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FACULTY OF LETTERS
AND HUMAN SCIENCES
CASABLANCA
PHONOLOGY
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
Phonology is the knowledge that native speakers have about the sound patterns of their particular
language (mother tongue).
It has traditionally focused largely on study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages and
therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics.
The word phonology (as in the phonology of English) can also refer to the phonological system (sound
system) of a given language. This is one of the fundamental systems which a language is considered to
comprise, like its syntax and its vocabulary.
Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics,
morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Here is an illustration that shows the place of phonology in an interacting hierarchy of levels in
linguistics:
Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production,
acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds
function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists,
phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics , and phonology to theoretical linguistics.
Phonetics is the basis for phonological analysis while Phonology Is the basis for further work in
morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design.
Phonology is particular in that it uses the tools of Phonetics to describe the sound system of a
particular language and how it forms a systematic pattern.
Phonetics is more general in that it studies the speech sounds of all human languages and provides
necessary tools for describing and classifying speech sounds.
Phonetics analyzes the production of all human speech sounds, regardless of language while
Phonology analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by
Phonemes are speech sounds that are distinctive (distinctive speech sounds) in all languages. They are
limited and finite in number. Some speakers share the same phonemic inventory. In our acquisition,
we internalize the whole repertoire that characterizes our language.
Phonemes are distinctive because they are able to distinguish between words in terms of meaning.
Each word differs from the others in both form and meaning. The forms are identical except for the
initial consonants.
Therefore, these sounds are assigned to different phonemes. A phoneme is then the minimal unit of
sound capable of making a meaning difference.
Minimal pairs are words which differ only by one sound occurring in the same position
(initial/middle/or final). They are important in that they are used to explain and find out phonemes of a
language and to shed light on their distinctiveness. Whenever we can establish a minimal pair, the two
different sounds are two different phonemes.
Even if we did not know the phonetic properties for / p, b, t, d, k, g/, we would know they are
phonemes in English.
Phonetics provides the meaans to describe the sounds, to show how they differ ; phonology tells us
that they function as phonemes and are able to contrast meanings of words.
The following minimal pairs illustrate some of the distinctive features in the phonological system of English :
rack : /ræk/ ; rock : /rɒk/. /æ/ and /ɒ/ are both low unrounded vowels, but /æ/ is a front
vowel and /ɒ/ is a back vowel.
see : /si:/ ; zee /zi:/. /s/and /z/are identical in all respects except for voicing.
→Oral vowels in final position and before nonnasal consonants ; nasalized vowels only before nasal
consonants.
A single phoneme may be phonetically realized or pronounced as two or more phones. The different
phones are called allophones of that phoneme.
→Thus, in English, each vowel phoneme has both an oral and a nasalized allophone. Nasality [+/-
nasal] is not a distinctive feature of English vowels.
When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same phonemic context or
environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
Nasality is a predictable or redundant feature for vowels in English (but not for consonants).
Despite the phonetic diference between the aspirated and unaspirated phones, speakers of English
consider the /p/ in (pill) and (spill) to be the same sound. This is because the difference between them
is predictable, redundant, nondistinctive, nonphonemic. The aspirated and unaspirated phones are
in complementary distribution.
There are two /p/ sounds (phones), but only one /p/ phoneme. The same is true for /t/ and /k/.
The phonemes, then, are not the actual phonetic sounds, but are abstract mental constructs which are
realized as sounds by the operation of phonological rules.
Such rules show that the phonemic shape of words or phrases is not identical with their phonetic
form.
One’s knowledge of the phonological system of our language includes the phonotactics of the
language, as well, i.e. which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.
Let’s imagine we have the following four phonemes : /k, b, l, ɪ/→blik, bilk, klib, kilb.
2. Distinctive Features
So far we have classified consonants according to their place and manner of articulation, but in the
formalization of phonological rules, we need other features in order to group these consonants into
larger classes and make the rules more general.
The feature [𝒔𝒚𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒄] characterizes the role a segment plays in the structure of the syllable. In
general, vowels are ⌈+𝑠𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑐⌉, whereas consonants are ⌊−syllabic⌋
The feature [sonorant] refers to the resonant quality of a sound. Vowels are always ⌈+𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡⌉, as
are nasals and liquids and semivowels. Oral stops, fricatives and affricates are ⌈−𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡⌉.
The feature ⌈𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍⌉ refers to a narrowed constriction in the oral cavity, either total occlusion
or friction. Stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals and liquids are ⌈+𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙⌉ . Vowels and
semivowels are ⌈−𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 ⌉.
The features [sonorant ] and ⌈𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍⌉ will distinguish obstruents from sonorants and glides
from other consonants. Among obstruents, we still need to distinguish stops, fricatives, and affricates.
Among sonorants, we have to distinguish nasals from liquids and glides. In liquids, we have to
differentiate between laterals and non laterals.
Among the obstruents are those with continuous friction throughout ⌈+𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕⌉ i.e. the
fricatives, and those beginning with a total occlusion ⌈−𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕⌉, the stops and affricates.
Although stops and affricates both begin with total occlusion, they are released differently. Affricates
have a delayed release [+delayed-release]; stops are released instantaneously [–delayed-release].
We must also distinguish among the fricatives themselves. For all fricatives the air is forced through a
narrow opening, but in the case of the strident ones, it is directed against the upper teeth or the uvula
and, therefore, they are more audible and hence perceptually “noisier” than others. Thus,
⌈+𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕⌉ refers to all affricates /ts, dz, tʃ, dʒ/ and the noisy fricatives: labio-dentals /f, v/,
alveolars /s, z/, palato-alveolars /ʃ, ʒ/ and the uvular /ʀ/ due to the outgoing of the air hitting the teeth
or the uvula. The stops /p, b, t, d, k, g, ʔ/, the liquids /l, r/, the glides /w, j/ and the les noisy fricatives:
the labio-dentals /β φ/, the interdentals /θ, ð/ and velars /x, ɣ/ are [-strident].
The features [nasal] and [lateral] differentiate various sonorant consonants. Nasals are [+nasal] and
liquids are [-nasal]. Among liquids, lateral /l/ is opposed to non lateral /r/ as [+lateral] to [-lateral].
The features [consonantal], [nasal], and [lateral] define the different types of sonorant consonants as
shown below:
Chomsky and Halle classify the four principal places for consonant articulation --labial, dental, palato-
alveolar, and velar-- according to whether the constriction is at the extreme front region of the oral
cavity (the anterior consonants) or more retracted (the nonanteriors).
Therefore, the labials, the alveolars and the interdentals are articulated at the front part of the mouth;
they are [+anterior]. The palato-alveolars, the palatals, the velars, the glottals and the pharyngeals are
[-anterior].
Coronal sounds are produced in the area bounded by the teeth and hard palate. [+/-coronal]
distinguishes sounds which involve the front of the tongue from others.
[+coronal] sounds are articulated with the tongue tip or the blade raised: /j, l, r, n, t, d, s, z, θ, ð, ʃ, ʒ,
tʃ, dʒ/.
[-coronal] sounds don’t involve the front of the tongue: /w, m, k, ŋ, g, h, f, v, p, b/.
[+anterior] sounds are produced no further back in the oral tract than the alveolar ridge. The feature
distinguishes between sounds produced in the front of the mouth (labials, dentals and alveolars) and other
sounds.
Velars, glottal, pharyngeals and uvulars are [-coronal] [-anterior]: /w, h, k, g, ŋ, ʔ/.
HASSAN II UNIVERSITY Modular Program: English Studies
FACULTY OF LETTERS
AND HUMAN SCIENCES
CASABLANCA
MORPHOLOGY
The term « Morphology » is used not only in linguistics but also in biology as the scientific study of
forms and structure of animals and plants, and in geology as the study of formation and evolution of
rocks and land forms.
We are going to stick to morphology in linguistics, as the scientific study of forms and structure of
words in a language. Morphology as a sub-discipline of linguistics aimed at studying the form of
words. Today morphology forms a core part of linguistics.
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
Just as knowledge of language implies knowledge of the phonology, it also implies the knowledge of
the morphology
The internal structure of words and the segmentation into different kinds of morphemes is essential to
the two basic purposes of morphology: 1. the creation of new words and 2. the modification of
existing words. Think about it, we create new words out of old ones all the time.
What is a word?
If morphology is the study of the internal structure of words, we need to define the word word before
we can continue. That might sound easy - surely we all know what a word is.
In texts they are particularly easy to spot since they are divided by white spaces. But how do we
identify words in speech? A reliable definition of words is that they are the smallest independent
units of language. They are independent in that they do not depend on other words, which means that
they can be separated from other units and can change position. Consider the sentence:
The plural ending –s in cats is dependent on the noun cat to receive meaning and can therefore not be
a word. Cats, however, is a word, as it can occur in other positions in the sentence or stand on its own:
A word is both a sound and its meaning ; these are the inseparable parts of the linguistic sign.
Each word is stored in our mental dictionaries with its phonological representation, its meaning
(semantic propertties), and its syntactic class, or category, specification.
In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are
‘open classes’. We can and regularly do add new words to these classes.
The other syntactic categories : articles, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns are ‘closed sets’.
A morpheme is the most elemental unit of grammatical form. It is the minimal meaning-bearing unit
of language.
Some morphemes (boy, desire, gentle, man) can constitute words by themselves → free morphemes.
Other morphemes (-ish, -able, un-, -ness, -li) are never words but always parts of words. These
prefixes and suffixes are bound morphemes.
The reason morphemes can be combined in different ways is that there are morphological rules.
They determine how morphemes can combine to form new words.
Other derivational morphemes do not cause a change in grammatical class. Many prefixes fall into this
category : amoral, autobiography, exwife, monotheism, reprint, semiannual, subanimal.
Some ‘bound’ morphemes are purel grammatical markers representing such concepts as tense,
gender, number, case.
Such ‘bound’ grammatical morphemes are called inflectional morphemes. They never change the
syntactic category of the words or morphemes to which they are attached to complete words.
He sails the ocean → subject is singular, 3rd person ; verb is present tense
Derivational morphological rules are lexical rules. Inflectional morphemes are determined by the rules
of syntax
The planes which fly are red → The flying planes are red.
Some morphemes have different phonetic forms. When a morpheme has alternate phonetic forms,
these are caalled allomorphs, e.g. a/an.
The rule that determines the phonetic form the morpheme is called a morphophonemic rule. Its
application is determined by both morphology and phonology..
There are many morphemes with the same meaning due to different phonemic forms like in-, un- and
not.
There are also different morphemes with the same phonological form but different meanings :
Grammars also include morphological compounding rules. These rules account for the combination
of two or more ‘free’ morphemes or words to form complex compounds like ‘deep-sea
diver’, ‘ne’er-do-well’
Frequently the meaning of compounds cannot be predicted from the meanings of their individual
morphemes or words. Therefore, many compounds must be included in our internalized
dictionaries, each with its phonological form and meaning.
While the particular morphemes and the particular morphological rules are language-dependent, the
same general processes occur in all languages.
Many English words are formed by taking basic words and adding combinations of prefixes and
suffixes to them. A basic word to which affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are added is called a root
word because it forms the basis of a new word. The root word is also a word in its own right. For
example, the word lovely consists of the word love and the suffix -ly.
In contrast, a root is the basis of a new word, but it does not typically form a stand-alone word on its
own. For example, the word reject is made up of the prefix re- and the Latin root ject, which is not a
stand-alone word.
Key Terms
affix: a morpheme that is attached to something else to modify its meaning, e.g. un- in unhappy
bound morpheme: a morpheme that cannot stand on its own but must be attached to another word,
e.g. -er, plural -s
circumfix: a morpheme consisting of two parts, one that is attached to the front and one to the back of
a word
free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand on its own, e.g. house
prefix: an affix that is attached to the front of a word, e.g. pro- in proactive
suffix: an affix that is attached to the end of a word, e.g. plural -s on nouns
CASABLANCA
SYNTAX
1- Definition of Syntax
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a
language. In this use, syntax is opposed to Morphology, the study of word structure.
Syntax is the study of interrelationships between elements of sentence structures, and the rules
governing the arrangement of these elements in sequence.
Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and the grammatical rules governing the way
words are combined to form sentences.
Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences are
put together out of words.
Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of
words and morphemes.
Syntax is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of
possible sentences.
2- Sentence Structure
Sentences are made up of smaller phrases. One aspect of the syntactic structure of sentences is the
division of a sentence into phrases, and those phrases into further phrases, and so forth.
There are several different types of phrases that can be used in a sentence. The two phrases which
must be used in a sentence for it to make sense are a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
Another aspect of the syntactic structure of a sentence is "movement" relations that hold between
one syntactic position in a sentence and another.
Knowledge of sentence structure is the object of study of all schools of grammar. One school of
grammar is comparatively more successful in dealing with certain aspects of syntax than others.
Among all grammars, three appear to be well recognized, namely, traditional grammar,
structural Grammar and transformational generative grammar.
Traditional grammar was initially based on European languages, particularly on Latin and
Greek. It is the most widespread and elaborate grammar and is widely used in language teaching,
thus termed pedagogic grammar.
In analyzing sentences, the method adopted is called parsing. This generally involves five aspects:
(1) identifying elements of the sentence, labeling the parts as subject, predicate, object, attribute,
adverbial, etc.; (2) identifying part of speech of each word; (3) pointing out the inflection of the
words; (4) describing the relationship between the words; (5) generalizing the order of words.
While traditional grammar is well established and some terms are still used now (subject,
predicate clause, etc), its weaknesses are pinpointed by modern linguists.
Firstly, it is prescriptive in nature, attempting to lay down rules for speakers of a language.
Secondly, its grammatical categories are merely based on European languages and are found
inadequate in describing other languages.
Thirdly, it lacks a theoretical framework and thus fails to account for the nature of language.
Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. In the early
years of the twentieth century, American anthropologists and linguists began to describe American
Indian languages, as many of these tribal languages were dying.
They tried to innovate ways of analysis, because they found some traditional grammatical
categories based on European languages unfeasible in describing those native languages of America.
Among their innovations, two concepts are influential in linguistic studies.
One is the idea of form class, which is a wider concept than part of speech. Linguistic units which
can appear in the same slot are said to be in the same form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that,
every, etc, can be placed before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into one form class. To
put it technically, these linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution. This formal
approach to syntactic categories is more practicable in observing and analyzing unknown languages.
The other important concept of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.
Unlike traditional grammar, which adopts a synthetic (bottom-up) approach to syntax, structural
grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.
A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of the sentence are its
constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each
section can be further cut into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed Immediate Constituent
Analysis.
This way of syntactic analysis adds a new dimension to the analysis of sentence structure. In this
way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also vertically. In other words, immediate
constituent analysis can account for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure, and,
therefore, structural ambiguity. Take the sentence I like green grapes and pears, for example. It can be
cut in two ways. In the phrase green grapes and pears, there can be two different sets of immediate
constituents.
The analysis shows clearly that the linear structure is the same but the hierarchical structures are
different. That is why the phrase green grapes and pears can be interpreted in two ways.
The hypothesis of Generative Grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind. The goal
of Generative Grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language.
This model could be used to describe all human languages and to predict the grammaticality of any
given utterance, i.e. to predict whether an utterance would sound correct to native speakers of the
language.
This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky. Most generative theories assume that
syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences.
Generative grammars focus primarily on the form of a sentence rather than its communicative
function.
Among the many ,generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are:
- Transformational Grammar (TG). This is the original theory of generative syntax laid out
by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957.
- Government &Binding (GB). This is the revised theory in the tradition of TG developed
mainly by Chomsky in the 1970’s and 1980’s.
- Minimalist Program (MP). This is a reworking of the theory out of GB framework published
in 1995.
1
MOHAMEDIA
Chapter 5 : SYNTAX
In linguistics, "syntax" refers to the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to
form phrases, clauses, and sentences.
The term "syntax" comes from the Greek, meaning "arrange together."
The term is also used to mean the study of the syntactic properties of a language.
In computer contexts, the term refers to the proper ordering of symbols and codes so that the
computer can understand what instructions are telling it to do.
What is Syntax ?
It's the concept that enables people to know how to start a question with a question word
("What is that?"), or that adjectives generally come before the nouns they describe ("green
chair"), subjects often come before verbs in non-question sentences ("She jogged"),
prepositional phrases start with prepositions ("to the store"), helping verbs come before main
verbs ("can go" or "will do"), and so on.
For native speakers, using correct syntax is something that comes naturally, as word order is
learned as soon as an infant starts absorbing the language.
Native speakers can tell something isn't said quite right because it "sounds weird," even if
they can't detail the exact grammar rule that makes something sound "off" to the ear.
"It is syntax that gives the words the power to relate to each other in a sequence...to carry
meaning—of whatever kind—as well as glow individually in just the right place"
(Burgess 1968)
2
Syntactic Rules
English parts of speech often follow ordering patterns in sentences and clauses, such as
compound sentences are joined by conjunctions (and, but, or) or that multiple adjectives
modifying the same noun follow a particular order according to their class (such as number-
size-color, as in "six small green chairs").
The rules of how to order words help the language parts make sense.
Sentences often start with a subject, followed by a predicate (or just a verb in the simplest
sentences) and contain an object or a complement (or both), which shows, for example, what's
being acted upon.
The sentence follows a subject-verb-object pattern ("Beth ran the race"). Adverbs and
adjectives take their places in front of what they're modifying ("slowly ran"; "wild,
multicolored flip-flops"). The object ("the race") follows the verb "ran", and the prepositional
phrase ("in wild, multicolored flip-flops") starts with the preposition "in".
Diction refers to the style of writing or speaking that someone uses, brought about by their
choice of words, whereas syntax is the order in which they are arranged in the spoken or
written sentence.
Something written using a very high level of diction, like a paper published in an academic
journal or a lecture given in a college classroom, is written very formally.
Speaking to friends or texting are informal, meaning they have a low level of diction.
"It is essential to understand that the differences exist not because spoken language is a
degradation of written language but because any written language, whether English or
Chinese, results from centuries of development and elaboration by a small number of users."
(Miller, 2008)
Formal written works or presentations would likely also have more complex sentences or
industry-specific jargon.
They are directed to a more narrow audience than something meant to be read or heard by the
general public, where the audience members' backgrounds will be more diverse.
Precision in word choice is less exacting in informal contexts than formal ones, and grammar
rules are more flexible in spoken language than in formal written language.
Types of sentences and their syntax modes include simple sentences, compound sentences,
complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.
Complex sentences have dependent clauses, and compound-complex sentences have both
types included.
Syntax has changed some over the development of English through the centuries.
"The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives
could once be placed after main verbs" (Aitchison, 2001).
Think of the differences between teenagers' slang and more fluid word order and grammar vs.
research scientists' technical vocabulary and manner of speaking to each other.
Beyond Syntax
Following proper syntax does not guarantee that a sentence will have meaning, though.
Linguist Noam Chomsky created the sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously," which
is syntactically and grammatically correct because it has the words in the correct order and
verbs that agree with subjects, but it's still nonsense.
With it, Chomsky showed that rules governing syntax are distinct from meanings that words
convey.
The distinction between grammar and syntax has been somewhat disrupted by recent research
in lexicogrammar, which takes the words into account in grammar rules.
4
For example, some verbs (transitive ones, that perform an action on something) always take
direct objects:
"She removed the index card from the old recipe box."
"Look over" is the phrasal verb and "report" is the direct object. To be a complete thought,
you need to include what's being looked over. Thus, it has to have a direct object.
Additional References
Definitions of Syntax
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a
language. In this use, syntax is opposed to Morphology, the study of word structure.
Syntax is the study of interrelationships between elements of sentence structures, and the
rules governing the arrangement of these elements in sequence.
Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and the grammatical rules governing the way
words are combined to form sentences.
Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences
are put together out of words.
Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of
words and morphemes.
Syntax is also concerned with speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of
possible sentences.
Sentence Structure
Sentences are made up of smaller phrases. One aspect of the syntactic structure of sentences is
the division of a sentence into phrases, and those phrases into further phrases, and so forth.
5
There are several different types of phrases that can be used in a sentence. The two phrases
which must be used in a sentence for it to make sense are a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
Another aspect of the syntactic structure of a sentence is "movement" relations that hold
between one syntactic position in a sentence and another.
Phrase Structure Rules describe how phrases are formed and in what order; these rules define
the following:
The parentheses indicate the categories are optional. Verbs don’t always have to be followed
by NP or PP and Nouns don’t always have to be preceded by Det; or Adj.
Knowledge of sentence structure is the object of study of all schools of grammar. One school
of grammar is comparatively more successful in dealing with certain aspects of syntax than
others.
Among all grammars, three appear to be well recognized, namely, traditional grammar,
structural Grammar and transformational generative grammar.
Traditional grammar was initially based on European languages, particularly on Latin and
Greek. It is the most widespread and elaborate grammar and is widely used in language
teaching, thus termed pedagogic grammar.
In analyzing sentences, the method adopted is called parsing. This generally involves five
aspects: (1) identifying elements of the sentence, labeling the parts as subject, predicate,
object, attribute, adverbial, etc.; (2) identifying part of speech of each word; (3) pointing out
the inflection of the words; (4) describing the relationship between the words; (5) generalizing
the order of words.
While traditional grammar is well established and some terms are still used now (subject,
predicate clause, etc), its weaknesses are pinpointed by modern linguists.
6
Firstly, it is prescriptive in nature, attempting to lay down rules for speakers of a language.
Secondly, its grammatical categories are merely based on European languages and are found
inadequate in describing other languages.
Thirdly, it lacks a theoretical framework and thus fails to account for the nature of language.
Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. In the early
years of the twentieth century, American anthropologists and linguists began to describe
American Indian languages, as many of these tribal languages were dying.
They tried to innovate ways of analysis, because they found some traditional grammatical
categories based on European languages unfeasible in describing those native languages of
America. Among their innovations, two concepts are influential in linguistic studies.
One is the idea of form class, which is a wider concept than part of speech. Linguistic units
which can appear in the same slot are said to be in the same form class. For example, a(n),
the, my, that, every, etc, can be placed before nouns in English sentences. These words fall
into one form class. To put it technically, these linguistic units are observed to have the same
distribution. This formal approach to syntactic categories is more practicable in observing and
analyzing unknown languages.
The other important concept of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.
Unlike traditional grammar, which adopts a synthetic (bottom-up) approach to syntax,
structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.
A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of the sentence are its
constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent.
Then each section can be further cut into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed
Immediate Constituent Analysis.
This way of syntactic analysis adds a new dimension to the analysis of sentence structure. In
this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also vertically. In other
words, immediate constituent analysis can account for the linearity and the hierarchy of
sentence structure, and, therefore, structural ambiguity. Take the sentence I like green grapes
and pears, for example. It can be cut in two ways. In the phrase green grapes and pears, there
can be two different sets of immediate constituents.
7
The analysis shows clearly that the linear structure is the same but the hierarchical structures
are different. That is why the phrase green grapes and pears can be interpreted in two ways.
The hypothesis of Generative Grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind.
The goal of Generative Grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language.
This model could be used to describe all human languages and to predict the grammaticality
of any given utterance, i.e. to predict whether an utterance would sound correct to native
speakers of the language.
This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky. Most generative theories
assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences.
Generative grammars focus primarily on the form of a sentence rather than its communicative
function.
Among the many ,generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are:
Transformational Grammar (TG). This is the original theory of generative syntax laid out
by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957.
Government &Binding (GB). This is the revised theory in the tradition of TG developed
mainly by Chomsky in the 1970’s and 1980’s.
ICAnalysis provides a visual representation of the way the parts of the sentence are related to
one another. He term immediate constituent refers to the binary method on which this
system is based:
What are the two parts of the structure that constitute the whole?
In the following sentence, the subject (the boy) and the predicate (hit the ball) are the two
constituents immediately related, or related on the same level:
The/boy/hit/the/ball
8
______________
_______________________
There are two important preliminary steps at each level of the analysis beforedividing a
particular structure into its constituents:
The little boy who lives downstreet/has hit the ball into my yard.
Answer: Sentence
Procedure: cut the sentence into two parts: the subject & the predicate.
has/hit
9
In a verb string with three or more auxiliaries, they are cut off one at a time:
Has/been/hit
___/___________
The little boy who lives down the street/has/hit/the ball/into my yard
/__________/__________/
/_____________________/___________________
______________________________________________/__________________________________________
the /little/boy
__/____/____
English Studies
Introduction to Media / S4 (G2)
Pr. Majdoubi
MEDIA LITERACY
students use the media effectively. Students are hence taught how to
1
representations of how reality is perceived by its creator,
out who built the message, out of what materials and to what
4. The way media select content, and the way they process
and shape it, can greatly influence how the message is received.
views media through his or her single lenses that are molded by
2
education and social context, which in turn are shaped by
questions that help to delve deeper into the backbone of media messages:
10. How does this message serve the media maker’s own interests?
3
In a nutshell, when you consider the key concepts behind media
interpretation you make until you have gathered all the facts and learned
all relevant information about the message and its context by exploring
different avenues. Thus, you make sense of messages and feel free to
dissect, analyze, and reflect on informational texts, not just believe them!
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English Studies
Introduction to Media / S4 (G2)
Pr. Majdoubi
literacy involves adopting a critical stance toward the media. Media literacy,
Also, media literacy does not mean “do not watch; it means watch carefully.”
helps students identify the who, where, how, and why of media messages.
deconstructing media texts. It starts from the assumption that each media
1
Briefly, the Media Triangle can be used to analyze media (deconstruct
2
Do you find this message relatable? Why or why not?
Who do you think is the target audience?
Do you think it raised awareness of an issue? Why or why not?
Who do you think produced this text?
Do you think it helped sell their products? Why or why not?
What is the best medium for this message? Why or why not?
2. What is the explicit message of the advertisement below? What visual and
verbal details in the advertisement support this interpretation?
3. Examine the following example of print media. Using the three sides of the
Media Triangle—media text, audience, and production—provide suitable
answers to the corresponding questions: What meaning is conveyed? To
whom is the meaning conveyed? How and why is the meaning conveyed?
3
English Studies
Introduction to Media / S4 (G2)
Pr. Majdoubi
consuming for readers who skim rather than read through a story.
1
The overriding question here is: How to write simply and
information will come in the first place, which leaves it to the reader
given topic, whether in print or online. Some of them may not align
while in fiction it is the climax which occurs after the reader has
2
become involved in the conflict and in the lives of the characters. The
news writing style applies to all forms of journalistic writing. The list
of guidelines is as follows:
3
7. Write acronyms out in full in the first reference; for
instance, “The 2019 Novel Coronavirus” (2019-nCoV).
9. Keep it real. Never write things you are not sure about.
4
English Studies
Introduction to Media / S4 (G2)
Pr. Majdoubi
widely read around the world. They are issued at regular intervals
1
Newspapers are bigger in size and can be folded. Magazines
tend to have a book format and are, therefore, more easily handled.
2
magazines, articles are longer and more opinionated. Magazines
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English Studies
Introduction to Media / S4 (G2)
Pr. Majdoubi
Mass media messages become much more credible when they are
endowed with the capacity to shape people’s opinions and attitudes. Some
emotional story for the sake of an argument. For example: “I know you
will make the right decision because you are such a good-looking
get the audience to identify only viscerally with the presenter’s message,
through stating facts and figures, evidence and proof. Example: “You
will not find any rabbit along this road. In forty years of driving the
same route, I have not seen a single one.” Emotional appeals can be
believe good men more fully and more readily than others.” An example
2
English Studies
Introduction to Media / S4 (G2)
Pr. Majdoubi
Here we shall shed light on the distinct features of mass media messages.
the communication process thusly: Who says what in which channel to whom
being used in sciences and public relations as a classic sender receiver model.
intelligibility. The message should flow logically from one point to the next.
1
The recipient (listener-viewer) grasps the message by drawing different
(author), Currency (issue date). The three main criteria are interconnected.
2
English Studies
Introduction to Literature (S4/G1)
Pr. Majdoubi
narrates the passion of a Nigerian couple who broke away from social
Atang are of Igbo and Efik ethnic backgrounds respectively. Nene urges
prefers not to, as he accurately anticipates that his father has chosen a
local bride for him. He intends to enlighten his father in flesh and bone.
and son. Achebe illustrates this gap by depicting the moral dilemma
between Nnaemeka and Okeke. The son transcends the traditional Igbo
Between the unquestionable law of the father and the wisdom of the
the villagers. Nnaemeka’s father objects to her union with his son on the
grounds that she is not an Igbo lady, a discrimination that shocks her all-
in favor of her household. In so doing, she proved her high family values.
and resolution. He has chosen his non-Igbo fiancée based on her humane
his father. His father’s peers suggest that the son exhibits rebellious
matters. He does not want to jeopardize his ties to his homeland and
keeps hoping that his father will open his arms to him. Achebe
denounces rigid mindsets. When Nnaemeka objects to his union with the
Igbo lady, given the absence of love, his father curtly replies: “Nobody
said you did. Why should you?” In their epistolary exchange, the father
I have found a girl who will suit you admirably—Ugoye Nweke (…)
She has a proper Christian upbringing. When she stopped
schooling some years ago, her father (a man of sound judgment)
sent her to live in the house of a pastor where she received all the
training a wife could have. He Sunday School teacher has told me
that she reads the Bible very fluently. I hope we shall begin
negotiations when you come home in December.
Ugoye Nweke is neither audible nor visible in the story. The meek
young lady has been designated by Okeke and his neighbor as the perfect
Nweke. Ugoye seems more as a passive than as an active agent. She has
implies both her social alienation and self-effacement. Achebe exhorts all
3
Okeke is Nneameka’s conservative father. He thinks the old tribal
comply with their inbreeding marriages, and any union outside of the
tribe bears within itself the seeds of its own destruction. As a zealous
Paulinian2 Christian, Okeke believes that women should live under the
with his conscience to preserve his honor at the expense of his own son.
The father, venting his wrath, disfigures his son’s wedding picture.
After defacing Nene’s portrait, he returns the relic to his son. Achebe is
drawing our attention to the “unthought-of” ideology and its blind spots.
embrace his two grandsons. Thus, children play a vital role in reaffirming
his heart into a ray of sunshine that brings hope back to the Igbo village.
rich story. Amongst the most significant themes the story deals with, one can
prevents them from living life to the fullest. Humans are loaded with the
mummified heritage. In his essay, “The African Writer and the English
Language,” Achebe pleads in favor of values that are still in communion with
the ancestral heritage, while at the same suiting new African settings.1 To
keep the living things, the story implies, one needs to let go of the dead ones.
noted by Reverend George Thomas Basden who spent about forty years in
Igbo land: “The people are intensely religious A casual observer might
1Chinua Achebe, “The African Writer and the English Language,” in Morning Yet on Creation Day,
Heinemann, 1975, p. 62.
1
pronounce them superstitious, but the fact is, the belief in the spiritual
All the aspects of the Igbo world—whether material, spiritual and socio-
religion. African gnosis reveals how everything came into being, thereby
encoding the Igbo worldview. Igbo superstitions are hence a way through
which people have been defining and reinventing themselves over time. In
that yields priceless information about Igbo culture and social organization.
Endogenous unions are believed to fortify the ties of kinship in rural areas
ways of thinking, while Nene epitomizes the urban lifestyle. As for Nnaemeka,
he stands in the synaptic space between the two cultures. He knows how to
decide, though. Nnaemeka will not perpetuate the village legacy of arranged
resisting the moral code of his native village, he incarnates a milder version of
protested: “It is the beginning of the end.” He voices his anguish at the idea
that traditional values are on the verge of crumbling. No man in the Christian
2 George T. Basden, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3, Mar., 1912, p. 246.
2
community has ever married a non-tribal woman: “It has never been heard,”
says an elderly man. Transgression is felt as a threat to the Igbo clan. Another
man vociferates: “What did Our Lord say? Sons shall rise against their
Fathers; it is there in the Holy Book.” These biblical allusions highlight the
from tribal norms. Nnaemeka, who subjects cults and traditions to critical
scrutiny, becomes the ugly duckling of the village. Okeke suggests that his son
is tempted by Satan. Individuals who think for themselves are judged insane.
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English Studies
Introduction to Literature (S4/G1)
Pr. Majdoubi
1. Setting
Achebe’s story is set in colonial Nigeria in the twentieth century, that is,
the decade prior to independence in 1960. The romantic union involving the
two protagonists, Nene Atang and Nnaemeka, is rooted in Lagos City.
The place of residence where the couple lives, 16 Kasanga Street, stands
in stark contrast with the rural landscapes. The twofold setting paves the way
for the larger theme of Culture Clash, as the two spaces painted by Achebe,
by the village and its old cults, while the urban society is epitomized by Lagos.
nest. The narrative then changes to an Igbo village in rural Nigeria, which will
1
necessarily affect the social life of the couple. Modernist writers manipulate
perspectives and settings to help the reader gain a better insight into the plot.
When a setting shift occurs, the reader feels that the information given to him
likens a curvy river which has several tributaries. Modernists questioned the
As for time, in Achebe’s short story, the reader is left without specific
extends over a period of about eight years. Nene’s matrimonial and maternal
projects his states of mind onto the climate to reflect the floating moods of his
1
characters. As a figure of speech, “pathetic fallacy” was frequently used by
from Nene requesting a family gathering, a sudden change occurs in the air:
Very soon it began to rain, the first rain in the year. It came down in large
sharp drops and was accompanied by the lightning and thunder which
mark a change of season. Okeke was trying hard not to think of his two
grandsons. But he knew he was now fighting a losing battle. He tried to
1
The term refers to the attribution of human responses to inanimate objects of nature.
2
hum a favourite hymn but the pattering of large rain drops on the roof
broke up the tune. His mind immediately returned to the children.
Nnaemeka’s meeting with his father takes place, Achebe tells us, “when
the parching December sun had set, and a fresh reviving wind blew on the
moment implies the dissipation of the ghosts of the past. By standing in the
light, the son heroically faces the dimness of the dead heritage, letting in new
values. He is confident only light can figuratively and literally dispel the dark.
2. Point of View
keep the oral tradition of storytelling alive, Achebe wrote from an insider’s
It is only the story that can continue beyond the war and the warrior. It is
the story that outlives the sound of war-drums and the exploits of
brave fighters. It is the story, not the others, that saves our progeny
from blundering like blind beggars into the spikes of the cactus fence.
The story is our escort; without it, we are blind. Does the blind man
own his escort? No, neither do we the story; rather it is the story that
3
owns us and directs us. It is the thing that makes us different from
cattle; it is the mark on the face that sets one people apart from their
4
English Studies
Pr. Majdoubi
eight years before Nigeria gained independence from the British Empire.
Like most works by Chinua Achebe, this short story can be read as a
On Chinua Achebe
achieved a remarkable success with his first novel, Things Fall Apart
(1958), which has been translated into more than fifty languages. Achebe
(1964), A Man of the People (1966), and Anthills of the Savannah (1987).
1
About His Fiction
lies the Nigerian conflict between African cultures and the European
colonial powers. The clash between the Western culture and the Black
ever since the Christian interaction with the local spirits of animist belief.
The ethnic conflict, which forms the backdrop of the narrative, led to
dreadful human tragedies. It has thereby become a major concern for all
read some appalling European novels about Africa . . . and realized that
our story could not be told for us by anyone else.” This statement echoes
his eloquent aphorism in Things Fall Apart: “Until the lions have their
own historians, the history of the hunt will glorify the hunter.” Achebe
building a bridge between the past and the future, between the current
2
condition and aspirational possibilities, he helped foster a contemporary
his writings which deconstruct racial and gender assumptions. The Igbo
people believe they are descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel. The
Affair,” conveys both polysemy and irony. There is polysemy, in that the
term “affair” has two meanings: it denotes a private matter, but also an
3
English Studies
Introduction to Literature (S4/G1)
Pr. Majdoubi
Compromise
By Laura BRESKO
as it deals with a single dramatic situation. A short play has its own logic and
1. Unity of time: The play should take place in no more than a day.
2. Unity of space: The play should take place in a single area.
3. Unity of action: The play should be as concise as possible.
structure. Artistic economy is thus the most sought-after effect, which leaves
no room for superfluous detail. Rhythmical pattern lends a play its dramatic
value, and this involves building up tension and releasing it. Larger-than-life
characters and intricate plotlines are confidently not typical of one-act plays.
1
A play script includes three kinds of text:
who lives in a tree in the forest, and Slapper, a beaver who cuts down trees
(3 occurrences; paragraphs 14, 24, 26). But, at the close of the play, tone
words indicate joy. As different events happen, the tone shifts. The built-up
We can notice that sound is prior to light in the first stage direction.
Sound effects permeate the whole play. The very names of the characters are
acoustic: “They call me Slapper because I take my big tail and hit it on the
water, making sounds that I thought were beautiful, at least until I heard your
song” (paragraph 27); “They call me Carol because I sing festive songs”
(paragraph 28). The play has come full circle, since it finishes with a sonic
rhythm or beat; the last stage direction is as follows: “Sounds of the Texas
state bird singing as the stage goes dark” (paragraph 37). Also significant is
the closing visual note: “as the stage goes dark.” Thereby, the play
begins in darkness, and so it ends. It goes without saying that it lasts one day.
2
The play takes the form of a negotiation between a bird and a beaver.
The she-bird felt endangered, though not helpless, by the beaver that had
crossed her borders. She took her courage in both paws and fervidly secured
her territory by engaging in a jousting. The bird is the worthy winner of the
verbal tug-of-war, for her arguments are better built. It is comical that the
fight between these two animals is rhetorical rather than physical, giving it a
open to exploration, though. At the end, he even apologized for his intrusion.
The Stage directions (didaskalia) sketch out a basic arc of the plotline
Here are some examples of stage directions and their possible meanings:
[In darkness, the audience hears a loud It helps establish the setting:
1 crack and then a thud, like a tree has just when (in darkness) and
fallen. There’s an angry chorus of bird calls where (in the forest). What
that follows. Lights come up on Slapper, happened? A crack and a
chewing a branch from the fallen tree. Carol thud are heard. The shady
flaps about and then flies over and lands visual effect and the sound
next to Slapper.] effect caused by falling trees
set an ominous mood.
3
12-13 - Carol [Sings a short, happy song, and then Birds’ singing expresses
takes a bow.] delight, and bowing before
- Slapper [Clapping his paws together.] an applauding audience is a
sign of recognition of merit.
37 [Sounds of the Texas state bird singing as Carol has the first and the
the stage goes dark.] final say. She celebrates her
triumph in an artistic way.
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English Studies
Introduction to Literature (S4/G1)
Pr. Majdoubi
Vocabulary:
- A river bed: the ground which a river flows over.
- A hammer: a tool that consists of a handle and a heavy piece of metal.
- A foot of a mountain: the base; bottom.
- A garden hose: a hosepipe used to water plants in a garden or lawn.
- A hose: old-fashioned socks, a word used especially in a historical context.
- A needle eye: the hole at the top of a needle.
- A wing of the building: a part of it which sticks out from the main part.
- A trunk: American “trunk” is British “boot” only when referring to cars.
- A trunk of a tree: the part that connects the leafy crown with its roots.
- A birch bark: a canoe made with the bark of a birch tree.
1
British poet, memoirist, and novelist Vernon Scannell stated: “The
purpose of poetry is not to inform but to inflame.” This stresses the idea that
when you read poetry, you should read to the beat—or rhythm—of the poem.
poet. It is composed of twelve lines and three stanzas. Each stanza is made of
A five line stanza is a quintet. Two other common lengths are a sestet, six
lines; and an octave, eight lines. A seven line stanza is known as a septet.
The poem under consideration can be read by both children (kids) and
levels of awareness. The poet has made clever use of puns. This stirs the
reader’s imagination and gives the poem a playful and lyrical touch.
think. The poem is punctuated with questions, which makes it both delightful
and reflective. The questions in the poem serve as riddles to solve. Riddles are
word puzzles that are wittily written. Some are easy to solve; others are hard
and yet fun to work out. Riddles, just like puns, create an intriguing effect.
2
Reading Answer Key: (Please refer to your literature booklet)
In the first stanza, the poet jokes about stockings. The reference to
What point is the poet trying to get across? The poet has provided a
a series of questions that require accurate answers from the smart reader.
possibilities and figure out the exact meaning. This approach is at once
intellectually and artistically in the same way ancient oracular inquiries did.
Check it Out!
1. The rhyme scheme for this poem is: AABB CCDD EEFF. The poet
uses this scheme by rhyming the last words of every two lines. To put it
simply, the lines 1-2 of each stanza use the same rhyme, and 3-4 use
2. This poem uses powerful visual imagery. Is this statement true or false?
3
English Studies
Introduction to Literature (S4/G1)
Pr. Majdoubi
Drama comes from the Greek dran, literally “to do.” It is a completed
action. The Greeks referred to the theatre as theatron while the Romans
theatre imitates life and gives a sharpened view of the world it mirrors.
are held and to the actors who enact them on the stage before a public.
Drama refers to the literary text, to the script itself, but also to the
production, that is, all the elements which combine to flesh the play out.
1
Likewise, theatre refers to the staging team that produces plays. In short,
theatre is the play’s stage version, whereas drama is the page version.
and now, theatre unifies the past and the future in an eternal present.
established the categories of tragedy and comedy that still apply today.
can imply manners, convey action, identify themes, and suggest values.
and action. Beyond dialogues, there are basically three types of speeches
2
in drama: Asides, soliloquies, and monologues. An aside is a short
tragedy, Othello, is filled with “asides” whereby Iago the villain voices
3
English Studies
Introduction to Literature (S4/G1)
Pr. Majdoubi
that it swings backwards and forwards. Symbolically, the title of the play
Grandpa suggested that she make herself more useful. So, they decided to fix
a rundown rocker for Grandma. Cara welcomed the joint work that eventually
thrilled Grandma. The drama is deceptively simple, and yet, the relevance of
the back of a house. An old rocking chair sits on the back porch.”
1
The rocking chair is likewise present in Samuel Beckett’s play,
end of the play. No other scenery or stage property (props) is called for. The
swinging chair “motion creates a ghostly atmosphere.” The notes portray the
woman as “prematurely old” with “unkempt grey hair.” The title of Beckett’s
To get back to our play, The Rocking Chair, the unknown dramatist
has artfully juxtaposed the consecutive cycles of birth and death by depicting
the elderly couple and their granddaughter. Moreover, he has illustrated the
chair. This object has thus a dramatic function as the instigator of movement.
The rhythm of words intertwines with the swaying of the chair which
gives the play its aesthetic appeal and poetic value. This highlights that
The unnamed characters in the play may well stand for their own
for the considerate Cara whose very name signifies beloved in Latin. Cara was
persuaded her to fix it instead. The underlying message, or the play’s major
craftsmen’s handmade products, and youth shall never beat old age.
1 Samuel Beckett, Collected Shorter Plays of Samuel Beckett (London: Faber and Faber, 1984).
2
Cultural Imperialism
Many of today’s academics that employ the term, cultural imperialism, are
heavily informed by the work Antonio Gramsci, Michel Foucault, Jacques
Derrida, Edward Said and other poststructuralist and postcolonialist
theorists.Within the realm of postcolonial discourse, cultural imperialism can be
seen as the cultural legacy of colonialism, or forms of social action contributing
to the continuation of Western hegemony.
When dealing with cultural imperialism, focus is often put on the proliferation
of Western moral concepts, products and beliefs around the globe. The United
States are now currently the only cultural imperialists, but, today, as aglobal
economic and political super power, the spread of American values in the entire
world is at the leading stage of the wave of spread of Western goods and
consumerist culture.
Of all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely affected
by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable. In the expansive « age of
imperialism » of the nineteenth century, scholars have argued that European
colonization in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures,
worldviews, and epistemologies. This, arguably has led to uneven development,
and further informal forms of social control having to do with culture and
imperialism. A variety of factors, scholars argue, led to the elimination of
cultures, worldviews and epistemologies, such as « de-linguicization »
(replacing native African languages with European ones) and devaluing
ontologies that are not explicitly individualistic. One scholar, A. A. Odbi, claims
that imperialism inherently « involve(s) extensively interactive regimes and
heavy contexts of identity formation, misrecognition, loss of self-esteem, and
individual and social doubt in self-efficacy ».
Cultural Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own culture is superior to that of other
cultures. It is a form of reductionism that reduces the « other way » of life to a
distorted version of one’s own. This is particularly important in case of global
dealings when a company or an individual is imbued with the idea that methods,
materials, or ideas that worked in the home country, will also work abroad.
Environmental differences are, therefore, ignored.
Cultural Relativism
Different cultural groups think, feel and act differently. There are no scientific
standards for considering one group as intrinsically superior or inferior to
another. Studying differences in culture among groups and societies presupposes
a position of cultural relativism. It does not imply normalcy for oneself, nor for
one’s society. It, however, calls for judgment when dealing with groups or
societies different from one’s own. Information about the nature of cultural
differences between societies, their roots, and their consequences should precede
judgment and action. Negotiation is more likely to succeed when the parties
concerned understand the reasons for the differences in viewpoints.
Discussion
After reading this piece I would like you to reflect on the following points.
Research
By Bob Weinstein
The longer I spent in Morocco, the more I found that explanations were rarely
given. If anything at all was said, it was to pass the blame onto someone or
something else. The cook was an expert at it. Every week she smashed a variety
of serving dishes and plates. The first time she broke a china teapot, she blamed
the soap on the hands – it was bad quality, she said, more slippery than usual.
When she smashed a new earthenware tagine, she blamed me for buying such an
inferior one. And, after that, when she dropped a glass vase, she said it was the
jinns.
In the West, we try to work out a logical cause when an accident occurs. The
vase breaks because it’s knocked by a careless hand. The car crashes because the
road is wet. The dog bites a child because it’s savage and a danger to honest
society. But I found in Morocco that these everyday mishaps were treated in a
very different way. They were frequently put down to the work of supernatural
forces, with the jinns at the centre of the belief system.
Although I was intrigued by the idea of invisible spirits and their parallel world,
I found myself cursing them every day. They were a back door by which all
blame could be neatly side- stepped, shifted onto someone else. The guardians
had mastered the technique of using jinns to blame-shifts. They lived in a world
in which any blunder – from chopping down the wrong tree to setting fire to the
lawn-mower – could be instantly brushed aside. The explanation was always the
same: ‘It was not my fault. It was the work of the jinns.’
At last when Kamal finally arrived, I launched into a scathing attack on the
supernatural as a method of shifting blame. I couldn’t control myself.
‘There’s no way Morocco will progress,’ I said accusingly, ‘until people lose the
superstitious thought. It’s crippling them’
Kamal didn’t reply until my storm of anger had passed. Then, after a long gap in
the conversation, he said: ‘The jinns are at the heart of Moroccan culture.
Pretending they don’t exist won’t help you.’
‘You lived in the United States,’ I said. ‘You are a modern guy. Don’t tell me
you believe in jinns.’
‘Of course I do,’ he said. ‘They’re the backbone of our cultures. They are part of
the Islamic faith.’
At that moment it seemed to me as if the jinns were in league with the fanatics –
both sideshows to the genuine message. The encounter with Pete was still fresh
in my mind. I told Kamal what I had seen.
‘That’s not real Islam,’ Kamal replied. ‘It’s a hoax, an illusion. It’s anarchy.’
‘Well, Islamic anarchy is how the West sees the Arab world.’
Kamal bit his lower lip. His expression was cold. ‘You don’t know what it’s like
to enter the United States with a passport covered in Arabic writing,’ he said.
‘One look at it and the flags go up. They’re thinking “terrorist”. There’s nothing
you can say. You can just pray they’ll let you in.’
‘With suspicion of course,’ he replied. ‘But not with hatred against all Muslims.’
Kamal was right. Of course only a fraction of Muslims are fanatics. But their
voices are loud and getting louder all the time. Worse still, their actions speak
far louder than their words. Every morning before breakfast I would check the
news on the Internet. My great fear was seeing the word ‘Morocco’ for the
wrong reasons. The Casablanca bombings earlier in the year had been a terrible
reminder that Islamic extremism was spreading like wildfire.
(Tahir Shah, The Caliph’s House. A Year in Casablanca, pp. 172- 175)
1-What view does the writer provide to describe a certain type of Moroccan
behavior? Do you agree with the writer? Does he exaggerate? Does he
generalize?
2-Do you think the writer tells the truth or is his attitude biased as a result of his
Western-based type of education?
3-Do you accept Kamal’s attitude and Opinion? Justify your answer.
7-Stereotyping. The text shows that being a Muslim or an Arab has become a
real psychological trauma in the aftermath of 9/11. How could we resolve such a
cultural, psychological and political handicap?
8-The writer deals with cultural issues in an area, Casablanca, where he spent
one year (A Year in Casablanca). A series of inquiries are to be raised:
Hello everybody. As we are obliged to be off class, I would like you to keep
reading, taking notes and feeding your knowledge on issues related to cultural
studies. This introductory course is meant to initiate you to different aspects
related to the area of cultural studies, which is vast, varied and complex, and I
would like you to be familiar with the terminology and the concepts often used
in this area: culture diversity, multiculturalism, interculturalism, cultural
imperialism, hegemony, hybridity, identity, diaspora, norms and values.... I
hereby send you a dictionary which could be of help as it introduces you to
some of these after which you can do some research. When we are back, you are
welcome to give presentations on any aspect you could choose. Please do share
with your colleagues. Good luck.
Announcement II
I already sent you a copy of the Dictionary Cultural Studies. I already stated the
incentives asking you to go through some key concepts and to elaborate them
through some research. Presentations are highly welcome when we are back to
school. Now I am sending this piece on Multiculturalism, an important issue in
cultural studies. I would like you to read it carefully, use the dictionary when
necessary, and I would like you to reflect on the following :
What is multiculturalism ?
The concept of multiculturalism embodies a new orientation toward the future.
Unfortunately, in all the heated discussion around the term no clear definition of
the concept has yet emerged. People are thus left to read into the term whatever
their biases and self interests dictate. Let me put forth an operational definition
of multiculturalism as a starting point to better clarify our human interactions.
Let’s take it apart. There are the four pairs of action phrases that give substance
to the definition : « beliefs and behaviors », « recognizes and respects »,
« acknowledges and values », « encourages and enables », and a fifth one,
« empowers ». Multiculturalism is a « system », a set of interrelated parts- in
this case beliefs and behaviors- which make up the whole of humans experience
today’s world. It includes what people believe about others, their basic
paradigms, and how this impact, and areimpacte by, behavior. The outcome of
this framework of beliefs/ behaviors are seven important actions.
With recognition should also come respect. Respect and recognition are not the
same, since recognizing the existence of a group does not necessarily elicit
respect for the group. In a slave economy, for example, the presence of slaves
was recognized but their humanity was not respected. For example, in the
United States of America, the presence of American Indians in the Western
expansion of the continent was constantly recognized by whites, but their
environmentally conscious cultures were never respected. The contribution of
women has usually been relegated to a footnote status. Many nations have a long
history of not respecting the rights of the powerless.
Multiculturalism will also enourage and enable the contribution of the various
groups to society or an organization. Women and persons of color, for example,
often experience discouragement because what they bring to the « table » for
discussion is often regarded as of little value or worth. Not everyting can be
utulized, however, nor is of the same worth and value. But it does have value,
even if for no other reason than the effort invested in bringing it forward. Such
efforts must be encouraged, for who knows from where the next great idea may
come- from youth, from an elderly person, from an african American, from a
single parent, from a high school drop out, from a business executive, etc. ? The
word enable here is important, because what lies behind it is the concept of
empowerment- the process of enabling people to be self-critical of their own
biases so as to strengthen themselves and others to achieve and deploy their
maximum potential. People’s sense of self-worth, value and dignity is most
often determined not only by the kind of support and encouragement they
receive from others, but also from how willing they are to self-examine negative
behaviors in their own life and in their cultural group. If I or my group is
practicing self-destructive action, all the external help will go for naught.
The women who inflict FGC on their daughters have only relatively
recently been asked by female anthroplogists to describe what they are
doing. Such explanations are usually dismissed by nonanthrpologists as
primitive superstition and misinformation, though in their own terms they
make sense. FGC can function as any combination of witnessed ordeal,
rite of passage, cosmetic operation, feminine hygiene or sacred ritual.
When FGC has outlived its cultural value it will disappear as long as the
world elite remains fascinated by FGC, and reinforces their feelings of
superiority by demonizing it, this dangerous, painful and destructive
practice will continue and could even spread….
By Germaine Greer
I- Questions
II- Discussion
Discuss the following points and think of other questions related to ritual
practices in Morocco.
1- What roles do women have in your country ?
2- How do cultural practices help or impede women’s liberation ?
3- What other ritual practices do women suffer from ?
4- How is male circumcision similar to or different from female genital
cutting ?
5- Do women themselves support such rituals or do they oppose them ?
6- In Morocco, which social and cultural practices do women still suffer
from most ? Why ?
7- What social and psychological impacts do these rituals have on
women, in particular, and on family life, in general ?
Cultural Imperialism
Many of today’s academics that employ the term, cultural imperialism, are
heavily informed by the work Antonio Gramsci, Michel Foucault, Jacques
Derrida, Edward Said and other poststructuralist and postcolonialist
theorists.Within the realm of postcolonial discourse, cultural imperialism can be
seen as the cultural legacy of colonialism, or forms of social action contributing
to the continuation of Western hegemony.
When dealing with cultural imperialism, focus is often put on the proliferation
of Western moral concepts, products and beliefs around the globe. The United
States are now currently the only cultural imperialists, but, today, as aglobal
economic and political super power, the spread of American values in the entire
world is at the leading stage of the wave of spread of Western goods and
consumerist culture.
Of all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely affected
by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable. In the expansive « age of
imperialism » of the nineteenth century, scholars have argued that European
colonization in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures,
worldviews, and epistemologies. This, arguably has led to uneven development,
and further informal forms of social control having to do with culture and
imperialism. A variety of factors, scholars argue, led to the elimination of
cultures, worldviews and epistemologies, such as « de-linguicization »
(replacing native African languages with European ones) and devaluing
ontologies that are not explicitly individualistic. One scholar, A. A. Odbi, claims
that imperialism inherently « involve(s) extensively interactive regimes and
heavy contexts of identity formation, misrecognition, loss of self-esteem, and
individual and social doubt in self-efficacy ».
Cultural Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own culture is superior to that of other
cultures. It is a form of reductionism that reduces the « other way » of life to a
distorted version of one’s own. This is particularly important in case of global
dealings when a company or an individual is imbued with the idea that methods,
materials, or ideas that worked in the home country, will also work abroad.
Environmental differences are, therefore, ignored.
Cultural Relativism
Different cultural groups think, feel and act differently. There are no scientific
standards for considering one group as intrinsically superior or inferior to
another. Studying differences in culture among groups and societies presupposes
a position of cultural relativism. It does not imply normalcy for oneself, nor for
one’s society. It, however, calls for judgment when dealing with groups or
societies different from one’s own. Information about the nature of cultural
differences between societies, their roots, and their consequences should precede
judgment and action. Negotiation is more likely to succeed when the parties
concerned understand the reasons for the differences in viewpoints.
Discussion
After reading this piece I would like you to reflect on the following points.
Research