Topic: Family

In human society, family (from Latin: familia) is a group of people related either by
consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose
of families is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideally, families would
offer predictability, structure, and safety as members mature and participate in the community. In
most societies, it is within families that children acquire socialization for life outside the family,
and acts as the primary source of attachment, nurturing, and socialization for humans.
Additionally, as the basic unit for meeting the basic needs of its members, it provides a sense of
boundaries for performing tasks in a safe environment, ideally builds a person into a functional
adult, transmits culture, and ensures continuity of humankind with precedents of knowledge.

Anthropologists generally classify most family organizations as matrifocal (a mother and her
children); patrifocal (a father and his children); conjugal (a wife, her husband, and children, also
called the nuclear family); avuncular (for example, a grandparent, a brother, his sister, and her
children); or extended (parents and children co-reside with other members of one parent's
family).

Members of the immediate family may include spouses, parents, grandparents, brothers, sisters,
sons, and daughters. Members of the extended family may include aunts, uncles, cousins,
nephews, nieces, and siblings-in-law. Sometimes these are also considered members of the
immediate family, depending on an individual's specific relationship with them, and the legal
definition of "immediate family" varies. Sexual relations with family members are regulated by
rules concerning incest such as the incest taboo.

The field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history. The family is also an
important economic unit studied in family economics. The word "families" can be used
metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, and global
village.

Social
One of the primary functions of the family involves providing a framework for the production
and reproduction of persons biologically and socially. This can occur through the sharing of
material substances (such as food); the giving and receiving of care and nurture (nurture
kinship); jural rights and obligations; and moral and sentimental ties. Thus, one's experience of
one's family shifts over time. From the perspective of children, the family is a "family of
orientation": the family serves to locate children socially and plays a major role in their
enculturation and socialization. From the point of view of the parent(s), the family is a "family of
procreation", the goal of which is to produce, enculturate and socialize children. However,
producing children is not the only function of the family; in societies with a sexual division of
labor, marriage, and the resulting relationship between two people, it is necessary for the
formation of an economically productive household.Christopher Harris notes that the western
conception of family is ambiguous and confused with the household, as revealed in the different
contexts in which the word is used. Olivia Harris states this confusion is not accidental, but
indicative of the familial ideology of capitalist, western countries that pass social legislation that
insists members of a nuclear family should live together, and that those not so related should not
live together; despite the ideological and legal pressures, a large percentage of families do not
conform to the ideal nuclear family type.

Size

The total fertility rate of women varies from country to country, from a high of 6.76 children
born/woman in Niger to a low of 0.81 in Singapore (as of 2015). Fertility is low in most Eastern
European and Southern European countries; and high in most Sub-Saharan African countries.In
some cultures, the mother's preference of family size influences that of the children through early
adulthood. A parent's number of children strongly correlates with the number of children that
their children will eventually have.

Types
Although early western cultural anthropologists and sociologists considered family and kinship
to be universally associated with relations by "blood" (based on ideas common in their own
cultures) later research has shown that many societies instead understand family through ideas of
living together, the sharing of food (e.g. milk kinship) and sharing care and nurture. Sociologists
have a special interest in the function and status of family forms in stratified (especially
capitalist) societies.According to the work of scholars Max Weber, Alan Macfarlane, Steven
Ozment, Jack Goody and Peter Laslett, the huge transformation that led to modern marriage in
Western democracies was "fueled by the religio-cultural value system provided by elements of
Judaism, early Christianity, Roman Catholic canon law and the Protestant Reformation".Much
sociological, historical and anthropological research dedicates itself to the understanding of this
variation, and of changes in the family that form over time. Levitan claims:

Times have changed; it is more acceptable and encouraged for mothers to work and fathers to
spend more time at home with the children. The way roles are balanced between the parents will
help children grow and learn valuable life lessons. There is [the] great importance of
communication and equality in families, in order to avoid role strain.

Multigenerational family

Historically the most common family type was one in which grandparents, parents, and children
lived together as a single unit. For example, the household might include the owners of a farm,
one (or more) of their adult children, the adult child's spouse, and the adult child's own children
(the owners' grandchildren). Members of the extended family are not included in this family
group. Sometimes, "skipped" generation families, such as a grandparents living with their
grandchildren, are included.

In the US, this arrangement declined after World War II, reaching a low point in 1980, when
about one out of every eight people in the US lived in a multigenerational family. The numbers
have risen since then, with one in five people in the US living in a multigenerational family as of
2016. The increasing popularity is partly driven by demographic changes and the economic shifts
associated with the Boomerang Generation.Multigenerational households are less common in
Canada, where about 6% of people living in Canada were living in multigenerational families as
of 2016, but the proportion of multigenerational households was increasing rapidly, driven by
increasing numbers of Aboriginal families, immigrant families, and high housing costs in some
regions.

Conjugal (nuclear) family

The term "nuclear family" is commonly used, especially in the United States of America, to refer
to conjugal families. A "conjugal" family includes only the spouses and unmarried children who
are not of age. Some sociologists distinguish between conjugal families (relatively independent
of the kindred of the parents and of other families in general) and nuclear families (which
maintain relatively close ties with their kindred).

Other family structures – with (for example) blended parents, single parents, and domestic
partnerships – have begun to challenge the normality of the nuclear family.

Single-parent family

A single-parent family consists of one parent together with their children, where the parent is
either widowed, divorced (and not remarried), or never married. The parent may have sole
custody of the children, or separated parents may have a shared-parenting arrangement where the
children divide their time (possibly equally) between two different single-parent families or
between one single-parent family and one blended family. As compared to sole custody,
physical, mental and social well-being of children may be improved by shared-parenting
arrangements and by children having greater access to both parents. The number of single-parent
families have been increasing, and about half of all children in the United States will live in a
single-parent family at some point before they reach the age of 18. Most single-parent families
are headed by a mother, but the number of single-parent families headed by fathers is increasing.

Matrifocal family

A "matrifocal" family consists of a mother and her children. Generally, these children are her
biological offspring, although adoption of children occurs in nearly every society. This kind of
family occurs commonly where women have the resources to rear their children by themselves,
or where men are more mobile than women. As a definition, "a family or domestic group is
matrifocal when it is centred on a woman and her children. In this case, the father(s) of these
children are intermittently present in the life of the group and occupy a secondary place. The
children's mother is not necessarily the wife of one of the children's fathers."

Extended family

The term "extended family" is also common, especially in the United States. This term has two
distinct meanings:

It serves as a synonym of "consanguinal family" (consanguine means "of the same blood").
In societies dominated by the conjugal family, it refers to "kindred" (an egocentric network of
relatives that extends beyond the domestic group) who do not belong to the conjugal
family.These types refer to ideal or normative structures found in particular societies. Any
society will exhibit some variation in the actual composition and conception of families.

Family of choice

The term family of choice, also sometimes referred to as "chosen family" or "found family", is
common within the LGBT community, veterans, individuals who have suffered abuse, and those
who have no contact with biological "parents". It refers to the group of people in an individual's
life that satisfies the typical role of family as a support system. The term differentiates between
the "family of origin" (the biological family or that in which people are raised) and those that
actively assume that ideal role.The family of choice may or may not include some or all of the
members of the family of origin. This terminology stems from the fact that many LGBT
individuals, upon coming out, face rejection or shame from the families they were raised in. The
term family of choice is also used by individuals in the 12 step communities, who create close-
knit "family" ties through the recovery process.

As a family system, families of choice face unique issues. Without legal safeguards, families of
choice may struggle when medical, educational or governmental institutions fail to recognize
their legitimacy. If members of the chosen family have been disowned by their family of origin,
they may experience surrogate grief, displacing anger, loss, or anxious attachment onto their new
family.

Blended family

The term blended family or stepfamily describes families with mixed parents: one or both
parents remarried, bringing children of the former family into the new family. Also in sociology,
particularly in the works of social psychologist Michael Lamb, traditional family refers to "a
middle-class family with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each
other and raising their biological children," and nontraditional to exceptions to this rule. Most of
the US households are now non-traditional under this definition. Critics of the term "traditional
family" point out that in most cultures and at most times, the extended family model has been
most common, not the nuclear family, though it has had a longer tradition in England than in
other parts of Europe and Asia which contributed large numbers of immigrants to the Americas.
The nuclear family became the most common form in the U.S. in the 1960s and 1970s.In terms
of communication patterns in families, there are a certain set of beliefs within the family that
reflect how its members should communicate and interact. These family communication patterns
arise from two underlying sets of beliefs. One being conversation orientation (the degree to
which the importance of communication is valued) and two, conformity orientation (the degree
to which families should emphasize similarities or differences regarding attitudes, beliefs, and
values).

Monogamous family
A monogamous family is based on a legal or social monogamy. In this case, an individual has
only one (official) partner during their lifetime or at any one time (i.e. serial monogamy). This
means that a person may not have several different legal spouses at the same time, as this is
usually prohibited by bigamy laws, in jurisdictions that require monogamous marriages.

Polygamous family

Polygamy is a marriage that includes more than two partners. When a man is married to more
than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny; and when a woman is married to
more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands
and wives, it can be called polyamory, group or conjoint marriage.Polygyny is a form of plural
marriage, in which a man is allowed more than one wife . In modern countries that permit
polygamy, polygyny is typically the only form permitted. Polygyny is practiced primarily (but
not only) in parts of the Middle East and Africa; and is often associated with Islam, however,
there are certain conditions in Islam that must be met to perform polygyny.Polyandry is a form
of marriage whereby a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Fraternal
polyandry, where two or more brothers are married to the same wife, is a common form of
polyandry. Polyandry was traditionally practiced in areas of the Himalayan mountains, among
Tibetans in Nepal, in parts of China and in parts of northern India. Polyandry is most common in
societies marked by high male mortality or where males will often be apart from the rest of the
family for a considerable period of time.

Kinship terminology
Degrees of kinship

A first-degree relative is one who shares 50% of your DNA through direct inheritance, such as a
full sibling, parent or progeny.

There is another measure for the degree of relationship, which is determined by counting up
generations to the first common ancestor and back down to the target individual, which is used
for various genealogical and legal purposes.

Terminologies

In his book Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, anthropologist Lewis
Henry Morgan (1818–1881) performed the first survey of kinship terminologies in use around
the world. Although much of his work is now considered dated, he argued that kinship
terminologies reflect different sets of distinctions. For example, most kinship terminologies
distinguish between sexes (the difference between a brother and a sister) and between
generations (the difference between a child and a parent). Moreover, he argued, kinship
terminologies distinguish between relatives by blood and marriage (although recently some
anthropologists have argued that many societies define kinship in terms other than "blood").
Morgan made a distinction between kinship systems that use classificatory terminology and
those that use descriptive terminology. Classificatory systems are generally and erroneously
understood to be those that "class together" with a single term relatives who actually do not have
the same type of relationship to ego. (What defines "same type of relationship" under such
definitions seems to be genealogical relationship. This is problematic given that any genealogical
description, no matter how standardized, employs words originating in a folk understanding of
kinship.) What Morgan's terminology actually differentiates are those (classificatory) kinship
systems that do not distinguish lineal and collateral relationships and those (descriptive) kinship
systems that do. Morgan, a lawyer, came to make this distinction in an effort to understand
Seneca inheritance practices. A Seneca man's effects were inherited by his sisters' children rather
than by his own children. Morgan identified six basic patterns of kinship terminologies:

Hawaiian: only distinguishes relatives based upon sex and generation.

Sudanese: no two relatives share the same term.

Eskimo: in addition to distinguishing relatives based upon sex and generation, also distinguishes
between lineal relatives and collateral relatives.

Iroquois: in addition to sex and generation, also distinguishes between siblings of opposite sexes
in the parental generation.

Crow: a matrilineal system with some features of an Iroquois system, but with a "skewing"
feature in which generation is "frozen" for some relatives.

Omaha: like a Crow system but patrilineal.

Roles
Most Western societies employ Eskimo kinship terminology. This kinship terminology
commonly occurs in societies with strong conjugal, where families have a degree of relative
mobility. Typically, societies with conjugal families also favor neolocal residence; thus upon
marriage, a person separates from the nuclear family of their childhood (family of orientation)
and forms a new nuclear family (family of procreation). Such systems generally assume that the
mother's husband is also the biological father. The system uses highly descriptive terms for the
nuclear family and progressively more classificatory as the relatives become more and more
collateral.

Nuclear family

The system emphasizes the nuclear family. Members of the nuclear family use highly descriptive
kinship terms, identifying directly only the husband, wife, mother, father, son, daughter, brother,
and sister. All other relatives are grouped together into categories. Members of the nuclear
family may be lineal or collateral. Kin, for whom these are family, refer to them in descriptive
terms that build on the terms used within the nuclear family or use the nuclear family term
directly.
Nuclear family of orientation

Brother: the male child of a parent.

Sister: the female child of a parent.

Father: a male parent.

Grandfather: the father of a parent.

Mother: a female parent.

Grandmother: the mother of a parent.Nuclear conjugal family

Husband: a male spouse.

Wife: a female spouse.

Son: a male child of the parent(s).

Grandson: a child's son.

Daughter: a female child of the parent(s).

Granddaughter: a child's daughter.Nuclear non-lineal family

Spouse: husband or wife

Stepparent: a spouse of a parent that is not a biological parent

Sibling: sister or brother

Half-sibling: a sibling with whom the subject shares only one biological parent

Step-sibling: a child of a parent that is not a biological parent

Collateral relatives

A sibling is a collateral relative with a minimal removal. For collateral relatives with one
additional removal, one generation more distant from a common ancestor on one side, more
classificatory terms come into play. These terms (Aunt, Uncle, Niece, and Nephew) do not build
on the terms used within the nuclear family as most are not traditionally members of the
household. These terms do not traditionally differentiate between a collateral relatives and a
person married to a collateral relative (both collateral and aggregate). Collateral relatives with
additional removals on each side are Cousins. This is the most classificatory term and can be
distinguished by degrees of collaterality and by generation (removal).
When only the subject has the additional removal, the relative is the subject's parents' siblings,
the terms Aunt and Uncle are used for female and male relatives respectively. When only the
relative has the additional removal, the relative is the subjects siblings child, the terms Niece and
Nephew are used for female and male relatives respectively. The spouse of a biological aunt or
uncle is an aunt or uncle, and the nieces and nephews of a spouse are nieces and nephews. With
further removal by the subject for aunts and uncles and by the relative for nieces and nephews
the prefix "grand-" modifies these terms. With further removal the prefix becomes "great-
grand-," adding another "great-" for each additional generation.

When the subject and the relative have an additional removal they are cousins. A cousin with
minimal removal is a first cousin, i.e. the child of the subjects uncle or aunt. Degrees of
collaterality and removals are used to more precisely describe the relationship between cousins.
The degree is the number of generations subsequent to the common ancestor before a parent of
one of the cousins is found, while the removal is the difference between the number of
generations from each cousin to the common ancestor (the difference between the generations
the cousins are from).Cousins of an older generation (in other words, one's parents' first cousins),
although technically first cousins once removed, are often classified with "aunts" and "uncles".

Aggregate relatives

English-speakers mark relationships by marriage (except for wife/husband) with the tag "-in-
law". The mother and father of one's spouse become one's mother-in-law and father-in-law; the
wife of one's son becomes one's daughter-in-law and the husband of one's daughter becomes
one's son-in-law. The term "sister-in-law" refers to two essentially different relationships, either
the wife of one's brother, or the sister of one's spouse. "Brother-in-law" is the husband of one's
sister, or the brother of one's spouse. The terms "half-brother" and "half-sister" indicate siblings
who share only one biological parent. The term "aunt-in-law" is the wife of one's uncle, or the
aunt of one's spouse. "Uncle-in-law" is the husband of one's aunt, or the uncle of one's spouse.
"Cousin-in-law" is the spouse of one's cousin, or the cousin of one's spouse. The term "niece-in-
law" is the wife of one's nephew, or the niece of one's spouse. "Nephew-in-law" is the husband
of one's niece, or the nephew of one's spouse. The grandmother and grandfather of one's spouse
become one's grandmother-in-law and grandfather-in-law; the wife of one's grandson becomes
one's granddaughter-in-law and the husband of one's granddaughter becomes one's grandson-in-
law.

In Indian English a sibling in law who is the spouse of your sibling can be referred to as a co-
sibling (specificity a co-sister or co-brother).

Types of kinship
Patrilineal

Patrilineality, also known as the male line or agnatic kinship, is a form of kinship system in
which an individual's family membership derives from and is traced through his or her father's
lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, rights, names, or titles by persons
related through male kin.
A patriline ("father line") is a person's father, and additional ancestors that are traced only
through males. One's patriline is thus a record of descent from a man in which the individuals in
all intervening generations are male. In cultural anthropology, a patrilineage is a consanguineal
male and female kinship group, each of whose members is descended from the common ancestor
through male forebears.

Matrilineal

Matrilineality is a form of kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives

from and is traced through his or her mother's lineage.

It may also correlate with a societal system in which each person is identified with their matriline
—their mother's lineage—and which can involve the inheritance of property and titles. A
matriline is a line of descent from a female ancestor to a descendant in which the individuals in
all intervening generations are mothers – in other words, a "mother line".

In a matrilineal descent system, an individual is considered to belong to the same descent group
as her or his mother. This matrilineal descent pattern is in contrasts to the more common pattern
of patrilineal descent pattern.

Bilateral descent

Bilateral descent is a form of kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives
from and is traced through both the paternal and maternal sides. The relatives on the mother's
side and father's side are equally important for emotional ties or for transfer of property or
wealth. It is a family arrangement where descent and inheritance are passed equally through both
parents. Families who use this system trace descent through both parents simultaneously and
recognize multiple ancestors, but unlike with cognatic descent it is not used to form descent
groups.Traditionally, this is found among some groups in West Africa, India, Australia,
Indonesia, Melanesia, Malaysia and Polynesia. Anthropologists believe that a tribal structure
based on bilateral descent helps members live in extreme environments because it allows
individuals to rely on two sets of families dispersed over a wide area.

History of theories
Early scholars of family history applied Darwin's biological theory of evolution in their theory of
evolution of family systems. American anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan published Ancient
Society in 1877 based on his theory of the three stages of human progress from Savagery through
Barbarism to Civilization. Morgan's book was the "inspiration for Friedrich Engels' book" The
Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State published in 1884.Engels expanded
Morgan's hypothesis that economical factors caused the transformation of primitive community
into a class-divided society. Engels' theory of resource control, and later that of Karl Marx, was
used to explain the cause and effect of change in family structure and function. The popularity of
this theory was largely unmatched until the 1980s, when other sociological theories, most
notably structural functionalism, gained acceptance.
The nuclear family in industrial society

Contemporary society generally views the family as a haven from the world, supplying absolute
fulfillment. Zinn and Eitzen discuss the image of the "family as haven ... a place of intimacy,
love and trust where individuals may escape the competition of dehumanizing forces in modern
society".During industrialization, "[t]he family as a repository of warmth and tenderness
(embodied by the mother) stands in opposition to the competitive and aggressive world of
commerce (embodied by the father). The family's task was to protect against the outside world."
However, Zinn and Eitzen note, "The protective image of the family has waned in recent years as
the ideals of family fulfillment have taken shape. Today, the family is more compensatory than
protective. It supplies what is vitally needed but missing in other social arrangements.""The
popular wisdom", according to Zinn and Eitzen, sees the family structures of the past as superior
to those today, and families as more stable and happier at a time when they did not have to
contend with problems such as illegitimate children and divorce. They respond to this, saying,
"there is no golden age of the family gleaming at us in the far back historical past." "Desertion by
spouses, illegitimate children, and other conditions that are considered characteristics of modern
times existed in the past as well."

The postmodern family

Others argue that whether or not one views the family as "declining" depends on one's definition
of "family". "Married couples have dropped below half of all American households. This drop is
shocking from traditional forms of the family system. Only a fifth of households were following
traditional ways of having married couples raising a family together." In the Western World,
marriages are no longer arranged for economic, social or political gain, and children are no
longer expected to contribute to family income. Instead, people choose mates based on love. This
increased role of love indicates a societal shift toward favoring emotional fulfilment and
relationships within a family, and this shift necessarily weakens the institution of the
family.Margaret Mead considers the family as a main safeguard to continuing human progress.
Observing, "Human beings have learned, laboriously, to be human", she adds: "we hold our
present form of humanity on trust, [and] it is possible to lose it" ... "It is not without significance
that the most successful large-scale abrogations of the family have occurred not among simple
savages, living close to the subsistence edge, but among great nations and strong empires, the
resources of which were ample, the populations huge, and the power almost unlimited"Many
countries (particularly Western) have, in recent years, changed their family laws in order to
accommodate diverse family models. For instance, in the United Kingdom, in Scotland, the
Family Law (Scotland) Act 2006 provides cohabitants with some limited rights. In 2010, Ireland
enacted the Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohabitants Act 2010. There
have also been moves at an international level, most notably, the Council of Europe European
Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock which came into force in 1978.
Countries which ratify it must ensure that children born outside marriage are provided with legal
rights as stipulated in the text of this convention. The convention was ratified by the UK in 1981
and by Ireland in 1988.In the United States, one in five mothers has children by different fathers;
among mothers with two or more children the figure is higher, with 28% having children with at
least two different men. Such families are more common among Blacks and Hispanics and
among the lower socioeconomic class.However, in western society, the single parent family has
been growing more accepted and has begun to make an impact on culture. Single parent families
are more commonly single mother families than single father. These families sometimes face
difficult issues besides the fact that they have to rear their children on their own, for example,
low income making it difficult to pay for rent, child care, and other necessities for a healthy and
safe home.

Domestic violence
Domestic violence (DV) is violence that happens within the family. The legal and social
understanding of the concept of DV differs by culture. The definition of the term "domestic
violence" varies, depending on the context in which it is used. It may be defined differently in
medical, legal, political or social contexts. The definitions have varied over time, and vary in
different parts of the world.

The Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence
states that:

"domestic violence" shall mean all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence
that occur within the family or domestic unit or between former or current spouses or partners,
whether or not the perpetrator shares or has shared the same residence with the victim.

In 1993, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women
identified domestic violence as one of three contexts in which violence against women occurs,
describing it as:

Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual
abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital
mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence
related to exploitation.

Family violence

Family violence is a broader definition, often used to include child abuse, elder abuse, and other
violent acts between family members.Child abuse is defined by the WHO as:

Child maltreatment, sometimes referred to as child abuse and neglect, includes all forms of
physical and emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect, and exploitation that results in actual
or potential harm to the child's health, development or dignity. Within this broad definition, five
subtypes can be distinguished – physical abuse; sexual abuse; neglect and negligent treatment;
emotional abuse; and exploitation.

There exists legislation to prevent and punish the occurrence of these offences. There are laws
regarding familial sexual activity, which states that it is a criminal offence to have any kind of
sexual relationship between one's grandparent, parent, sibling, aunt or uncle.Elder abuse is,
according to the WHO: "a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within
any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older
person".

Parental abuse of children (child abuse)

Child abuse is the physical, sexual or emotional maltreatment or neglect of a child or children. In
the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Department for
Children and Families (DCF) define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of
commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or
threat of harm to a child. Child abuse can occur in a child's home, or in the organizations, schools
or communities the child interacts with. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect,
physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, and sexual abuse.

Parental abuse by children

Abuse of parents by their children is a common but under reported and under researched subject.
Parents are quite often subject to levels of childhood aggression in excess of normal childhood
aggressive outbursts, typically in the form of verbal or physical abuse. Parents feel a sense of
shame and humiliation to have that problem, so they rarely seek help and there is usually little or
no help available anyway.

Elder abuse

Elder abuse is "a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any
relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older
person". This definition has been adopted by the World Health Organization from a definition
put forward by Action on Elder Abuse in the UK. Laws protecting the elderly from abuse are
similar to, and related to, laws protecting dependent adults from abuse.

The core element to the harm of elder abuse is the "expectation of trust" of the older person
toward their abuser. Thus, it includes harms by people the older person knows or with whom
they have a relationship, such as a spouse, partner or family member, a friend or neighbor, or
people that the older person relies on for services. Many forms of elder abuse are recognized as
types of domestic violence or family violence.

Forced and child marriage

Forced and child marriages are practiced in certain regions of the world, particularly in Asia and
Africa, and these types of marriages are associated with a high rate of domestic violence.A
forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely
given consent. The line between forced marriage and consensual marriage may become blurred,
because the social norms of many cultures dictate that one should never oppose the desire of
one's parents/relatives in regard to the choice of a spouse; in such cultures it is not necessary for
violence, threats, intimidation etc. to occur, the person simply "consents" to the marriage even if
he/she doesn't want it, out of the implied social pressure and duty. The customs of bride price
and dowry, that exist in parts of the world, can lead to buying and selling people into marriage.A
child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under 18. Child marriage was
common throughout history but is today condemned by international human rights organizations.
Child marriages are often arranged between the families of the future bride and groom,
sometimes as soon as the girl is born. Child marriages can also occur in the context of marriage
by abduction.

The concept of family honour

Family honor is an abstract concept involving the perceived quality of worthiness and
respectability that affects the social standing and the self-evaluation of a group of related people,
both corporately and individually. The family is viewed as the main source of honor and the
community highly values the relationship between honor and the family. The conduct of family
members reflects upon family honor and the way the family perceives itself, and is perceived by
others. In cultures of honor maintaining the family honor is often perceived as more important
than either individual freedom, or individual achievement. In extreme cases, engaging in acts that
are deemed to tarnish the honor of the family results in honor killings. An honor killing is the
homicide of a member of a family or social group by other members, due to the perpetrators'
belief that the victim has brought shame or dishonor upon the family or community, usually for
reasons such as refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved
by their relatives, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, dressing in ways
which are deemed inappropriate, or engaging in homosexual relations.

Economic issues
A family is often part of a sharing economy with common ownership.

Dowry, bride price and dower

Dowry is property (money, goods, or estate) that a wife or wife's family gives to her husband
when the wife and husband marry. Offering dowry was common in many cultures historically
(including in Europe and North America), but this practice today is mostly restricted to some
areas primarily in the Indian subcontinent.

Bride price, (also bridewealth or bride token), is property paid by the groom or his family to the
parents of a woman upon the marriage of their daughter to the groom. It is practiced mostly in
Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of South-East Asia (Thailand, Cambodia), and parts of Central Asia.

Dower is property given to the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage, and which
remains under her ownership and control.

Property regimes and taxation

In some countries married couples benefit from various taxation advantages not available to a
single person or to unmarried couples. For example, spouses may be allowed to average their
combined incomes. Some jurisdictions recognize common law marriage or de facto relations for
this purposes. In some jurisdictions there is also an option of civil partnership or domestic
partnership.

Different property regimes exist for spouses. In many countries, each marriage partner has the
choice of keeping their property separate or combining properties. In the latter case, called
community property, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half. In lieu of a will or trust,
property owned by the deceased generally is inherited by the surviving spouse.

Rights and laws

Reproductive rights

Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive
health. These include the right to decide on issues regarding the number of children born, family
planning, contraception, and private life, free from coercion and discrimination; as well as the
right to access health services and adequate information. According to UNFPA, reproductive
rights "include the right to decide the number, timing and spacing of children, the right to
voluntarily marry and establish a family, and the right to the highest attainable standard of
health, among others". Family planning refers to the factors that may be considered by
individuals and couples in order for them to control their fertility, anticipate and attain the
desired number of children and the spacing and timing of their births.The state and church have
been, and still are in some countries, involved in controlling the size of families, often using
coercive methods, such as bans on contraception or abortion (where the policy is a natalist one—
for example through tax on childlessness) or conversely, discriminatory policies against large
families or even forced abortions (e.g., China's one-child policy in place from 1978 to 2015).
Forced sterilization has often targeted ethnic minority groups, such as Roma women in Eastern
Europe, or indigenous women in Peru (during the 1990s).

Parents' rights

The parents' rights movement is a movement whose members are primarily interested in issues
affecting parents and children related to family law, specifically parental rights and obligations.
Mothers' rights movements focus on maternal health, workplace issues such as labor rights,
breastfeeding, and rights in family law. The fathers' rights movement is a movement whose
members are primarily interested in issues related to family law, including child custody and
child support, that affect fathers and their children.

Children's rights

Children's rights are the human rights of children, with particular attention to the rights of special
protection and care afforded to minors, including their right to association with both parents,
their right to human identity, their right to be provided in regard to their other basic needs, and
their right to be free from violence and abuse.

Marriage rights
Each jurisdiction has its own marriage laws. These laws differ significantly from country to
country; and these laws are often controversial. Areas of controversy include women's rights as
well as same-sex marriage.

Legal reforms

Legal reforms to family laws have taken place in many countries during the past few decades.
These dealt primarily with gender equality within marriage and with divorce laws. Women have
been given equal rights in marriage in many countries, reversing older family laws based on the
dominant legal role of the husband. Coverture, which was enshrined in the common law of
England and the US for several centuries and throughout most of the 19th century, was
abolished. In some European countries the changes that lead to gender equality were slower. The
period of 1975–1979 saw a major overhaul of family laws in countries such as Italy, Spain,
Austria, West Germany, and Portugal. In 1978, the Council of Europe passed the Resolution (78)
37 on equality of spouses in civil law. Among the last European countries to establish full gender
equality in marriage were Switzerland. In 1985, a referendum guaranteed women legal equality
with men within marriage. The new reforms came into force in January 1988. In Greece, in 1983,
legislation was passed guaranteeing equality between spouses, abolishing dowry, and ending
legal discrimination against illegitimate children. In 1981, Spain abolished the requirement that
married women must have their husbands' permission to initiate judicial proceedings the
Netherlands, and France in the 1980s. In recent decades, the marital power has also been
abolished in African countries that had this doctrine, but many African countries that were
former French colonies still have discriminatory laws in their marriages regulations, such
regulations originating in the Napoleonic Code that has inspired these laws. In some countries
(predominantly Roman Catholic) divorce was legalized only recently (e.g. Italy (1970), Portugal
(1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta
(2011)) although annulment and legal separation were options. Philippines still does not allow
divorce. (see Divorce law by country). The laws pertaining to the situation of children born
outside marriage have also been revised in many countries (see Legitimacy (family law)).

Health
Family medicine

Family medicine is a medical specialty devoted to comprehensive health care for people of all
ages; it is based on knowledge of the patient in the context of the family and the community,
emphasizing disease prevention and health promotion. The importance of family medicine is
being increasingly recognized.

Maternal mortality

Maternal mortality or maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while
pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of
the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but
not from accidental or incidental causes." Historically, maternal mortality was a major cause of
women's death. In recent decades, advances in healthcare have resulted in rates of maternal
mortality having dropped dramatically, especially in Western countries. Maternal mortality
however remains a serious problem in many African and Asian counties.

Infant and child mortality

Infant mortality is the death of a child less than one year of age. Child mortality is the death of a
child before the child's fifth birthday. Like maternal mortality, infant and child mortality were
common throughout history, but have decreased significantly in modern times.

Politics
While in many parts of the world family policies seek to promote a gender-equal organization of
the family life, in others the male-dominated family continues to be the official policy of the
authorities, which is also supported by law. For instance, the Civil Code of Iran states at Article
1105: "In relations between husband and wife; the position of the head of the family is the
exclusive right of the husband".In some parts of the world, some governments promote a specific
form of family, such as that based on traditional family values. The term "family values" is often
used in political discourse in some countries, its general meaning being that of traditional or
cultural values that pertain to the family's structure, function, roles, beliefs, attitudes, and ideals,
usually involving the "traditional family"—a middle-class family with a breadwinner father and
a homemaker mother, raising their biological children. Any deviation from this family model is
considered a "nontraditional family". These family ideals are often advanced through policies
such as marriage promotion. Some jurisdictions outlaw practices which they deem as socially or
religiously unacceptable, such as fornication, cohabitation or adultery.

Work-family balance
Work-family balance is a concept involving proper prioritizing between work/career and family
life. It includes issues relating to the way how work and families intersect and influence each
other. At a political level, it is reflected through policies such maternity leave and paternity
leave. Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered
arrangements of work and care, and the male breadwinner role, and policies are increasingly
targeting men as fathers, as a tool of changing gender relations.

Protection of private and family life

Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights provides a right to respect for one's
"private and family life, his home and his correspondence", subject to certain restrictions that are
"in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society".

Article 8 – Right to respect for private and family life

1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his
correspondence.
2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such
as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of
national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of
disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and
freedom of others.

Criticism
Certain social scientists have advocated the abolition of the family. An early opponent of the
family was Socrates whose position was outlined by Plato in The Republic. In Book 5 of The
Republic, Socrates tells his interlocutors that a just city is one in which citizens have no family
ties.The family being such a deep-rooted and much-venerated institution, few intellectuals have
ventured to speak against it. Familialism has been atypically defined as a "social structure
where ... a family's values are held in higher esteem than the values of the individual members of
the family". Favoritism granted to relatives regardless of merit is called nepotism.

The Russian-American rationalist and individualist philosopher, novelist and playwright Ayn
Rand compared partiality towards consanguinity with racism, as a small-scale manifestation of
the latter. "The worship of the family is merely racism, like a crudely primitive first installment
on the worship of the tribe. It places the accident of birth above a man's values and duty to the
tribe above a man's right to his own life." Additionally, she spoke in favor of childfree lifestyle,
while following it herself.The British social critic, poet, mountaineer and occultist Aleister
Crowley censured the institution of family in his works: "Horrid word, family! Its very
etymology accuses it of servility and stagnation. / Latin, famulus, a servant; Oscan, Faamat, he
dwells. ... [T]hink what horrid images it evokes from the mind. Not only Victorian; wherever the
family has been strong, it has always been an engine of tyranny. Weak members or weak
neighbours: it is the mob spirit crushing genius, or overwhelming opposition by brute
arithmetic. ... In every Magical, or similar system, it is invariably the first condition which the
Aspirant must fulfill: he must once and for all and for ever put his family outside his magical
circle."

The family and social justice

One of the controversies regarding the family is the application of the concept of social justice to
the private sphere of family relations, in particular with regard to the rights of women and
children. Throughout much of the history, most philosophers who advocated for social justice
focused on the public political arena, not on the family structures; with the family often being
seen as a separate entity which needed to be protected from outside state intrusion. One notable
exception was John Stuart Mill, who, in his work The Subjection of Women, advocated for
greater rights for women within marriage and family. Second wave feminists argued that the
personal is political, stating that there are strong connections between personal experiences and
the larger social and political structures. In the context of the feminist movement of the 1960s
and 1970s, this was a challenge to the nuclear family and family values, as they were understood
then. Feminists focused on domestic violence, arguing that the reluctance—in law or in practice
—of the state to intervene and offer protection to women who have been abused within the
family, is in violation of women's human rights, and is the result of an ideology which places
family relations outside the conceptual framework of human rights.

Global trends in family composition

Statistics from an infographic by Olivier Ballou showed that,

In 2013, just over 40% of US babies were born outside marriage. The Census bureau estimated
that 27% of all children lived in a fatherless home. Europe has seen a surge in child-free adults.
One in five 40-something women are childless in Sweden and in Switzerland, in Italy one in
four, in Berlin one in three. So-called traditional societies are seeing the same trend. About one-
sixth of Japanese women in their forties have never married and about 30% of all women that
age are childless.

However, Swedish statisticians reported in 2013 that, in contrast to many countries, since the
2000s, fewer children have experienced their parents' separation, childlessness had decreased in
Sweden and marriages had increased. It had also become more common for couples to have a
third child suggesting that the nuclear family was no longer in decline in Sweden.: 10 

See also
Childlessness

Familialism

Family economics

Household

Nepotism

Parent

Stepfamily

Voluntary childlessness

References
Citations

Sources

Bibliography
External links
"Family" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). 1911.