, however, the energy available to
the leptons can not exceed Q which imposes the limit on angular
momentum,
2 Leptons are emitted at large radii, this is possible as the nuclear density
distribution extends beyond the radius, however, the probability of large
radius emission is suppressed.

As a consequence, the larges β-decay rates are for the processes with
L = 0, the processes with L = 1, L = 2 and L = 3 are possible but
have rapidly fast decreasing probabilities or increasing lifetimes.

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 13 / 27

 The selection rules

The parity

The conservation of angular momentum in the β-decay

J~p = J~d + ~L + ~S =⇒ ∆~J = J~p − J~d = ~L + ~S (12)

imposes the following condition on the parity of the initial and final
state
πp = πd (−1)L =⇒ ∆π = πp πd = (−1)L (13)
with L being the magnitude of the lepton angular momentum ~L.

Based on these conservation laws the observed β decay process are

classified into groups.

Various groups are observed to correspond to different values of ft.

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 14 / 27

 The selection rules

Classification of β-decay processes

Type L ∆π ∆~J
~S = ~0 ~S = ~1
Fermi Gam-Tel

super-allowed 0 + 0 0
allowed 0 + 0 0,1
first forbidden 1 - 0,1 0,1,2
second forbidden 2 + 1,2 1,2,3
third forbidden 3 - 2,3 2,3,4

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 15 / 27

 The selection rules

Super-allowed Fermi β-decay

Let us consider a few examples.

First, let us consider the decay between the parent 0+ state and the
daughter 0+ state, for example
14
O →14 N(0+ , E = 2.313 MeV) + e − + ν̄ (14)

Note that the Gamow-Teller decay between the 0+ and 0+ state is

forbidden by the conservation of angular momentum and parity.

Indeed the ∆π=+, which implies that L is even.

If L = 2 and S = 1, ~L + ~S can not add to zero, therefore, can not

connect the parent 0+ state with the daughter 0+ state.

The only allowed combination is L = 0 and S = 0 which is the

super-allowed Fermi transition.
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 16 / 27
 The selection rules

Super-allowed Fermi β-decay

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 17 / 27

 The selection rules

Allowed Gamow-Teller β-decay

But 14 O is observed to decay to other states in 14 N as well.
Let us consider the decay between the parent 0+ state and the
daughter 1+ states
14
O →14 N(1+ , E = 0 MeV) + e − + ν̄
14
O →14 N(1+ , E = 3.948 MeV) + e − + ν̄ (15)
Note that the Fermi decay between the 0+ and 1+ state is forbidden
by the conservation of angular momentum and parity.
Indeed the ∆π=+, which implies that L is even.
If L = 0 and S = 0, ~L + ~S add to zero, therefore, can not connect the
parent 0+ state with the daughter 1+ state.
The allowed combination is L = 0 and S = 1 which is the allowed
Gamow-Teller transition.
The L = 2 and S = 0 (second forbidden Fermi decay) allowed but
significantly less probable.
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 18 / 27
 The selection rules

14
Allowed β-decay of O

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 19 / 27

 The selection rules

Classification of β-decay processes

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 20 / 27

 The selection rules

Classification of β-decay processes

Type log(ft) L ∆π ∆~J

~S = ~0 ~S = ~1
Fermi Gam-Tel

super-allowed 2.9-3.7 0 + 0 0
allowed 4.4-6.0 0 + 0 0,1
first forbidden 6-10 1 - 0,1 0,1,2
second forbidden 10-13 2 + 1,2 1,2,3
third forbidden > 15 3 - 2,3 2,3,4

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 21 / 27

 Branching ratios

Branching ratios in β decay

As we observed for 14 O the β decay can populate several states.

This is true for majority of β decays.
This fact is often referred to as the branching in β decay.
The relative population of the branches (called branching ratios) is
determined by the Q-value and the selection rules.
The number of populated branches is especially large if a high-spin,
negative-parity ground state of an odd-odd nucleus decays to an
even-even nucleus.
The branching ratios can be used to define log(ft) values for
individual states.
Based on these log(ft) values and knowing the spin of the parent
state spins and parities can be assigned in the daughter nucleus.
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 22 / 27
 Branching ratios

72
Branching ratios in the decay of As

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 23 / 27

 β-delayed particle emission

|beta-decay far from stability

The Q value for the decay increases far from stability, one way to see
that is to examine the mass parabolas.

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 24 / 27

 β-delayed particle emission

β-delayed particle emission

For nuclei far from the line of stability the β decay may populate
states in the daughter which are above the particle separation energy.

This happens when the particle separation energy is small as

compared to the Q-value.

This happens near the proton dripline for the protons or near the
neutron driplines for the neutrons.

In such cases the β decay is followed by particle emission giving rise

to either β-delayed proton or β-delayed neutron radioactivity.

While neutrons are emitted promptly, the proton emission is further

delayed by the Coulomb barrier.

We also observed β-delayed α emission in the decay of naturally

ocuring radioactive chains of U and Th.
NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 25 / 27
 The parity non conservation

The parity non conservation in β-decay

The parity conservation in fundamental interactions was assumed as a

law of nature until late 1950.

In a Nobel prize experiment performed on β-decay of 60 Co by

Madame Wu and collaborators the weak interaction were shown not
to conserve parity.

For a great article describing the pathway for this experiment please
check this link

For now the weak interactions are the only fundamental interactions
showing non conservation of parity.

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 26 / 27

 The parity non conservation

Wu experiment

NUCS 342 (Lecture 17) March 2, 2011 27 / 27