Chapter 2 DC Circuits

2. Basic Laws
Basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an electric circuit. To actually
determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires that we understand
some fundamental laws that govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s
law and Kirchhoff’s laws form the foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is
built and we shall discuss some techniques commonly applied in circuit design and
analysis (i.e. combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage division, current
division )

2.1. Ohms Law

Materials in general have a characteristic

behavior of resisting the flow of electric
charge. This physical property, or ability
to resist current, is known as resistance
and is represented by the symbol R. The
resistance of any material with a
uniform cross-sectional area depends
on A and its length l.
Figure 2.1 (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance.
In mathematical form,

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Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good conductors,
such as copper and aluminum, have low resistivities, while insulators, such as mica
and paper, have high resistivities. Table 2.1 presents the values of ρ for some
common materials and shows which materials are used for conductors, insulators,
and semiconductors.

The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the
resistor (R) (is the simplest passive element). For the purpose of constructing
circuits, resistors are usually made from metallic alloys and carbon compounds.
Ohm’s law is named for the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, who is credited
with establishing the voltage–current relationship for resistance. As a result of his
pioneering work, the unit of resistance bears his name.
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current i flowing through the resistor.

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Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R.
Thus the mathematical relationship of Ohm’s law is

 Where the resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current; it is measured in ohms ().

The power supplied to the terminals is absorbed by the resistor. Note that the charge
moves from the higher to the lower potential as it passes through the resistor and the
energy absorbed is dissipated by the resistor in the form of heat (Figure 2.1).
Therefore the rate of energy dissipation is the instantaneous power, and is given by
P (t) =v (t)i(t)

This equation illustrates that the power is a nonlinear function of either current or
voltage and that it is always a positive quantity.
Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider
the two extreme possible values of R.
An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit (i.e. a short circuit is a circuit element
with resistance approaching zero). For a short circuit,

Showing that the voltage is zero but the current could be anything. In practice, a
short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be a perfect conductor.

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Similarly, an element with R =∞ is known as an open circuit (i.e. an open circuit is
a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity). For an open circuit,

Indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything

Figure 2.2 (a) Short circuit (R = 0), (b) Open circuit (R =∞).
A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as
conductance and denoted by G:

 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current (is a

measure of how well an element will conduct electric current); it is
measured in mhos or Siemens (S).

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2.2. Kirchhoff’s Laws
Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled
with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing
a large variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by
the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are
formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL).Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which
requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s second law is based on the principle of conservation of energy:
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) is the underlying principle which is used to explain
the operation of a parallel circuit. Kirchhoff’s current law states the following:
 The summation of currents entering a node is equal to the summation of
currents leaving the node. In mathematical form, Kirchhoff’s current law is
stated as follows:

Example: For the fig 2.3

5 A +3 A = 2 A + 4 A +2 A

8 A = 8 A (checks!)

Figure 2.3 Kirchhoff’s current law

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Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) which states the following:
 The summation of voltage rises and voltage drops around a closed loop is
equal to zero (the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop is zero).
Symbolically, this may be stated as follows:

Where
 the uppercase Greek letter sigma() stands for summation and
 V stands for voltage rises and drops.
 A closed loop is defined as any path which originates at a point, travels
around a circuit, and returns to the original point without retracing any
segments.
An alternate way of stating Kirchhoff’s voltage law is as follows:
 The summation of voltage rises is equal to the summation of voltage drops
around a closed loop.

We may begin at point a in the lower right-

hand corner and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage
law around the closed loop, we arrive at the
following mathematical statement for the
given circuit:
E -V1-V2 –V3 = 0
Or moving in opposite direction results
Figure 2.4 Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
V3 +V2+ V1- E= 0
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 2.3. Nodes, Branches, Loops & Meshes
Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways, we
need to understand some basic concepts of network topology. To differentiate
between a circuit and a network, we may regard a network as an interconnection of
elements or devices, whereas a circuit is a network providing one or more closed
paths. The convention, when addressing network topology, is to use the word
network rather than circuit. We do this even though the words network and circuit
mean the same thing when used in this context. In network topology, we study the
properties relating to the placement of elements in the network and the geometric
configuration of the network. Such elements include branches, nodes, and loops.
Node: is simply a point of connection of two or more circuit elements. Although
one node can be spread out with perfect conductors, it is still only one node. This is
illustrated in Fig 2.5 b, where the circuit has been redrawn. Node 5 consists of the
entire bottom
connector of
the circuit.

If we start at
Figure 2.5 Circuit for illustration some point in
the circuit
and move along perfect conductors in any direction until we encounter a circuit
element, the total path we cover represents a single node. Therefore, we can assume
that a node is one end of a circuit element together with all the perfect conductors
that are attached to it. Examining the circuit, we note that there are numerous paths
through it.

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 Loop: A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set
of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through any node more
than once. Is simply any closed path through the circuit in which no node is
encountered more than once. For example, starting from node 1, one loop would
contain the elements R1, v2, R4 and i1; another loop would contain R2, v1, v2, R4, and
i1; etc. but the path R1, v1, R5, v2, R3 and i1 is not a loop because we have encountered
node 3 twice.
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
 Branch is a portion of a circuit containing only a single element and the nodes
at each end of the element. The circuit in Fig. 1.2.5 contains eight branches.
Given the previous definitions,
 A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the
fundamental theorem of network topology:

Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single

node and consequently carry the same current. Two or more elements are in parallel
if they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage
across them.
MESHES
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it. The current
through a mesh is known as mesh current. Nodal analysis applies KCL to find
unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL to find
unknown currents. Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis because it
is only applicable to a circuit that is planar. A planar circuit is one that can be drawn

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in a plane with no branches crossing one another; otherwise it is non-planar. Via
network topology we can show that, in general, there are exactly l = b−n+1.
Linearly independent KVL equations for any network, where b is the number of
branches in the circuit and n is the number of nodes.
Thus, for the circuit given the
number of linearly independent
KVL equations necessary to
determine all currents in the
network is
B-N+1=8-5+1=4

Figure 2.6
Steps
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2. . . in to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in
terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents
2.4. Series Resistors & Voltage Division
An electric circuit is the combination of any number of sources and loads connected
in any manner which allows charge to flow. The electric circuit may be simple, or
may be very complex. However, no matter how complicated, each circuit follows
fairly simple rules in a predictable manner. Once these rules are understood, any
circuit may be analyzed to determine the operation under various conditions. We
begin by examining the simplest connection, the series connection.
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  Two elements are said to be in series if they are connected at a single point
and if there are no other current-carrying connections at
this point.
It is constructed by combining various elements in series.
Current will leave the positive terminal of the voltage
source, move through the resistors, and return to the
negative terminal of the source. In the circuit of Figure
below, we see that the voltage source, V, is in series with
Figure 2.7 Resistors in series. R1, R1 is in series with R2, and R2 is in series with V. By
examining this circuit, another important characteristic of
a series circuit becomes evident. In an analogy similar to water flowing in a pipe,
current entering an element must be the same as the current leaving the element.
Now, since current does not leave at any of the connections, we conclude that the
following must be true. The current is the same everywhere in a series circuit.

Figure 2.8 A single-loop circuit with two resistors

in series.
The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flow in both of them.
Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain

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 If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have

Or

This can be written as

Figure 2.9 Equivalent circuit of
Fig. 2.8 circuit

Implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req; that
is,

In general,

 The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is

the sum of the individual resistances.

For N resistors in series then,

Proof
Almost all complicated circuits can be simplified. Consider the
circuit shown in Figure 2.10. Since the circuit is a closed loop,
the voltage source will cause a current I in the circuit. This current
in turn produces a voltage drop across each resistor, where
Figure 2.10
Vx =IRx

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 E =V1 +V2 +… + Vn
=IR1+ IR2 +… +IRn
= I (R1 + R2 +… + Rn)
If we were to replace all the resistors with an equivalent total resistance, RT, then the
circuit would appear as shown in Figure 2.11. However, applying Ohm’s law to the
circuit of Figure 1.2.10 gives
E = IRT
Since the circuit of Figure 1. 2.11 is equivalent to the
circuit of Figure 1.2.10, we conclude that this can only
occur if the total resistance of the n series resistors is
given as
Figure 2.11 equivalent circuit
RT = R1 + R2 +… +Rn [ohms]
If each of the n resistors has the same value, then the total resistance is determined
as
RT = nR [ohms]

The voltage across each resistor becomes

That is the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to
their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called
the principle of voltage division, and the circuit in Fig 2.8 is called a voltage divider.
In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2, . . . , RN) in series with the
source voltage v, the nth resistor (Rn) will have a v oltage drop of

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Where vx= vn , Rn=Rx and E=v.
The power dissipated by each resistor is determined as

The power delivered by a voltage source to a circuit is given as

PT = EI [watts, W]
Since energy must be conserved, the power delivered by the voltage source is equal
to the total power dissipated by all the resistors. Hence

PT =P1 + P2 +… + Pn [watts, W]
2.5. Parallel Resistors & Current Division
Elements or branches are said to be in a parallel connection when they have exactly
two nodes in common.

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 .
Figure2.12 different ways of sketching parallel elements

A simple parallel circuit is constructed by

combining a voltage source with several
resistors as shown in Figure 2.13

Figure 2.13 Parallel

circuit
For figure 2.13, the voltage source will result in current from the positive terminal
of the source toward node a. At this point the current will split between the various
resistors and then recombine at node b before continuing to the negative terminal of
the voltage source. If we were to apply KVL around each closed loop in the parallel
circuit of Figure 2.13, we would find that the voltage across all parallel resistors is
exactly equal, namely VR1 =VR2 =VR3 =E. Therefore, by applying KVL, we make
the following statement:

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The voltage across all parallel elements in a circuit will be the same. The above
principle allows us to determine the equivalent resistance, RT, of any number of
resistors connected in parallel. The equivalent resistance, RT, is the effective
resistance “seen” by the source and determines the total current, IT, provided to the
circuit. Applying KCL to the circuit of Figure 2.13, we have the following
expression:
IT = I1 +I2 +… + In

Simplifying the above expression gives us the general expression for total resistance
of a parallel circuit as:

Since conductance was defined as the reciprocal of resistance, we may write the
above equation in terms of conductance, namely,

The equivalent resistance of n parallel resistors may be determined in one step as

follows:

 An important effect of combining parallel resistors is that the resultant

resistance will always be smaller than the smallest resistor in the
combination.

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If we have n equal resistors in parallel, each resistor, R, has the same conductance;
G. the total conductance is found:
GT = nG
Then the total resistance is now easily determined

In parallel networks, the voltage across all parallel elements is the same. However,
the currents through the various elements are typically different. The current divider
rule (CDR) is used to determine how current entering a node is split between the
various parallel resistors connected to the node. Consider the network of parallel
resistors shown in Figure
2.14.

Figure 2.14 Current divider rules.

If this network of resistors is supplied by a voltage source, the total current in the
circuit is:
…………………………………………………….a

Whereas the current through any resistor in the network is give as

…………………………………………….b

Rewriting Equation a

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E =ITRT and then substituting this into Equation b, we obtain the current divider
rule as follows:

Or in terms of conductance

Thus the current divider rule allows us to calculate the current in any resistor of a
parallel network if we know the total current entering the network.
Note that:
If the network consists of only two parallel resistors, then the current through each
resistor may be found in a slightly different way. Recall that for two resistors in
parallel, the total parallel resistance is given as

Now, by substituting this expression for total resistance we obtain

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Similarly

As a result parallel networks have the following important characteristics:

 If current enters a parallel network consisting of any number of equal
resistors, then the current entering the network will split equally between all
of the resistors.
 If current enters a parallel network consisting of several values of resistance,
then the smallest value of resistor in the network will have the largest amount
of current. Inversely, the largest value of resistance will have the smallest
amount of current (that is most of the current will follow the path of least
resistance).
2.6. Star (Y)-Delta (∆) Transformation
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor
in series. For example, consider the bridge circuit in Fig.1. 2.15. How do we combine
resistors through when the resistors are neither in series nor in parallel? Many
circuits of the type shown in Fig 2.15 can be simplified by using three-terminal
equivalent networks.

Figure 2.15. The bridge network

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These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig.2.16 and the delta ( ) or pi
( 𝜋) network shown in Fig.2.17 these networks occur by themselves or as part of a
larger network. They are used in three-phase networks, electrical filters, and
matching networks. Our main interest here is in how to identify them when they
occur as part of a network and how to apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis
of that network.

Figure 2.16.Two forms of the same network:(a)Y, (b) T.

Figure 2.17 Two forms of the same network: (a)  (b) 𝜋

Delta to Wye Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place where the
circuit contains a delta configuration. We superimpose a wye network on the existing
delta network and find the equivalent resistances in the wye network. To obtain the
equivalent resistances in the wye network, we compare the two networks and make

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sure that the resistance between each pair of nodes in the (or ) network is the same
as the resistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network. For
terminals 1 and 2 in Figs. 2.16 and 2.17, for example,
𝑅12 (𝑌) = 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 2.1
𝑅12 (∆) = 𝑅𝑏 ‖(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑐 )
Setting 𝑅12 (𝑌) = 𝑅12 (∆) 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑏 (𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑐 )
𝑅12 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 = 2.2
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

𝑅13 (𝑌) = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2.3

𝑅13 (∆) = 𝑅𝑐 ‖(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 )
Setting 𝑅13 (𝑌) = 𝑅13 (∆) 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑐 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 )
𝑅13 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 2.4
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐
𝑅34 (𝑌) = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 2.5
𝑅34 (∆) = 𝑅𝑎 ‖(𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐 )
Setting 𝑅34 (𝑌) = 𝑅34 (∆) 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑎 (𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 )
𝑅34 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 2.6
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

Subtracting Eq.(1.2.6) from Eq.(1.2.2)

𝑅𝑐 (𝑅𝑏 −𝑅𝑎 )
𝑅1 − 𝑅2 = 2.7
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

Adding Eqs. 1.2.4 and 1.2.7

𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐
𝑅1 = 2.8
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐

Subtracting Eq.(1.2.7) from Eq.(1.2.4) yields

𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐
𝑅2 = 2.9
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

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Subtracting Eq.(2.8) from Eq.(2.2) yields
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏
𝑅3 = 2.10
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

We do not need to memorize Eqs. (2.8) to (2.10) to transform a network to Y, we

create an extra node n as shown in Fig.2.18 and follow this conversion rule:

Figure 2.18 Superposition of Y and  networks as an aid in transforming one to the

other
 Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent branches, divided by the sum of the three resistors.
Wye to Delta Conversion
To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye network to an equivalent
delta network, we note from Eqs. (2.8) to (2.10) that
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 (𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 )
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 = 2.11
(𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐 )2

Dividing Eq. (2.11) by each of Eqs. (2.8) to (2.10) leads to the following equations:
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑎 = 2.12
𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅2
2.13
𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑐 = 2.14
𝑅3

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From Eqs. (2.12) to (2.14) and Fig. 2.18, the conversion rule for Y to  is as follows:
 Each resistor in  the network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors
taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑌 , 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅∆ 2.15
Under these conditions, conversion formulas become
𝑅∆
𝑅𝑌 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑅∆ = 3𝑅𝑌 2.16
3

One may wonder why 𝑅𝑌 is less than 𝑅∆ Well, we notice that the Y connection is like
a “series” connection while the -connection is like a “parallel” connection. Note
that in making the transformation, we do not take anything out of the circuit or put
in anything new. We are merely substituting different but mathematically equivalent
three-terminal network patterns to create a circuit in which resistors are either in
series or in parallel, allowing us to calculate 𝑅𝑒𝑞 if necessary.

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