HORMONES

Chem-3105
 What are Hormones?

As stated above, hormones are chemicals that essentially function as

messengers of the body. These chemicals are secreted by special
glands known as the endocrine glands. These endocrine glands are
distributed throughout the body. These messengers control many
physiological functions as well as psychological health. They are also
quite important in maintaining homeostasis in the body.
 Cell Signaling

The effects of hormones depend on how they are released. Hence,

signalling effects can be classified into the following:

 Autocrine: The hormone act on the cell that secreted it.

 Paracrine: The hormone act on a nearby cell without having
to enter the blood circulation.
 Intracrine: The hormone is produced in the cell and acts
intracellularly means inside the cell.
 Endocrine: The hormone act on the target cells once it is
released from the respective glands into the bloodstream.
 Types of Hormones
To regulate various functions, different types of hormones are
produced in the body. They are classified as follows:
•Peptide Hormones
•Steroid Hormones

Peptide Hormones
Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids and are soluble
in water. Peptide hormones are unable to pass through the cell
membrane as it contains a phospholipid bilayer that stops any fat-
insoluble molecules from diffusing into the cell. Insulin is an
important peptide hormone produced by the pancreas.

Steroid Hormones
Unlike peptide hormones, steroid hormones are fat-soluble and
are able to pass through a cell membrane. Sex hormones such as
testosterone, estrogen and progesterone are examples of steroid
hormones.
 Endocrine Glands and the Hormones Secreted

As stated before, hormones are released by the endocrine

glands. These are different from other glands of the human body as
they are ductless.
 Hypothalamus: It controls the body temperature, regulates
emotions, hunger, thirst, sleep, moods and allow the production of
hormones.
 Pineal: Pineal is also known as the thalamus. It produces serotonin
derivatives of melatonin, which affects sleep patterns.
 Parathyroid: This gland helps in controlling the amount of calcium
present in the body.
 Thymus: It helps in the production of T-cells, functioning of the
adaptive immune system and maturity of the thymus.
 Thyroid: It produces hormones that affect the heart rate and how
calories are burnt.
 Adrenal: This gland produces the hormones that control the sex drive,
cortisol and stress hormone.
 Pituitary: It is also termed as the “master control gland,”. This is
because the pituitary gland helps in controlling other glands. Moreover,
it develops the hormones that trigger growth and development.
 Pancreas: This gland is involved in the production of insulin
hormones, which plays a crucial role in maintaining blood sugar levels.
 Testes: In men, the testes secrete the male sex hormone, testosterone.
It also produces sperm.
 Ovaries: In the female reproductive system, the ovaries release
estrogen, progesterone, testosterone and other female sex hormones.
 Hormones Secretion

The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete

chemical messages we call hormones.

• These signals are passed through the blood to arrive at a

target organ, which has cells possessing the appropriate
receptor.
 What Does the Endocrine System Do?

 Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland

that produced it through the bloodstream to the cells designed to
receive its message. These cells are called target cells.
 Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to some of
the hormones. These proteins act as carriers that control the
amount of hormone that is available for the cells to use.
 The target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific
hormones, and each hormone has its own receptor, so that each
hormone will communicate only with specific target cells that
have receptors for that hormone.
 When the hormone reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's
specific receptors and these hormone-receptor combinations
transmit chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell.
 List of Important Hormones

1.Cortisol – It has been named as the “stress hormone” as it helps

the body in responding to stress. This is done by increasing the
heart rate, elevating blood sugar levels etc.
2.Estrogen-This is the main sex hormone present in women
which bring about puberty, prepares the uterus and body for
pregnancy and even regulates the menstrual cycle. Estrogen level
changes during menopause because of which women experience
many uncomfortable symptoms.
3.Melatonin – It primarily controls the circadian rhythm or sleep
cycles.
4.Progesterone – It is a female sex hormone also responsible for
menstrual cycle, pregnancy and embryogenesis.
5.Testosterone – This is the most important sex hormone
synthesized in men, which cause puberty, muscle mass growth, and
strengthen the bones and muscles, increase bone density and
controls facial hair growth.
 Functions of Hormones

Following are some of the important functions of hormones:

 Food metabolism.
 Growth and development.
 Controlling thirst and hunger.
 Maintaining body temperature.
 Regulating mood and cognitive functions.
 Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction.
 Hormonal Diseases

 Several hormonal diseases arise when the endocrine glands

malfunctions. Common hormonal issues are associated with
hypothalamus, adrenal and pituitary glands.
 An increase or decrease in the secretion of these hormones can
severely affect growth, metabolism and development.
 Diseases such as hyperthyroidism, osteoporosis, and diabetes are
caused due to hormonal imbalance.
 The factors responsible for hormonal diseases can be genetic,
environmental, or related to diet.
Why are Hormones called Chemical Messengers?

 The prominent role of hormones is that of a messenger.

Hypothalamus is a part of forebrain where a numerous amount of
neurosecretory cells are present. These neurosecretory cells are
specialized in the secretion of a hormone called neurohormones.
They stimulate the anterior lobe of the pituitary to produce
various other hormones.

 Sometimes, hormones act more as a regulator than a messenger.

The changes in the level of hormone production lead to certain
changes in the body. Thus, hormone as a regulator maintains the
homeostasis of the body. Once the hormones meet their target,
their production needs to be controlled and this is attained by a
mechanism called feedback control mechanism. The feedback
mechanism could either be positive or negative.
Feedback Mechanism – Thyroid
 The thyroid gland produces a hormone called thyroxine, and its
secretion is controlled by the Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone
(TRH) from the hypothalamus and the Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary.

 When the level of thyroxine in the blood reduces, the

hypothalamus stimulates the thyroxine secretion by stimulating
TSH secretion. This represents a positive feedback mechanism.

 If hypothalamus continues to stimulate thyroxine production, it

could result in a high level of thyroxine in the blood. This sends
negative feedback to the hypothalamus to reduce or stop the TRH
and TSH secretion which regulates the thyroxine level in the
body. This is a negative feedback mechanism.

 Hormones are meant for their target tissues for specific functions.
As soon as they meet their target, they are removed. This is
mainly done by the liver, kidney and other organs.
 Biosynthesis

iodine + amino acid (tyrosine) thyroxine (3,5,3′,5′-

component of a glycoprotein tetraiodothyronine) and 3,5,3′-
called thyroglobulin triiodothyronine

Thyroglobulin is stored within

the active uptake by thyroid- the gland in follicles as the main
gland cells of inorganic iodide component of a substance
circulating in the bloodstream called the thyroid colloid

reaction (active iodine)

the inorganic iodide is oxidized combines with tyrosine
(combined with oxygen) during components of the
a reaction catalyzed by thyroglobulin molecule
an enzyme (iodide peroxidase).

3-monoiodotyrosine and 3,5-

join to form the active
diiodotyrosine
hormones
 The synthesis of the thyroid hormones is inhibited by certain
chemical agents called goitrogens, which reduce the output of
thyroid hormones, thereby causing, through negative
feedback, an increased output of thyrotropin and hence an
enlargement of the thyroid gland.

 Some goitrogens (e.g., thiocyanates) reduce or inhibit the

uptake of iodide; others (e.g., thiourea, thiouracil) inhibit the
peroxidase system and thus prevent the binding of iodine to
thyroglobulin.
biosynthesis of steroid hormones
 Hormone Action

A Hormone is a tiny chemical messenger, travelling along with the

bloodstream. It exists to maintain internal balance or in other words, keeps
the human body in a state of homeostasis.

Starting with receptors, they are specific for every hormone. Their sensitivity
and responsiveness are dependent on both, the number of receptors and its
affinity. Also, the site of the receptor might be:
 Present in or on the surface of the cell membrane. g.
protein or peptide hormones and catecholamines.
 In the cytoplasm. E.g. steroid hormones; Or
 In the cell nucleus. E.g. thyroxine.
 Furthermore, hormones can be divided into groups on
the basis of their chemical nature:
 Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones.
 Steroids
 Iodothyronines (thyroid hormone).
 Amino acid derivatives.
 Mechanism of Hormone Action

The mechanism of hormone action is grouped into two classes:

 Fixed membrane receptor mechanism

 Mobile receptor mechanism
 Mixed Membrane Receptor Mechanism

 This type of mechanism is shown by the water-soluble hormones

that are amines or proteins in composition such as the growth
hormone, oxytocin, ADH, etc.

 These hormones can’t pass through the lipid membrane. They have
their target receptor on the cell membrane to which the hormone
binds.

 When the hormone binds on the specific target receptor, the

enzyme adenyl cyclase in the cell membrane is activated. This helps
in the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP).

 cAMP acts as the secondary messenger. It diffuses through the cell

membrane and activates several enzymatic reactions to cause
biochemical changes.

 The target cell responds to these changes and cAMP is deactivated

by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.
 Mobile Receptor Mechanism

 This type of mechanism is shown by lipid soluble hormones

such as fatty acids and steroids that can easily pass through
the plasma membrane.

 They possess intracellular receptors. The hormones bind to

the target receptor that activates the enzymatic activity of
the cell to bring about biochemical changes.

 Transcription of DNA is initiated by the hormone-receptor

complex.

 The mRNA is translated into protein. This protein causes

biochemical changes inside the cell.
 Hormones as Regulators

Hormones help in maintaining the internal environment of the

body. When the secretion of hormones is under the control of
other hormones, it is known as feedback control. It can be of two
types:

1.Positive Feedback Control: In this process, the end products

of action cause more of the action to occur in a feedback loop. For
eg., blood clotting, menstrual cycle.

2.Negative Feedback Control: In this type of regulation the

end product of a process reduces the stimulus of that same
process. For eg., temperature regulation, regulation of blood sugar.