Comprehensive Fluid Mechanics Comprehensive

Comprehensive
Fluid Mechanics
(In SI Units)
By
Dr. D.K. Chavan
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Maharashtra Institute of Technology
M.I.T., Pune – 38
Prof. G.K. Pathak

Sr. Faculty Member (Retd.)
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Maharashtra Institute of Technology
M.I.T., Pune – 38
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DEDICATED
To
Late Shri Kishanrao L Chavan
Late Smt. Umabai Kishanrao Chavan
Late Shri Ramkrishna I Zad
Late Shri Jitendra R Zad
Preface to the First Edition
It gives us great pleasure, to present a book of problems in Fluid Mechanics.
Fluid Mechanics is developed from Hydraulics which is a. very old science
that deals with the practical problems associated with the flow of water.
This book is mainly prepared for the second year syllabus of Civil,
Mechanical, Production, Chemical, Polymer and Pertroleum Engineering
of all Universities.
In this book, in order to develop more confidence in solving problems,
various types and sufficient number of problems are solved from different
universities. Secondly, students commit mistakes in units, which are made
more clear in this book.
Every care has been taken to present the matter in precise and very
simple language. Simple, self explainatory figures are given so as to enable
the students to reproduce in the exams very easily.
In this entire book SI system of units is used.
All the necessary care has been taken to avoid mistakes and
misprints in this book. However, it is quite likely that some mistakes,
misprints might have passed unnoticed. Small mistakes and misprints of
the book, if brought to notice will be gratefully acknowledged.
Any suggestions to improve the utility of the book will be gladly accepted.
We express our sincere thanks to the staff of staded book house, ND for
their help in bringing out this book.
February 2017 Dr. D.K. Chavan

Prof. G.K. Pathak
Contents
Chapter 1 Fluid Properties 1–36

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Fluid 1
1.3 Fluid Properties 1
Solved Problems 8
Chapter 2 Fluid Statics (Hydrostatics) 37–112
PART–I : HYDROSTATICS
2.1 Fluid Pressure 37
2.2 Pascal’s Law 38
2.3 Relationship between Atmospheric pressure,
gauge pressure and absolute pressure 39
2.4 Pressure Measurement 40
Solved Problems 46
PART II : HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON THE SURFACES
2.5 Total Pressure and centre of Pressure 69
2.6 Pressure Diagram 70
2.7 Total Pressure Force and Centre of Pressure force for Horizontal,
Vertical and Inclined surfaces 70
2.8 Parcitical Application of Hydrostatic Forces 73
PART III : BUOYANCY AND FLAOTATION
2.9 Introduction 95
2.10 Archimede’s Principle 95
2.10.1 Buoyancy; Buoyant Force and Centre of Buoyancy 95
2.10.2 Metacentre and Metacentric Height 95
2.11 Conditions of Equilibrium of floating body or
Stability of a floating body 96
(viii) Contents
2.12 Experimental Determination of Metacentric height (GM) 97

Chapter 3 Fluid Kinematics 113–128
3.1 Introduction 113
3.2 Types of Flow 113
3.3 Types of Flow Lines or Path Line, Stream Line,
Stream Tube, Streak Line 115
3.4 Potential Lines and Flow Net 116
3.5 Acceleration of A Fluid Particle (Convective and Local) 117
3.6 Velocity Potential (f) 118
3.7 Stream Function (Y) 118
Solved Problems 119
Chapter 4 Fluid Dynamics 129–184
4.1 Introduction 129
4.2 Discharge or Rate of Flow (Q) 130
4.3 Total Energy of Flowing Fluids (Or Total Head) 130
4.4 Euler’s Equation of Motion Along a Stream Line 131
4.5 Bernoulli’s Theorem 132
4.6 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation 132
4.6.1 Venturimeter 133
Solved Problems 136
4.7 Flow Through Orifice and Mouthpieces 151
4.7.1 Introduction 151
4.8 Vena Contracta 151
4.9 Hydraulic Coefficients 152
4.10 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Coefficients 152
4.11 Notches 154
4.12 Types 155
4.13 Equation for Discharge over A Rectangular Notch 155
4.14 Equation for Discharge over A Triangular Notch 156
4.15 Advantages of Triangular Notch When Compared with Rectangular
Notch 157
4.16 Flow over Weir 158
4.17 Discharge over A Trapezoidal Notch 158
4.18 Velocity of Approach 158
4.19 Rotameter 159
Solved Problems 161
Chapter 5 Laminar Flow 185–203
5.1 General 185
5.2 Steady Laminar Flow in Circular Pipes (Hagen–Poiseuille Law) 185
Solved Problems 187
5.3 Laminar Flow between Two Parallel Fixed Plates 191
Contents (ix)
Solved Problems 193

5.4 Kinetic Energy Correction and Momentum Correction Factor 201
Chapter 6 Introduction to Turbulent Flow and
Boundary Layer 204–
6.1 General 204
6.2 Expression for Loss of Head due to Friction in Pipes 204
6.3 Expression for Friction Factor in Terms of Shear 204
6.4 Expression for Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 205
6.5 Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for Turbulent Shear Stress 205
6.6 Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow 205
6.7 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 206
6.8 Expression for Velocity Distribution for Turbulent
Flow in Smooth Pipes 206
6.9 Velocity Distribution for Rough Pipes 206
Solved Problems 207
6.10 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in
Terms of Average Velocity ( V ) 210
6.12 Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipe (Power Law) 212
6.13 Coefficient of Friction 212
6.14 Boundary Layer Theory 214
6.15 Von-Karman Momentum Integral Equation 218
6.16 Local Coefficient of Drag 218
6.19 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flate Plate 222
6.20 Separation of Boundary Layer 226
Solved Problems from University Question Papers 227
Chapter 7 Flow Through Pipes 235–285
7.1 General 235
7.2 Energy Losses in Pipes : (Loss of Head in Pipes) 235
7.3 Darcy–Weisbach Equation for Head Loss in Pipes Due to Friction 235
Solved Problems on Darcy—Weisbach equations 237
7.4 Minor Energy (Head) Losses 239
7.4.1 Loss of Head due to Sudden Enlargement 239
Solved Problems on Sudden Enlargement of Pipe Sections 242
7.4.2 Loss of Head due to Sudden Contraction 245
7.4.3 Loss of Head at Entrance in a Pipe 250
7.4.4 Loss of Heat at the Exit of a Pipe 250
7.4.5 Loss of Head due to an Obstruction in a Pipe 250
7.4.6 Loss of Head due to Bend in Pipe 251
7.4.7 Loss of Head in various Pipe Fittings 251
7.5 Discharge from One Reservior to another through a Pipe Line 257
7.5.1 Pipes in Series 257
(x ) Contents
Solved Problems on Pipes in Series 258

7.5.2 Flow through Parallel Pipes 260
Solved Problems on Pipes in Parallel 261
7.5.3 Siphon 264
7.5.4 Equivalent Pipe Concept 267
Solved Problems on pipes in series, and parallel, siphons
from University Papers 268
7.6 Power transmission through pipes 280
7.7 Water Hammer Phenomenon 283
Chapter 8 Flow Around Imersed Bodies 286
8.1 General 286
8.2 Expression for Drag and Lift 286
8.3 Power Required to keep the Plate in Motion 287
Solved Problems 287
8.4 Drag on a Sphere 292
8.5 Terminal Velocity of a Body 293
8.6 Drag on a Cylinder 296
8.7 Development of Lift on an Airfoil 297
Chapter 9 Dimensional Analysis 301–324
9.1 General 301
Solved Problems 303
9.2 Dimensional Homogeneity 303
9.2.1 Method of Dimensional Analysis : (Buckingham’s p theorem) 304
9.2.2 Method of Dimensional Analysis (Rayleigh’s Method) 320
9.3 Model Investigation 322
Index 325
+0)26-4
1 Fluid Properties
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The subject Fluid Mechanics is developed from Hydraulics. The term
Hydraulics is taken from the Greek word ‘Hudour’ — which means water.
Hydraulics is a very old science, that deals with the practical problems
which are associated with the flow of water.
Fluid Mechanics is a science that deals with the behaviour of fluid which
is at rest or in motion. The study of behaviour of fluid at rest is known as
Hydrostatics.
The study of behaviour of fluids in motion, if the pressure forces are not
considered, then it is known as Hydrokinematics and if the pressure forces
are considered, then it is termed as Hydrodynamics.
1.2 FLUID
Fluid may be defined as a substance, which is capable of flowing. It has no
definite shape of its own. It takes the shape of the containing vessel. A fluid
may be liquid, gas or vapour. In Fluid Mechanics we will be studying the
behaviour of liquids (i.e., mainly water) only.
1.3 FLUID PROPERTIES

1. Density (Mass density or specific mass). Density of a fluid is defined
as the ratio of mass/unit volume and is denoted by ρ.
Mass kg
∴ ρ=
Unit volume m3
Note ρ w = 1000 kg/m3 (or 1 gm/cm 3)
2. Specific Weight (or weight density) w or γ . It is the weight of
the fluid/unit volume, units will be N/m3.
Also specific weight = ρ . g
∴ specific weight of water= ρw . g = 1000 × 9.81
or w = 9810 N/m3
(1)
2 Comprehensive Fluid Mechanics
3. Specific Volume (v). It is defined as the volume of the fluid/unit

weight. It is expressed in m3/N. This is reciprocal of specific weight.
4. Specific Gravity (or Relative Density) S:
Mass density of fluid

S=
Mass density of water
ρfluid
S= (Note : No units)
ρH2O
5. Compressibility and Elasticity. Compressibility is defined as the

variation in volume with the variation in pressure. However, for all practical
purposes, water is considered as incompressible fluid, but the gases can be
compressed considerably.
Theoretically a fluid can be compressed when the pressure forces are
applied. When the pressure forces are removed, the fluid will expand back
to its original volume by the property called Elasticity.
Compressibility is expressed as the reciprocal of Bulk Modulus of
Elasticity.
Stress
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) =
Strain
P
K=
 –Decrease in volume 
 Original volume 
1
∴ Compressibility =
K
N/m2
∴ K = = N/m2 .
No units
6. Viscosity. Viscosity is the property which offers resistace to flow.
The thin liquids like alcohol, water flow easily than thick liquids like
syrup, oils, ghee etc. This shows that there is some property, which controls
the rate of flow and is called as ‘viscosity’.
Newton’s law of Viscosity
Let a fluid of viscosity µ is provided between a fixed and moving plate
as shown in Fig. 1.1. The velocity increases linearly to U at a distance Y
(i.e., at a distance y it is u).
“It states that the shear stress τ varies as the velocity gradient”.
Fluid Properties 3
M ovin g plate
U
F
u
Y
y
Fixe d plate
Fig. 1.1 Newton’s law of viscosity
i.e., Shear stress is proportional to velocity gradient
du
i.e., τ∝
dy
du
τ= µ
dy
where µ = Co-efficient of visosity or Dynamic viscosity constant.
τ N/m2 N
or µ= = = − sec or = Pa − sec
du m/sec m2
dy m
Note : Viscosity is also expressed in terms of Poise (P).
1 Pa-sec = 10 Poise (P)
1
and 1 centipoise = Poise
100
7. Kinematic Visosity (ν ). It is defined as
Dynamic viscosity µ
ν= =
Density of fluid ρ
N
sec
2 N m3
Units : ν= m = 2 sec ×
kg m kg
m3
sec m3
= N− ×
m2 kg
sec m3
= Force × ×
m2 kg
sec m3
= mass × acceleration × ×
m2 kg
m sec m3
= kg × × ×
sec2 m2 kg
m2
ν= units
sec
cm2
Also ν is sometimes expressed in Stokes, i.e.,
sec
m2 cm 2
and 1 = 104 = 104 Stokes
sec sec
m2
i.e., 1 = 1 Stoke
sec
8. Cohesion and Adhesion
Because of molecular attractions these properties exists.
Cohesion—means intermolecular attraction between the molecules of
the same liquid.
Adhesion—means molecular attraction between the molecules of the
liquid and that of the solid boundary surface with which it is in contact.
9. Surface Tension (σ σ)
It is due to cohesion of the molecules at the liquid surface.
Consider the two molecules of water A and B as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Molecule A is attracted equally in all directions and is in equilibrium.
L Iqu id
le vel
Fig. 1.2 Surface tension
Whereas molecule B and other molecules at the surface are attracted

Fluid Properties 5
downwards. So, because of downward forces, the upper surfaces of water is

in tension. This property of liquid surface, to exert tension is known as
Surface Tension. It is denoted by σ and is expressed in N/cm or N/m.
Notes :
1. Effect of Surface Tension on the droplet of water :
The pressure intensity inside the droplet
2σ
= P=
r
where r = radius of droplet.
2. Pressure intensity for the soap bubble r
4σ
P=
r
3. Pressure intensity inside the jet water
σ
P=
r
where r = radius of jet
10. Capillarity. It is due to cohesion and adhesion both. If a glass tube
open to atmosphere is immersed in water as shown in Fig. 1.3, the water
rises up in the tube with a upward concave surface. This is due to adhesion
> cohesion.
σ σ
θ θ
2r
H 2O
Fig. 1.3
If the same glass tube is immersed in mercury as shown in Fig. 1.4, the
mercury depresses down in the tube with upward convex surface. This is
due to cohesion > adhesion.
2r
h θ θ
Hg
σ σ
Fig. 1.4
Now, capillary rise or depression,
4 . σ cos θ 4 . σ . cos θ
h= =
γ .d ρ. g .d
11. Vapour Pressure. All the liquids have a tendency to evaporate.
When evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, the partial pressure exerted
by the vapour is called as Vapour pressure. It depends upon temperature.
When the temperature increases, evaporation increases and vapour pressure
increases.
12. Velocity of Propagation of Sound in the Fluids (C) (or Speed
of Sound). It is given by
k
C=
ρ
where K = Bulk Modulus of Elasticity of the medium
ρ = Density of the fluid.
13. Mach Number. It is the square root of ratio of inertia force and
elastic force so,
Inertia force
Mach Number MN =
Elastic force
or It is the ratio of velocity of fluid to velocity of sound in fluids.
V
i.e., MN =
C
Fluid Properties 7
Note : (i) If MN < 1, then the flow is known subsonic flow

(ii) If MN = 1, then the flow is known as sonic flow
(iii) If MN > 1 then the flow is known as supersonic flow
LIST OF FORMULAE
mass
(1) Density ρ= kg/m3
volume
weight N
(2) Specific weight w or γ = also w = ρ . g
unit volume m3
volume m3 1
(3) Specific volume ν= also ν =
unit weight N w
ρfluid
(4) Specific gravity S=
ρwater
stress
(5) Bulk modulus k=
strain
dp
k=
 dv 
 − 
v
1
and Compressibility =
k
du
(6) Shear stress τ = µ⋅
dy
Note : µ in Pa-sec
and 1 Pa-sec = 10 Poise
µ
(7) Kinematic viscosity ν=
ρ
m2 Pa-sec
Note : Units : =
sec kg/m3
1m2 cm2
Also = 104
sec sec
= 104 Stokes.
Contd.
(8) Surface tension

(i) Pressure intensity for the droplet
2σ
= P=
r
(ii) For soap bubble
4σ
ρ=
r
(iii) For a jet
σ
P=
r
(9) Capillary rise or depression,
4 ⋅ σ cos θ 4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ
h= =
γ .d ρ . g ⋅d
(10) Velocity of sound in the fluids,
K
ρ=
ρ
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 1.1
If the relative density of the fluid is 1.59, calculate its mass density, specific
weight and specific volume.
Solution :
Given Data :
Relative density = Sp. Gravity = S = 1.59
Mass density ρ = ?
w=?
ν=?
We know that,
(i) Sp. Gravity or Relative density S
Mass density of fluid ρfluid

S= =
Mass density of H2 O ρH2O
ρfluid
1.59 =
1000
∴ ρ fluid = 1590 kg/m 3
Fluid Properties 9
(ii) Specific weight w or γ = ρ . g N/m3

w = ρfluid × g = 1590 × 9.81
w = 15597.9 N/m 3
(iii) Specific volume v
1 1
v= =
w 15597.9
m3
v = 6.41 × 10−5
N
Also since v is reciprocal of density
1 m3
v=
ρ kg
1 m3
v= = 6.289 × 10−4
1590 kg
Problem 1.2
The density of a substance is 2900 kg/m3. Calculate
(i) Relative density
(ii) Specific volume
(iii) Specific weight.
Solution :
Given Data :
ρs = 2900 kg/m3 S = ?
v = ? w =?
We know that,
ρfluid 2900
(i) Sp. Gravity or Relative density S = =
ρH2O 1000
S = 2.9
1 1
(ii) Specific volume v= = = 3.448 ×10–4 m3/kg
ρ 2900
(iii) Specific weight w or γ = ρ . g = 2900 × 9.81
N
w = 28449
m3
1 1
Also specific volume v = =
w 28449
m3
v = 3.515 × 10–5
N
Problem 1.3
An oil of 5 m3 weighs 50 kN. Calculate,
(i) Specific weight
(ii) Mass density
(iii) Specific gravity
Solution :
Given Data :
Volume = 5 m3
Weight = 50 kN
= 50 × 1000 = N
w=?
ρ=?
S=?
We know that,
weight 50 × 1000 N
(i) Specific weight = =
unit volume 5 m3
N
w or γ = 10000
m3
(ii) Also specific weight w = ρfluid ×g
N
10000 = ρfluid × 9.81
m3
k
1019.368 = ρ fluid
m3
ρfluid 1019.368
(iii) Also specific gravity = =
ρH2O 1000
S = 1.019368
Problem 1.4.
For a liquid of specific gravity 0.9 and a kinematic viscosity of 2.35 × 106
m2
, find
sec
(i) Unit weight
(ii) Viscosity coefficient
Solution :
Given Data :
S = 0.9
m2
v = 2.35 × 10 –6
sec
Fluid Properties 11
w =?
µ=?
We know that,
Specific weight w = ρfluid × g ...(1)
ρfluid
and Specific gravity =
ρH2O
ρfluid
0.9 =
1000
kg
900 = ρfluid ...(2)
m3
∴ From (1) w = ρfluid × g = 900 × 9.81
N
w = 8829
m3
(ii) Also, Kinematic viscosity
µ
v=
ρfluid
µ
2.35 ×10–5 =
900
∴ µ = 2.115 ×10 –3 Pa-sec ...(3)
Problem 1.5
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific volume and relative density
of an oil which weighs 7 N/lit.
Solution :
Given Data :
w= ?
ρ=?
v=?
S=?
Weight = 7 N/lit.
7N N
(i) As given weight = = 7000
lit 1000 lit
N
= 7000 = specific weight
m3
As 1000 lit = 1 m3
(ii) Also sp. weight = ρfluid × g
7000 = ρfluid × 9.81
7000
= ρfluid
9.81
∴ ρ fluid = 713.55 kg/m 3
1 1
(iii) Specific volume v = ρ =
fluid 713.55
v = 1.4 ×10 –3 m 3/kg
ρfluid 713.55
(iv) Specific gravity = S = ρ =
fluid 1000
S = 0.713
Problem 1.6
Density of a liquid is 850 kg/m3. Determine Relative density and weight
density (specific weight) of the liquid with reason state whether the liquid
will float on water or not.
Solution :
Given Data :
ρliquid = 850 kg/m3
S=?
w=?
(i) We know that, specific gravity S,
ρfluid 850
S= ρ = = 0.85 and
fluid 1000
(ii) w = ρfluid × g = 850 × 9.81 = 8338.5 N/m 3
Since the density of liquid is 850 kg/m 3 which is less than density
of water, so the given liquid will float on water.
Problem 1.7
A certain liquid of weight 300 N when exposed to standard earth’s gravity of
g = 9.81 m/sec2.
(i) How much is its mass ?
(ii) How much will be its weight in the planets with acceleration due to
gravities of 5 m/sec2 and15 m/sec2.
Solution :
(i) We know that weight is the force exerted on its mass due to gravity
and weight W = m. g.
300 = m × 9.81
30.581 kg = m
(ii) It is to be noted that mass of fluid remains same irrespective of its
location.
Fluid Properties 13
∴ On the planet with g = 5 m/sec2

Weight = m . g = 30.581 × 5 m/sec2
Weight = 152.905 N
and On the planet with g = 15 m/sec2
Weight = m . g = 30.581 × 15 m/sec2
Weight = 458.715 N
Problem 1.8
A body on the earth weighs 500 N. When a force of 1000 N is applied to the
body, how much it will be accelerated on earth having g = 9.81 m/sec2 and
on moon having g =1.6 m/sec2.
Solution :
As we know weight is the force exerted on its mass due to gravity,
W = m.g
500 = m × 9.81
50.9684 kg = mass
This mass remains same irrespective of its location.
Now according to Newton’s second law,
F=m.a
F
=a
m
1000
=a
50.9684
m
19.62 =a
sec2
F
Acceleration a = is independent of g
m
m
∴ On earth and moon the body is accelerated by 19.62 .
sec2
Problem 1.9
For K = 2.2 × 109 Pa (Bulk modulus of Elasticity) of water, what pressure is
required to reduce its volume by 0.5 % ?
Solution :
We know that,
Stress Change in pressure

K= =
Strain  –Decrease in volume 
 Original volume 
dP
= N/m2 ...(1)
 −dv 
 
v 
(Note: –ve sign implies decrease in volume. Since it is given decrease in
volume as 0.5% it will take care of –ve sign).
∴ From (1)
dP
2.2 × 109 =
 0.5 
 
100 
(Decrease in volume is 0.5%, ∴ Total volume is 100%, ∴V = 100)
0.5 N
⇒ dP = 2.2 × 109 × = 1.1 × 107 2 or Pa
100 m
dP = 11 ×10 6 Pa
dP = 11 MPa
Problem 1.10
A fluid is compressed in a cylinder from a pressure and volume of 1 bar 5 m3
to 5 bar and 1m3. Find its Bulk Modulus of Elasticity.
Solution :
Given Data :
P1 = 1 bar = I05 N/m 2
V1 = 5 m 5
P2 = 5 bar = 5 × 105 N/m2
V2 = 1 m 3
P 2 = 5 ba r 2
P 1 = 1 ba r 1
(2 ) (1 )
V2 = 1 m3 V1 = 5 m3
Fig. P1.10
We know that
dP
K= ...(1)
 −dv 
 
v 
Fluid Properties 15
N
dP = P2 – P1 = ( 5 –1) ×105 = 4 ×10 5
m2
dV = V 2 – V 1 = (1 – 5) = – 4 m 3
dP 4 × 105
∴ K= = = 500000
 −dv   4
   
v 5
K = 500000 N/m2 = 5 ×105 N/m2
(Note that initial volume is 5 m3)
Problem 1.11
The velocity distribution in the flow of a viscous liquid having µ = 0.9 Pa-sec
over a fixed boundary is given by µ = 0.68 y – y2 , in which u is a point
velocity at a distance y from the boundary. Determine the shear stress at the
boundary, i.e., at y = 0 and y = 0.34 m.
Solution :
We know that shear stress,
du
τ = µ⋅ ...(1)
dy
It is given that,
u = 0.68 y – y 2
Differentiating w.r.t. y we get,
du
= 0.68 – 2y ...(2)
dy
du
∴ at y = 0 i.e., at boundary
dy
du
= 0.68 – 0
dy
= 0.68 ...(3)
du
And, at y = 0.36 m
dy
du
= 0.68 – 2 × 0.34
dy
=0 ...(4)
Now using Newton’s law of viscosity, i.e., from Eq. (1).
du
τ = µ⋅
dy
τ (at boundary) = 0.9 × 0.68

τ = 0.612 N/m2 (at y = 0)
and τ (at y = 0.34) = 0.9 × 0 = 0
Problem 1.12
The velocity distribution in a flow of a viscous liquid having µ = 2 Pa-sec is
g i v e n b y u = 4 y – y. D e t e r m i n e s h e a r s t r e s s a t y = 0 and at
y = 2 m.
Solution :
We know that shear stress,
du
τ = µ⋅ ...(1)
dy
It is given that
u = 4y – y 2
du
∴ = 4 – 2y ...(2)
dy
From (i)
At y = 0,
du
τ1 = µ ⋅ = 2 × ( 4 – 2 × 0)
dy
τ1 = 8 Pa-sec.
and at y = 2m
τ2 = 2 × ( 4 – 2×2)
τ2 = 0
Problem 1.13
The velocity profile in a flow of a viscous fluid is u = 2 y2/3. Determine shear
stress at y = 0 and at y = 0.075 m taking µ = 0.7 Pa-sec.
Solution :
We know that,
du
τ = µ⋅ ...(1)
dy
It is given that u = 2 . y 2/3
2 −1/3 4
∴
du
= 2× 3 × y = y −1/3 ...(2)
dy 3
∴ At y=0
du 4 −1/3
τ1 = µ ⋅ = µ× y
dy 3
Fluid Properties 17
4 −0.333
= 0.7 × (0 )
3
τ1 = ∞
and At y = 0.075
4
τ2 = 0.7 × (0.075)1/3
3
τ 2 = 2.213 N/m 2
Problem 1.14
The density and kinematic viscosity of an oil at 20° C are 850 kg/m3 and
m2
5.882 × 10 -6 respectively. Calculate its relative density and dynamic
sec
viscosity.
Solution :
Given Data :
ρoil = 850 kg/m3
m2
v = 5.882 × 10–6
sec
S=?
µ=?
(i) We know that, Relative density
ρfluid 850
S= = = 0.85
ρwater 1000
(ii) Also from the definition of kinematic viscosity
µ
ν= ρ
m2 Pa-sec
Units =
sec kg/m3
m2 µ (Pa-sec )
∴ 5.882 ×10 –6 =
sec 850 kg/m3
∴ µ = 0.004997 Pa-sec
Problem 1.15
A fluid of viscosity 0.3 Pa-sec is provided between the two parallel plates
which are at 3 mm distance. Find the shear stress for the lower fixed plate if
the upper one is moved with 3 m/sec.
Solution :
Given Data :
µ = 0.3 Pa-sec
3
y = 3 mm = = 0.003 m
1000
τat y = 0 = ?
Since the fluid is provided between the two parallel plates and the upper
plate is moving with 3 m/sec velocity. Shear stress will be developed in the
opposite direction of motion as shown. Now using Newton’s law of viscosity.
du
τ = µ⋅
dy
U
= µ⋅
y
3 m/sec
= 0.3 ×
0.003
N
τ = 300
m2
U = 3 m /se c
Y = 3 mm
µ = 0.3 P a-se c
Fixe d τ
Fig. P1.15
Problem 1.16
Determine the capillary rise in a glass tube of 5 mm diameter, immersed
vertically in water, having a surface tension of 0.07 N/m and take θ = 0.
Solution :
We know that, Capillary rise,
4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ 4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ
h= =
γ ⋅d ρ⋅ g ⋅d
Fluid Properties 19
4 × 0.07 × cos θ
h=
1000 × 9.81 × 0.005 (m)
0.28
=
49.05
h = 0.005708
m = 5.708 mm
5
mm
H 2O
Fig. P1.16
Problem 1.17
A glass tube of diameter 5 mm is immersed in Hg having a density of 13596
kg/m3. Assuming a surface tension of 0.49 N/m and θ as 120° fluid the
capillary depression.
Solution :
We know that, capillary depression,
4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ 4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ
h= =
γ ⋅d ρ⋅ g ⋅d
4 × 0.49 × cos120
=
13596 × 9.81 × 0.005 (m)
−0.98
=
666.88
h = – 0.001469
m = – 1.469 mm
Note: –ve sign implies capillary depression and is equal to 1.469 mm of
Hg.
Problem 1.18
Determine the diameter of a droplet of water in mm if the pressure inside is
to be greater than that outside by 130 N/m2. Take surface tension σ for water
= 7.26 × W 2 N/m.
Solution :
We know that,
Pressure intensity for the droplet,
2σ
P or ∆P =
r
130
N 2 × 7.26 × 10−2 N/m
=
m2 r
r = 1.116 × 10–3 m
∴ d = 2.233 × 10–3
m = 2.233 mm
Problem 1.19
What change in pressure is required to compress a given mass of gas to 1/3
its volume under isothermal conditions ?
Solution :
Given Data :
∆P=?
1
V2 = V
3 1
T =C
or PV = C
We know that, P1V1 = mRT
mRT
∴ P1 = V1 ...(1)
and P2V2 = mRT

mRT
P2 = V2 ...(2)
1
∴ As it is given V2 = V
3 1
3 mRT
P2 =
V13
3 m.R.T .
P2 = ...(3)
V1
∴ P2 = 3 . P1 for (1) and (3)
Now change in Pressure ∆P = P2 – P1 = 3 P1 – P1
∆P = 2P1
∴ Change in pressure required is twice the initial pressure.
Fluid Properties 21
Problem 1.20
Calculate the internal pressure of a 25 mm diameter soap bubble, if the
N
tension in the soap film is 0.5 .
m
Solution :
We know for the soap bubble,
4 ⋅ σ 4 × 0.5 N/m
P= =
r 0.025 / 2
= 160 N/m2
Problem 1.21
A small circular jet of Hg 0.1 mm in diameter is issued from an opening.
What is the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the jet.
Take surface tension of Hg in contact with air as 0.51 N/m.
Solution :
Given Data :
0.1
D= = 0.0001 m r = 5 × 10–5 m
1000
We know for the jet,
σ 0.51 N/m
P= =
r 5 × 10−5
= 10200 N/m2
Problem 1.22
A block of 100 N weight slides down an inclined plane of 30° inclination. In
between the block and plane a lubricating oil film of 3 mm is provided, and
viscosity 9 poise. If the area of contact of the block is 0.3 m2 find the velocity
of the block with which it slides down.
Solution :
Given Data :
µ = 9 Poise
9
= = 0.9 Pa-sec
10
dU = ?
Since the lubricating oil is provided between the block and plane, it is a
problem on viscosity, so using Newtons law of viscosity,
du
τ = µ⋅
dy
3 0° dU
=
?
1 00 N 3 0°
dy
=
0 .0
03
m
Fig. P1.22
du
τ = 0.9 ...(1)
0.003
Shear force
Also τ= ... (2)
Area of contact
Note that shear force is the force which is equal and opposite to the
force which causes downward motion of block
i.e., the force causing downward motion of the block
= W · sin θ
= 100 × sin 30
S.F. = 50
50 N
∴ from (2), τ = = 166.67 2
0.3 m
Now from Eq. (1)
du
τ = µ⋅
dy
du
166.67 = 0.9 ×
0.003
m
0.5555 = du
sec
Problem 1.23
A body with a gravity force of 550 N with a flat surface area 45 cm × 45 cm
slides down a lubricated inclined plane making a 35 angle with the
horizontal. For viscosity of 0.1 Pa-sec and body speed of 0.1 m/sec, determine
the lubricant film thickness.
Fluid Properties 23
Solution :
Given Data :
µ = 0.1 Pa-sec
du = 0.1 m/sec
Since Lubricating oil is provided, it is a problem on viscosity,
du
∴ τ = µ⋅
dy
0.1 m/sec
τ = 0.1 × ...(1)
dy
Shear force
Also τ= ... (2)
Area of contact
and S.F. = W . sin 35 = 550 sin 35
= 315.467 N ...(3)
From (2) and (3)
315.467
τ=
0.45 × 0.45
τ = 1557.86 N/m2 ...(4)
0.
45
m
m
45
0.
W sin 3 5
3 5°
W cos 3 5
5 50 N 3 5°
dy = ?
Fig. P1.23
Now from (1)

0.1 m / sec
1557.86 = 0.1 ×
dy
∴ dy = 6.4 × 10–6 m
i.e., dy = 6.4 × 10–3 mm
dy = 0.0064 mm
Problem 1.24
On an inclined plane of angle 45°, a plate of weight 100 N is kept as shown,
having width 0.5 m and length 1 m. A lubricating oil film of 3 mm is provided
between the plane and plate. The oil has a dynamic viscosity of 1 Pa-sec.
How much force is required to pull the plane up the place at a velocity of 1
m/sec ?
Solution :
µ = 1 Pa-sec
du = 1 m/sec
We know that,
du
τ = µ⋅ ...(1)
dy
1
τ = 1×
0.003
= 333.33 N/m 2
S.F. (Resisting force)

Also, τ=
Area of plate
?
=
m
e
1
rc
fo
t al
To
m
5
0.
4 5°
°
W cos 4 5°
45
s in
W
F.
S.
1 00 N
4 5°
m
m
3
=
dy
Fig. P1.24
Fluid Properties 25
S.F.
333.33 =
0.5 × 1
∴ S.F. = 166.67 N ...(2)
Note weight of plate is 100 N acting vertically downwards.
∴ Component of weight acting along the plate.
= W sin 45 = 100 sin 45
= 70.71 N ...(3)
∴ Total force required to pull the plate upwards = (2) + (3)
= 166.67 + 70.71 – 237.38 N
Note. If the force exceeds 237.38 N then the plate starts sliding upwards.
Problem 1.25
A shaft of 100 mmdiameter is rotating at 250 rpm in a sleeve of 105 mm
internal diameter and 0.5 m length as shown in Fig. P 1.25. The space between
the shaft and tube is filled with oil of viscosity 0.2 Pa-sec, find the power
required to overcome the viscous resistance.
2 50 r.p .m .
L = 0.5 m
2 .5 m m 1 00 m m 2 .5 m m
1 05 m m
Fig. P1.25
Solution :
Given Data :
µ = 0.2 Pa-sec
Power = P = ?
2πNT
Power P = ...(1)
60
where T = torque = S.F. × radius of shaft

T = S.F. × r ... (2)
S.F.
and Shear stress = ... (3)
Area of contact
du
Also, τ = µ⋅ ...(4)
dy
Since the shaft in rotating,
πDN π × 0.1 × 250
Velocity, du = =
60 60
du = 1.3089 m/sec
tube diameter– shaft diameter
and dy =
2
dy = 2.5 mm = 0.0025 m
Then from (4)
du 1.3089
τ = µ⋅ = 0.2 ×
dy 0.0025
N
τ = 104.712 ...(5)
m2
S.F.
Also τ=
Area of contact
S.F.
104.712 =
2 × π ⋅ R. of shaft × L
S.F .
104.712 =
2π × 0.05 × 0.5
⇒ S.F. = 16.448 N ...(6)
Then, Torque = S.F × radius of shaft = 16.448 × 0.05
Torque = 0.8224 Nm
2πNT 2π × 250 × 0.8224
∴ Power = = Watts
60 60
i.e., P = 21.530 Watts
Problem 1.26
A shaft of 8 cm diameter is provided in a sleeve of length 0.1 and has a
radial clearance of 0.03 mm. Lubricating oil provided between the sleeve
and shaft has a viscosity of 8 Poise and taking a shear force of
8 N find the velocity.
Fluid Properties 27
Solution : 8 cm
Given Data :
D = 8 cm = 0.08 m
dy = 0.03 mm = 3 ×10–5 m
µ = 8 P = 0.8 Pa-sec
S.F. = 8N
We know that
0 .1 m
du
τ = µ⋅
dy
du
τ = 0.8 × ...(1)
3 × 10−5
S.F. 0 .03 m m
Also τ =
Area of contact
8 8 Fig. P1.26
τ = =
2π R × L 0.08
2×π× × 0.1
2
τ = 318.31N/m2 ...(2)
du
∴ From (1) 318.31 = 0.8 ×
3 × 10−5
m
0.01193 = du
sec
Velocity = 0.01193 m/s.
Problem 1.27
A shaft with a diameter of 0.5 m rotates at 200
rpm inside a sleeve with a diameter of 0.502 m
with a uniform clearance. If the power required
to rotate the shaft is 4306 watts, find the viscosity
of oil in the clearance. Take length of sleeve as
200 mm.
L = 0 .2 m
Solution :
Given Data :
D = 0.5 m
N = 200 rpm
dy = 0.001 m = 1 mm
P = 4306 Watts
µ = ?
d y =1 m m
L = 0.2 m 0 .5 m
Since Power in given, = 0.0 0 1 m
0 .50 2 m
2πNT
P =
60 Fig. P1.27
2 × π × 200 × T
4306 =
60
T = 205.596 Nm ...(1)
and Torque = S.F. × Radius ...(2)
0.5
205.596 = S.F. ×
2
822.385 N = S.F. ...(3)
S.F.
Also shear stress =
Area of contact
822.385 822.385
τ = =
2 × πR × L 2 × π × 0.25 × 0.2
τ = 2617.73 N/m 2 ...(4)
du
and Since τ = µ ⋅ ...(5)
dy
Since the shaft is rotating,
πDN π × 0.5 × 200
du = = = 5.236 m/sec
60 60
(i.e., Tangential velocity of shaft)
Then from Eq. (5)
5.236
2617.73 = µ ×
0.001
0.49999 Pa-sec = µ
or µ = 0.5 Pa-sec
Problem 1.28
A piston of 120 mm diameter and 150 mm length moves down in a 120.4
mm diameter cylinder. The annular space between the piston and cylinder
is filled with oil of viscosity of 0.8 poise. If the weight of piston is 10 N,
obtain the speed with which it slides down?
Solution :
Given Data :
µ = 0.8 P
µ = 8 Pa-sec as 1 Pa-sec =10 P
Weight of piston = 10 N = S.F.
du = ?
S.F.
We know that, τ=
Area of contact
10
τ=
2×π×R×L
Fluid Properties 29
10
τ= = 176.83 N/m2
0.12
2π × × 0.15
2
τ = 176.83 N/m 2
du
Also, τ = µ⋅
dy
1 50 m m
1 20 m m d y = 0.2 m m
= 2 x 1 0 -4 m
1 20 .4 m m
Fig. P1.28
du
176.83 = 0.08 × ...(1)
dy
In this case,
Diameter of cylinder – Diameter of piston
dy =
2
120.4 − 120 0.2
= mm = 0.2 mm = m
2 1000
dy = 0.0002 m
du
∴ From (1), 176.83 = 0.08 ×
0.0002
m
0.4420 = du
sec
This is the speed of piston at which it slides down.
Problem 1.29
A shaft is rotating at 180 r.p.m. has a diameter of 400 mm. It rotates inside
a sleeve of internal diameter 404 mm with uniform clearance. If the length
of sleeve is 200 mm and power required to rotate the shaft is 892.98 watts,
find the viscosity of lubricant filled in the clearance.
Solution : N = 180 rpm

Given Data :
D = 0.4 m
N = 180 rpm
L = 0.2 m
N = 180 rpm
P = 892.98 watts
0.2 m
dy = 2 mm = 2 × l0–3m
µ = ?
Since Power is given,
2πNT
We know that, P =
60
2 mm
2 × π × 180 × T 0 .4 m
892.98 = 0 .00 2 m
60
∴ T = 47.374 Nm ...(1)
Also, T = S.F. × radius
0.4 Fig. P1.19
47.374 = S.F. ×
2
236.87 N = S.F. ...(2)
S.F. 236.87
Also, τ= =
Area of Contact 2π ×R × L
236.87
τ=
2 × π × 0.2 × 0.2
τ = 942.477 N/m2 ...(3)
du
Also Shear stress, τ = µ⋅
dy
du
942.477 = µ ⋅ ...(4)
2 × 10−3
πDN π × 0.4 × 180

and du = =
60 60
= 3.77 m/sec
∴ from Eq. (4)
3.77
942.477 = µ ×
2 × 10−3
µ = 0.4999 Pa-sec = 0.5 Pa-sec
Fluid Properties 31
Problem 1.30
If K of Hg is 2.63 ×1010 Pa, determine velocity of propogation of sound in Hg
taking ρHg= 13596 kg/m3.
Solution :
We know that,
K 2.63 × 1010
C= =
ρ 13596
C = 1390.82 m/sec
Problem 1.31
If K is 2.1 ×1010 Pa and ρfluid is 900 kg/m3 determine velocity of propagation
of sound.
Solution :
We know that,
K 2.1 × 1010
C= =
ρ 900
C = 4830.46 m/sec
Problem 1.32
At a depth of 2 km in an ocean, the pressure is 840 bar. Assume the specific
weight at the surface as 10250 N/m3 and average bulk modulus of elasticity
as 2.4 × 105 kN/m 2 for that pressure range.
(1) What will be the change in specific volumes between that at the
surface and at that depth ?
(2) Whal will be the specific volume at that depth ?
(3) What will be the specific weight at that depth ?
Solution :
We know that, Bulk modulus of Elasticity,
dP
K= ...(1)
 dv 
 − v 
It is given that,
dP = 840 bar
kN
dP = 840 × 102
m2
and w at surface = 10250 N/m2
and K = 2.4 × 105 kN/m 2
∴ from Eq. (1)
kN
840 × 102
2.4 × 10 5 kN = m2
m 2  dV 
 − V 
 dv 
⇒  − V  = 0.35
–ve sign implies that the volume decreases with the increase in pressure.
Since specific weight at the surface is
= 10250 N/m2
1
∴ Sp. volume of water at the surface =
w
1 1
V = =
w 10250
m3
v = 9.756 × 105 N ...(1)
Then note that change in specific volume between the surface and that
depth = Ratio of decrease in volume to original volume × v
 dV 
=  × V = 0.35 × 9.756 × 10−5
 V 
Change in sp. volume = 3.41 × 10–5 m3/N ...(2)
And specific volume at that depth = (1) – (2)
= Sp. volume at surface–change of sp. volume
= 9.756 × 10–5 – 3.41 × 10–5
= 6.34 × 10–5 m3/N ...(3)
And specific weight at that depth,
1 1
= =
Sp. wt at that depth 6.34 × 10−5
N
Sp. weight at that depth=15772.79
m3
Problem 1.33
A small circular jet of water of 0.5 mm diameter issues from a nozzle. What
is the pressure difference between inside and outside of the jet ? Assume
surface tension between water and air as 0.0718 N/m.
Fluid Properties 33
Solution :
Given Data :
d = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10–3 m
r = 0.25 ×10–3
σ = 0.0718 N/m
For jet, we know that,
σ 0.0718
Pressure or change or pressure ∆P = =
r 0.25 × 10−3
P or ∆ P = 287.2 N/m 2
Problem 1.34
State the minimum diameter of glass tube to be immersed in water for which
capillary effects are to be limited upto 2.98 mm. Take surface tension of
water in contact with air is 0.073 N/m.
Solution :
We know that, capillary rise,
4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ
h= ρ⋅ g ⋅d
Assuming θ = 0
∴ cos θ = 1
N
4 × 0.073 × cos θ
2.98 × 10–3 = m
1000 × 9.81 × d
d = 9.98 × 10–3 m = 10 mm
Problem 1.35
For a certain lubricating oil, the shear stress is 0.218 N/m2 and velocity
gradient is 0.218 sec –1. If the density of oils 960 kg/m3 find the kinematic
viscosity.
Solution :
Given Data :
N
τ = 0.218
m2
du
= 0.128
dy
ρ = 960 kg/m3
We know that, kinematic viscosity,
µ
v = ρ ... (1)
du
and τ = µ⋅
dy
0.218 = µ × 0.218
1 Pa-sec = µ
1
∴ from (1) v= = 1.04167 × 10−3 m 2 / sec
960
Proolm 1.36
Specific volume of a liquid is 1.25 ×10–3 m3/kg. what is its specific weight,
specific mass and specific gravity ?
Solution :
Given Data :
m3
v = 1.25 × 10 −3
kg
w=?
ρ = specific mass or density = ?
S=?
1 1
We know that ρ= =
v 1.25 × 10−3
= 800 kg/m3
Then we also know that,
w = ρ . g = 800 × 9.81
= 7848 N/m3
ρfluid 800
and S= =
ρwater 1000
S = 0.8
Problem 1.37
Air is blown in soap water with the pressure 20.07 Pa. What is the diameter
of a bubble that can be obtained if the surface tension for soap water is 0.125
N/m?
Solution :
For the soap bubble we know that,
4σ
P=
r
Fluid Properties 35
N 4 × 0.125
20.07 2 =
m r
4 × 0.125
r=
20.07
= 0.0249128 m
d = 0.0498256 m
Problem 1.38
Determine the pressure within a soap bubble of 50 mm diameter if the surface
tension is 0.0125 N/m?
Solution :
Given Data :
d = 50 mm = 0.05 m
r = 0.025 m
We know that for a soap bubble,
4σ 4 × 0.0125 N
P= = =2 2
r 0.025 m
Problem 1.39
A soap bubble of 5 cm diameter contains a pressure of 20 N/m in excess of
atmosphere pressure. Calculate the surface tension of soap film.
Solution :
Given Data :
d = 0.05
⇒ r = 0.025 m
For soap bubble, we know that,
4σ
∆P or P =
r
N 4×σ
20 2 =
m 0.025
20 × 0.025
=σ
4
N
∴ σ = 0.125
m
Problem 1.40
A U-tube has two limbs of internal diameter 6 mm and 16 mm respectively
contains some water. Calculate the difference in water levels in the two limbs.
Take surface tension 0.073 N/m.
Solution :
We know from the theory of capillarity,
4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ
h= ρ⋅ g ⋅d
4 ⋅ σ ⋅ cos θ  1 1 
or h=  −  ...(1)
ρ⋅ g  d1 d2 
i.e., for a U-tube having 2 limbs,
Here assume θ = 0, ρw = 1000 kg/m3
4 × 0.073 × 1  1 1 
∴ from (i) × −
1000 × 9.81  0.006 0.016 
h=
= 3.10057 ×10–3
h = 3.10057 mm
KK
+0)26-4
2 Fluid Statics
(Hydrostatics)
PART–I : HYDROSTATICS
As we have studied in the first chapter that the study of behaviour of fluids
at rest in known as Fluid statics or Hydro- statics.
2.1 FLUID PRESSURE

It is defined as force per unit area, i.e.
F N
P= and units 2 ...(1)
A m
And the pressure exerted due to a column of fluid of height h or Z is
given by,
P = ρ.g.h ...(2)
where
kg
ρ = Density of the fluid in
m3
m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity in
sec2
h = Fluid column in m
Then regarding Units :
kg m3 m3 1
P= 3
× 2
× m=kg × ×
m sec sec 2 m2
1
= mass × acceleration ×
m2
1
= force ×
m2
(37)
N
P=
m2
N
So,the unit of pressure is , which is the basic unit of pressure in SI
m2
units. It is also sometimes called as Pascal (Pa). Since it is very small when
compared to engineering values, the units like kPa, MPa or bar are used and
N
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 100 K
m2
= 100 kPa.
Pressures are also measured in mm or m of H2O or Hg column.
The pressure exerted due to atmosphere in known as atmospheric
pressure and is denoted by 1 atm and the value of 1 atm pressure in various
units in given by,
1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 10.33 m of water column
N
= 101325 = 1.01325 bar = 1.033 kg/cm2
m2
Another unit of pressure in 1 Tor
= 1 mm of Hg
N
= 133.34
m2
2.2 PASCAL’S LAW

In case of hydrostatic fluids, the pressure at a point is same in all the
directions.
Consider the fluid particle as shown in Fig. 2.1. According to Pascal’s law
Px = Py = Pz
Pz
Px
x
z
Py
Fig 2.1
Fluid Statics (Hydrostatics) 39
2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE,

GAUGE PRESSURE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
The atmospheric pressure acts both on the container and on the gauge which
measures the pressure inside the container. (Ref. see Fig. 2.2.)
) P atm
ve
(+
Pg
0
e)
P (-v
P atm
C o nta in er
Fig. 2.2
When the pressure of the system is more (i.e., + ve pressure) than the
atmosphere, then Pgauge is + ve and Pabs or Preal is given by
Pabs = Patm + P gauge
P gau ge (+ ve )
P atm P g (–v e) or
(W he n g re ate r
th an a tm ) P v ac
P atm
P abs
(W he n less
th an a tm )
A b s. zero o r co m p le te vacuu m
Fig. 2.3
If the pressure of the system is less than the atmosphere (i.e., –ve
pressure) then it is known as vacuum, and
Pabs = Patm – P vac
Figure 2.3 represents the relationship between absolute and gauge
pressure.
2.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Pressure is measured by,
(i) Barometer. It is used to measure atmospheric pressure
(ii) Bourdon Pressure Gauge. This is used to measure the pressures
inside the container, vessels, pipes etc.
(iii) Manometers. These are also used to measure the pressures inside
the containers, vessels, pipes etc.
These are broadly classified into 2 types
1. Simple manometers
(a) Piezometer
(b) U-tube manometer
2. Differential manometers
(i) Differential U-tube manometer
(ii) Inverted differential U-tube manometer
(iii) Micromanometer
(iv) Inclined Micromanometer
Simple Manometers are used to measure the pressure at a point of a
fluid in the pipe or a container.
Differential Manometers are used to measure the difference of
pressures between any two points of a pipe or between two different pipes.
1. Simple Manometers
(a) Piezometer. It is used to measure moderate pressures. It consists of a
L-type glass tube open to the atmosphere. The height of column gives the
pressure head directly.
h = ρ.P
g
Fig 2.4
We know that,
P = ρ.g.h
P
h= (Refer Fig. 2.4)
ρ⋅g
P atm (b) U-tube manometer. These are

improved form of piezometers. These are
used to measure comparatively higher
pressures and negative pressure also.
It consists of a U-type glass tube, one
end of which is connected to the pipe or
container of whose pressure measurement
P abs is to be done and the second end will open
to atmosphere. U-tube manometer with
h the second end closed and evacuated to a
state of vacuum gives the absolute
pressure directly. These manometer
contain generally H 2 O or Hg as
1 1- manometric fluids.
Figure 2.5 shows gauge pressure.
ρ Balancing the pressure values about 1–1´
Fig. 2.5 we get ,
Pabs = Patm + ρ . g. h
Pabs = Patm + P gauge
Figure 2.6 shows vacuum pressure.
P atm
P abs
2 2´
Fig. 2.6
Balancing the pressure values about 2–2´ we get,

Pabs + ρ . g. h = Patm
∴ Pabs = Patm – ρ . g. h E vacu ated to a
state of va cuu m
Pabs = Patm – P vac
Figure 2.7 shows absolute pressures
directly.
Pabs = ρ . g. h Pabs
2. Differential Manometers
(i) U-tube differential manometer. A U-tube
h
differential manometer consists of a U-type
glass tube, and its two ends are connected
to the two pipes and it contains a thick
3 3´
manometric liquid as shown in Fig. 2.7.
In Fig. 2.8 pipes A and B are at the same
Fig. 2.7
level and contain same fluid of density ρ1.
A B
h3
ρ ρ
1 1
h1
h2
1 1´
ρH g
Fig. 2.8
Note. In case of differential manometers and in case of manometers

with more than one U-turns, start from one point and as we go downwards
take it as + ve and as we go upwards take it as –ve and then equate it to the
second point pressure.
Since plane 1–1´ is a horizontal plane and in the same continuous static
mass of liquid, pressure heads at these two points (*) will be equal.
∴ Writing the pressure equation for Fig. 2.8.
PA + ρ 1 . gh1 – ρ Hg . g . h2 – ρ 1 . g . h3 = P B
From Fig. 2.8 PA > PB.
Figure 2.9 shows a U-type differential manometer, connected to the two

pipes which are at different levels containing different liquids.
Now writing the pressure equation,
PA + ρ 1 g . h1 – ρ Hg . g . h2 – ρ 2 . g . h3 = PB
h3
ρ h1 ρ
1 2
h2
1 1´
Hg
Fig. 2.9
(ii) Inverted differential manometer. It is used to measure the difference

of low pressure with more accuracy.
1 1´
h2 ρliq u id
h3
B
h1
ρ
2
ρ
1
Fig. 2.10
Writing the pressure equation,

PA – ρ 1 g . h1 – ρ liquid . g . h2 + ρ 2 . g . h3 = PB
(iii) Micro manometers. It is used to measure low pressures with great
accuracy. It is a modified form of U-tube manometer. In this case a reservoir
having a large c/s area say about 100 times when compared with the c/s area
of the tube is introduced in one of the limbs as shown, in Fig 2.11.
h2
ρ h1
1
R e se rvoir
1 ∆h 1´ ∆h
ρ
Hg
Fig. 2.11
For any variation in pressure, the change of liquid level in the reservoir
is so small that it may be neglected, and the pressures are directly given by
the height of liquid in the right arm.
Balancing the pressure values about 1 – 1´
PA – ρ1 g . h1 – ρ1 . g . ∆h = ρHg . g . ∆h3 + ρHg . g . h2
Since ∆h is very small we can write,
PA – ρ 1 g . h1 = ρ Hg . g . h 2
or P A = ρ Hg . g h2 – ρ 1 . g . h1
(iv) Inclined Micromanometer. It is a modified form of vertical
micromanometer. It gives more accurate results compared to vertical
micromanometer.
Due to inclination, the distance moved by the liquid is more and thus it
gives a higher reading for a given pressure. So more accurate results can be
obtained.
From Fig. 2.12.
h
= sin θ
l
l
h
θ
Fig. 2.12
h = l. sin θ
Note. θ will be known for a manometer, by measuring l we can find
head h
LIST OF FORMULAE
(i) Pressure exerted due to a column of fluid
P = ρ . g. h
kg
where ρ = density of fluid in
m3
m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity in
sec2
h = height of fluid column is m
N N
(ii) 1 bar = 105 2
= 100 K =100 kpa
m m2
N
(iii) 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 101325
m2
= 1.01325 bar
= 10.33 m of H2O column = 1.033 kg/cm2
(iv) Note ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
ρHg = 13596 or 13600 kg/m3
g= 9.806 or 9.81m/sec2
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 2.1
kN
Express a pressure of 50 in terms of meters of water column
M2
Solution :
We know that, the pressure exerted due to a column of fluid,
P = ρw . g h w
For water column
N
50 × 103 = 1000 × 9.81 × hw
m2
h w = 5.096 m
or By Proportion :
We know that,
1.01325 bar = 10.33 m of H2O
kN
or 101.325 = 10.33 m of H2O
m2
kN
∴ 50 =?
m2
50
= × 10.33
101.325
= 5.097 m of H2O
Note. Generally in the problems, pressure head means we have
to find h and pressure means we have to find P in terms of N/m 2 or
bar.
Problem 2.2
Calculate head of an oil of specific gravity 0.8, that can produce a pressure
same as the pressure due to Hg head of 600 mm.
m
Take ρHg = 13600 kg/m3 and g = 9.81
sec2
Solution :
Given Data :
hoil = ?
ρfluid
S = 0.8, but S =
ρH2O
∴ ρfluid = 0.8 × 1000 kg/m3

hHg = 0.6 m of Hg
ρHg = 13600 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/sec2
Pressure due to 600 mm of Hg,
= ρHg . g. hHg
= 13600 × 9.81 × 0.6
N
= 80049.6
m2
To produce this much pressure we have to find head of oil,
N
∴ 80049.6 = ρHg . g. hoil
m2
80049.6 = 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × hoil
hoil = 10.2 m of oil
Problem 2.3
Calculate the intensity of pressure at point in a fluid at rest at a depth of 1
N N
km in 2
, , MPa .
m mm2
Take specific weight of water as 9810 N/m3
Solution :
Given Data :
P=?
h = 1 km = 1 × 1000 m = 1000 m
N
w = ρw g = 9810
m2
We know that, pressure P = ρ . g . h
P = w . h as w = ρ . g
N
= 9810 ×1000 = 9810000
m2
= 9.81 MPa
N
P = 9.81
mm2
N
Note : As 1 = 1 MPa
mm 2
Problem 2.4
A piezometer read 100 mm of H 2O column, what is the equivalent kerosene
column of 0.8 specific gravity ?
Solution :
Given Data :
h w = 0.1 m
Let g = 9.81
ρ w = 1000 kg/m3
hkero = ?
We know that,
P = ρw . g . h w
= 1000 × 9.81 × 0.l
P = 981 N/m2
0 .1 m
H 2O
Fig. P2.4
To produce this much pressure if kerosene is used, we have to find its

column.
∴ 981 = ρkero . g . hkero
981 = 0.8 × 103 × 9.81× hkero
hkero = 0.125 m or 125 mm
Problem 2.5
Calculate absolute pressure of steam in a boiler for which gauge pressure is
5 and barometric reading is 76 cm of Hg.
Solution :
Given Data :
Pabs = ?
Pgauge = 5 bar
hbaro = 76 cm = ho say
We know that 76 cm of Hg = 1.01325 bar = Patm
and Pabs = Patm + Pgauge = 1.01325 + 5
Pabs = 6.01325 bar
Problem 2.6
A vacuum gauge reads 620 mm of Hg, while the barometer reading is 760
mm of Hg. What is the absolute pressure in bar and Pa?
Solution :
Given Data :
Pvac = 620 mm of Hg
hbaro = hp = 760 mm of Hg
Pabs = ?
We know that for vacuum gauge reading;
Pabs = Patm – Pvac
= 760 – 620
Pabs = 140 mm of Hg
N
To express this is and bar, we know that,
m2
P = ρHg . g . hHg
= 13600 × 9.81 × 0.140
P = 18678.24 N/m2
or Pa = 0.18678.24 bar
Note : ρ Hg = 13600 kg/m 3
g = 9.81 m/sec 2
These standard values are taken directly.
Problem 2.7
A simple U-tube manometer is used to determine the pressure of a fluid of
specific gravity 0.8, passing through a pipe. The level of Hg surface in the
right arm which is open to the atmosphere is 90 mm above the centre of the
pipe. The level of Hg in the left arm which is connected to the pipe is 60 mm
below the centre of the pipe.
Determine absolute pressure of liquid in the pipe in N/m. Assume
kg
standard Patm = 10 mof H2O and take ρHg = 13600 .
m3
Solution :
Balancing the pressure values about the plane 1– 1´ (Ref. P2.7) that is
pressure at (*) will be same.
i.e., Pabs + ρfluid × g × 0.06 = Patm + ρHg × g × 0.15 ...(1)

or start from pressure at point and as we go downwards take it as +ve and
as we go upwards take it as – ve and equate it to second point pressure.
Patm + ρfluid × g × hfluid – ρHg × g × hHg = Patm ...(2)
and Patm = ρw . g. hw P atm
= 1000 × 9.81 × 10 m of H2O
N
= 98100
m2 90 m m
From (2) Pabs + 0.8 × 10 3
1 50 m m
× 9.81 × 0.06 – 13600 × 9.81 × 0.15
N 60 m m
= 98100 2
m kg
Fluid of ρ = 0.8 x1 0 3 1 1´
m3
N Hg
Pabs = 117641.52
m2 Fig. P2.7
Problem 2.8
An inverted U-tube is connected across two pipes A and B carrying fluid as
shown in Fig. P2.8. Calculate the pressure difference between the centerlines
of the pipes A and B.
O il ρ = 0 .7
1 1´
50 m m
2 00 m m
3 50 m m
A
1 00 m m
B
L iqu id ρ=1 .1
H 2O
Fig. P2.8
Solution :
PA – ρliq . g. hliq – ρoil . g. hoil + ρw . g. hw = PB
PA –1.1 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.2 – 0.7 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.05 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.35 =
PB
N
∴ PA – PB = –931.95
m2
N
or PB – PA = –931.95
m2
Note. Pressure at B is greater than Pressure at A.
Problem 2.9
A U-tube differential manometer is connected to the two pipes as shown in
Fig. P2.9. The pipe A is containing Carbon Tetra Chloride (Sp. gr. = 1.524)
and the pipe B is containing oil of Sp. gr. 0.8, find the difference of Hg level
h if the pressure difference in the two pipes A and B is 0.819 bar.
A
B
C C l4 1m
ρ = 1.52 4 x 1 0 3 kg /m 3 3 .5 m
O il
h ρ = 0.8 x 1 0 3 kg /m 3
Hg
Fig. P2.9
Solution :
PA + ρCCl4 ⋅ g ⋅ hCCl4 − ρHg ⋅ g ⋅ h − ρoil ⋅ g ⋅ hoil = PB
PA + 1.524 × 103 × 9.81 × 3.5 –13600 × 9.81 × h – 0.8 × l03 × 9.81 ×1 = PB
PA + 52326.54 – 13600 × 9.81 × h – 7848 = PB
∴ PA – PB = 13600 × 9.81 × h – 52326.54 +7848
N
0.819 × 105 = 13600 × 9.81 × h – 52326.54 +7848
m2
h = 0.94725 m
or h = 947.25 mm
Problem 2.10
In the Fig. P2.10 an open manometer is connected to a pipe to measure the
pressure at A. Fluid at A is oil of S = 0.9. Obtain the pressure intensity as
gauge pressure as well as absolute pressure.
Take Patm = 1.01396 bar.
P a tm = 1 .01 39 6 ba r
3 50 m m
1 1' 1"
O il ρ = 0 .9 x 10 3 kg/m 3
Hg 8 00 m m
Fig. P2.10
Solution :
PA – ρoil . g. hoil – ρHg . g. hHg = Patm
N
PA – 0.9 ×103 × 9.81 × 0.8 – 13600 × 9.81 × 0.3 = 1.01396 × 105
m2
N
PA (abs) = 155154.8
m2
This is absolute pressure as we have considered Patm
Now in general,
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge
Pabs – Patm = Pgauge
155154.8 – 1.01396 ×105 = Pgauge
N
53758.8 = Pgauge
m2
Problem 2.11
In the arrangement shown in Fig. P2.11, find the difference of pressure in
the pipes A and B.
B
1 00 m m H 2O
2 00 m m
1 2 3
A
H 2O Hg
Fig. P2.11
Solution :
PA – ρw . g. hw – ρHg . g. hHg – ρw . g. hw = PB
PA –1000 × 9.81 × 0.150 – 13600 × 9.81 × 0.2 – 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1 = P B
N
∴ PA – A B = 29135.7
m2
Problem 2.12
Water fills the vessels shown in Fig. P2.12 and portions of connecting tube.
If the manometer fluid is oil with S = 0.9. Find difference in the pressure
N
head between m and n in and in m of H2O.
m2
Solution :
Writing the pressure equation, starting from pipe m
Pm – ρw . g. x – ρw . g . 0.3 + ρoil . g × 0.3 + ρw . g . x + ρw . g ×15 = Pn
Pm – ρw . g. 0.3 + ρoil . g × 0.3 + ρw × g × 1.5 = Pn
Pm – 1000 × 9.81 × 0.3 + 0.9 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.3 + 1000 × 9.81 × 1.5 = Pn
Pm – 2943 + 2648.7 + 14715 = P n
Pm + 14420.7 = Pn
N
∴ Pm – Pn = – 14420.7
m2
N
or Pn – Pm = 14420.7
m2
To express in m of water column
N
Pn – Pm = 14420.7
m2
= ρw . g. (hn – hm )
where ( hn – hm ) is the difference of head.
O il S = 0 .9
1 1´
0 .3 m
x
m
H 2O
1 .5 m
n
H 2O
Fig. P2.12
N
∴ 14420.7 = 1000 × 9.81 × (hn – hm)
m2
1.47 m of H2O = (hn – hm)
Problem 2.13
1 N
In Fig. P2.13 given below the air pressure intensity at B is .what is
10 mm2
N
the Pressure in at A ?
mm2
Solution :
(Refer Fig. P2.13)
Note.
1 m2 = 1000 mm × 1000 mm
1 m2 = 106 mm2
N 1 N
∴ 1 =
m 2
10 mm26
N N
or 106 2 = 1
m mm2
N 1 N
or 105 2 = ...(1)
m 10 mm2
= Pressure at B as given
A ir ( B )
A H2O
O il ρ = 0 .8 x 10 3 kg/m 3
1 50 m m
2 50 m m
75 m m
1 1'
Hg
Fig. P2.13

PA + ρoil . g × 0.15 + ρHg . g × 0.075 – ρw . g × 0.25 = PB
PA + 800 × 9.81 × 0.15 + 13600 × 9.81 × 0.075 – 1000 × 9.81 × 0.25
5 N
= 10 , from Eq. (1).
m2
N
Then PA = 91269.1
m2
N
P A = 0.0912691
mm 2
Problem 2.14
A closed vessel is divided into two compartments. These compartments
contain oil water as shown in Fig. P2.14. Determine the value of h if the
gauges show the readings indicated.
Solution :
(Refer Fig. P2.14)
5 N
– 3.4 × 10 + ρoil × g × 4 + ρHg × g × h – ρw . g. h – ρw . g × 1
m2
5 N
= 0.15 × 10
m2
= – 3.4 × 105 + (800 × 9.81 × 4)
+ (1.6 × 103 × 9.81 × h) – (1000 × 9.81 × h )
– (1000 × 9.81 × 1)
Vacuu m g au ge
0 .34 b ar
A B 0 .15 b ar
A ir
A ir
4m O il
S = 0.8
H 2O 1m
h
L iq. of S = 6
Fig. P2.14
5 N
= 0.15 × 10
m2
∴ h = 4.658 m
Problem 2.15
Oil of specific gravity 0.9 is flowing upwards through a vertical pipe. Two
points A and B are one above the other, 40 cm apart in the pipe are connected
by an U-tube carrying Hg. If the difference of pressure between A and B is
0.20 bar find the reading shown by the differential gauge.
Solution :
(Refer Fig. P2.15)
4 0 cm
O il S = 0 .9 x
Hg
O il
Fig. P2.15
Writing the pressure equation, starting from point A,

PA + ρoil . g . y + ρoil . g . x – ρHg . g . x – ρoil . g . y – ρoil × g × 0.4 = PB
i.e., PA + ρoil . g . x – ρHg . g . x – ρoil . g × 0.4 = PB
PA – PB = ρHg . g × x + ρoil . g × 0.4 – ρ oil . g . x
5 N
0.2 × 10 = 13600 × 9.81 × x + 900 × 9.81 × 0.4 – 900 × 9.81 × x
m2
x = 0.1321839 m.
Problem 2.16
A gauge is fitted to note the pressure of air in the top portion of an inverted
cylinder held in position is shown in Fig. P2.16. What is the gauge reading ?
Is the pressure at A atmospheric, if not find the pressure at A.
A ir
O il 0 .2 m
R e la tive de nsity A h O il
= 0.8
0 .2 m
H 2O
Fig. 2.16
Solution :
The pressure on the surface of water out side the inverted cylinder is
atmospheric at the level A and not at point A in the inverted cylinder.
∴ Starting from this known atmospheric pressure writing the pressure
equation,
P atm + ρw . g × 0.2 – ρoil . g × 0.4 = Pair
N
101325 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2 – 800 × 9.81 × 0.4 = Pair (abs)
m2
N N N
101325 2 +1962 2 – 3139.2 = Pair (abs)
m m m2
N
100147.8 = Pair (abs)
m2
We know in general,
100147.8 = 101325 + Pgauge
100147.8 – 101325 = Pgauge
N
–1177.2 = Pgauge
m2
N
∴ Pvac = 1177.2
m2
Now to find Pressure at A
Pressure at A = Pressure of air + ρoil . g × 0.2
= – 1177.2 + 800 × 9.81 × 0.2
= – 1177.2 +1569.6
N
Pressure at A = 392.4
m2
Problem 2.17
Two pressure points on a horizontal pipe line are connected to an inverted
U-tube manometer, containing liquid of specific gravity 0.8. If the difference
of level of columns is 15 cm; what is the corresponding pressure difference in
N N
2 and .
m cm2
Solution :
Writing the pressure equation starting from point (1),
P1 – ρw g . x – ρw . g × 0.15 + ρoil . g × 0.15 + ρw g . x = P2
i.e., P1 – ρw g × 0.15 + ρoil . g × 0.15 = P2
P1 –P2 = ρw . g × 0.15 – ρoil . g × 0.15
P1 – P2 = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.15 – 800 × 9.81 × 0.15
= 1471.5 – 1177.2
O il ρ = 0 .8 x 1 0 3 kg /m 3
1 1'
0 .15 m 0 .15 m
H 2O x Say S ay x H 2O
1 H 2O 2
Fig. P2.17
N
= 294.3
m2
Since 1 m2 = 104 cm2
294.3 N
P1 – P2 = 4
= 0.0293
10 cm 2
Problem 2.18
An inverted U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure difference
between two points on a pipe carrying water. If the manometeric deflection
is 220 mm with air at the top in the manometer, calculate the pressure
difference in Pa. What will be the deflection if a manometric fluid of relative

density 0.8 is used ?
A ir
0 .22 m
x x
1 H 2O 2
Fig. P2.18
Solution :
P1 – ρw g . x – ρw g × 0.22 + ρw . g × x = P2
P1 – ρw . g × 0.22 = P2
P1– P2 = ρw . g × 0.22 = 1000 × 9.81 × 0.22
N
P1– P 2 = 2158.2
m2
O il ρ = 0 .8 x 1 0 3 kg /m 3
H 2O x H 2O
1 H 2O 1
Figs. P2.18
In the second case to produce same pressure, i.e., 2158.2 N/m2 we have
to find the difference of manometric fluid, if it has a specific, gravity of 0.8.
For Figs. P2.18, writing pressure equation,

P1 – ρw g . x – ρw . g × h + ρoil . g × h + ρw . g. x = P2
P1 – P2 = ρw . g × h – ρoil . g × h
N
2158.2 = 1000 × 9.81 × h – 800 × 9.81 × h
m2
h = 1.1 m
Problem 2.19
The cylinder and tubing shown in Fig. P2.19 contains oil of S = 0.902. For a
gauge reading of 2 bar what is the total weight of the piston and slab placed
on it ?
Solution :
Let W be the total weight of piston and slab for equilibrium, balancing
the pressure values at sec 1–1´, we have,
W 
Pressure =   = ρoil ⋅ g ⋅ hoil + Pgauge
A
2 ba r =
2 x 10 5 N /m 2
G au g e
S lab
P iston 2m
(W )
1 1'
2 m dia
O il S = 0 .9 02
Fig. P2.19
W
π 2 = 0.902 × 1000 × 9.81 × 2 + 2 × 105
(2 )
4
W
= 17697.24 + 2 × 105
π
∴ W = 6.84 ×105 N
Problem 2.20
The compartments B and C shown in Fig. P2.20 are closed and filled with
kN
air. The barometer reads 99.572 , where the gauges A and D read as
m2
indicated what should be the value of x for the gauge E if Hg is used as the
manometric fluid. Also find the absolute pressure in the chamber C.
P a tm A 2 .1 x 10 5 N /m 2
P a tm =
9 9.5 72
kP a
B C
2 2' 1 1'
A ir A ir
E D Hg
Fig. P2.20
Solution :
Consider chamber C : Balancing the pressure values at see 1 –1´
Pc + ρHg . g × 0.25 = Patm
(abs)
N
Pc + 13600 × 9.81 × 0.25 = 99.572 × 103
(abs) m2
Pc = 99.572 ×103 – 33354
(abs)
N
Pc = 66218
(abs) m2
Now consider chamber B
Balancing the pressure values at sec 2 – 2´
2.1 × 105 = Patm + ρHg . g. x
2.1 × 105 = 99.572 × 103 + 13600 × 9.81 × x
0.8276 m = x
∴ x = 0.83 m of Hg.
Problem 2.21
A vertical composite liquid column with its upper end exposed to
atmospheric pressure, comprise of 45 cm of Hg (sp. gr. 13.6) ; 65 cm of water
and 80 cm of oil (sp. gr. 0.8). Calculate the pressure in bar,
(i) At the bottom of the column
(ii) At the inter surface of oil and water
(iii) At the inter surface of water and Hg.
Assume atmospheric pressure as 100 kPa and g = 9.81 m/sec2
Solution :
Since it is given Patm = 100 kPa, i.e., equal to 1 bar,
(Since 105 N/m2 = 1 bar = 100 kPa)
(i) Pat bottom = Patm + Poil + Pwater ρHg
= 1 + ρoil g Zoil + ρw g Zw + ρgZ
0.8 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.8 1000 × 9.81 × 0.65 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.45
= 1+ + +
105 105 105
P a tm
O il 8 0 cm
H 2O 6 5 cm
Hg 4 5 cm
Fig. P2.21
Note. If ρ is in kg/m3, g is in m/sec2, Z is in m, then the resultant unit

will be Nm2 .
Therefore to get in bar divide by 105
Pat bottom = 1 + 0.062784 + 0.063765 + 0.6
= 1.72692 bar
(ii) Pressure at the interface of oil and water
= 1 + 0.062784 = 1.062784 bar
(iii) Pressure at the intersurface of water and Hg

= 1 + 0.062784 + 0.063765
= 1.1265 bar
Problem 2.22
A manometer connected between the 2 pipes as shown in Fig. P2.22. Take,
Pwater = 1000 kg/m 3
PHg = 13590 kg/m 3
Pressure at A = 400 kPa,
g = 9.8 m/sec 2.
Find pressure at B = ?
H 2O
2'
2 .5 m
H 2O
0 .4 m
0 .6 m
1 1'
Hg
Fig. P2.22
Solution :
PA + ρw gZw – ρHg gZHg gZHg + ρw gZw = Pa
400 × 1000 + 1000 × 9.8 × 2.5 –13590 × 9.8 × 0.6 + 1000 × 9.8 × 0.4 = PB
400000 + 24500 – 79409.2 + 3920 = PB
PB = 348510.8 Pascals
P B = 348.5108 kPa
Problem 2.23
The piston shown in Fig. P2.23 is held in equilibrium by pressure of gas
flowing through the pipe. The piston has a mass of 21 kg, PI = 600 kPa ; PII
–170 kPa. Determine the pressure in the gas PIII.
Solution :
Total downward force acting will be,
(i) Due to self weight.
(ii) Pressure PI acting on 10 cm dia. piston.
(iii) Pressure PII acting on 20 cm dia. piston.
And this is balanced by pressure PIII
Therefore force due to mass
= 21 × 9.81
= 206.01 N
= 0.20601 kN.
Then force I acting on 10 cm dia piston = Pr × Area
π
= 600 ×
4
(0.1)2 = 4.712389 kN.
π
4
2 2 
And force II acting on 20 cm dia. piston = 170 ×  0.2 − 0.1 

( )
= 4.0055306 kN.
Therefore, total downward load/force
= 0.20601 + 4.712389 + 4.0055306
= 8.9239296 kN
P I = 6 00 kP a
φ 1 0 cm
P II = 17 0 kP a
φ 2 0 cm
P III
Fig. P2.23
This is balanced by PIII

π
8.9239296 = PIII × Area = PIII ×
4
(0.2)2 = PIII × 0.0314
284.0575 kPa = PIII
Problem 2.24
A closed tank contains air, oil and water as shown in Fig. P2.24. Find
P A (gauge ) .
Solution :
Note that atmospheric pressure acts on the Hg surface in the open arm.
So, we get absolute pressure first and then we have to find Pgauge.
Writing the pressure equation, starting from RHS side,
PA (abs) + ρoil . g × 2 + ρw . g × 0.6 − ρHg . g × 0.1 = Patm
PA (abs) + 800 × 9.81 × 2 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.6 – 13600 × 9.81 × 0.1
N
= 101325
m2
P A (g au g e) = ?
P a tm = 10 1 32 5 N /m 2
A ir
O il
2m 2m
S = 0 .8
2 .5 m
0 .5 m H2O
0 .6 m
1 1'
0 .1 m Hg
Fig. P2.24
N
PA (abs) +15696 + 5886 – 13341.6 = 101325
m2
PA (abs) = 101325 –15696 – 5886 + 13341.6
= 93084.6
N
∴ PA (abs) = 93084.6
m2
Now in general
93084.6 = 101325 + Pgauge
93084.6 – 101325 = Pgauge
N
– 8240.4 = Pgauge
m2
N
∴ Pvac = 8240.4
m2
Problem 2.25
Bourdon gauge A inside a pressure tank reads 80 kPa. Another Bourdon
gauge outside the pressure tank and connected with it reads 1.6 bar. What is
the absolute pressure measured by A in N/m 2 bar and cm of Hg if the
barometer reads 720 mm of Hg.
Solution :
Let h o = 720 mm of Hg
= barometric reading.
Note that, Bourdon gauge measures the gauge pressure relative to the
medium surrounding it.
Hence, Absolute pressure at B,
= Patm + Pgauge
1 .6 ba r
8 0 kP a
A B
Fig. P2.25
N
= ρHg . g . ho + 1.6 ×105
m2
N
= 13600 × 9.81 × 0.72 + 1.6 × 105
m2
= 96059.52 + 1.6 × 105
N
Abs. Pr. at B = 256059.52
m2
Note that the gauge A reads the pressure relative to its surrounding
pressure, i.e. Gauge A is surrounded by the medium which has 256059.52
N
pressure.
m2
∴ Pressure at A, = Pressure of medium + Pgauge
N
= 256059.52 + 80 × 103
m2
N
Pressure at A = 336059.52
m2
Pressure at A = 3.3605952 bar
N
and We know that 76 cm Hg = 101325
m2
N
? = 336059.52
m2
∴ Pressure at A = 252.06 cm of Hg.
Problem 2.26
Gauge A attached at the bottom of the tank shown in Fig. P2.26 reads 350
kPa. What is the height h of water ? and what is the reading of gauge B ?
Solution :
First consider Left Hand Side,
N
PA – ρHg . g × 1 – ρw . g. h = 200 ×103
m2
350 ×103 – 13600 × 9.81 × 1 – 1000 × 9.81 × h = 200 ×103
∴ h = 1.690 m of H2O
Now consider Right Hand Side,
200 × 103 + ρw . g . (h + l) = PB
200 ×103 + 1000 × 9.81 (1.69 +1) = PB
N
PB = 226394 = 226.394 kPa.
m2
A ir (2 00 kP a )
h H 2O
1m =
1 00 cm Hg
A B
3 50 x 10 3 N /m 2
Fig. P2.26
Problem 2.27
Barometer reading at a place is 750 mm of Hg. What is the absolute pressure
at a depth of 5 m of water.
Solution :
Let h o = barometer reading = 750 mm of Hg
know that,
Pabs = Patm + Pgague ...(1)
Patm = ρHg . g. ho = 13596 × 9.81 × 0.750
N
Patm = 100032.57 ...(2)
m2
and Pgague = ρw . g. hw = 1000 × 9.81 × 5 m
= 49050 ...(3)
∴ From Eqs.(2) and (3) Pabs = 100032.57 + 49050
Pabs = 149082.57 N/m2 = 1.49082 bar
PART II
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON THE SURFACES
2.5 TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE
For an engineer, it is required to determine, the total pressure and centre
of pressure in the design of hydraulic structures like dams, sluice, gate,
lock gates etc.
It is to be noted that, when a static mass of the fluid comes in contact
with a surface either plane or curved, a force is exerted by the fluids on the
surface and is known as Total Pressure Force. This force will act perpen-
dicular to the surface, since for a fluid at rest no tangential force exists. The
point of application of total pressure force on the surface is known as Centre
of pressure force.
2.6 PRESSURE DIAGRAM

It is a diagram in which intensity of pressure on the surface is shown. As
shown in Fig. 2.13, the pressure at the liquid surface is zero and it increases
linearly with depth to ρ . g . h (Refer Fig. 2.13)
Pressure diagram as shown is a triangle, and total pressure force is
given by the area of the triangle
1
= ×b×h
2
1
Total pressure force = × ρ . g. h × h
2
1
ρ . g. h2
T.P.F =
2
This will act through c.g. of the triangle.
P=0
C C
h
T.P.F.
1 /3 h
P = ρ. g . h
ρ. g . h
Fig. 2.13
Note :
(i) We are considering the fluid on one side of the immersed surface.
(ii) Since the fluid is at rest, pressure forces act perpendicular to the
surface.
2.7 TOTAL PRESSURE FORCE AND CENTRE OF

PRESSURE FORCE FOR HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL
AND INCLINED SURFACES
(i) Horizontally immersed surface. As shown in Fig. 2.14 consider a horizontal
surface immersed in a fluid.
N
Let w = Specific weight or weight density in
m3
A = Area of the immersed surface in m2
x = Depth of c.g. of the surface from the
liquid surface level in m
We know that, total pressure force on the surface = Weight of the fluid
above the surface.
L iq uid su rface
H o rizonta l
p la ne surfa ce
Fig. 2.14
= Specific weight × Volume of fluid

= Sp. weight × Area of surface
× Depth of fluid
P=w.A. x
also P = ρ . g . A . x as w = ρ . g
N
Units : P=w.A. x = × m2 × m
m3
P = Newtons
kg m
or P= ρ.g.A. x = 3
× × m2 × m
m sec 2
= Mass × Acceleration = Force
P = Newtons
For a horizontally immersed surface TPF will act through c.g. only.
(ii) Vertically immersed surface. Figure 2.15 shows a vertically
immersed surface. In this case also. Total pressure force,
P=w.A. x =ρ.g.A. x
This will act through centre of pressure force, i.e. TPF will act through
the c.g. of the pressure triangle. Hence centre of pressure lies below c.g. as
shown.
And depth of centre of pressure force,
IG
h = +x
Ax
x
h
C C
T.P.F. = P
c.g. C .P .
of ∆
Fig. 2.15
where I G = Moment of inertia of the figure about a horizontal axis passing

through c.g.
(iii) Inclined immersed surface. Figure 2.16 shows an inclined immersed
surface, in this case also, Total pressure force.
P = w. A . x = ρ . g . A . x
O
θ
x
h
C C .P.
P
l
C
l
C .P.
P
F. =
.
T. P
Fig. 2.16
And this will act through centre of pressure. And depth of centre of
pressure for the inclined surface is given by,
IG sin2 θ
h = +x
Ax
where θ is the angle made by the surface with the free liquid surface.
2.8 PARCITICAL APPLICATION OF HYDROSTATIC FORCES

As we have studied, it is necessary to find the hydrostatic forces in the
design of hydraulic structures such as sluice gate, dam lock gates etc.
1. Sluice Gate. It is provided in the dams to regulate the flow of water. It
generally consists of a rectangular gate fitted the rollers on its sides. These rollers
will slide over the fixed rails as shown in Fig. 2.17.
Fig. 2.17
Whenever a dam is constructed across the river, the water levels on

either sides of the dam will be different as shown in Fig. 2.18.
U p strea m sid e
D o w n stre a m side
P1
P2
Fig. 2.18
As shown in Fig. 2.18 water acts on both the sides of a gate and if P1 and P2
the pressure forces for the fluid on upstream and down stream sides, then
P1 = w . A 1 . x 1
P2 = w . A 2 . x 2
∴ Net P = P1 – P 2
C.G. and Moment of Inertia of some important geometrical figures are
given below.
No. Figures C.g. IG
2 /3 h
h
c 1 b ⋅ h3
(1) y= × h from base
h /3 = y 3 36
b
b
c
d
d b ⋅ d3
(2) y= from base
y 2 12
y = h /3
c
h h b ⋅ h3
(3) y= from top surface
2 /3. h 3 36
d π 4
(4) At center y = d
2 64
2a + b h
h c y= ×  a 2 + 4 ab + b2  3
a +b 3  h
(5) y 1  36 (a + b) 
Note : Area, A = (a + b) h
b 2
LIST OF FORMULAE
(i) Total pressure force (TPF),
P=w.A. x =ρgA x
(ii) For a vertically immersed surface, depth of centre of pressure,
IG
h = Ax + x
where IG = moment of inertia of the surface about an axis passing through

c.g.
(iii) For an inclined immersed surface, depth of centre of pressure,
IG ⋅ sin2 θ
h = +x
Ax
Problem 2.27 A rectangular tank of 5 m length, 2 m width contains water
upto a depth of 2.5 m. Calculate the pressure force at the base of the tank.
Solution :
2 .5 m
W a te r
h eig h t
2m
5m
Fig. P2.27
Given Data :
Base length = 5 m
Base width = 2 m
Base Area = 5 × 2 = 10 m2
Depth of base from water surface,
x = 2.5 m
We know that Total pressure force,
P=w.A. x
P=ρ.g.A. x
= 1000 × 9.81 × 10 × 2.5

P = 245250 N
= 245.250 kN
Problem 2.28
A circular door of 1.0 m diameter closes an opening in the vertical side of a
gate of sea water. The centre of the opening is at a depth of 2 m from the
water surface. Determine total pressure force on the door. Take specific-
gravity of sea water as 1.03.
Solution :
Given Data :
Dia = 1m
π
∴ Area of circular door = A = (1) 2 = 0.7854 m2
4
S of sea water = 1.03
kg
∴ ρsea water = 1.03 ×103
m3
Then we know that, total pressure force on the circular door
=w . A . x
P = ρ.g.A. x
= 1.03 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.7854 × 2
P = 15871.834 Newtons
x=2m
1m
Fig. P2.28
Problem 2. 29 Find the total pressure on a rectangular surface 0.6 × 1 m

placed with its shorter edge horizontal. The surface being immersed vertically
in water and upper edge is 3 m below the free surface.
Solution :
A = 0.6 × 1 = 0.6 m2
x = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 m
Now we know that, total pressure force,
P=w.A. x
=ρ.g.A. x
= 1000 × 9.81 × 0.6 × 3.5
P = 20601 N
3m
x = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 m
0 .6 m
0 .5 m
0 .5 m C
Fig. P2.29
Problem 2.30 A circular plate 1.2 m diameter is placed vertically in water

so that the centre of the plate is 2 m below this free surface. Determine depth
of cenre of pressure and total pressure force.
x=2m
h
C
P
1 .2 m
Fig. P2.30
Solution :
We know that, total pressure free is given by
P =w.A. x =ρ.g.A. x
π
= 1000 × 9.81 ×
4
(1.2)2 × 2
= 22189.697 N
This total pressure force acts through centre of pressure, h and is given by
IG
h = Ax + x ... (1)
For vertically immersed surface.
And for circular surface,
π 4 π
IG =
64
d =
64
(1.2)
4
I G = 0.1017876 m4
IG 0.1017876 m4
∴ From (1) h = +x = +2m
Ax π
4
(1.2 m ) × 2 m
2
m4
Note. Units h = +m=m+m
m2 ×m
∴ h = 2.0449989 m.
Problem 2.31 A rectangular plate is 4 m wide and 5 m deep. It lies in a
vertical plane in water. Determine total pressure and centre of pressure on
the plane when its upper edge is horizontal and
(i) Coincides with water surface.
(ii) 3 m belows the free surface of water.
x = 2 .5 m
d=5m
C
b=4m
Fig. P2.31(a)
Solution :
We know that, total pressure force,
P = w. A . x = ρ . g . A . x
= 1000 × 9.81 × (4 × 5) × 2.5

P = 490500 N
And the depth of centre of pressure for a vertically immersed surface is
given by
IG
h = Ax + x ...(1)
b ⋅ d3
and IG = for rectangular surface
12
4 × 53
IG = = 41.668 m4
12
Then from Eq. (1),
41.667
+ 2.5 = 0.8333 + 2.5
h = (4 × 5) × 2.5
h = 3.333
P = ρ . g . A . x 1000 × 9.81 × (4 × 5) × 5.5
P = 1079100 N
3m
x = 5 .5 m
4m
h
2 .5 m
d=5m
C .G .
P
2 .5 m
Fig. P2.31 (b)

And depth of centre of pressure force;
IG 41.667
h = Ax + x = (4 × 5) × 5.5 + 5.5
= 0.37878 + 5.5
h = 5.87878
b ⋅ d3
Note. IG = = 41.667 m4 remain same as b and d are same.
12
Problem 2.32
Determine TP and CP on a triangular plate of base 5 m and altitude 5 m,
when it immersed vertically in an oil of S = 0.8. The base of the plate coincides
with the oil surface.
Solution :
Given Data :
Base = 5 m
Height = 5 m
b=5m
O il surface
5
= 1 .66 7
3
C
5m
O il S = 0 .8
Fig. P2.32
1 1
∴ A= × b × h = × 5 × 5 = 12.5 m 2
2 2
1
and x = × 5 = 1.667 m
3
S = 0.8 ∴ ρoil = 0.8 × 103
Then we know that,
TP = w . A . x = ρ . g . A . x
= 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × 12.5 ×1.667

P = 163532.7 N
And the centre of pressure force for a vertically immersed surface is
given by,
IG
h = +x ...(1)
Ax
b ⋅ h3 5 × 53
and IG = = =17.36 m4
36 36
17.36
∴ h = 12.5 × 1.667 + 1.667
h = 2.5001134 m
Problem 2.33 A rectangular plate having 2 m width and 3 m length is
immersed in water in such a way that it makes 35° with the free surface of
water. Find TP and centre of pressure when the upper edge is 2 m below the
free surface of water.
Solution :
Given Data :
A = 2 × 3 = 6 m2
To find x ,
from the ∆ abc
bc
= sin 35
1.5
bc = 1.5 sin 35
= 0.860 m
∴ x = 2 + 0.860 = 2.860 m
Now TP force,
P = ρ .g . A . x
= 1000 × 9.81 × 6 × 2.86
P = 168339.6 N
And centre of pressure for an inclined immersed surface is given by,
IG ⋅ sin2 θ
h = +x
Ax
3 5°
2m
x
h
a b
3 5°
2m
C
b= CP
C
CP
3m
Fig. P2.33
b ⋅ d3 2 × 33
and IG = 2 = = 4.5 m 4
12 12
∴ From (1)
4.5 sin2 35
h = + 2.86
6 × 2.86
4.5 × 0.3289
= + 2.86 = 0.0863 + 2.86
6 × 2.86
h = 2.9463 m
Problem 2.34
A circular plane surface of 3 m dia is immersed in an oil of relative density
0.8, in such a way that its greatest and least depths below the free surface
are 4 m and 1.5 m respectively find total pressure and centre of pressure on
one face of the surface.
Solution :
Given Data :
d=3m
π
∴ Area of plane surface = (3)2
4
= 7.0685 m2
To find θ consider ∆ ab´d
θ
1 .5
x 4m
O il S = 0 .8
a
θ b b'
1 .5 2 .5
c
3 .0 1 .5
m
d
Fig. P2.34
2.5
= sin θ = 0.8333
3
θ = 56.44
∴ x = 1.5 +1. 5 sin θ (from ∆ abc )
x = 1.5 + 1.25 = 2.75 m
Now, TP = ρ . g . A . x
= 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × 7.0685 × 2.75
P = 152552.37 N.
Now center of pressure is given by,
IG⋅ ⋅ sin 2 θ
h = +x ...(1)
Ax
π 4
and IG = d
64
π
IG = (3)4 = 3.976 m4
64
∴ From (1)
3.976 × sin2 (56.44 )

h = + 2.75
7.0685 × 2.75
h = 2.8910 m
Problem 2.35 A triangular plate having a base of 1.25 m and altitude of 1.8
m lies in a vertical plane. The vertex of the plate is at top and is 0.6 m below
water surface. The base is horizontal. Find the force exerted on the plate and
also the point of application of the force.
Solution :
We know that, TP force,
P = w . A. x
P = ρ . g . A. x ...(1)
1
And A= × 1.25 × 1.8
2
= 1.125 m2
2
and x = 0.6 + × 1.8
3
x = 1.8 m
Then from (1)
P = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.125 × 1.8
H 2O
0 .6 m
x
h
2 /3 h
1 .8 m
C
1 /3 h
P
1 .25
Fig. P2.35
P = 19865.25 m
This TP force will act through centre of pressure, to find the depth of
centre of pressure, for a vertically immersed surface, we know that,
IG⋅
h = +x ...(2)
A⋅x
b ⋅ h3 1.25 × 1.83
and IG = =
36 36
= 0.2025 m4
From (2) and (3), we have,
0.2025
h = 1.125 × 1.8 + 1.8
= 0.1 + 1.8
h = 1.9 m below the water level.
Problem 2 36
A circular plate 2 m dia is immersed in water completely and vertically such
that one of the ends of its vertical diameter is 0.6 m below the water surface.
In a neat sketch, show the total water pressure on one side of the plate and
portion of centre of pressure.
Solution :
We know that Total pressure force,
P = w . A . x = ρ. g . A . x
= 1000 × 9.81 × (2)2 × ( 1 + 0.6)
P = 49310.44 N
0.6 m
x
h
C
C
T.P.F.= P P P
2m
Fig. P2.36
And this total pressure force acts through centre of pressure, and depth
of centre of pressure is given by,
IG
h = +x
Ax
π 4 π
and IG =
64
d =
64
( 2) = 0.7854 m4
4
∴ From Eq. (1)
0.7854
h = + 1.6
π 2
4
( )
2 × 1.6
= 0.15625 + 1.6
h = 1.75625 m below water surface.
Problem 2.37
A trapezoidal channel 2 m wide at the bottom and 1 m deep has side slopes
1:1 find
(i) Total pressure force
(ii) C.P. on the vertical gate closing the channel when it is full of water.
Solution :
a=4m
1m b = 2m 1m
x
h = 1m
b=2m
Fig. P2.37
Since the side slopes are 1:1, top width

=2+1+1=4m=a
We know that P=w.A. x ...(1)
2a + b h 2 × 4 + 2 1
and y= × = ×
a+b 3 4+2 3
y = 0.5555 m
∴ x = 1– y = 0.4444 m from Fig. P2.37
1 1
and A= (a + b) . h = (4 × 2) × 1 = 3 m2
2 2
∴ P = w . A . x = ρ . g . A .x
= 1000 × 9.81 × 3 × 0.4444
P = 13080 N
IG
and h = Ax + x ....(2)
a2 + 4 ab + b2 3 16 + 4 × 4 × 2 + 4 3
I G = 36 a + b h = I
But since
( ) 36 (4 + 2)
I G = 0.240 m4
Now from Eq. (2)
0.240
h = 3 × 0.444 + 0.444 = 0.625 m
Problem 2.38
Trapezoidal gate having sides a and 2a of height h is immersed in water as
shown in Fig. P2.38. Its top edge is below the water surface by h. Prove that
the total pressure force P = 2.33 w.a.h2 and h = 1.6 h.
h
a x
h
C y
2a
Fig P2.38
Solution :
We know that, TPF = w . A . x ...(1)
 2a + b  h
and y=  from the list of formulae.
 a + b  3
 2a + 2a  h 4 a h
=  = ×
 a + 2a  3 3a 3
y = 0.444 h ...(2)
∴ From Fig. 2.38
x = 2h – y = 2h – 0444 h
x = 1.556 h ..(3)
1 1
and A= ( a + b) h = (a + 2a ) × h
2 2
1
= ×3a×h ...(4)
2
A = 15 a . h
Then from (1)
P = w . A . x = w. 1.5 × a × h × 1.556 h
P = 2.333 w . a . h2 ...(5)
Hence, proved.
Also for a vertically immersed surface, we know that,
IG
h = Ax + x ...(6)
 a 2 + 4ab + b2  3
I G =  36 a + b  h
and
 ( ) 
a2 + 4 × a × 2a + (2a )
2
= × h3
36 (a + 2a )
I G = 0.12 ah3 ...(7)

Then from Eq. (6)
0.12 ah3
h = + 1.556 h
1.5 a ⋅ h × 1.556 h
= 0.0514 h + 1.556 h
h = 1.6074 h Hence, Proved ...(8)
Problem 2.39
A square gate of 1 m × 1 m lies in a plane making an angle of 30° with liquid
surface. If its upper edge is horizontal and is 1.6 m below the liquid of specific
gravity 1.5. Find the location of center of pressure and total pressure.
Solution :
We know that, total pressure force is given by
P=ρ.g.A. x ...(1)
As given A = l m × 1 m = 1 m2
For x consider ∆ abc
bc
= sin 30
0.5
bc = 0.5 sin 30
= 0.25
∴ x = 1.6 + 0.25 = 1.85

Now from (1)
P = ρ.g.A. x
= 1.5 × 103 × 9.81 × 1 × 1.85
P = 27222.75 N
To find depth of centre of pressure, we know that for the inclined surface,
IG ⋅ sin2 θ
h = +x ...(2)
Ax
3 0°
1 .6 m Fluid S = 1.5
x
b h ρ = 1.5 x 1 0 3 kg /m 3
Q 3 0°
0 .5
C
P
m
1
1m
Fig. P2.39
b ⋅ d3 1 × 13
and IG = =
12 12
= 0.0833 m4
Then from (2)
0.0833
h = 1 × 1.85 + 1.85
P = 1.86126 m
Problem 2.40
A circular plate 2 m in dia is immersed in water. Its greatest and least depths
below the free surface of water being 4 m and 3 m respectively. Calculate the
total pressure force on one face of the plate and position of C.P.
Solution :
From ∆ab´d
1
= sin θ
2
θ = 30°
∴ x from ∆abc,
x = 3 + 1 sin 30 = 3 + 0.5
x = 3.5
Now
TPF = w . A . x = ρ. g . A . x
π 2
= 1000 × 9.81 ×
4
(2) × 3.5
P = 107866.58 N
x 4m
3m
b b'
a
θ
1 1m
m C
P
d
C
P
2m
Fig. P2.40
and Depth of centre of pressure,
IG .sin2 θ
h = +x ...(1)
Ax
π 4 π
and IG =
64
d =
64
( 2) = 0.785 m4
4
∴ From (1)
0.785 × (sin 30 )
2
h = + 3.5
π 2
4
(2) × 3.5
h = 3.517857 m
Problem 2.41
A pipe line which is 4 m in dia contains a gate valve and is immersed in oil.
The pressure at the centre of the pipe is 196 kN/m2. If the pipe is filled with
oil of specific gravity 0.85. Find the force exerted by oil upon the gate and the
position of centre of pressure.
O il
x S = 0 .85
... ρ oil = 0 .8 5 x 1 00 0
C C
4m
P P
Fig. P2.41
Solution :
Note that the pressure at the centre of the pipe is 196 kN/m2
N π 2 2
Force on the gate valve F = Pressure × Area = 196 × 103 2
×
4
(4 ) m
m
Force = 2463008.6 N
So, This force = 2463008.6 = w . A . x = ρ . g . A . x
π
2463008.6 = 0.85 × 103 × 9.81 × (4)2 × x
4
x = 23.5 m.
And total depth of centre of pressure,
IG⋅
h = A⋅x + x ...(1)
π 4 π
and IG = d = × 44 = 12.57m4
64 9.64
∴From Eq. (1)
12.57
h = π 2 + 23.5
4
(4 ) × 23.5
= 23.542565 m
Problem 2.42
A cylindrical drum 0.5 m dia and 1 m/length resting with its axis horizontal
on the bottom of a tank in which the depth of water is 1.5 m. Calculate, total
pressure force and position of centre of pressure on one of the circular nds.
x = 1 .5 – 0.25 = 1.2 5 m
1 .5 m
1m
0 .5 m
C
Fig. P2.42
Solution :
Given Data :
x = 1.5 – 0.25 = 1.25 m
π
A = (0.5)2 – 0.1963 m 2
4
Now Total pressure force
P = ρ. g . A . x
= 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1963 × 1.25
P = 2407.374 N.
IG⋅
and h = A⋅x + x ...(1)
π 4 π
× (0.5) = 3.06796 ×10–3 m4
4
and IG = d =
64 64
3.06796 × 10−3
Then, h = + 1.25
0.1963 × 1.25
= 1.2625032 m
Problem 2.43
The c.g. of a square gate 1 m× 1 m is hinged along top edge is 3 m below the
free surface of water. How much horizontal force F´ must be applied at the
bottom edges to open the gate as shown in Fig. P2.43. Neglect the friction at
the hinges and weight of gate.
Solution :
2 .5 m
x = 2 .5 + 0 .0 5 = 3 m H in ge
h = 3 .07 77 8 m
( h – 2.5)
C C = (0.52 78 )
1m
TP F
P P
F'
1m
Fig. P2.43

P = w . A . x = ρ . g . A .x
= 1000 × 9.81 ×( 1 × 1 ) × 3
P = 29430 N = 29.430 kN.
Also to find h , we know that,
IG
h = +x ...(1)
A⋅x
b ⋅ d3 1 × 13
and IG = = = 0.0833 m4
12 12
0.0833
Then from (1) h = +3
(1 × 1)3 × 3
= 3.02778 m
To find F´ taking moments and applying the Varignon’s theorem, about
hinge, which states that, “The algebraic sum of moments of all the forces
about a point is equal to the moment of the resultant about the same point”.
Note. Taking clockwise moment as positive and anticlockwise moment
as – ve )
Now referring we can write,
– (T.P.F × 0.5278) = (F´× 1)
( 29.43 kN × 0.5278 ) = F´ × 1
15.5325 kN = F´
Problem 2.44
An opening of 1 m wide and 2 m height in the wall of a tank is closed by a
gate of the same size hinged at its centre. Water level in the tank is 3 m above
the hinge and the gate is held in position by a force F applied at its bottom
edge as shown in Fig. P2.44. Find F ?
x=3m H in g e
h = 3 .111
1m
C
0 .111 m
1m
TP F P
F
Fig. P2.44
Solution :
Given Data : A = 1 × 2 = 2 m2
x =3m
Then we know that, total pressure force,
P=ρ.g.A. x
= 1000 – 9.81 × 2 × 3
P = 58860 N.
This force will act through centre of pressure h ,
IG⋅
and h = +x ...(1)
A⋅x
b ⋅ d3 1 × 23
and IG = = = 0.6666 m4
12 12
0.6666
Then from Eq. (1) h = +3
2×3
= 3.111 m
Now taking moments about the hinge and applying Varignon’s Theorem.
Referring Fig. P2.44 we write,
(F × 1 ) = (TPF × 0.111 )
F × 1 = – 58860 × 0.111
F = – 6540 N
–ve sign implies that a force of 6540 N should be applied on the gate,
otherwise the gate will open.
PART III BUOYANCY AND FLAOTATION

2.9 INTRODUCTION
If a body in placed over a liquid, either it sinks down or it floats. The body is
subjected to two forces viz.
(i) Self weight of the body
(ii) Upthrust of liquid.
If the weight of the body is more then it will sink down and if the upthrust
is more, then the body will float. This may be well understood by Archimede’s
principle.
2.10 ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE

‘‘Whenever a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it is lifted up by
a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body”.
2.10.1 Buoyancy; Buoyant Force and Centre of Buoyancy

The tendency of the fluid to uplift a submerged body is known as Buoyancy.
The upward thrust of the fluid is known as Buoyant force. It is always
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
The point of application of buoyant force is known as Center of buoyancy.
It is always the center of gravity of the volume of the liquid displaced or
center of buoyancy is the center of area of the immersed section.
2.10.2 Metacentre and Metacentric Height

For a floating body in a liquid, if a small angular displacement is given,
then it starts oscillating about a point and is known as Metacentre (M).
It is the point of intersection of lines passing through the original centre
of buoyancy B and new centre of buoyancy, B1 as shown.
M
N e utral A xis
θ A n gu la r d isplacem e nt
H G G
W h
B B B1 θ = A n gle o f
h ee l
(a ) (b )
Fig. 2.19
The distance between c.g. and the metacentre (M) is known as

‘Metacentric height’ (i.e., Distance GM).
Note that the stability of the body directly depends upon the Metacentric
height.
2.11 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODY

OR STABILITY OF A FLOATING BODY
After a slight disturbance, if the body comes back to original position, then
it is known as stable.
The stability of the body depends upon the position of the metacentre
(M). There are 3 types of Equilibrium.
(i) Stable Equilibrium. If the metacentre (M) is above G, then the body
will be in stable equilibrium ( See. Fig. 2.20)
M
D istu rb in g co up le
G G
W
W
B B B1 F B = B u oyan t force
1
FB th rou g h B 1
1
Fig. 2.20
As shown in Fig. 2.20 if a disturbing couple is applied in clockwise

direction and if M is above G, then the couple developed in the body is of
anticlockwise direction and which brings the body back to its original
equilibrium.
(ii) Unstable equilibrum. If the metacentre M is below G, then the body
will be in unstable equilibrium.
G
M W
W
B B B1
FB
1
Fig. 2.21
As shown in Fig. 2.21 if a disturbing couple is applied in clockwise

direction and if M is below G, then the couple developed in the body will
also be of clockwise sense and which overturns the body.
(iii) Neutral Equilibrium If the metacentre M coincides with G , then
the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
2.12 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC

HEIGHT (GM)
M
X
W θ
w
G G1
G B
W B1
B
M
FB
(b )
θ
(a )
G1
G
(c)
Fig. 2.22
Experimentally it is possible to determine the metacentric height of a

floating body like a ship, only if its c.g. is known.
Initially as shown in Fig. 2.22 (a) all the movable weights are so arranged
that the ship in perfectly horizontal
Let W = weight of ship
w = movable weights on the ship
Now as shown in Fig. 2.22 (b), if the moving weight are moved through
distance x, then the ship will tilt and will cause.
Moment of couple = wx ...(1)
The weight of ship W and buoyant force FB will cause an anticlockwise
moment of couple
= W × GG1 ...(2)
From Fig. 2.22 (c)

GG1
= tan θ
GM
∴ GG 1 = GM × tan θ ...(3)
Substituting (3) in (2) we get,
Anticlockwise moment of couple
= W × GM × tan θ ...(4)
Equating (1) and (4)
wx = W × GM × tan θ
w.x
Metacentric height = GM =
W tan θ
Note :
(i) From the derivation of metacentric height analytically, distance,
1
BM =
V
Moment of inertia of plan
=
Volume of water displaced
(2) (See Fig. 2.23 )
Weight of cylinder = Weight of fluid displaced.
Volume × Sp.weight = Volume × Sp.weight of fluid
πR2 H × wcyl = πR2 . h × wfluid
R
Fig. 2.23
wcyl h
=S=
wfluid H
Then h = S.H. = Depth of immersion
where S = sp. gravity.
Problem 2.45
A block of wood of specific gravity 0.8 and size 100 mm × 40 mm × 30 mm (l
× b × d) floats in water. Determine its metacentric height for the tilt about
its longitudinal axis yy as shown in Fig. P2.45.
l = 1 00
y'
Mx
G 30 m = H
24 = h B
15
12
0
b = 40 m
Fig. P2.45
Solution :
As we know, depth of immersion
= S . H = 0.8 × 30
= 24 mm = h
∴ Distance of centre of buoyancy from ‘0’ (ref. Fig. P2.45)
24
i.e. OB = 12 mm
2
30
and Distance OG = = 15 mm
2
and BG = 15 –12 = 3 mm
Also as we know,
1
Distance, BM = ...(1)
V
I ⋅ b3
and I = where I is the moment of inertia of rectangular section about
12
the longitudinal axis yy´.
100 × 403
=
12
= 533.3 × 103 mm4 ...(2)
And V = volume of water displaced = Area × Depth of immersion
= l × b × depth of immersion (h)
= 100 × 40 × 24
V = 96 × 103 mm3 ...(3)
1 (2) 533.3 × 103

∴ BM = V = 3 =
( ) 96 × 103 = 5.55 mm.
∴ Metacentric height GM = BM – BG (See. Fig. P2.45)
= 5.55 – 3 = 2.55 mm
Problem 2.46
A solid cylinder of relative density 0.8 is floating on water with its axis
vertical. Its diameter and height both are 5 m.
Find the metacentric height and state whether its equilibrium is stable
or unstable.
Solution :
We know that Depth of immersion
= Sp. gr × Depth of cylinder = 0.8 × 5
h=4m
4
∴ From Fig. P2.46 OB = =2m
2
5
and OG = = 2.5 m
2
and ∴ BG = 2.5 – 2 = 0.5 m
1
Also BM = ...(1)
V
I = Moment of Inertia of circular section.
π π
=
64
(d )4 = 64 (5)4
= 30.68 m4 ...(2)
And Volume of water displaced
= Area × depth of immersion
π 2
= d ×h
4
5m
G 5m
B 2 .5 m
O S = 0.8
Fig. P2.46
π 2
=
4
(5) × 4
= 78.54 m3 ...(3)
1 30.68
∴ BM = =
V 78.54
= 0.390 m
Note BG = 0.5 m
and BM = 0.390 m
∴ M is below G so unstable equilibrium.
Problem 2.47
A cylinder 200 mm dia. 800 mm long of weight 220 N floats in water and oil
depths as shown in Fig.P2.47. Find the specific weight of oil.
Solution :
We know that According to Archimede’s principle
Weight of cylinder = Weight of volume of water and oil displaced
220 N = Weight of water displaced in weight of oil displaced
1 00 m m
O il O il 4 00 m m
2 00 3 00 m m
mm
H 2O
Fig. P2.47
i.e. 220 N = (Volume × Sp. weight of water) + ( Volume × Sp. weight of oil)
= [Volume × (ρ . g)water] + [Volume × Sp. weight of oil]
π  π 
220 N=  0.2 × 0.3 × 1000 × 9.81 +  (0.2) × 0.4 × woil 
2 2
4  4 
N
∴ woil = 10149.51
m3
Problem 2.48
A block of wood of sp. gravity 0.6 is rectangular is section having dimension
of 3 m length, 1 m wide, and 2 m depth floats is sea water horizontally. If
N
the sea water weighs 10200 , calculate volume of liquid displaced and
m3
position of centre of buoyancy.
Solution :
As we know according to Archimede’s principle,
Weight of body = Wt. of fluid displaced
Vol × Sp. weight of body =Vol × Sp. weight of sea water displaced
i.e. Vol × ρbody × g = Vol × Sp. weight of sea water displaced
Vol × 0.6 ×103 × 9.81 = Vol × Sp. wt. of sea water displaced
i.e. ( 1 × 2 × 3 ) × 0.6 × 103 × 9.81 = Vol of sea water displaced × 10200 N/m3
∴ Volume of sea water displaced = 3.4623 m3
Also depth of immersion = S.H = 0.6 × 2
h = 1.2 m
l=3m
b =1 m
d=2m G
h = 1 .2
1m B
S e a w ater
O
Fig. P2.48
h 1.2
∴ OB = = = 0.6 m
2 2
2
and OG = = 1 m.
2
Problem 2.49
An empty tank, rectangular in plan and all the sides closed measures, length
= 1.2 m. Width = 0.7 m, and depth 0.9 m. It is made of steel sheets of weight
N
370 . If the tank is allowed to float in water with 0.9 m, edge vertical,
m3
prove that the equilibrium is unstable.
Solution :
From Fig. P2.49 and given data we can write,
Total weight of tank
N
= [ Total c/s area of steel sheets is m 2 ] × [ weight of steel is ]
m3
N
= m2 × =N
m3
= [ 2 × 1.2 × 0.7 + 2 × 0.9 × 1.2 + 2
× 0.7 × 0.9 ] × 370
∴ Total weight of Tank

= 1887 N ...(1)
Now according to Archimede’s principle,
Weight of body = Weight of fluid displaced,
1887 = Vol. of water displaced × Sp. weight
= Vol. of water displaced × 9810
∴ Vol. of water displaced = 0.192 m3 ...(2)
This is also = c/s area × depth of immersion
0.192 = l × b × depth of immersion
0.192 = 1.2 × 0.7 × depth of immersion
0.22899 m = depth of immersion.
d = 0 .9 m
m
0 .7
b=
l = 1 .2 m
Fig. P2.49 (a)
0.22899
∴ OB = = 0.1144968 m
2
OB = 0.115 m
0.9
and OG = = 0.45 m
2
1
Also BM = ...(3)
V
lb3
and I=
12
1.2 × 0.73
=
12
= 0.0343 m4
0.0343
Then BM = from (2)
0.192
Since BM = 0.1786 m (See Fig. P2.49)
BM = 0.1786 m
0 .9 m G
M 0 .17 86
0 .33 5 0 .45
B
O
0 .115
Fig. P2.49 (b)
and BG = OG – OB = 0.335
M is below G, therefore unstable equilibrium.
Problem 2.50
A wooden cylinder of mass density 600 kg/m is required to float in liquid of
mass density 800 kg/m3. Find the ratio of diameter d and length l of the
cylinder in order that the cylinder can just float with its longitudinal axis
vertical.
Solution :
We know that according to Archimede’s principle,
Weight of the body = Weight of volume of fluid displaced.
Vol. × Sp. weight of body = Vol × Sp. wt of fluid displaced
Vol. × ρbody . g = Vol × ρfluid . g
π 2
d l × 600 × 9.81 = Vol. of fluid displaced × 800 × 9.81
4
π 2
d l × 600 × 9.81
∴ 4 = Volume of fluid displaced.
800 × 9.81
π 2 3
i.e. d × l = Volume of fluid displaced.
4 4
0.589 d2 l = Volume of fluid displaced.
0.589 d2 l = C/s area × depth of immersion
π 2
0.589 d2 l = d × depth of immersion
4
0.589 l
= depth of immersion
π
4
0.7499 l = depth of immersion
0.7499 l
∴ OB =
2
i.e. OB = 0.375 l
l
and OG = from Fig. P2.50
2
BG = OG – OB = 0.5 l – 0.375 l
BG = 0.125 l ...(1)
As we know for the cylinder to just float in stable equilibrum
BM > BG ...(2)
π 4
d
1
∴ To find BM = = 64 2
V 0.589 d l
d2
BM = 0.0833 ... (3)
l
Now from (1), (2) and (3)
d2
0.0833 > 0.125 l
l
d2 0.125
> l
l 0.0883
d2
> 1.499
l2
2
 d
  > 1.499
l
d
∴ > 1.2246
l
Problem 2.51
A battle ship has a weight of 130 MN. On filling the ship with movable
materials of weight 130 kN and its mean distance from the centre of the ship
is 10 m, the angle of displacement from the plumb line is 3°. Determine the
metacentric height.
Solution :
We know that metacentric height is given by,
w⋅x
GM =
W ⋅ tan θ
M X =
10 m
w
G
B
W
FB
Fig. P2.51
130 × 103 N × 10 m
=
130 × 106 N × tan 3°
1300000
=
130 × 106 × 0.0524
= 0.1908396 m.
Problem 2.52 A rectangular ship 6 m long and 3 m wide in plan has a draft
(depth of immersion) of 0.9 m in water. If the c.g. of the ship is 0.7 above its
bottom, find the angle of head when it is subjected to a torque of 7600 Nm
about the longitudinal axis.
Solution :
Given Data :
w . x = 7600 Nm
θ=?
We know that,
w⋅x
GM = ...(1)
W ⋅ tan θ
θ is to be found finally.
From Fig. P2.52 draft = depth of immersion = 0.9 m.
0.9
∴ OB = = 0.45 m.
2
and OG = 0.7 m
∴ BG = OG – OB
= 0.7 – 0.45 = 0.25 m.
1
and also BM = ...(2)
V
and 1 (About longitudinal axis)
lb3 6 × 33
= = = 13.5 m4 ...(3)
12 12
And Vol. of water displaced = l × b × depth of immersion
= 6 × 3 × 0.9 = 16.2 m3 ...(4)
M
T = w . x = 76 00 N m
G
B 0 .9 m = d ra ft
0 .7 m
Fig. P2.52
1 13.5
∴ BM = =
V 16.2
BM = 0.833 m
Then GM = BM – BG = 0.833 – 0.25 = 0.583
Now weight of ship
= Weight of fluid displaced
= Vol. of fluid displaced × Sp. weight
= (6 × 3 × 0.9 × 9810) from (4)
= 158922 N.
Then GM
w⋅x Torque
= =
W ⋅ tan θ W ⋅ tan θ
7600
0.583 =
158922 × tan θ
tan θ = 0.0820
θ = 4.689°
Problem 2.53
A ship 48 m long and 12 m wide has a displacement of 18 MN. Centre of
buoyancy of the ship is 1.5 m below the water surface. Second moment of
area of plan of the ship at the water surface about its longitudinal axis is
70% of second moment of area of the enclosing rectangle about the same
axis. Determine the position of metacentre of ship. Take relative density of
sea water as 1.025.
Solution :
Given Data :
S = 1.02
and second moment of area = 70% of enclosing rectangle.
lb3
∴ I = 0.7 ×
12
48 × 123
= 0.7 ×
12
I(yy) = 4838.4 m ...(1)
b =1 2 m
y
l = 48 m
A fter
solving
y ´´
XM
1 .2 m
2 .7 m
B 1 .5 m
Fig. P2.53
Now according to Archimede’s principle, Weight of ship = Wt. of fluid

displaced.
18 MN = Vol. of fluid displaced × Sp. wt
18 × 106 N
= Vol. of fluid displaced.
Sp.weight
18 × 106 N
ρfluid × g
18 × 106 N
1.025 × 103 × 9.81
1790.1 m3 = Vol. of fluid displaced. ...(2)
1 4838.4
Then BM = = = 2.7 m
V 1790.1
Note that centre of buoyancy is 1.5 m below liquid surface.
And BM = 2.7 m.
∴ Metacentre M will be = 2.7 – 15 = 1.2 m above liquid level.
Problem 2.54
A floating wooden block of rectangular cross section of sides x × y and of
length l has a relative density S. The block has to float on water with its
longitudinal axis horizontal and x vertical as shown. Prove that the ratio of
x
> 6S (1 − S ) for stable equilibrium.
y
Solution :
y
From Fig. P2.54 OG = ...(1)
2
Also from Archimede’s principle,
Weight of block = Wt. of water displaced = Vol. of water ×
Sp. weight = (c/s area × depth of
immersion ) × Sp wt
=l×x×h×w ...(2)
As shown h = depth of immersion
h = Sy ...(3)
h
and OB = ...(4)
2
Also we know that,
1
BM = ...(5)
V
lx 3
and I= from Fig. P2.54
12
And V = l × x . h from (2)
l ⋅ x3
1
∴ BM = = 12 from (3)
V l ⋅x ⋅h
l ⋅ x3 1
= ×
12 l ⋅ x ⋅ Sy
x2
BM = ...(6)
12Sy
From Fig. P2.54
OM = OB + BM
h x2
= + ...(7)
2 12 ⋅ S ⋅ y
y G
h
B
Fig. P2.54
And metacentric height,
S⋅y x2 y
MG = OM – OG + −
2 12 ⋅ S ⋅ y 2
Rearranging, we can write,
x2 y Sy
i.e. = − +
12 ⋅ S ⋅ y 2 2
x2 y
MG = − [1 − S ]
12 ⋅ S ⋅ y 2
We also know for stability,
MG > 0
x2 y
∴ MG = − [1 − S ] > 0
12 ⋅ S ⋅ y 2
x2 y x2
i.e. > (1 − S ) = 2 > 6S (1 − S )
12 ⋅ S ⋅ y 2 y
x
∴ = 6S (1 − S ) Hence, Proved.
y
uu
+0)26-4
3 Fluid Kinematics
3.1 INTRODUCTION
As we have studied in the first and second chapters that, the study of
behaviour of fluids at rest is known as Hydro-statics, and the study of
behaviour of fluids in motion if the pressure forces are not considered, then
it is known as Hydrokinematics.
3.2 TYPES OF FLOW

A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing. It is made up of large
number of particles. When a fluid flows, all these fluid particles will flow in
a stream.
1. Uniform and non-uniform flow. If the velocities of fluid particles is
same at all the sections, then the flow is said to be uniform. (See Fig. 3.1).
C1 = C2 = C 3 = Ve lo city
con stan t
1 2 3
1 2 3
Fig. 3.1
If the velocities of fluid particles vary, from point to point, then it is

known as non-uniform flow.
2. Laminar and Turbulent flow. If all the fluid particles have definite
paths and the paths of individual particles do not cross with each other,
then the flow is known as Laminar or stream line flow.
(113)
And if the path of fluid particles cross with each other, i.e. if the fluid
particles are flowing in a haphazard or disorderly manner, then the flow is
said to be Turbulent flow. (Refer Fig. 3.2 and 3.3)
Fig. 3.2
Fig. 3.3
3. Steady and unsteady flow. If the mass flow rate of the fluid at any
section is same, then it is known as steady flow. (Fig. 3.4).
And if the mass flow rate varies from section to section, then it is known
as Unsteady flow.
1 2 3
. . .
m1 m2 m 3 = M a ss flo w ra te
con stan t
1 2 3
Fig. 3.4
4. Compressible and incompressible flow. If the volume of the fluid

decreases during its flow, then it is known as compressible flow. If the volume
of the flow remains constant, then it is known as incompressible flow.
Fluid Kinematics 115
5. Rotational and irrotational flow. If the fluid particles rotate about

their mass centres (i.e., c.g.) then it is known as rotational flow. (Fig. 3.5).
And if the fluid particles do not rotate about their mass centres, then
the flow is said to be irrotational flow.
6. (i) One-dimensional flow. A flow is said to be one Dimensional if the
characteristics of the flowing fluid such as velocity, pressure, density vary
in only one of the three co-ordinate directions, for example say x.
Then V = f (x) for steady flow
and V = f ( x , t) for unsteady flow
Fig. 3.5
(ii) Two-dimensional flow. A flow in said to be 2-dimensional if the
in only two of the three co-ordinate directions for example say x and y.
Then V = f (x, y) for steady flow
and V = f (x, y and t) for unsteady flow.
(iii) Three-dimensional flow. A flow is said to be 3-dimensional if the
in all the three directions (that is x, y and z)
Then V = f (x y z) for steady flows
and V = f (x, y, z, t) for unsteady flows
3.3 TYPES OF FLOW LINES OR PATH LINE, STREAM LINE,

STREAM TUBE, STREAK LINE
Path Line. As we have studied a fluid is made up of large number of particles
and whenever the fluid flows, these particles will be flowing in a stream.
The path followed by a fluid particle during motion is known as Path
line
Stream line. It is an imaginary line drawn in the fluid such that the
tangent it drawn at any point gives the velocity of flow at that point.
Figure 3.6 it shows velocity and velocity components at any point P.
v V
u
P ( xy )
Fig. 3.6
Stream tube. A stream tube is an imaginary tube drawn by a number of

stream lines.
Streak line. For tracing the motion of fluid particles, if a colour or dye is
injected in the flowing fluid, the resulting trail of colour is known as streak
line.
S trea m
line es
Fig. 3.7
3.4 POTENTIAL LINES AND FLOW NET

It is to be noted that there is a loss of head for fluid particles along the
lines. If the lines are drawn from the points of equal potential on adjacent
flow linse we get equipotential or potential lines. In Fig. 3.8 A A´. B B´ .CC´
are stream lino 1–1, 2–2, 3–3 are equipotential lines. (Fig. 3.8)
A 1 2 3
A'
B
B'
C
C'
1' 2' 3'
Fig. 3.8
If we draw stream lines and potential lines for a particular flow, we get
a flow net. (Fig 3.9)
P o te ntial lines
2
S trea m line s
1
Fluid Fluid
in o ut
Fig. 3.9
3.5 ACCELERATION OF A FLUID PARTICLE (CONVECTIVE

AND LOCAL)
Acceleration of a fluid particle is defined as the rate of change of velocity
with respect to time.
Note that the Local acceleration is the acceleration of a fluid particle at
a particular point and Convective acceleration is the acceleration due to the
change in position or convection of a fluid particle.
Note Accereration in dir, x, y, dir,
du ∂u ∂u
ax = = u⋅ +v
dt ∂x ∂y
dv ∂v ∂v
ay = = u⋅ +v
dt ∂x ∂y
and Resultant a = ax2 + a 2y
φ)
3.6 VELOCITY POTENTIAL (φ
It is defined as a scalar function of space and time in such a way that its
negative derivative w.r.t any direction gives the velocity of fluid in that
particular direction.
Mathematically,
φ = f (x, y, z) for steady flow
and φ = f (x y z and t) for unsteady flow
−∂φ
Such that, u=
∂x
−∂φ
v=
∂y
−∂φ
w=
∂z
When u, v, w are velocity components in x, y and z directions.
Ψ)
3.7 STREAM FUNCTION (Ψ
It is defined as the scalar function of space and time in such a way that its
partial derivative w.r.t. any direction gives the velocity component normal
to this direction. Note that for a 2 Dimensional flow, first velocity component
is taken ‘positive and second as negative.’
Mathematically,
ψ = f (x y) for steady flow
ψ = f (x y t) for unsteady flow
∂ψ
and =v
∂x 

∂ψ  from the statement.
=–u
∂y

And then the resultant velocity
V= u 2 + v2
LIST OF FORMULAE
(1) Velocity potential φ = f (x y z) for steady flow
φ = f (x y z and t) for unsteady flow
−∂φ
also u=
∂x
Contd.
− ∂φ
v=
∂y
− ∂φ
w=
∂z
where u,v,w are velocity components in x y z directions
(2) Stream function ψ = f. (x y ) for steady
ψ = f (x y t) for unsteady flow
∂ψ
And v=
∂x
− ∂ψ
u=
∂y
And Resultant velocity V= u 2 + v2

(3) To check for possibility of flow the following condition should be
satisfied
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
(4) To check for rotational and irrotational flows, Rotational component
1  ∂v ∂u 
wz = −
2  ∂x ∂y 
If wz = 0 then this flow is irrotational
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 3.1
If for a two dimensional flow, the stream function is given by ψ = 2xy, calculate
the velocity at the point (3, 6).
Solution :
Given Data :
Stream function ψ = 2xy
u=?
v=?
P(x,y) = P(3,6)
We know that from the definition of stream function,
∂ψ
=v
∂x
∂ψ
and =–u ...(1)
∂y
Now substituting the value of ψ in (1)
∂
v= (2x y)
∂x
v = 2y = 2 × 6 = 12 ...(2)
−∂ψ −∂
and u=
∂y
−
∂y
(2xy)
= – 2x = – 2 ×3 = – 6 ...(3)
∴ Resultant velocity V= u 2 + v2 = (−6 ) + (12 )

2 2
V= 180 = 13.4164
Problem 3.2
A stream function is given by ψ = 2x2 – y3 find the components of velocity as
well as the resultant velocity at a point P (3, 1).
Solution :
Given Data :
ψ = 2x 2 – y 3
u=?
v=?
P (x, y) = P (3,1)
V=?
We know that,
v=
∂ψ
=
∂x ∂x
∂
(
2x 2 − y3 )
v = 4x = 4 × 3 = 12 ...(1)
and u=
−∂ψ
∂y
=
∂
∂y
(
2x 2 − y3 )
= – (– 3y 2) = ( – 3 × 12) = + 3 ...(2)
∴ Resultant velocity V = u2 + v2 = 32 + 122

= 9 + 144
V= 153
= 12.369 m/sec.
Problem 3.3
A stream function for a two dimensional flow field is given by ψ = 3x + 4y +
2x2 – 2y2. Determine corresponding velocity potential.
Solution :
Given Data :
ψ = 3x + 4y + 2x 2 – 2y 2
φ= ?
We know that,
v=
∂ψ
=
∂x ∂x
∂
(
3x + 4 y + 2x 2 − 2 y 2 )
v = 3 + 4x ... (1)
and –u=
∂ψ
=
∂y ∂y
∂
(
3x + 4 y + 2x 2 − 2 y2 )
–u = ( 4 – 4y)
∴ u = – ( 4 – 4y) ...(2)
But from the definition of velocity potential φ,
∂φ
–u =
∂x
∂φ
∴ –u= = ( 4 – 4y) [from (2)] ...(3)
∂x
∂φ
and –v= = – (3 + 4x) [from (1)] ...(4)
∂y
Integrating (3) we get,
φ = 4x – 4xy + f(y)
∂φ
∴ = – 4x + f (y)
∂y
∂φ
But = – (3 + 4x) [from (4)]
∂y
∴ – 4x + f´(y) = – (3 + 4x)
– 4x + f´ (y) = – 3 – 4x
f´(y) = – 3
∴ f(y) = – 3y + C ... (5)
∴ Velocity potential,
φ = 4x – 4xy – 3y + C
Problem 3.4
If for a two dimensional potential flow, the velocity potential is given by
φ – n (2y – 1) Check whether the flow is possible, find the velocity at point
(1,1). Also find the stream funcion ψ.
Solution :
Given Data :
Velocity Potential φ = x (2y – l)
V=?
P (x y) = P (1, 1)
ψ=?
From the definition of Velocity potential, we have,
∂φ ∂
–u = = x (2 y − 1)
∂y ∂x
∴ –u = 2y –1
∴ u = – (2y–1) ...(1)
∂φ ∂
and –v = = x (2 y − 1)
∂y ∂y
∂
and –v =
∂y
(2xy − x )
–v = 2x
∴ v = – 2x ...(2)
Now velocity components at P (1,1), will be
u = – ( 2×1–1) = – 1
v = –2x = – 2 × 1 = – 2
∴ V= u2 + v 2 = ( −1 ) + ( −2 ) =
2 2
5
V = 2.236 m/sec
Note. For the possibility of flow, check
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
0 + 0 = 0 from (1) and (2)
∴ Flow is possible.
Problem 3.5
The stream function for a two dimensional flow is given by ψ = x 2 – y2.
Calculate the velocity and acceleration at P(2,2).
Solution :
Given Data :
ψ = x 2– y 2
v=?
a=?
P(x y) = P (2,2)
We know that from the definition of stream function,
∂ψ
v=
∂x
=
∂ 2
∂x
(
x − y2 )
= 2x = 2 × 2 = 4 at P (2, 2) ...(1)
and –u =
∂ψ
=
∂y ∂y
∂ 2
(
x − y2 )
–u = – 2y
u = 2y = 2 × 2 = 4 at P (2, 2) ...(2)
∴ Resultant velocity V= u2 + v 2 = 4 2 + 4 2
V = 5.65685 m/sec
Note. To find the acceleration,
∂u ∂u
ax = u ⋅ +v⋅
∂x ∂y
ax = (4 ×0) + 4×2 = 8 m/sec2
∂v ∂v
ay = u ⋅ +v⋅
∂x ∂y
ay = 4 × 2 + 4 × 0 = 8 m/sec2
and
Resultant acceleration = ax2 + a 2y = 82 + 82
= 2
128 = 11.313 m/sec .
Problem 3.6
A strem function dimensional flow is given by ψ = 4 xy. Show that the flow is
possible and also find corresponding function φ.
Solution :
Given Data :
ψ = 4 xy
∂u ∂v
Check : + = 0 for the possibility of flow.
∂x ∂y
φ=?
From the definition of ψ we know that,
∂ψ ∂
v= =
∂x ∂x
(4xy)
= 4y ...(1)
∂ψ ∂
and –u = =
∂y ∂y
(4xy) = 4x
∴ u = – 4x ...(2)
∂u ∂v
∴ + = – 4 + 4 = 0 from (1) and (2)
∂x ∂y
From (1) and (2) and condition is satisfied so the flow is possible.
∂u ∂v
Since + =0
∂x ∂y
From the definition of velocity potential,
∂φ
–u= = 4x from (2) ...(3)
∂x
∂φ
and –v= = – 4y from (1) ...(4)
∂y
Integrating Eq. (3) we get,
4x 2
φ= + f ( y ) = 2x 2 + f ( y )
2
∂φ
∴ = f´(y) ...(5)
∂y
∂φ
And = – 4y from (4)
∂y
∴ f´(y) = – 4y
−4 y2
∴ f(y) = = – 2y 2 + C
2
∴ from (5) φ = 2x 2 – 2y 2 + C
Which is the required velocity potential.
Problem 3.7
For a fluid flow ψ = 6x – 5y. Calculate the velocity components and resultant
velocity at any point.
Solution :
Given Data :
ψ = 6x – 5y
From the definition of stream function, we know that,

∂ψ
v= = 6 units/sec
∂x
∂ψ ∂
and –u = = ( 6x – 5y) = – 5
∂y ∂y
∴ u = 5 units/sec
∴ Resultant velocity , V= u2 + v2 = −4 2 + 22 = 61
V = 7.8102 units/sec
Problem 3.8
The stream function ψ = x2 + y2 find the velocity components at P (1, 2).
Solution :
Given Data :
ψ = x2 + y2
u=?
v=?
We known from the definition of y
v = ∂ψ = ∂ ( x 2 + y2 ) = 2x = 2 × 11 = 2 units/sec
∂x ∂x
∂ψ ∂ 2
and –u= = ( x + y2 ) = 2 y
∂y ∂y
u = – 2y = – 2 × 2 = – 4 units/sec
∴ Resultant velocity V = u2 + v2 = −42 + 22
= 20
V = 4.4721 units/sec
Problem 3.9
The velocity potential is given by, φ = 5 (x 2 – y 2). Calculate velocity components
at P (2, 3).
Solution :
Given Data :
φ = 5(x 2–y 2) ...(1)
From the definition of velocity potential,
–u=
∂φ
=
∂x ∂x
∂
(
5 x 2 − y2 )
∂φ
–u= = 10x ... (1a)
∂x
and –v=
∂φ
=
∂y ∂y
∂
{ }
5 ( x 2 − y2 )
– v = – 10y
v = 10y ...(2)
The velocity components at P (2,3) will be,
–u = 10x
u = – 10x = – 10 ×2 = – 20 units/sec
and v = 10y = 10 ×3 = 30 units/sec.
Problem 3.10
A stream function is given by ψ = 3 xy. Determine
(i) Whether the flow is possible
(ii) The potential function φ
(iii) Acceleration component at (1, 1)
(iv) Whether the flow is rotational or irratational.
Solution :
Given Data :
Stream function, ψ = 3 xy ...(1)
(i) To check whether the flow is possible,
We have to check for,
∂u ∂v
+ =0 ...(2)
∂x ∂y
:. From the definition of stream function, we know that
v = ∂ψ + ∂ (3xy)
∂x ∂x
v = 3y ...(3)
∂ψ ∂
and –u = = (3xy)
∂y ∂y
–u = 3x
∴ u = – 3x
∂u ∂
∴ + = – 3 + 3 = 0 from (3) and (4)
∂x ∂y
Condition is satisfied so flow is possible.
(ii) From the definition of ψ and φ, we have,
∂ψ −∂φ
v= =
∂x ∂y
v = 3y from (3)
∂ψ ∂φ
and –u= =
∂x ∂x
∂φ
–u = 3x = from (4)
∂x
∂φ
So, Integrating, = 3x
∂x
3x 2
φ= + f ( y)
2
∂φ
and = f´(y) = – 3y
∂y
−3 y2
Integrating f(y) = +C
2
3x 2 3 y 2
So, φ = − +C
2 2
(iii) We know that, the acceleration component
∂u ∂u
ax = u ⋅ +v⋅
∂x ∂y
= [– 3x × – 3]+ [3y × 0]
ax = – 9x at P (1, 1)
ax = – 9 m/sec2
∂v ∂v
and ay = u ⋅ +v⋅
∂x ∂y
ay = [–3x × 0] + [3y × 3] = 9y = 9 m/sec2
∴ Resultant acceleration = ax2 + a 2y = (−9)2 + (9)2

= 162
Resultant acceleration = 12.7279 m/sec2
(iv) To check for the rotational and irrational flow remember that
1  ∂v ∂u 
Rotational Component wz =  − 
2  ∂x ∂y 
If wz = 0 flow is irrotational.
1
wz = |0 – 0| ; = 0. So this is irrotational.
2
Problem 3.11
For the flow of an incompressible fluid, velocity component in x direction is
u = ax2 + by and the velocity component in z direction is zero. Find the velocity
component is y-direction v, such that V = 0 at Y = 0.
Solution :
Given Data :
u = ax2 + by ...(1)
∂u
Then = 2 ax
∂x
∂u
and =b
∂y
We know that for the continuous possibility of flow.
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂v
∴ ax + =0
∂y
dv
∴ = – 2ax
dy
Integrating v = – 2 axy + C
For v = 0, y = 0 we get C = 0
Then, v = – 2 axy
uu
+0)26-4
4 Fluid Dynamics
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Study of behaviour of fluids in motion, if the pressure forces are considered,
then it is known as fluid dynamics or Hydro dynamics.
Continuity Equation. It is based on law of conservation of mass.
2
ρ . a 1 v1 ρ . a2 v2
S t. flow system
1
1
Fig 4.1
Let a1 a2 – Cross sectional areas at sec-1 and sec-2 respectively in m2 .

v 1 v 2 – Velocities of fluid at sec-1 and sec-2 respectively in m/sec.
Then volume of fluid entering at sec-1/unit time
 m2 × m 
= a1 v 1   = a1 v 1 m3/sec
 sec 
∴ Mass of fluid entering at sec-1/unit time
 kg m3   kg 
= ρ .a1 v 1  3 ×  ρ . a1 v 1 
m sec  sec 
Similarly mass of fluid leaving at sec-2/unit time = ρ. a2 v 2
(129)
As we have studied in the 3rd chapter, for a steady flow system, mass
flow rate should be same i.e., m = c
∴ ρ . a1 v 1 = ρ . a2 v 2
a 1 v 1 = a2 v 2
and a 1 v 1 = a2 v 2 = Q
where Q is known as discharge or rate of flow is m3/sec
4.2 DISCHARGE OR RATE OF FLOW (Q)

It is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing at any section per unit time.
If a = cross sectional area is m2
v = velocity of fluid is m/sec
Then Discharge or rate of flow
m3
Q = av .
sec
4.3 TOTAL ENERGY OF FLOWING FLUIDS (OR TOTAL

HEAD)
As we know, Energy is the capacity to do work. Total energy is made up of
KE, PE and pressure energy that is, total Energy E = KE + PE + Pr Energy.
Kinetic Energy (KE). It is due to the motion of the fluid. Let v is the
velocity, W be the weight, then
v2
K.E. = W ⋅ Nm or J
2g
K.E. v2  Nm  J
=
2 g  N  N
=
Unit weight
v2  Nm 
2 g  N 
or Kinetic head = or m of kinetic head
Potential Energy (PE). It is because of gravitational force. If Z is the

height, W is the weight then PE = W.Z Nm or J
P.E.  Nm J
and = Z  or 
Unit weight N N 
Nm
or Potential head = Z or m of potential head
N
Pressure Energy. It is the energy possessed by the fluid particles
because of its position below the liquid surface. (Refer Fig. 4.2).
Fluid Dynamics 131
Pressure head
P
h= m of fluid column
ρ⋅ g
P as P = ρ . g . h
h=
ρ. g
Fig 4.2
P Nm J
or Pressure energy h = ρ⋅ g = =
N N
v2 P Nm J
Then Total Energy = +Z+ or
2g ρ⋅ g N N
v2 P
or Total head =Z + + m of head
2g ρ ⋅ g
4.4 EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION ALONG A STREAM

LINE
It is based on Newton’s second law of motion.
2
Sec
F lo w ti o n
1 d .s . d P ) d ir e c
S ec (P +
dZ
2
P
F lu id tio n
d ir e c
F lo w 1 dW
Fig 4.3
Consider a steady flow system as shown. Now consider a small element

of the fluid of length ds, cross sectional area dA, small weight dw. Let P and
(P + dP) be the pressure at sec 1 and 2 respectively and v is the velocity of
the fluid element m/sec.
Then Euler’s Equation is given by,
dP
+ g . dz + v . dv = 0
ρ
Integration of this leads to Bernoulli’s equation.
4.5 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

It states that, “whenever there is a continuous flow of fluid, the total energy
(that is sum of KE, PE and pressure energy) at any section remains constant,
provided there is no loss or addition of energy”.
1
P 1' v1
z1
1 P2' v2
2 z2
R e f. line
Fig. 4.4
Mathematically,
v2 P
Z+ + = Constant ...(1)
2g ρ ⋅ g
Consider a steady flow system as shown in Fig. 4.4 Fluid enters at sec-
1 and leaves at sec-2. Let P1 be the pressure, v 1 be the velocity and Z1 be
the height above the reference line at sec-1, and P 2 , v 2 , Z2 be the
corresponding values at sec-2. Then according to above statement,
Total Energy at sec 1 = Total energy at sec-2
v12 P v2 P
∴ Z1 + + 1 = Z2 + 2 + 2 ...(2)
2g ρ ⋅ g 2g ρ ⋅ g
In this above equation according to the statement it is assumed that, there
is no loss or addition of energy. But in actual practice there is a heat loss
due to the friction. If it is considered then we can write the Bernoulli’s
equation as,
v12 P v2 P
Z1 + + 1 = Z2 + 2 + 2 + hf ...(3)
2g ρ ⋅ g 2g ρ ⋅ g
4.6 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation is a basic equation in Fluid Mechanics and it is applied
to various equipments like,
1. Venturimeter
2. Pitot tube
3. Orifice meter
Fluid Dynamics 133
4.6.1 Venturimeter
It is a device used to determine the discharge of the fluids, which are flowing
through the pipes. A venturimeter consists of converging cone, throat and
diverging cone as shown. (Fig 4.5)
According to continuity equation, whenever the fluid flows through a
converging cone (that is from sec-1 to sec-2 as shown) the velocity of fluid
increases and pressure decreases.
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation for sec-1 and sec-2.
1 C o nverg in g Th ro at 3
D ive rging
con e
con e
P 1 ' a1 2
P 2, a 2 , Z 2
Z1 d1 d2 R e f.
line
1 3
h M an om e tric
fluid
D iffe re ntial
m an om e te r
Fig. 4.5
Total Energy at sec-1 = Total Energy at sec -2
v12 P v2 P
i.e. Z1 + + 1 = Z2 + 1 + 2 ...(1)
2g ρ ⋅ g 2g ρ ⋅ g
As the reference line is considered to pass through centre, Z1 = Z2 = 0
∴ Equation (1) becomes
v12 P v2 P
+ 1 = 2 + 2
2g ρ ⋅ g 2g ρ ⋅ g
P1 P 2 2
or − 2 = v2 − v1 ...(2)
ρ⋅ g ρ⋅ g 2g 2g
We know that, from continuity equation
a 1 v 1 = a2 v 2
a2v2
∴ v1 = a1
a22 v22
or v12 = ...(3)
a12
Substituting (3) in (2) we get,
P1 P 2 2 2
− 2 = v2 − a2 ⋅ v2 × 1
ρ⋅ g ρ⋅ g 2g a12 2g
P1 P v2  a 2  v2  a 2 − a 2 
− 2 = 2 1 − 22  = 2  1 2 2 
ρ⋅ g ρ⋅ g 2 g  a1  2 g  a1 
P1 P2
It is to be noted that ρ ⋅ g − ρ ⋅ g is the difference of pressure head between
sec-1 and sec-2 and is known as venturi-head, h
v22  a12 − a22 

∴ h = 2g  2 
 a1 
 a2 
or v22 = 2 gh  2 1 2 
 a1 − a2 
 a1 
or v2 = 2 gh   ...(4)
 a 2 − a 2 
1 2
Also note that the discharge through the venturimeter, Q = Co-efficient

of venturimeter × a2v 2
C ⋅ a1 a 2
∴ Q = C × a2v2 = 2gh (from Eq. 4)
a12 − a22
(ii) Pitot Tube. It is a L-type 90° bent glass tube, used to determine the
velocity of the fluids which are flowing through the pipes at any point. The
lower end of the L-type tube faces the direction of flow of fluid, and because
of velocity head, fluid rises in the tube. By measuring the height of liquid
we can find the velocity of fluid at that point.
Applying Bernoulli’s Equation between sec (1) and (2) we can write,
v12 P v2 P
Z1 + + 1 = Z2 + 2 + 2 ...(1)
2g ρ ⋅ g 2g ρ ⋅ g
Fluid Dynamics 135
Z1 Z2
D irectio n
o f flow
1 2
Fig 4.6
Note : (i) Z1 = Z2
P1 P2
(ii) Since the depth of fluid at sec 1 and 2 is same ρ ⋅ g = ρ ⋅ g
v22
(iii) = h because of kinetic head fluid rises by h.
2g
∴ We can write Eq. (1) as
v12
=h
2g
v12 = 2gh
v1 = 2gh
LIST OF FORMULAE
(1) Continuity Equation,
Q = a1v 1 = a2v 2
(2) Total Energy or Total Head
v2 P
= Z+ +
2g ρ ⋅ g
Contd.
(3) Euler’s Equation

dP
ρ + g. dz + v . dv = 0
(4) Bernoulli’s Equation
v2 P
Z+ + = Constants
2g ρ ⋅ g
(5) For Venturimeter, Discharge
C ⋅ a1 a2
2 ghactual
Q=
a12 − a22
Note : Venturihead h in the above equation is to be used is terms of
liquid head which is flowing through pipe. But generally it is given in
terms of Hg head. Then it should be converted in terms of fluid head
which is passing through the pipe by using
SHg − S f
hactual = × hHg
Sf
136 − S f
= × hHg for mercury
Sf
γ Hg − γ f
Also hactual = × hHg
γf
(6) For Pitot tube
v= 2ghactual
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 4.1
A Venturimeter is provided in the pipe line to determine the discharge of the
fluid having specific gravity of 0.8. The diameters at the inlet section and at
the outlet section are 20 cm and 10 cm respectively. The oil mercury
differential manometer shows a gauge deflection of 15 cm of Hg. Assuming
co-efficient of meter as 0.95 determine the discharge in m3/sec, m3/min and
lit/min.
Solution :
Given Data :
hHg = 0.15 m
C = 0.95
S = 0.8
Fluid Dynamics 137
Q=?
We know that for a venturimeter,
C ⋅ a1 a2
Discharge Q= 2 ghactual ... (1)
a12 − a22
π
Then, a1 = (0.2)2
4
= 0.0314159 m2
π
a2 = (0.1)2
4
= 0.0078538 m2
And we know that,
SHg − S f
and hactual = × hHg
Sf
136 − 0.8
= × 0.15 m
0.8
hactual = 2.4 m of fluid
d 1 = 0.2 m d 2 = 0.1 m
S = 0.8
2
C = 0 .95
1
h H g = 0.15 m
Hg
Fig P4.1
Then from Eq. (1)

0.95 × 0.0314159 × 0.0078538
Q=
(0.0314159)2 − (0.0078538)2
× 2 × 9.81 × 2.4
2.344 × 10−4
Q= × 6.86
0.0304183
Q = 0.05286 m 3/sec
Q = 3.17170 m3/min
Q = 3171.7 lit/min
Problem 4.2
A venturimeter in horizontal position 200 mm × 100 mm is used to measure
the discharge of oil of specific gravity 0.8. Determine deflection of oil Hg
differential manometer, if the discharge is 60 lit/sec and take C = 1.
Solution :
Given Data :
Q = 60 lit/sec = 0.06 m3/sec as 1000 lit =1 m3
We know that discharge through the Venturimeter,
C ⋅ a1 a2
× 2 ghactual
Q=
a22 − a12
π π
and a1 = (d )2 = 4 (0.2)2
4 1
= 0.0314159 m2
π π
a2 = (d2 )2 = (0.1)2
4 4
= 0.0078538 m2
And we know that
136 − S f
hactual = × hHg
Sf
= 13.6 − 0.8 × h
Hg
0.8
hactual = 16hHg ...(2)
Then from Eq. (1)
m3 1 × 0.0314159 × 0.0078538
0.06 =
sec
(0.031415)2 − (0.0078538)2
× 2 × 9.81 × 16 × hHg
Fluid Dynamics 139
d 1 = 0.2 m d 2 = 0.1 m -
O il
S = 0.8
2
C=1
1
hHg = ?
Hg
Fig. 4.2
2.46 × 10−4
0.06 = × 2 × 9.81 × 16 × hHg
0.03041839
2.46 × 10−4
= × 17.72 hHg
0.0304183
0.06 = 0.1433058 hHg
0.41868 = hHg
∴ h Hg = 0.17529 m
Problem 4.3
A Venturimeter has an area ratio of 9 : 1, the larger diameter being 30 cm.
During the flow, the recorded pressure head in the larger section is 6.5 m of
fluid and the throat is 4.25 m of fluid. If the meter co-efficient
C = 0.99 calculate the discharge through the meter.
Solution :
a1 9
Given Data : a2 = 1
d1 = 0.3 m
π
∴ a1 = (0.3 )2 = 0.07069 m2
4
0.07069
and a2 = = 0.00785 m2
9
P1
Pressure head at sec-1 = ρ ⋅ g = 6.5 m of fluid
P2
Pressure head at sec-2 = ρ ⋅ g = 4.25 m of fluid
P1 P
∴ h= – 2
ρ⋅ g ρ⋅ g
= 6.5 – 4.25 = 2.25 m of fluid
Then we know that for the venturimeter,
C ⋅ a1 a2
Q= × 2 ghactual
a12 − a12
0.99 × 0.07069 × 0.00785

= × 2 × 9.81 × 2.25
(0.07069)2 − (0.00785)2
Q = 0.0521 m 3/sec
Problem 4.4
A 200 mm × 100 mm venturimeter is fitted to a pipe line of 200 mm dia.
Discharge of water actually measured is 20 lit/sec. When the manometer
reads 250 mm of Hg. Determine ventury co-efficient.
Solution :
Q = 20 lit/sec = 0.02 m3/sec
C =?
We know that,
C ⋅ a1 a2
Q= × 2 ghactual ...(1)
a12 − a22
As d1 = 0.2 m
π
∴ a1 = (0.2)2 = 0.0314159 m2
4
π
and a2 = (0.1)2 = 0.0078538 m2
4
Fluid Dynamics 141
136 − S f
and hactual = × hHg
Sf
d 1 = 0.2 m d 2 = 0.1 m
W ater
h H g = 0.25
Hg
Fig. P4.4
136 − 1
= × 0.25
1
Note. Sf = 1 as fluid is water.
h actual = 3.15 m of fluid ...(2)
Now from (1)
m3 C × 0.0314159 × 0.0078538
0.02 = × 2 × 9.81 × 3.15
sec (0.0314159)2 − (0.0078538)2
C = 0.3136327
Problem 4.5
A venturimeter used in a horizontal pipe line of 20 cm dia discharges water
at the rate of 0.12 m3 /sec. Difference of pressure head is 6m of water column.
Taking C = 1 find the dia at the throat.
Solution :
Given Data :
hactual = 6 m of H2O
Q = 0.12 m3/sec
C=1
d1 = 0.2 m
∴ a1 = 0.0314159 m2
We know that for a venturimeter,
C ⋅ a1 a2
2 ghactual
Q=
a12 − a22
C ⋅ a1
or Q= × 2 ghactual
a12 − a22
a22
C ⋅ a1
Q= × 2 ghactual
2
 a1 
 a  − 1
2
m3 1 × 0.0314159
0.12 = × 2 × 9.81 × 6
sec 2
 a1 
 a  − 1
2
2
 a1  1 × 0.0314159
i.e.  a  − 1 = × 2 × 9.81 × 6
2 0.12
2
 a1 
 a  − 1 = 2.84
2
On squaring both sides we get,

2
 a1 
 a  − 1 = 8.068
2
2
 a1 
 a  − 1 = 8.068 + 1 = 9.068
2
a1
∴ a2 = 3.011
a1
= a2
3.011
Fluid Dynamics 143
d 1 = 0.2 m d2 = ?
2
1
h a ctu a l = 6 m of H 2 O
Fig. P4.5
0.0314159
= a2
3.011
0.0104324 m2 = a2
0.0104324 = a2
0.11525 m = d2
Problem 4.6
A 150 mm × 75 mm venturimeter placed vertically with the throat 225 mm
above the inlet, conveys oil of S = 0.78 at 0.029 m3/sec. Calculate the difference
of pressure head is terms of fluid column. Take C = 0.95.
Solution :
Given Data :
S = 0.78
Q = 0.029 m3/sec
hactual fluid column = ?
We know that, for a venturimeter,
C ⋅ a1 a2
Q= 2 ghactual ...(1)
a12 − a22
π
and a1 = (0.15)2
4
= 0.0176714 m2
π
a2 = ( 0.075 )2 = 4.41786 × 10–3 m2
4
d 2 = 0.075 m
Z 2 = 0.225 m
2
2
0 .22 5 m
Z 1= 0 1
1
d 1 = 0.15
O il S = 0 .7 8
Fig. P4.6
Then from Eq. (1)
m3 0.95 × 0.0176714 × 4.42 × 10−3

0.029 = × 2 × 9.81 × hactual
sec (0.0176714 ) − (4.42 × 10−3 )
2
−5
7.4166283 × 10
0.029 = × 2 × 9.81 × hactual
0.0176714
Fluid Dynamics 145
1.559944 = hactual
2.4334 m = h actual
Problem 4.7
A 200 mm × 100 mm venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipeline carrying
oil of S = 0.9. The flow is in the upward direction. The throat is above the
inlet by 0.25 and the differential manometer shows a gauge deflection of
0.25 m of Hg.
Determine,
(a) Discharge of oil
N
(b) The pressure difference in between entrance and throat by using
m2
basic Bernoulli’s equation. Take C = 0.98.
Solution :
(a) We know that, for the Venturimeter,
C ⋅ a1 a2
Q= × 2 ghactual ...(1)
a12 − a22
π
and a1 = ( 0.2 )2 – 0.0314159 m2
4
π
a2 = (0.1 )2 – 0.0078538 m 2
4
136 − 0.9
and hactual = × 0.25
0.9
hactual = 3.528 m of oil ...(2)
Now from (1)
0.98 × 0.0314159 × 0.0078538
Q= × 2 × 9.81 × 3.528
(0.0314159)2 − (0.0078538)2
2.42 × 10−4
Q= × 8.32
0.0304183
= 0.0661 m3/sec
(b) To find P1 – P2
We know that Bernoulli’s equation is given by,
P1 v2 P2 v2
+ 1 + Z1 = + 2 + Z2 ...(3)
ρ ⋅ g 2g ρ ⋅ g 2g
d 2 = 0.1
Z 2 = 0.25
2 2
0.2 5 m
Z 1= 0 1
1
d 1 = 0.2 h Hg =
0 .25 m
O il
S = 0.9 Hg
Fig. P4.7
Also Q = a1v 1 = a2v 2

∴ 0.0661 = 0.0314159 × v 1
2.107 m/sec = v1
and Q = a2 v 2
0.0661 = 0.0078538 × v 2
8.428 m/sec = v2
Now from Eq. (3)
P1 2.1072 P2 8.4282
+ +0 = + + 0.25
900 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 900 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
P1 P2
+ 0.22627 + 0 = + 3.62 + 0.25
8829 8829
P1 P2
– = 3.62 + 0.25 – 0.22627
8829 8829
Fluid Dynamics 147
P1 − P2
= 3.64373 m of oil
8829
or P1 – P2 = 3.64373 × 8829
N
P1 – P2 = 32170.492
m2
Problem 4.8
A pitot tube is directed in a water stream having a velocity of 3.0 m/sec. It
has a gauge difference of 4 cm of Hg column. Find the velocity co-efficient.
Solution :
Given Data :
v act = 3.0 m/sec
hHg = 0.04 m
C=?
We know that for pitot tube,
v th = 2ghactual ... (1)
v ac t = 3.8/se c
0 .04 m = h H g
Hg
Fig. P4.8
13.6 − 1
and hactual = × 0.04
1
hactual = 0.504 m of water
∴ v th = 2 × 9.81 × 0.504
=
9.888
= 3.1445 m/sec
As we know pitot tube is used to determine the velocity of flow. And be
noted that co-efficient of velocity is defined as,
Vact 3.0
C velo = V = 3.1445 = 0.954
th
C = 0.954
Problem 4.9
A pitot tube is used to find the velocity of flow of oil of S = 0.9. The co-
efficient of pitot tube is 0.950. If the manometric liquid is Hg and its reading
is 130 mm the actual velocity of flow of oil.
Solution :
Given Data :
S = 0.9
C = 0.95
hHg = 0.13 m
We know that,
v th = 2ghactual ...(1)
13.6 − 0.9
hactual = × 0.13 =1.8344 m of oil
0.9
∴ v th = 2 × 9.81 × 1.8344
= 35.99
v th = 5.99
v th = 6 m/sec
Vact
We also know that Cvelo = V
th
Vact
0.95 =
6
5.7 m/sec = v act
Problem 4.10
A Pitot tube used to determine the velocity of air in the pipe line, carries
water in its differential manometer. The difference in water level is 90 mm
of H2O find the velocity of flow of air in pipe assuming Sair = 1.23 × 10–3.
S air = 1.23 x 10 –3
A ir flow
0 .09 m
H 2O
Fig. P4.10
Fluid Dynamics 149
Solution :
We know that, v th = 2ghactual ... (1)
Sw − S f
and hactual = × hw
sf
as water is used in the manometer
1 − 1.23 × 10 −3
= × 0.09
1.23 × 10−3
hactual = 73.08 m
Then from (1) v th = 2 × 9.81 × 73.08
v th = 37.866 m/sec
Problem 4.11
A Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of an aeroplane. The differential
U-tube manometer connected to the pitot tube shows a deflection of 100 mm
of H2 O. If the co-efficient of tube is 0.98, find the speed of aeroplane. Take
Sp weight of air as 12 N/m3 and neglect compressibility effects.
Solution :
Given Data :
v act = ?
Deflection hw = 0.1 m of H2O
C = 0.98
γair = 12 N/m3
We know that, v th = 2ghact ...(1)
Smano fluid − S f
and hact = × hmano fluid
Sf
γ mano fluid − γ fluid

or hact = × hmano fluid
γf
γw − γ f
= × hmano fluid
γf
9810 − 12
= × 0.1
12
h act = 81.75 m
∴ v th = 2 ghact = 2 × 9.81 × 81.75

= 40.049 m/sec
Vact
Since co-efficient of pitot tube C = V
th
∴ v act = C × v th = 0.98 ×40.049

= 39.248 m/sec
v act = 39.25 m/sec
39.25
= × 60 × 60 km/h
1000
h act = 141.29 km/hr
Problem 4.12
A Pitot static tube is used to measure the velocity of an aeroplane. U-tube
differential manometer gives a deflection of 5 cm of water. If Sp. weight of
air is 11.75 N/m3 and C = 0.98 for the pitot tube. Determine the speed
of aeroplane neglecting compressibility effects.
Solution :
We know that
v act = 2ghact ...(1)
γw − γ f
and hact = × hw = 9810 − 11.75 × 0.05
γf 11.75
h act = 41.695 m
Now v th = 2 × 9.81 × 41.695 = 28.60 m/sec
But as the co-efficient of pitot tube is given,
vact
∴ C=
vth
3And v act = C × v th = 0.98 × 28.60 = 28.029 m/sec
v act = 100.9 km/hr
Problem 4.13
The velocity of the water flowing in a pipe is measured by a pitot tube. If the
stagnation pressure is 5 m and static pressure is 2.5 m. Find the velocity of
flow of water by assuming C = 0.9.
Solution :
Stagnation pressure = Static pressure + Velo. head
v2 v2
5 m = 2.5 + 2.5 =
2g 2g
Fluid Dynamics 151
2.5 × 2 × 9.81 = v2
v2 = 49.05
∴ V or v th = 7 m/sec
Then co-efficient of pitot tube is given by,
vact
C=
vth
v act = C × vth = 0.9 × 7 = 6.30 m/sec
4.7 FLOW THROUGH ORIFICE AND MOUTHPIECES

4.7.1 Introduction
Orifice is used to determine the discharge of the fluids. It is as opening or
hole which may be circular, triangular or rectangular, provided in the side
plate or bottom plate of the tank.
Mouthpiece is an extension pipe piece which is provided to the orifice.
Its length will be around 2–3 times the diameter of the orifice. If the pipe is
provided on the outer side of orifice then it is known as external mouth-
piece and if it is provided on the inner side of orifice, then it is known as
internal mouthpiece.
The stream of fluid which is coming out of orifice is known as Jet.
4.8 VENA CONTRACTA

Consider a tank containing some liquid and provided with orifice as shown
in Fig. 4.7. As we know a liquid is made up of large number of particles. And
all the particles have a tendency to flow out through the orifice in the form
H e ad
H 1
1'
Fig 4.7
of a jet. For some of the fluid particles, to flow out, they have to take the
turn. While taking the turns, the fluid particles will loose energy. So the jet
after leaving the orifice gets contracted and maximum contraction takes
place at section 1–1´ and is known as Vena Contracta.
4.9 HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS

(1) Coefficient of contraction (Cc ) :
It is the ratio of area of jet at vena contracta to the area of orifice
Area of jet at vena contracta

i.e., Cc =
Area of orifice
(Note. In general its value will be around 0.63 to 0.65)
(2) Coefficient of velocity (Cv) :
It is the ratio of actual velocity at vena contracta to the theoretical
velocity.
Actual velocity at vena contracta

Cv =
Theoretical velocity
(Note. In general it varies from 0.95 to 0.97)
(3) Coefficient and Discharge (Cd) :
It is the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge.
Actual discharge Actual velocity Actual

Cd = =
Theoretical discharge Actual velocity Theoretical
Actual area × Actual velocity

=
Theoretical area × Theoretical velocity
Actual area Actual velocity

= ×
Theoretical area Theoretical velocity
∴ C d = Cc × Cv :
(Note. Cd varies between 0.62 to 0.65)
4.10 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC

COEFFICIENTS
(1) Cv : Consider a jet of water earning through a constant head tank. Now
let us consider the fluid particle P as shown in Fig. 4.8.
If x = Horizontal distance between 1–1´ and P
y = Vertical distance between 1–1´ and P
v = Velocity of jet in m/sec
t = Time is sec for the fluid particle to travel
from 1–l´ to P
Then we know that, x = v.t
Fluid Dynamics 153
C o nsta nt
h ea d
ta nk
H 1
x
y
1
P
Fig 4.8
x
or =t ... (i)
v
1
and y= g ⋅ t2 ... (2)
2
2
1  x
= g  from (1)
2  v
1 x2
y= ⋅g⋅ 2
2 v
gx 2
or v2 =
2y
gx 2
or v=
2y
gx 2
or v act =
2y
and we know that v th = 2gH from pitot tube derivation.
vact gx 2 1
∴ Cv = = ×
vth 2y 2 gH
x2
∴ Cv =
4 ⋅ yH
D ia . of je t a t
ven a co ntracta
S cre w
M ea suring
ring w ith screw
Fig. 4.9
(2) Cd : To determine Cd,

(i) Collect water for unit time
(ii) Measure the collected water is lit/unit time
(iii) Convert in m3/sec
Then divide this actual discharge by the theoretical discharge to find Cd.
Qact Qact Qact

that is C d = = =
Qth ( Average velocity )th Area of orifice × 2 gH
(3) Cc : To determine Ce
Measure the diameter of jet at vena contracta by measuring ring with
screw as shown. Then by dividing the area of jet by area of orifice we can
find Cc or from Cd = Cc × Cv.
Cd
∴ Cc =
Cv
4.11 NOTCHES
Notch is a big orifice so that upstream of water is below the top edge. These
are used to determine discharge.
These are fabricated out of metallic plates and are provided
in the channels in the labs for determining the discharge of fluids.
Fluid Dynamics 155
The bottom most edge of notch is known as crest or sill and upper sheet
of water is known as nappe as shown.
b = w id th
N a pp e
C re st
o r sill
Fig. 4.10
4.12 TYPES
I. On the basis of their shape.
(i) Rectangular
(ii) V or triangular
(iii) Trapezoidal
(iv) Stepped
II. On the Basis of the Sides of Notch.
(i) Notches with end contractions
(ii) Notches without end contractions
4.13 EQUATION FOR DISCHARGE OVER A

RECTANGULAR NOTCH
Figure 4.11 shows a rectangular notch provided in the side plate of a tank.
Now as shown consider a strip of water of thickness dh at a depth h. Then
the area of this small strip = b.dh ...(1)
h
N a pp e
dh
S ill
or
crest
Fig 4.11
Then as we know theoretical velocity of water through this small strip
= 2gH ...(2)
And the small amount of discharge through this strip

= δq = Cd × (ath × v th)
δq = Cd × Area of strip × v th
δq = Cd × (b × dh) × 2gH ...(3)
Then the total discharge,
H H
Q = ∫ Cd × (b ⋅ dh ) × 2 gH = Cd ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g ∫ h ⋅ dh
0 0
H
 h3/2 
2
= Cd ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g  3  = ⋅ dd ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g [h3/2 ]0
H
  3
 2 0
2
∴ Q = ⋅ Cd ⋅ b ⋅ 2g H3/2
3
4.14 EQUATION FOR DISCHARGE OVER A

TRIANGULAR NOTCH
Figure 4.12 shows a triangular notch provided in the side plate of tank.
Now as shown consider a very small strip of water of thickness dh at a
depth h.
θ
From Fig. 4.12 at the water surface the width will be = 2H tan
2
θ
For the strip width = 2 (H– h) tan
2
θ
And the area of strip = 2( H– h) tan × dh ...(1)
2
H tan θ/2
h
dh H H
θ/2
θ
Fig. 4.12
Fluid Dynamics 157
Then we know that velocity of water through this small strip

= 2gh ...(2)
And the small amount of discharge through this strip
= δq = Cd × (ath × v th)
δq = Cd × Area of strip × Theoretical velocity
θ
= Cd × 2( H – h ) tan dh × 2gh ... (3)
2
Then the total discharge,
H
θ
Q= ∫ Cd ⋅ 2 (H − h) tan 2 ⋅ dh ⋅ 2 gh
0
H
θ
= 2 ⋅ Cd ⋅ 2 g tan ⋅ ∫ (H − h ) h ⋅ dh
2 0
H
θ
= 2 ⋅ Cd ⋅ 2 g tan ⋅ ∫ (H ⋅ h1/2 − h3/2 ) dh
2 0
H
 H ⋅ h3/2 h5/2 
θ  − 
i.e. = 2 ⋅ Cd ⋅ tan 2g
2  3 5 
 2 2 0
θ 3 2 
i.e. = 2 ⋅ Cd ⋅ tan ⋅ 2 g  × H ⋅ H 3/2 − H 5/2 
2 2 5 
θ 3 2 
i.e. = 2 ⋅ Cd ⋅ tan ⋅ 2 g  H 5/2 − H 5/2 
2 2 5 
θ  5/2 5/2 
i.e. = 2 ⋅ Cd ⋅ tan ⋅ 2 g 10H − 6H 
2  15 
θ  5
i.e. = 2 ⋅ Cd ⋅ tan ⋅ 2 g  4 H 
2 15 2 
8 θ
∴ Q= Cd ⋅ tan 2gH5/2
15 2
4.15 ADVANTAGES OF TRIANGULAR NOTCH WHEN

COMPARED WITH RECTANGULAR NOTCH
(i) In case of triangular notch only head H is to be measured.
(ii) Triangular notch gives better results when compared with

rectangular notch.
4.16 FLOW OVER WEIR

In general weir is a big notch. It is constructed out of cement concrete. It is
used to dam up water in the river. It is just similar to a very big rectangular
notch, so,
2
Discharge Q= C L 2 gH 3/2
3 d
where L is the length of weir.
4.17 DISCHARGE OVER A TRAPEZOIDAL NOTCH

From Fig. 4.13 it is clear that, it is the combination of a rectangular notch
and two half triangular notches, or it is a combination of a rectangular notch
and a triangular notch.
5 4 3 6
θ/2 θ/2
1 b 2
Fig. 4.13 Trapezoidal Notch
Therefore the total discharge over the trapezoidal notch

Q = Q for rectangular notch + Q for triangular notch
2 8 tan θ
Q = ⋅ C b ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2 + Cd2 2 g ⋅ ⋅ H 5/2
3 d1 15 2
where Cd1 and Cd2 are coefficient of discharges for rectangular and
triangular notches respectively.
4.18 VELOCITY OF APPROACH

For the notches and weirs generally we consider the head of water above
them. But the water approaching the notches and weirs has some velocity
with which it is reaching and is known as velocity of approach (va).
3
Then, v a = Q m / sec = m/sec
A m2
where A = c/s area in m2.
Fluid Dynamics 159
Note in the equation for Q, head of water involves, so the velocity of

approach should be converted into head only.
va2
∴ Ha =
2g
which is the additional head because of velocity of approach.
Then the total or net head of water over the weir will be H1 = H + Ha
Then, equation
2
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ L ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2 can be modified as,
3 d
2
Q= ⋅ Cd ⋅ L ⋅ 2g  H13/2 − Ha3/2 
3
4.19 ROTAMETER
It is a device which is used in the measurement of discharge directly. It
consists of a transparent conical tube with a float. The float has grooves on
Floa t
w ith gro ove s
tra nspera nt
g la ss tu be
Fig. 4.14
its head. When the fluid flows through this, then the float rotates and comes
to a steady level and it gives the rate of flow or discharge directly on the
calibrated scale.
LIST OF FORMULAE
(1) Coefficient of contraction Cc ,
Cc =
Area of orifice
Contd.
(2) Coefficient of velocity Cv,
Actual velocity
Cv =
Theoretical velocity
(3) Coefficient of discharge Cd
Actual discharge Qact

Cd =
Theoretical dischage Qth
and C d = Cc × C v
x2
(4) Also Cv =
4⋅ y⋅H
(5) For rectangular notch,
2
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g × H 3/2
3 d
(6) For triangular notches
8 θ
Q= Cd ⋅ tan 2 g ⋅ H 5/2
15 2
(7) For trapezoidal notches
2 8 θ
Q= ⋅ Cd1 ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2 + ⋅ Cd2 2 g tan H 5/2
3 15 2
(8) For weir
2
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ L ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2
3 d1
(9) Velocity of approaching liquid
Q
Va =
A
Va2
and Head Ha =
2g
And if we consider velocity of approach then
2
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ L ⋅ 2 g  H13/2 − H a 3/2 
3 d
Fluid Dynamics 161
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 4.14
Find the actual discharge through a 25 mm dia orifice provided at the side
of the tank, if the head of water over the centre of the orifice is 800 mm take
Cd = 0.625.
Solution :
Given Data :
Qact = ?
d = 0.025 m
H = 800 mm = 0.8 m
C d = 0.625
We know that, from the definition of Cd,
Qact Qact Qact

Cd = = =
Qth ath × vth Area of orifice × 2 gH
0 .8 m
d = 0.02 5 m
Fig. P4.14
Qact
∴ 0.625 =
π
× (0.025)2 × 2 × 9.81 × 0.8
4
⇒ Qact = 1.2154 × 10–3 m3/sec
i.e. Q act = 0.0012154 m 3/sec
Problem 4.15 A 80 mm diameter orifice discharges water under a head of
8 m. Find the actual discharge in m/sec , lit/sec and velocity of jet in m/sec
at vena contracta by assuming Cd = 0.6 and Cv = 0.9.
Solution :
Given Data :
d = 0.08 m
H= 8m
8m
d = 0.08
Fig. P4.15
Qact = ?
Velocity of jet = ?
C d = 0.6
Cv = 0.9
We know that, from the definition of Cd,
Qact Qact Qact

Cd = = =
Qact
0.6 =
π
× (0.08)2 × 2 × 9.81 × 8
4
Qact
0.6 =
0.06297
m3
0.03778 = Q act
sec
or Q act = 37.784 lit/sec
1m3
as = 1000 lit/sec
sec
We also know that, from the definition of coefficient of velocity,
vact
Cv = v
th
vact vact
0.9 = =
2 gH 2 × 9.81 × 8
m
11.275 = v act
sec
Fluid Dynamics 163
Problem 4.16
Water jet coming out through an orifice of 20 cm2 area. The head of water
above the orifice is 10 m. Take Cc = 0.6 and Cv = 0.98. Determine actual
discharge and Area of jet at vena contracta.
Solution :
Given Data :
a = 20 cm2 = 0.002 m 2
as 100 cm × 100 cm = 1 m2
104 cm2 = 1 m2
H = 10 m
C c = 0.6
Cv = 0.98
10 m a = 0 .002 m 2
Fig. P4.16
and Area of jet at vena contracta = ?

We know that, C d = Cc × C v
C d = 0.6 × 0.98 = 0.588
Also from the definition of Cd,
Qact Qact Qact

Cd = = =
Qth ath × vth area of orifice × 2 gH
Qact
0.588 =
0.002 × 2 × 9.81 × 10
0.01647 m 3/sec
= Q act
Also we know from the definition of Cc,
Cc =
Area of orifice

0.06 =
0.002
1.2 ×10–3 m2 = Area of jet at vena contracta

12 cm 2 = 0.0012 m2 = Area of jet at vena contracta
Problem 4.17
Determine head of water above the centre of orifice having 20 cm2 area, when
it discharge 8 lit/sec from a tank to which it is fitted. Take Cd = 0.062. Find
Cv if the area of jet at vena contracta is 13.5 cm2.
Solution :
Given Data :
H = ?
a = 20 cm2 = 0.002 m2
Qact = 8 lit/sec = 0.008 m3/sec
1m3
as = 1000 lit/sec
sec
C d = 0.62
Cv = ?
Area of jet at vena contracta = 13.5 cm2 = 0.00135 m2
We know that,
Qact Qact Qact

Cd = = =
0.008
0.62 =
0.002 2 × 9.81 × H
⇒ H = 2.1217m
We also know that,
Cc =
Area of orifice
0.00135
= = 0.675
0.002
∴ to find Cv as,
C d = Cc × C v
Cd 0.62
Cv = C = 0.675 = 0.92
c
Problem 4.18
An orifice provided in the side plate of the tank has a diameter of 3 cm, and
has Cv , Cc, as 0.98 and 0.62 respectively. Determine actual discharge and
head if the jet drops 1.5 m in a horizontal distance of 3 m from vena contracta.
Fluid Dynamics 165
Solution : :
Given Data :
d = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Cv = 0.98
Cc = 0.62
Qact = ?
H = ?
y = 1.5
x = 3m
H =? 1 x=3m
y = 1 .5 m
1
Fig. P4.18
We know from the derivation of Cv,
x2 32
Cv = =
4 ⋅ yH 4 × 1.5 × H
32 9
0.98 = =
4 × 1.5 × H 64
9
0.982 =
6H
9
H= = 1.5618 m
6 × 0.982
Now from the definition of Cd,
Qact Qact Qact
Cd = = = ...(1)
Qth ath × vth aorifice × 2 gH
Now C d = Cc × C v
= 0.62 × 0.98 = 0.608 ...(2)
Qact
Thus Cd =
aorifice × 2 gH
Qact
0.608 =
π
× (0.03)2 × 2 × 9.81 × 1.56
4
Qact Qact
0.608 = −4
=
7.068 × 10 × 5.53 3.91 × 10−3
2.37 ×10–3 = Q act
m2
0.00237 = Q act
sec
i.e. Qact = 2.376 lit/sec
Problem 4.19
A Jet comes out through sharp edged orifice of 5 cm area under a head of 4.1
m. The jet falls 25 cm vertically downwards is a horizontal distance of 195
cm from vena contracta. Actual discharge measured is 170 lit/min. Calculate
the orifice constants.
Solution :
Given Data :
a = 5 cm2 = 0.0005 m2
H = 4.1 m
y = 0.25 m
x = 1.95 m
Qart = 170 lit/min = 0.002833 m3/sec .
4.1 m 1 x = 1.95
y = 0.25 m
1
P
We know from the derivation of Cv,

Fig P4.19
x2
Cv =
4⋅ y⋅H
1.952
Cv =
4 × 0.25 × 4.1
∴ C v = 0.963
Fluid Dynamics 167
Qact Qact Qact

and Cd = = =
0.002133 5.6667
Cd = =
0.0005 × 2 × 9.81 × 4.1 2 × 9.81 × 4.1
C d = 0.631
and Since C d = Cc × C v
Cd
= Cc
Cv
0.631
= Cc
0.963
0.656 = C c
Problem 4.20
A tank has two identical orifices in one of its vertical sides. The upper orifice
is 2 m below the water surface and lower one is 4 m below the water surface
as shown in Fig. P4.20.
Find the point at which the two jets will intersect, if the Cv = 0.9 for
both the orifice.
2m
1
4m
y1
2 y2
Fig. P4.20
Solution :
At point P the two jets are intersecting. So, it is required to find x as
shown in Fig. P4.20
x2
We know that, Cv =
4⋅ y⋅H
x2
∴ For I-orifice Cv1 = ...(1)
4 ⋅ y1 × 2
x2
and for II-orifice Cv2 = ... (2)
4 ⋅ y1 × 4
Since it is given that the Cv for both orifice is same and is equal to 0.9
so, equating (1) and (2) we get,
x2 x2
=
4 ⋅ y1 × 2 4 ⋅ y2 × 4
or 2y 1 = 4y 2 ...(3)
or y1 = 2y 2
From the given figure y1 = y 2 + 2 ...(4)
From (3) and (4)
2y 1 = y 2 + 2
∴ y2 = 2 m
and y1 = 4 m
Substituting the values of y 1 and y 2 is Eq. (1)
x2
Cv1 =
4 ⋅ y1 × 2
x2
0.9 =
4×4×2
⇒ x = 5.1 m
So at x = 5.1 m both the jets intersect.
Problem 4.21
The water in a closed tank is 1.5 m deep, the pressure of air over water
surface is 0.1 M P a . Find the rate of flow from an orifice of 60 mm dia in
the base of tank. Take C d = 0.6.
Solution :
As shown is Fig. P4.21 there is a water head of 1.5 m and air having a
pressure of 0.1 MPa is acting on it.
∴Total head acting on the orifice = hwater + hof air ... (a)
N
We know that, 0.1 MPa = 0.1 × 106
m2
N
Since 101325 = 10.33 m of H2O
m2
∴ 0.1 ×106 .......?
0.1 × 106
× 10.33 = 10.1949 m of H2O
101325
Fluid Dynamics 169
∴ Net or Total head acting on the orifice

= 1.5 + 10.195
= 11.695 m of H2O.
A ir = 0.1 M Pa
H 2O
1 .5 m
d = 0 .06 m
Fig. P4.21
Then we know that,
Qact Qact Qact

Cd = = =
Qact
∴ Cd =
aorifice × 2 gH
Qact
0.6 =
π
× (0.06)2 × 2 × 9.81 × 11.695
4
m3
⇒ Q act = 0.0257
sec
Problem 4.22
A rectangular notch 4 m wide has a constant head of 40 cm. Find the
discharge over the notch in m3/sec and lit/sec by taking Cd as 0.63.
Solution :
Given Data :
b=4m
H = 0.4 m
Q= ?
C d = 0.63
Fig. P4.22
We know that, for the rectangular notch,

2
Q= × Cd × b × 2 g × H 3/2
3
2 m3
= × 0.63 × 4 × 2 × 9.81 × (0.43/2 )
3 sec
2 m3
= × 0.63 × 4 × 4.43 × 0.253
3 sec
m3
Q =1.8826 = 1882.692 lit/sec.
sec
Problem 4.23
A rectangular notch has a discharge of 21.5 m 3/min, when the head of water
is half the length of the notch. Find the length of the notch assuming Cd =
0.6.
Solution :
Given Data :
Q = 21.5 m3/min = 0.358 m 3/sec
b
2H = b ⇒H=
2
b=?
C d = 0.6
For the rectangular notch we know that,
2
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2
3 d
Fluid Dynamics 171
3/2
2  b
0.358 = × 0.6 × b × 2 × 9.81 ×  
3  2
0.358 = 0.626 b5/2
0.358
= b5/2
0.626
i.e 0.572 = b5/2
(0.572)2/5 =b
i.e 0.7999 =b
0.8 m =b
Problem 4.24
A right angled V-notch is used to measure the discharge of a centrifugal
pump. If the head of water over the crest is 300 mm. Calculate the discharge
is m/sec, lit/sec by assuming Cd as 0.63 .
Solution :
For the V-notch, we know that,
8 θ
Q= Cd ⋅ 2 g ⋅ tan × H 5/2
15 2
8
= × 0.63 2 × 9.81 × tan 45 × (0.3)5/2
15
H = 0.3
9 0°
Fig. P4.24
8
= × 0.63 × 4.43 × 1 × (0.3)5/2
15
8
= × 0.63 × 4.43 × 1 × 0.0492
15
m3
Q = 0.0732332
sec
Q = 73.233 lit/sec
Problem 4.25
In a lab during an experiment, 0.2631 m3/sec of water was collected. If head
over triangular notch is 500 mm, calculate the Cd by assuming a right angled
V-notch.
Solution :
Given Data :
m3
Q = 0.2631
sec
H = 0.5 m
Cd = ?
We know that,
8 θ
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ 2 g × tan × H 5/2
15 d 2
m3 8
0.2631 = C × 2 × 9.81 tan 45 × (0.5)5/2
sec 15 d
8
= C × 4.43 × 1 × (0.5)5/2
15 d
m3
0.2631 = 0.41766 Cd
sec
0.63 = C d
Problem 4.26
Find the head over the right angled V-notch when Q is 0.0328 m3/sec by
taking Cd = 0.65.
Solution :
Given Data :
H= ?
θ = 90
m3
Q = 0.0328
sec
C d = 0.65
We know for the V-notch,
8 θ
Q= × Cd × 2 g × tan × H 5/2
15 2
8
0.0328 = × 0.65 × 2 × 9.81 × tan 45 × H 5/2
15
Fluid Dynamics 173
8
0.0328 = × 0.65 × 4.429 × 1 × H 5/2
15
0.0328 = 1.5357 H5/2
0.02135 = H5/2
(0.02135 )2/5 = H
0.2147 m =H
Problem 4.27
Determine discharge of water over a V-notch of angle 60° and C d = 0.61.
When the head of water over the crest is 0.9 m. Neglect velocity of approach.
Draw sketch of this set up.
Solution :
Given Data :
Angle = 60°
Cd = 0.61
H = 0.9 m
Q=?
We know that,
8 θ
Q = × Cd × 2 g × tan ⋅ H 5/2
15 2
8 60
= × 0.61 × 2 × 9.81 × tan × 0.95/2
15 2
8
= × 0.61 × 4.43 × tan30 × 0.95/2
15
m3
Q = 0.6392
sec
0 .9 m
θ = 60 °
Fig. P4.27
Problem 4.28
In an experiment on a 90° V-notch, the flow is collected over a rectangular
tank having the cross section 0.8 m × 0.8 m. If the water level in the collecting
tank changed from 0.7 m to 1.4 m in 17.2 sec, when the head over the notch
was 0.2 m, estimate coefficient of discharge for the notch.
Solution :
We know that for V-notch,
8 θ
Q= × Cd × 2 g × tan × H 5/2 ... (1)
15 2
Now to find as given in problem
Volume of collected in the tank
Q=
time is sec
0.8 × 0.8 × (1.4 − 0.7)

=
17.2
m3
Q = 0.026
sec
Then from Eq. (1),
8 90
0.026 = × Cd × 2 × 9.81 × tan × (0.2)5/2
15 2
⇒ C d = 0.62
Problem 4.29
Determine the discharge through a triangular notch of included angle 60°.
When the height of water flowing over the notch is 0.8 m and Cd = 0.6.
Solution :
We know that, for triangular notch,
8 θ
Q= × Cd × 2 g × tan × H 5/2
15 2
8 60
= × 0.6 × 2 × 9.81 × tan × (0.8 )5/2
15 2
8
= × 0.6 × 4.43 × 0.5773 × (0.8 )2.5
15
= 0.8184517 × (0.8)2.5
m3
Q = 0.4685091
sec
Fluid Dynamics 175
Problem 4.30
A rectanguler notch has a discharge of 300 lit/sec. When head is half the
length of notch. Find the length of notch by taking Cd = 0.623.
Solution :
Given Data :
Q = 300 lit/sec = 0.3 m3/sec
2H = b. Therefore H = b/2
We know for the rectanglar notch,
2
Q= × Cd × b × 2 g × H 3/2
3
3/2
2  b
0.3 = × 0.623 × b × 2 × 9.81 ×  
3 2
2 b3/2
= × 0.623 × b × 4.43 × 3/2
3 2
b × b3/2
0.1630499 =
23/2
b5/2
0.1630499 =
215
b5/2
0.163049 =
2.8284
0.4611749 = b5/2
(0.4611749 )2/5 = b
0.7337469 m = b
Problem 4.31
48 lit/min of water was collected while measuring discharge over a right
angled notch during an experiment. What is the value of Cd, when the depth
of water flowing over the notch is 50 mm.
Solution :
Given Data :
Q = 0.048 m3/min = 0.0008 m 3/sec
θ = 90
Cd = ?
H = 0.05 m
We know that,
8 θ
Q= × Cd × 2 g tan × H 5/2
15 2
8
0.0008 = × Cd × 2 × 9.81 × tan 45 × (0.05)5/2
15
⇒ Cd = 0.606060
Problem 4.32
Show that an error of 1% in the measurement of head produces an error of
1.5% in the discharge over rectangular notch and produces an error of 2.5%
in the discharge over triangular notch.
Solution :
As we know H is the head over the notch. Let dH be the error in the
measurement of H
dH 1
i.e. =
H 100
dH 1
or × 100 = × 100%
H 100
dH
Error × 100 = 1% given ...(1)
H
(1) For rectangular notch
We know that the discharge.
2
Q=⋅ C ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2 ...(2)
3 d
or Q = K. H3/2
where K is some constant. Differentiating w.r.t. H we get,
3
dQ = ⋅ K ⋅ H 1/2 ⋅ dH
2
∴ From (2) and (3)
3
dQ ⋅ k ⋅ H 1/2 ⋅ dH
= 2
Q K ⋅ H 3/2
dQ 3 dH
= ×
Q 2 H
dQ dH
That is × 100 = 1.5 × 100
Q H
dQ
×100 = 1.5% from (1)
Q
Fluid Dynamics 177
(Note. Remember the result)

Hence, for rectangular notch, an error of 1% in the measurement of
head produces an error of 1.5 % in the measurement of discharge.
(2) Triangular notch
We also know for triangular notch,
8 θ
Q= ⋅ Cd ⋅ 2 g ⋅ tan ⋅ H 5/2 ... (a)
15 2
That is Q = K . H5/2
Differentiating w.r.t. H we get,
5
dQ = ⋅ K ⋅ H 3/2 ⋅ dH ...(b)
2
dQ 5 / 2 ⋅ K ⋅ H 3/2 ⋅ dH
∴ =
Q KH 5/2
dQ 5 dH
∴ = ⋅
Q 2 H
dQ 5 dH
∴ ×100 = ⋅ ×100
Q 2 H
dQ
×100 = 2.5%
Q
dH
as ×100 = 1%
H
(Note. Remember the result)
∴For triangular notch an error of 1% in the measurement of head
produces an error of 2.5 % in the measurement of discharge.
Problem 4.33
A triangular notch discharges under a head of 0.5 m. If the discharge is to
be measured within 1 % accuracy, how much would be permissible error for
head measurement ?
Solution :
Given Data :
H = 0.5 m 1 % accuracy for discharge,
dQ 1
∴ = = 0.01
Q 100
dH = Permissible error for head = ?
We know that,
dQ dH
= 2.5 ...(a)
Q H
Now as given accuracy for discharge measurement is 1%.
dQ 1
i.e. = = 0.01 and H is 0.5 m
Q 100
Now from Eq. (a)
1 dH
= 2.5 ×
100 0.5
dH
0.01 = 2.5 ×
0.5
∴ dH = 2 × 10–3 m = 2 mm
That is the permissible error for H.
Problem 4.34
Find the rate of flow in a triangular notch of 60° for a head of 30 cm, taking
Cd = 0.6. If this flow is required to be determined within as accuracy of ± 5%.
What are the limiting values of head ?
Solution :
Given Data :
Q=?
H = 0.3 m
C d = 0.6
dH = ?
For the triangular notch,
8 θ
Q= ⋅ Cd ⋅ 2 g ⋅ tan ⋅ H 5/2
15 2
8
Q= × 0.6 2 × 9.81 × tan 30 × (0.3)5/2
15
Q = 0.04 m 3/sec
Now using
dQ dH
= 2.5
Q H
1 dQ
that is ×H⋅ = dH
25 Q
Fluid Dynamics 179
1 5
± × 0.3 × = dH
2.5 100
+ 0.006 m = dH
i.e. dH = θ + 0.6 cm
Problem 4.35
A trapezoidal notch is used to measure a discharge of 0.9 m3/sec with a
head of 0.62 m. Take 6 = 90, Cd = 0.62 find the base width of notch b.
Solution : :
Given Data :
Q = 0.9 m3/sec
θ = 90
b=?
H = 0.6 m
C d = 0.62
For the trapezoidal notch,
2 8 θ
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ b ⋅ 2 gH 3/2 + ⋅ C ⋅ 2 g ⋅ tan ⋅ H 5/2
3 d 15 d 2
2
0.9 = × 0.62 × b × 2 × 9.81 × (0.62 )3/2
3
8
+ × 0.62 × 2 × 9.81 × tan45 × ( 0.62 )
5/2
15
0.9 = 0.8939 b + 0.44337
0.9 – 0.44337 = 0.8939 b
0.4566
=b
0.8939
∴ b = 0.5108 m
Problem 4.36
In a lab a trapezoidal notch is used to determine the discharge. It has a base
width of 50 cm, top width 150 cm and 50 cm height. Determine Q, if H is 40
cm in the notch, taking Cd = 0.6.
Solution :
Given Data :
b = 0.5 m
50 θ
= tan
50 2
1 50 cm
5 0 cm 5 0 cm 5 0 cm 50 mm
5 0 cm 50 mm
H = 0 .4 m θ/2
Fig. P4.36
Top width 1.5 m

θ
∴ 1 = tan
2
H = 0.4 m
C d = 0.6
We know that,
2 8 θ
Q = ⋅ C ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2 + ⋅ C ⋅ 2 g ⋅ tan ⋅ H 5/2
3 d 15 d 2
2 8
= × 0.6 × 0.5 × 2 × 9.81 × (0.4 )3/2 + × 0.6 × 2 × 9.81 × 1 × (0.4)5/2
3 15
= 0.2241422 + 0.14345
Q = 0.36759 m 3/sec
Problem 4.37
Determine the discharge over the rectangular weir or spillway of 500 m length
with head of 2 m. Take velocity of approaching water as 2 m/sec and Cd = 0.6.
Solution :
Given Data :
Q=?
L = 500 m
H=2m
v a = 2 m3/sec
C d = 0.6
va2 22
We know that, Ha = = = 0.204
2 g 2 × 9.81
∴ Total or Net head = H1 = H + Ha
H1 = 2 + 0.204 = 2.204 m
∴ Using,
Q=
2
(
⋅ C ⋅ b ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H13/2 − H a3/2
3 d
)
Fluid Dynamics 181
2
= × 0.6 × 500 × 2 × 9.81 (2.204 )3/2 − (0.204 )3/2 
3
2
= × 0.6 × 500 × 4.43 × 3.1798
3
m3
Q = 2817.3838
sec
Problem 4.38
Find the length of spillway (Rectangular weir) required to discharge flood
water at the rate of 1500 m 3/sec, if the height of spillway is 60 m and head
over the spillway is 2 m. Assume Cd for the spillway as 0.75. What will be
the velocity of approach and what will be its effect ?
Solution :
2m
60 m
W eir
Fig. P4.38
Given Data :
For the weir we know that,
2
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ L ⋅ 2 g ⋅ H 3/2
3 d
Neglecting velocity of approaching water
m3 2
= × 0.75 × L × 2 × 9.81 × (2)
3/2
1500
sec 3
⇒ L = 239.451 m
If the velocity of approaching water is considered, then,
va2
Ha = ... (1)
2g
Q
and va =
Area of upstream side
1500
=
L × Total height of water and weir
1500
=
239.451 × (60 + 2)
⇒ v a = 0.1 m/sec
(0.1)2
∴ Ha = = 0.000515 m
2 × 9.81
Then we know that the discharge if the velocity of approach is considered,
2
Q= ⋅ C ⋅ L ⋅ 2 g ⋅  H13/2 − H a 3/2 
3 d
2
= × 0.75 × 239.451 × 2 × 9.81 (2 + 0.000515)3/2 − (0.000515)3/2 
3
Q = 1500.529 m 3/sec
Note. (i) Time of Emptying a tank or vessel through or orifice
It is given by,
2⋅ A
T=  H11/2 − H 21/2 
Cd ⋅ a ⋅ 2 g
If the tank is to be emptied completely H2 = 0
2⋅ A
Then, T=  H11/2 
Cd ⋅ a ⋅ 2 g
where
H1 = Initial head of water above orifice
H2 = Final head of water
a = Area of c/s of orifice
A = Area of c/s of tank
Note (ii) Time of Emptying one tank to another tank.
Time is given by
T=
(
2 ⋅ A1 H11/2 − H 21/2 )
 A 
Cd ⋅ a ⋅ 2 g 1 + 1 
 A2 
Fluid Dynamics 183
A1
A2
Problem 4.39
A tank 9 m long 5.4 m wide and 2.7 m deep is completely filled with water.
The tank is emptied through a circular orifice 230 mm dia provided at the
bottom of the tank. Calculate the time required to empty tank. Assume C d =
0.6 for the orifice.
Solution :
We know that, the time of emptying a tank is given by,
2A
T=  H11/2 − H 21/2  ...(a)
Cd ⋅ a ⋅ 2 g
C
Then A= area of tank = l × b = 9 × 5.4 = 48.6 m2
S
C π
a= area of orifice = ( 0.23 )2 = 0.0415 m2
S 4
H1 = 2.7 m
and H2 = 0 as the tank is emptied completely.
Now from Eq. (a),
2 × 48.6
T= × (2.7)1/2
0.6 × 0.0415 × 2 × 9.81
97.2 × (2.7)1/2
=
0.110
159.7159
T= = 1448.1025 sec.
0.110
Problem 4.40
A tank with circular cross section having a dia of 5 m is provided with an
orifice in its bottom plate of dia 5 cm. If Cd = 0.65. Calculate the time required
to lower the water level from 5 m to 1 m above the orifice.
Solution :
Given Data :
π
A= (5)2 = 19.63 m2
4
π
a= (0.05)2 = 1.96 ×10 –3 m2
4
C d = 0.65
H1 = 5m
H2 = 1m
Now we know that,
Time T=
2A
Cd ⋅ a ⋅ 2 g
(H11/2 − H21/2 )
2 × 19.63
T= (51/2 − 11/2 )
0.65 × 1.96 × 10−3 × 2 × 9.81
48.528
T=
5.64 × 10−3
T = 8599.5052 sec.
uu
+0)26-4
5 Laminar Flow
5.1 GENERAL
In case of laminar flow, the fluid layer slide over other. This is a result of
the viscosity of fluid that causes shear stresses in a moving fluid.
These shear stresses result in energy loss and therefore there is a
pressure drop in the direction of flow and pressure gradient exists.
5.2 STEADY LAMINAR FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPES

(HAGEN –POISEUILLE LAW)
In case of circular pipes, the flow wil! be laminar, if the value of Reynold’s
 ρVD 
number  is less than 2000.
 µ 
(i) The shear stress τ varies linearly along the pipe. At the centre of
the pipe since r = 0, the shear stress τ is zero and at the pipe wall, since r =
R, the maximum value of shear stress τmax is
 ∂p  R
τmax =  −  ...(5.1)
 ∂x  2
where R = Radius of pipe
(ii) The maximum velocity V max occurs at the axis of the pipe and is
equal to
1  ∂p  2
V max = −  R ...(5.2)
4µ  ∂x 
where µ = dynamic viscosity
Also velocity at any radius r is given by
1 ∂p 2
V= − ⋅ ( R − r2 ) ...(5.3)
4µ ∂x
(185)
1 ∂p 2  r2 
Further V= − ⋅ R 1 − 
4µ ∂x  R2 
1 ∂p 2
But − ⋅ R =V
4µ ∂x max
 2
∴ V = Vmax 1 −  r   ...(5.4)
  R 
(iii) The mean velocity of flow V occurs at a radial distance of (0.707 R)
from the centre of the pipe,
(iv) The ratio of average velocity of flow to the maximum velocity of
flow is 0.5.
Vavg
∴ = 0.5 ...(5.5)
Vmax
(v) As per Hagen–Poiseuille equation
Difference of pressure between two points
128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
= (p1– p2) = ...(5.6)
πD4
where
p1 and p2 are pressure at two points
Q = Discharge through pipe
L = Length under consideration for difference in pressure
D = Diameter of pipe.
(vi) Pressure drop across any two sections
128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
= hf = ...(5.7)
w ⋅ πD4
w = Specific weight of liquid.
(vii) Friction factor for laminar flow
64 64
=f= = ...(5.8)
ρ ⋅ V ⋅ D Re
µ
ρ = Mass density
Re = Reynold’s number.
(viii) In order to maintain steady uniform laminar flow through pipes,
certain power is required to overcome the resistance of flow.
Laminar Flow 187
∴ Power = P = Q (p1 – p2) ...(5.9)

(ix) Power required P in case of inclined pipes is
P = γ (p1 – p2) Q ...(5.10)
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 5.1
Crude oil of viscosity 0.96 poise flows through a circular pipe of diameter 15
cm and the length of pipe is 15 cm. Determine the difference in pressure at
the two ends of the pipe if discharge is 4 litres per seconds. Also determine
shear stress at the pipe wall.
Solution :
Given Data :
µ = 0.96 poise = 0.096 N-s/m2
Diameter of pipe = D = 0.15 m
Length of pipe = L = 15 m
Discharge, Q = 0.004 m3/sec
(i) As per Eq. 5.6, pressure difference p1 – p2 is given by
128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
p1 – p2 =
π ⋅ D4
128 × 0.096 × 0.004 × 15
p1 – p2 =
π × (0.15)4
∴ p1 – p2 = 463.57 N/m2
Difference in pressure at two ends of pipe.
= 463.57 N/m2
(ii) Shear stress at the pipe wall
As per Eq. 5.2
∂p r
τ= − ⋅
∂x 2
Here r=R
∂p R
τ= − ⋅
∂x 2
∂p p − p1 p1 − p2 p1 − p2
Now − = 2 = =
∂x x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1 L
463.57 N/m2
= = 30.904 N/m3
15 m
D 0.15
and R= = = 0.075 m
2 2
τ = 30.904 × 0.075 = 2.317 N/m2

Shear stress at pipe wall = 2.317 N/m2.
Problem 5.2
Laminar flow takes place in a pipe of diameter 25 cm. The velocity of flow is
1.8 m/s and is the maximum velocity. Determine the average velocity and
the radius at which it occurs. Also calculate the velocity at 4 cm from the
wall of the pipe.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of pipe D = 0.25 m
Max. velocity of flow V max = 1.8 m/s
(i) Average velocity,
As per Eq. 5.5
Vavg
= 0.5
Vmax
Vavg = 1.8 × 0.5 = 0.9 m/s
Average velocity = 0.9 m/s
(ii) Radius at which it occurs.
As per Eq. 5.3
1 ∂p 2 1 ∂p  2 
V= − ⋅ ( R − r 2 ) − ⋅ R 2 1 − r 2  
4µ ∂x 4µ ∂x  R 
 2
V max = 1 −  r  
  R 
  r 2    r 2 
0.9 = 1.8 1 −  D  = 1.8 1 −  0.25  
 
       
  2     2  
0.9   2 
= 1 −  r 
1.8   0.0156  
r2
0.5 – 1 = −
0.0156
r = 0.0883 m
Radius r = 8.83 cm
(iii) Velocity at 4 cm from the wall.
0.25 4
r = R – 4.0 = −
2 100
Laminar Flow 189
= 0.085 m = 8.5 cm.

Velocity at 4 cm from the wall
 2
V = Vmax 1 −  r  
  R 
  0.085  2 
= 1.8 1 −    = 0.967 m/sec.
 0.125  
Velocity at 4 cm from the wall = 0.967 m/s.
Problem 5.3
A fluid of viscosity 0.65 N s/m2 and specific gravity 1.18 is flowing through
a circular pipe of diameter 12 cm. The maximum shear stress at the pipe
wall is 185 N/m 2. Determine the pressure gradient, average velocity, and
Reynolds number of the flow.
Solution :
Given Data :
Viscosity (µ) = 0.65 N S/m2
Specific gravity = 1.18
Diameter of pipe = 12 cm = 0.12 m2
Maximum shear stress = 185 N/m
(i) Pressure gradient as per Eq. 5.1
∂p R
τmax = −
∂x 2
∂p 0.06
185 = − ×
∂x 2
∂p
= – 6166.67 N/m2 per m
∂x
∴ Pressure gradient = – 6166.67 N/m2 per m
(ii) Average velocity (V avg)
1 1  1 ∂p 2 
Vavg = Vmax =  − − R 
2 2  4µ ∂x 
1 1 
=  − ⋅ (−6166.67 ) ⋅ (0.06 )2 
2  4 (0.65) 
= 4.269 m/s
(iii) Reynold’s number, Re
ρ ⋅ Vavg ⋅ D
Re =
µ
(1.18 × 1000) × 4.269 × 0.12

=
0.65
= 929.98.
Pressure gradient = 6166.67 per m
Reynolds number = 929.98. Ans.
Problem 5.4
A fluid flows through a horizontal pipe of diameter 15 cm at the rate of 16
litres/sec.Take µ = 8 poise and kinematic viscosity of 5.5 stokes. What power
is required per km to overcome the viscous resistance for the fluid to flow
through pipe.
Solution : :
Given Data :
Pipe diameter = 0.15 m
Discharge = 16 litres/s = 0.016 m3/s
N ⋅S kg
µ = 0.8 = 0.8
m2 m⋅s
Kinematic viscosity = 5.5 stokes = 5.5 × 10–4 m2/s
Length under consideration = 1000 m
By Eq. 5.7
128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
Pressure drop = hf =
w ⋅ π ⋅ D4
µ Dynamic viscosity
Here = =ρ
v Kinematic viscosity
0.8
= = 1454.54 kg/m3
5.5 × 10−4
Also w = ρ g = 1454.54 × 9.81
(Specific weight) w = 14269.09 N/m3
128 × 0.8 × 0.016 × 1000

Pressure drop = = 72.19 N/m2
14269.09 × π × (0.15)4
In case of horizontal pipes power required to overcome the resistance
per km is given by
P = Q(p1– p2)
= 0.016 × 72.19
= 1.155 watts.
Laminar Flow 191
5.3 LAMINAR FLOW BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL

FIXED PLATES
The velocity distribution in this case is obtained as
1  ∂p 
 −  (B y − y )
V= 2 ...(5.11)
2µ  ∂x 
The maximum velocity V max , which occurs at the mid point between the
plates is
B 2  ∂p 
V max = −  ... (5.12)
8µ  ∂x 
where B is the distance between plates. The mean velocity of flow V is
2
V .
3 max
Difference in pressure between two points is
12µ ⋅ V ⋅ L
p 1– p 2 = ...(5.13)
B2
If hf represents the pressure drop then
p2 − p1 12 ⋅ µ ⋅ V ⋅ L
hf = = ...(5.14)
w w ⋅ B2
where,
w = Specific weight of the fluid.
The shear stress distribution is
∂p B
τ =  −   –y ...(5.15)
 ∂x   2 
where y is the distance from the lower plate surface.
τ is shear stress at any point in flow.
Problem 5.5
Calculate the pressure gradient along the flow, the average velocity and the
discharge for a fluid of viscosity (µ) 0.03 Ns/m2 flowing in between two
stationary plates 1.5 m wide and 1.5 cm apart with velocity of 2.75 m/s at
midpoint.
Solution :
Given Data :
NS
Viscosity µ = 0.03
m2
Width of plate = 1.5 m
B = 1.5 cm
V max = 2.75 m/s
 ∂p 
Pressure Gradient =  
 ∂x 
By using Eq. (5.12)
1 B 2  ∂p 
V max= −  
8 µ  ∂x 
1 (0.015)2  ∂p 
2.75 = − ×  
8 0.03  ∂x 
∂p
= –2933.33 N/m2 per m
∂x
Average velocity (V)
Vmax 3 2 
V
=
2  3 Vmax = V (for parallel plates) 
2
V =V
3 max
∴ V = 1.83 m/s
Discharge through plates = Area of flow × Vavg
= 1.5 × 0.015 × 1.83 = 0.041 m3/s.
Problem 5.6
Oil of viscosity 9 poise flows between two parallel fixed plates which are at a
distance of 4 cm apart. If the drop of pressure in a length of 110 cm be 0.5
N/cm2. Determine the rate of discharge of oil between the plates if width of
plate is 25 cm.
Solution :
Given Data :
NS
µ = 9 poise = 0.9
m2
B = 4 cm = 0.04 m
L = 110 cm = 1.10 m
Pressure drop = 0.5 N/cm2 = 0.5 × 104 N/m 2
Width of plate = 0.25 m.
Difference in pressure between two points is
12µ ⋅ V ⋅ L
p 1– p 2 = as per Eq. (5.13)
B2
Laminar Flow 193
12 × 0.9 × V × 1.10
0.5 ×104 =
(0.04 )2
Vavg = 0.673 m/s
Discharge Q = Area × V avg
= ( 0.25 × 0.04 ) × 0.673
= 0.00673 m3/s
Problem 5.7
Water flows between two fixed parallel plates at a distance of 2 cm apart.
The average velocity of flow is 0.35 m/s and the viscosity µ = 0.025 poise .
Determine the maximum velocity, the pressure drop per unit length and the
shear stress at the walls of the plates.
Solution :
Given Data :
B = 0.02 m
Vavg = 0.35 m/s
N ⋅S
µ =0.0025
m2
3 3
Maximum velocity = V = × 0.35 = 0.525 m/s
2 avg 2
Pressure drop per unit length
∂p 12 ⋅ µ ⋅ V ⋅ L 12 × 0.0025 × 0.35
= =
∂x B2 (0.02)2
= 26.25 N/m2 per m
Shear stress at the walls is given by Eq. 5.15, substitute y = 0
1 ∂p 1
τ= − × B = − × 26.25 × 0.02
2 ∂x 2
= – 0.265 N/m2
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 5.8
An oil of sp. gr. 0.9 and dynamic viscosity of 0.1 N-S/m2 flows between
parallel plates spaced 8 cm apart. Piezometers along the plate indicate that
the pressure is decreasing in the direction of flow at the rate of 90 N/m2
per metre length.
Determine :
(i) Velocity of flow midway between plates.
(ii) Average velocity of flow.
(iii) Reynolds number of flow.
Solution :
Given Data :
Specific gravity = 0.9
N −S
(Dynamic viscosity) µ = 0.1
m2
B = 0.08 m
 p1 − p2  2
  = 90 N/m
L 
By using equation.
p1 − p2 12 µ ⋅ V
=
L B2
12 × 0.1 × V
90 =
(0.08)2
V = Vavg = 0.48 m/s
Vavg 2
Also =
Vmax 3
0.48 × 3
= Vmax
2
V max = 0.72 m/s
ρVD
Reynold’s number Re =
µ
w
Here, ρ=
g
where w = specific gravity of oil × 9810
= 0.9 × 9810 = 8829 N/m3
8829
∴ ρ= = 900 kg/m3
9.81
900 × 0.48 × 0.08
Re =
0.1
Reynold’s number = 345.6
Problem 5.9
When a horizontal laminar flow occurs between two parallel plates of infinite
extent 0.3 m apart, the velocity at the midpoint between the plates is 2.7 m/
s. Calculate :
(i) the flow rate through a cross-section 0.9 m wide.
Laminar Flow 195
(ii) the wall shearing stress if the fluid has a viscosity of 1.44 Pa.S.
(iii) the pressure drop in each 30 m length along the flow.
Solution :
Given Data :
B = 0.3 m
V max = 2.7 m/s
(i) Vavg = 1.8 m/s
∴ Flow rate = Area of flow × Vavg
= (0.9 × 0.3 ) × 1.8
= 0.486 m3/s.
For maximum velocity
B 2  ∂p 
V max = − 
8µ  ∂x 
(0.3)2  ∂p 
2.7 = − 
8 × 1.44  ∂x 
∂p
= – 345.6 N/m2 per m.
∂x
∂p
Substituting this value of obtained above
∂x
 ∂p   B   0.3 
τ =  −   –y = (345.6)  − 0.3
 ∂x   2   2 
τ = – 51.84 N/m2
(iii) Pressure drop in 30 cm length.
12 ⋅ µ ⋅ V ⋅ L
hf =
w ⋅ B2
Consider water flowing through plates.
∴ w = 9810 N/m 3
12 × 1.44 × 1.8 × 30
hf =
9810 × (0.30)2
= 1.056 metre of water along the flow at 30 m.
Problem 5.10
Crude oil of relative density 0.9 is pumped through a smooth horizontal pipe
400 m long, 100 mm diameter. Kinematic viscosity of oil 2.5 stokes.
Differential pressure head between two ends of the pipe is 16.31 m of oil.
Assuming the flow of oil to be laminar. Find :
(i) Rate of flow of oil through pipe.
(ii) Power required to maintain the flow.
Also check whether flow is actually laminar or not.

Solution :
Given Data :
Relative density = 0.9
Length of pipe L = 400 m
Diameter of pipe D = 0.10 m
Kinematic viscosity µ = 2.5 × 10–4 m2/s
Differential pressure head (pressure drop) hf = 16.31 m of oil.
By making use of Hagen – Poiseuille equation.
ρ = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
µ= ρ.v
N⋅S
= 900 × 2.5 × 10–4 = 0.225
m2
128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
Pressure head =
w ⋅ π ⋅ D4
128 × 0.225 × Q × 400

16.31 =
(900 × 9.81) × π × (0.10)4
Q = 0.0039 m3/sec
Power required to maintain flow
P = Q ( p 1 – p2 )
p1 − p2
Here, = 16.31
w
∴ p1 – p2 = 16.31 (900 × 9.81)
= 144000.99 N/m2
Power P = 0.0039 × 144000.99
= 561.60 watts.
ρVD 900 × 0.0039 × 0.10
Reynolds number = Re = =
µ π
× (0.1)2 × 0.225
4
Re = 198.625
Reynolds number is less than 2000
∴ The flow is laminar.
Problem 5.11
Oil of dynamic viscosity 1.5 N-S/m2 and relative density 0.9 flows through
a 20 mm diameter vertical pipe. Two pressure gauges are fixed 10 m apart
on the pipe. The lower gauge reads 25 N/cm2 and the higher reads 5 N/cm 2
. Find the direction and the rate of flow through the pipe.
Laminar Flow 197
Solution :
Given Data :
µ = 1.5 N–S/m2
and ρ = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe = 0.02 m
Length = 10 m
p1 = 25 N/cm2, p2 = 5 N/cm2
Also, w = ρg = 900 × 9.81 = 8829 N/m3
As per Hagen–Poiseuille equation.
128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
Pressure head =
w ⋅ π ⋅ D4
p1 − p2 128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
=
w w ⋅ π ⋅ D4
25 × 104 − 5 × 104 128 × 15 × Q × 10

=
w w × π × (0.02)4
Q = 5.23 × 10–5 m3/s
To determine the direction of flow, total energy at lower point and upper
point is compared.
p1 V12 25 × 104 V12

Total energy at lower point E1 = + + Z1 = + + Z2
w 2g 8829 2g
p2 V22 5 × 104 V22

Total energy at upper point E2 = + + Z2 = + + 10
w 2g 8829 2g
Equating E1 and E2 for comparison.
V12 V22
28.315 + = 15.66 +
2g 2g
as Q = A 1 V 1 = A 2V 2
A1 = A2
∴ V1 = V2
Hence E1 > E2
Water flows from point (1) to point (2)
Problem 5.12
A viscous liquid of Relative density 0.9 and kinematic viscosity 2.9 × 10 –4
m2/s flows through a horizontal pipe 100 mm diameter. Velocity along the
axis is 1.85 m/s find.
(i) Shear stress along pipe surface in Pa.

(ii) Discharge in L.P.S.
(iii) Power required per km length of pipe in kW.
(iv) Whether flow is laminar or not.
Solution :
Given Data :
Mass density = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
v = 2.9 × 10–4 m2/s
N-S
µ = ρ . v = 900 × 2.9 × 10 –4 = 0.261
m2
(i) Shear stress along pipe surface.
 ∂p  R
τmax =  −  ...(i)
∂x 2
1  ∂p  2
Now V max = −  R
4 µ  ∂x 
2
1  ∂p   0.10 
1.85 = −  ×  
4 × 0.261  ∂x   2 
∂p
− = 772.56 Pa per m
∂x
 ∂p 
Substituting the above value of  −  in Eq. (i)
∂x
 0.10 
τmax = ( 772.56 ) × 
 4 
= 19.314 Pa
(ii) Discharge = Area of flow × Vavg ...(ii)
Vavg
= 0.5
Vmax
∴ Vavg = 1.85 × 0.5 = 0.925 m/s
Substituting this value of Vavg in Eq. (ii)
π
∴ Q= × (0.1)2 × 0.925
4
Q = 0.00726 m3/s
= 7.26 L.P.S.
Laminar Flow 199
(iii) By Hagen–Poiseuille equation.

128 ⋅ µ ⋅ Q ⋅ L
(p1 – p2) =
πD4
128 × 0.261 × 0.00726 × 1000

=
π × (0.1)4
= 772035.42 N/m2
Power P = Q ( p1 – p2) = 0.00726 × ( 772035.42 )
= 5604.98 watts = 5.605 kW
(iv) For flow to be laminar, Reynolds number should be less than 2000.
ρVD 900 × 0.925 × 0.10
Re = =
µ 0.261
Re = 318.96
which is less than 2000 and hence the flow is laminar.
Problem 5.13
Two parallel plates kept 100 mm apart have laminar flow of oil between
them. The maximum velocity of flow is 1.5 m/s. Calculate
(i) Discharge per metre width
(ii) Shear stress at the plates
(iii) The pressure difference between two points 20 m apart
(iv) The velocity gradient at the plates and
(v) Velocity at 20 mm from the plate. Take viscosity of oil 2.45 Pa.s.
Solution :
Given Data :
B = 100 mm = 0.1 m
V max = 1.5 m/s
µ = 2.45 Pa.s.
(i) Discharge per metre width :
Q = Area of flow × V avg = (1 × 0.1) ×  2 × Vmax 

3 
2 
= 0.1 ×  × 1.5 = 0.1 m3/s
3
(ii) Shear stess at the plates :
1  ∂p 
τ=  −  (B) ...(i)
2  ∂x 
B 2  ∂p 
V max = − 
8µ  ∂x 
(0.1)2  ∂p 
1.5 = − 
8 × 2.45  ∂x 
∂p
− = 2940 N/m2 per m.
∂x
∂p
Substituting this value of − in Eq. (i)
∂x
1
τ= × 2940 × (0.1) = 147 N/m2
2
(iii) The pressure difference between two points 20 m apart.
12 ⋅ µ ⋅ V ⋅ L 12 × 2.45 × 1 × 20
(p1 – p2) = =
B 2 (0.1) 2
(p1 – p2) = 58800 N/m = 58.80 kN/m 2

2
(iv) The velocity gradient at the plates.

As per Newton’s law of viscosity.
 dv 
τ = µ  dy 
dv τ 147
= =
dy µ 2.45
dv
= 60 s–1
dy
(v) Velocity at 20 mm from the plate,
1 ∂p
V= −
2µ ∂x
(By − y2 )
where B = 0.1 m
y = 0.020 m
1
V= × (2940 ) (0.1 × 0.02) − (0.02)2 
2 × 2.45
V = 0.96 m/s at 20 mm from the plate.
Problem 5.14
A 150 mm diameter pipe carries liquid in laminar regime. A pitot tube placed
in the flow at a radial distance of 15 mm from the axis of the pipe indicates
velocity of 0.5 m/s. Calculate.
Laminar Flow 201
(i) the maximum velocity

(ii) the mean velocity
(iii) the discharge in the pipe.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of pipe = 0.150 m.
Velocity at 0.015 m from axis of the pipe = 0.5 m/s
1  ∂p  2
(i) Maximum velocity V=   (R − r2 )
4µ  ∂x 
1  ∂p   0.150  2 
0.5 = 4µ  −    − (0.015)2 
∂x  2  
1  ∂p 
 −  = 92.59
4 µ  ∂x 
Now,
1  ∂p 
V max =  −  R2 = 92.59 (0.075 ) 2
4 µ  ∂x 
= 0.52 m/s
Vmax
(ii) Vavg = = 0.26 m/s
2
Mean velocity = 0.26 m/s.
π
(iii) Discharge Q = Area of flow × Vavg = ( 0.150 ) 2 × 0.26
4
=0.00459 m3/s = 4.59 litres per second.
5.4 KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION AND

MOMENTUM CORRECTION FACTOR
Kinetic energy correction factor is defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy
of the flow per second based on actual velocity across a section to the kinetic
energy of the flow per second based on average velocity across the same
section. Kinetic energy is denoted by α.
K.E./sec based on actual velocity
α =
K.E./sec based on average velocity
Momentum energy correction factor is defined as the ratio of the momentum
of the flow per second based on actual velocity to the momentum of the flow per
second based on average velocity across a section. Denoted by β
Momentum per second based on actual velocity
β =
Momentum/sec based on average velocity
Problem 5.15 Prove that β for laminar flow through a circular pipe is 4/3.
Solution :
The velocity distribution through a circular pipe for laminar flow is,
1  ∂p  2
V=  −  ( R − r2 )
4 µ  ∂x 
R
r
dr
d A = 2 πr. dr
Fig. 5.1
In Fig. 5.1 above consider dA in the form of a ring at a radius r and

width dr.
Discharge through the ring ( Elementary discharge)
dQ = Area of ring × velocity
= V × 2πr . dr
Momentum of the fluid through ring per second
= Mass × velocity= ρ × 2πr . dr × V × V
= 2π ρV 2 r . dr
∴ Total Momentum of the fluid per second through the section.
R
∫ 2πρV
2
= r ⋅ dr
0
1  ∂p  2
Putting V =  −  ( R − r2 ) in the above equation
4 µ  ∂x 
R 2
⌠  1  ∂p  2 
= 2πρ  4µ  −  ( R − r ) r ⋅ dr
2
⌡ ∂ x 
0
R
2πρ  ∂p 
=  −  ∫ ( R2 + r 4 − 2R2r 2 ) dr
16µ 2  ∂x  0
2 R
πρ  ∂p   R2r 2 r 6 2R2r 4 
= −   + − 
8µ 2  ∂x   2 6 4 0
Laminar Flow 203
2
πρ  ∂p   R 6 R 6 2R 6 
= −   + − 
8µ 2  ∂x   2 6 4 
2
πρ  ∂p   6 R 6 + 2R 6 − 2 R 6 
= −   
8µ 2  ∂x   12 
2
πρ  ∂p  R6
=  −  ×
8µ 2  ∂x  6
2
πρ  ∂p  6
= −  R
48µ2  ∂x 
The momentum of the fluid/sec on average velocity

= Average velocity × Mass of fluid/sec
= Vavg × ρ. A. V avg = ρ A (Vavg)2 ...(i)
(A = π R2)
 Vmax 
and  Vavg = 
2 
1  ∂p  2
Vavg = −  R
8µ  ∂ x 
Substituting in Eq. (i) the value of V avg obtained.
∴ Momentum of fluid/sec based on average velocity.
2
 1  ∂p  2 
=ρ×π R2 ×   −  R 
 8µ ∂x 
2
1  ∂p  4
=ρπ R2 × −  R
64µ2  ∂x 
Momentum /sec. based on actual velocity

β=
Momentum /sec. based on average velocity
2
πρ  ∂p  6
−  R
48µ 2  ∂x  64 4
= 2
= =
πρ  ∂p  6
48 3
2 
−  R
64µ  ∂ x 
uu
+0)26-4
Introduction to
6 Turbulent Flow and

Boundary Layer
6.1 GENERAL
In turbulent flow, the fluid particles are in an extreme state of disorder,
which results in a complete mixing of the liquid, i.e., in turbulent flow there
are irregular velocities and pressure fluctuations of high frequency
superimposed on the main flow.
6.2 EXPRESSION FOR LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO

FRICTION IN PIPES
Darcy – Weisbach equation :
4f ⋅ L ⋅V 2
hf = ...(6.1)
2g D
f is known as coefficient of friction. Sometimes the above equation is
written as
f ⋅ L ⋅V 2
hf = then
2g ⋅ D
f is known as friction factor
L is length of pipe
V is velocity of fluid in pipe
D is diameter of pipe
6.3 EXPRESSION FOR FRICTION FACTOR IN TERMS

OF SHEAR
8τ0
f= ...(6.2)
ρ⋅V 2
(204)
Introduction to Turbulent flow and Boundary Layer 205
where,
ρ0 = shear stress at pipe wall
f = friction factor.
6.4 EXPRESSION FOR SHEAR STRESS IN

TURBULENT FLOW
Shear stress in turbulent flow is sum of shear stress due to viscosity and
shear stress due to turbulence, i.e.
τ = τv + τ t ...(6.3)
where, τV = shear stress due to viscosity
dv dvavg
τt = shear stress due to turbulence = µ ⋅ +η
dy dy
η = eddy viscosity.
6.5 PRANDTL MIXING LENGTH THEORY

FOR TURBULENT SHEAR STRESS
2
 dv 
τ = ρ. L2  dy  ...(6.4)
where, L = mixing length.
6.6 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN TURBULENT FLOW

Velocity distribution in case of turbulent flow through pipes is given by
 y
V = Vmax+ 2.5 V* × loge   ...(6.5)
 R
where
V max = velocity at the axis
y = distance from the pipe wall
R = radius of the pipe.
τ0
V* = Shear velocity = ...(6.6)
ρ
Velocity defect is the difference between the maximum velocity (Vmax )

and local velocity V at any point and is given by,
 R
(V max – V) = 5.75 × V * log10   ...(6.7)
 y
6.7 HYDRODYNAMICALLY SMOOTH AND ROUGH

BOUNDARIES
The boundary is known as hydrodynamically smooth if K, the average height
of the irregularities projecting from the surface of the boundary is small
compared to the thickness of the laminar sub-layer (δ´) and boundary is
rough if K is large in comparison with the thickness of the sub-layer.
K
if < 0 25, the boundary is smooth
δ´
K
> 6.0, the boundary is rough δ´=
11.6v 
if
δ´  V * 
K
and if lies between 0.25 to 6.0, the boundary is in transition.
δ´
In terms of Reynold’s number (Re)
V* K
if < 4, boundary is smooth.
v
V* K
if lies between 4 and 100, boundary is in transition stage.
v
V* K V* K
if >100, the boundary is rough where Re =
v v
6.8 EXPRESSION FOR VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION

FOR TURBULENT FLOW IN SMOOTH PIPES
V V* ⋅ y
+ 5.55
V* = 5.75 log10 v
where v = kinematic viscosity of fluid.
6.9 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FOR ROUGH PIPES

V  y
+ 8.5
V* = 5.75 log10  K  ...(6.9)
where,
V = velocity at any point in the turbulent flow
τ0
V* = shear velocity =
ρ
y = distance from pipe wall
K = roughness factor.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 6.1
Water flows through pipe line having average height of irregularities as 0.20
mm. Determine the type of boundary ? The shear stress developed is 5.25 N/
m2. The kinematic viscosity of water is 0.015 stokes.
Solution :
Given Data :
K = 0.20 mm = 0.20 × 10–3 m
τ0 = 5.25 N/m2
v = 0.015 stokes
= 0.015 cm2/s = 0.015 × 10 –4 m2/s
τ0 5.25
Shear velocity V * = =
ρ 1000
= 0.07245 m/s
V* ⋅ K
Roughness Reynold’s number =
v
0.07245 × 0.20 × 10 −3
= = 9.66
0.015 × 10−4
Since Reynolds number lies between 4 and 100 and hence pipe surface
behaves as in transition.
Problem 6.2
Determine the average height of roughness of a pipe of diameter 10 cm. The
velocity at a point 1.5 cm from pipe wall is less by 25% than velocity at a
point 3.5 cm from wall.
Solution :
Given Data :
Let velocity of flow at 1.5 cm from pipe wall be V.
∴ Velocity of flow at 3.5 cm from pipe wall be 1.25 V.
Velocity distribution for rough pipe is given by Eq. (6.9)
V Y 
= 5.75 log10   + 8.5 ...(1)
V* K
Here K is the height of roughness.
For the point 1.5 cm from pipe wall, we have
V
= 5.75 log10  1.5  + 8.5 ...(2)
V*  K
For the point 3.5 cm from pipe wall, we have
1.25V  3.5 
= 5.75 log10   + 8.5
V* K 
Dividing (2) by (1), we get,
 3.5 
5.75 log10  + 8.5
 K 
1.25 =
 1.5 
5.75 log10  + 8.5
 K 
  1.5    3.5 
1.25 5.75 log10   + 8.5  = 5.75 log10   + 8.5
 K  K 
1.5  3.5 
7.1875 log10 + 10.625 = 5.75 log10   + 8.5
K K 
1.5 3.5
7.1875 log10 + −5.75 log10 = –10.625 + 8.5 = – 2.125
K K
7.1875 logI01.5 – log 10 K] – 5.75 [log10 3.5 – log 10 K] = – 2.125
7.1875 [0.176 –log10 K] – 5.75 [ 0.544 – logI0 K ] = 2.125
–7.8175 log I0 K + 5.75 logI0 K = – 0.262
– 1.437 logI0 K = – 0.262
logI0 K = 0.1823
K = 1.52 cm.
Problem 6.3
Calculate the loss of head, wall shearing stress, centre line velocity, velocity
and shear stress at 3 cm from pipe wall for a smooth pipe of diameter 10 cm
and 1 km long. The discharge through the pipe is 0.65 m3/minute. Take
kinematic viscosity of water as 0.016 Stokes, and f’= 0.046.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of smooth pipe = 10 cm
Length of pipe = 1000 m
Discharge = 0.0108 m3/s
Kinematic viscosity = v = 0.016 = 0.016 × 10–4 m2/s
Density of water ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Q 0.0108
V= = = 1.375 m/s
A π
× (0.10)2
4
fLV 2
Loss of head =
2 gD
0.046 × 1000 × (1.375)2

=
2 × 9.81 × 0.10
= 44.32 m
Wall shearing stress is given by,
f ⋅ ρ V 2 0.046 × 1000 × (1.375)2

τ0 = =
8 8
= 10.87 N/m2
Centre line velocity means maximum velocity (V max) is given by
V V ⋅y
= 5.75 log10 * + 5.55
V* v
where,
τ0 10.87
V* = = = 0.104
ρ 1000
D 0.10
and y= = = 0.05 m
2 2
D
at y= V = V max
2
D
Vmax V* ⋅
= 5.75 log10 2 + 5.55
V* v
0.10
0.104 ×
V max = 0.104 × 5.75 log10 2 + 5.55
0.016 × 10 –4
= 0.104 ×5.75 log10 3250 + 5.55
V max = 7.65 m/s.
The shear stress, τ at any point is given by
−∂p r
⋅
τ=
∂x 2
where r is the distance from centre of pipe and hence shear stress at pipe
wall where r = R is
−∂p R
τ0 = ⋅
∂x 2
Dividing τ by τ0,
τ r
τ0 = R
τ0 ⋅ r
∴ Shear stress τ=
R
Here r = 5 – 3 = 2 cm = 0.02 m
τ 0 ⋅ 0.02 10.87 × 0.02

∴ τ at ( r = 0.02 m) = =
0.05 0.05
= 4.348 N/m2
Velocity at a point 3 cm from pipe wall
i.e., y = 0.03 m
Using equation
V V* y
= 5.75 log10 + 5.55
V* v
Here V* = 0.104
V 0.104 × 0.03
= 5.75 × log10 + 5.55
0.104 0.016 × 10−4
V = 2.544 m/s
Thickness of laminar sublayer is given by
11.6 × v 11.6 × 0.016 × 10−4

δ´ = =
V* 0.104
= 0.000178 m = 0.0178 cm
6.10 VELOCITY DSTRIBUTION FOR TURBULENT

FLOW IN TERMS OF AVERAGE VELOCITY ( V )
(i) For smooth pipes :
V V* R
+ 1.75
V* = 5.75 log10 v ...(6.10)
(ii) For rough pipes :
V
= 5.75 log10 R + 4.75 ...(6.11)
V*
K
Difference of velocity at any point and average velocity for smooth and
rough pipes :
For smooth pipes
V −V
= 5.75 log10  y  + 3.75 ...(6.12)
V*  R
and for rough pipes
V −V
V* = 5.75 log10  y  + 3.75 ...(6.13)
 R
Problem 6.4
In a pipe of diameter 0.35 m for turbulent flow, determine the discharge if
the centre line velocity is 2.75 m/s and the velocity at a point 0.13 m from
the centre is 1.7 m/s.
Solution :
Given Data :
0.35
R= = 0.175 m
2
Velocity at centre Vmax = 2.75 m/s
Velocity at r = 0.13 m
or at y = 0.1.75 – 0.13 = 0.045 m.
Centre line velocity
Vmax − V  R
V* = 5.75 log10  y  (As per Eq. 6.7)
Substituting the values, we get

2.75 − 1.70  0.175 
= 5.75 log10 
V*  0.045 
1.05
= 3.391 ; ∴ V * = 0.309 m/s
V*
By Eq.
V −V  y
= 5.75log10   + 3.75
V*  R
at y = R, V = V max
Vmax − V  R
∴ V* = 5.75 log10   + 3.75
R
= 5.75 × (0) + 3.75 = 3.75
Given V max = 2.75 m/s

and V* = 0.309 m/s
2.75 − V
= 3.75
0.309
V = 1.588 m/s
π
∴ Discharge = A × V avg = ×(0.35)2 × V
4
π
= × (0.35)2 ×1.588 = 0.153 m3/s.
4
6.12 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FOR TURBULENT

FLOW IN SMOOTH PIPE (POWER LAW)
To make it convenient to use equations of velocity distribution for smooth
pipe, Nikuradse expressed velocity distribution in exponential form as :
1/n
V  y
Vmax =   ...(6.14)
R
Exponent 1/n depends on Reynolds number.

1 1
∴ For Re = 4 × 103, =
n 6
1 1
Re = 1.1 × 105, =
n 7
1 1
Re > 2 ×106, =
n 10
6.13 COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION

Coefficient of friction is given by
16
f= R ...for laminar flow ...(6.15)
e
(a) For smooth pipes :

1
= {0.2 log10 (Re 4f ) – 0.8 ...(6.16)
4f
( for Re upto 4 × 107 )
where, f = coefficient of friction
Value of friction factor f is given by
0.221
f = 0.0032 + ...(6.17)
(Re)0.237
(b) For Rough pipes :
1  R
= 2 log10   + 1.74 ...(6.18)
4f K
Problem 6.5
A smooth pipe of diameter 0.50 m carries a discharge of 0:133 m3/s of water.
Determine the friction factor if kinematic viscosity of water = 0.0099 Stokes.
Solution :
Given Data :
v = 0.0099 × 10–4 m2/s
Q 0.133
Average velocity V = = = 0.677 m/s
A π
× (0.5)2
4
Reynold’s number
V ×D 0.677 × 0.5
=Re = = 341919.19
v 0.0099 × 10 −4
As Re is greater than 105, the flow is turbulent.
1
f for smooth pipe,
4f (
= 0.2 log10 Re 4f − 0.8 )
1
= 0.2 [log10 341919.19 + log10 4f ]– 0.8
4f
= 0.2 × 5.533 + 0.2 log10 4f – 0.8
= 11.067 – log1–( 4f )0.2 – 0.8
1
4f
–log 10 ( 4f )
0.2
= 110.67 – 0.8
1
4f
–log 10 ( 4f )
0.2
= 10.268 ...(i)
Friction factor f = 4 × Coefficient of friction = 4 f

Substituting value of (4 f) in Eq. (i), we get
1
f´
− log10 ( f )0.2 = 10.268 ...(ii)
Solving the above Eq. (ii) by trial and error method.

f´ = 0.00920.
Problem 6.6
Rough pipe of diameter 75 cm discharge water at 0.85 m3/s. The roughness
of pipe is 2.5 mm. Determine the power lost for 1 km length of pipe.
Solution :
Given Data :
k = 2.5 mm = 0.0025 m
Discharge Q = 0.85 m3/s
Length of pipe = 1000 m.
Using equation
1  R
= 2 log10   + 1.74 ...(As per Eq. 6.18)
4f K
 0.375 
= 2 log10  + 1.74
 0.0025 
4f = 0.1641
(4f) = (0.1641)2
4f = 0.0269
f = 0.00673
Now head loss due to friction.
fLV 2 0.00673 × 1000 × V 2

hf = =
2g ⋅ D 2 × 9.81 × 0.75
Q 0.85
V= = = 1.924 m/s
A π
× (0.75)2
4
0.00673 × 1000 × (1.924)2

Rewriting hf = = 1.693 m
2 × 9.81 × 0.75
Power lost H.P = w × Q × hf = 9810 × 0.85 × 1.693
= 14117.08 watts Ans.
6.14 BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

General :
When a real fluid flows past a solid body the fluid particles adhere to the
boundary. This means that the fluid close to the boundary assumes same
velocity as the wall. The velocity variation is therefore from zero to maximum
till the pipe centre, normal to the solid boundary. This narrow region of
fluid near the solid boundary of which the velocity is zero is called boundary
layer.
dv
In the boundary layer, the velocity gradient exists and hence it exerts
dy
dv dv
a shear stress of τ = µ ⋅ on pipe wall. The velocity gradient becomes
dy dy
zero outside the boundary layer and hence no shear stress.
Boundary layer is either laminar boundary layer or turbulent boundary
layer.
Near the surface of the boundary the flow in the boundary layer is
laminar though the main flow is turbulent. This layer of the fluid is said to
be laminar boundary layer. The length of the laminar boundary layer (x) is
called laminar zone.
If the Reynold’s number in case of flat plate is 5 × 105 then the boundary
layer is laminar.
V ×x
Reynolds number Re =
v
where
x is the distance from leading edge or start of laminar boundary
layer
V = Free stream velocity of fluid
v = Kinematic viscosity.
If the thickness of boundary layer increases it becomes unstable and
leads to turbulent boundary layer. The Reynolds number is greater that
5 × 105.
The distance from the surface of the solid body in the direction
perpendicular to flow, where the velocity of fluid is approximately equal to
0.99 times the free stream velocity is called boundary layer thickness and is
denoted by δ.
Here
δlam = Thickness of laminar boundary layer
δtur = Thickness of turbulent layer
δ' = Thickness of laminar sublayer.
(In laminar sublayer the velocity variation is influenced only by viscous
effects. The velocity gradient is assumed to be linear and shear stress is
equal to τ0 )
Displacement thickness (δ δ *)
Defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
body, by which the free stream is displaced due to the formation of boundary
layer.
δ
⌠ u
δ* =  1 −  ...(6.19)
⌡ V
0
Here,
u = Velocity of the fluid at the elemental strip.
V = Free stream velocity.
Momentum thickness (θ θ)
Momentum thickness is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to
the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced
to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the flowing fluid because
of boundary layer formation.
δ
⌠u  u
∴ θ= 
⌡V 1 − V  dy ...(6.20)
0
Energy thickness ( δ **)

It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the
reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer.
δ
⌠u u2 
 1 −
δ** = ⌡ V  V 2 
dy
...(6.21)
0
Problem 6.7
Determine the value of displacement thickness, momentum thickness and
u y
energy thickness for the velocity distribution given by = u = V at y = δ
V δ
and u is the velocity at a distance y from the plate. δ is boundary layer
Displacement thickness
thickness. Also determine the ratio of .
Momentum thickness
Solution :
Given Data :
u y
Velocity distribution = =
V δ
As per Eq. 6.19
δ
⌠ u
Displacement thickness δ* =  1 −  dy ...(i)
⌡ V
0
u y
Here substituting =
V δ
δ
δ
⌠ y 
2
y2  = δ − δ = δ − δ
δ* = 
 1 − δ  dy =  y − 
⌡  2δ 0 2δ 2
0
δ
δ* =
2
δ
Displacement thickness δ* =
2
As per Eq. 6.20
δ
⌠u u
Momentum thickness, θ =  1 −  dy
⌡ V  V
0
u y
Here = (Given)
V δ
δ
δ
⌠
 y y ⌠  y y2 
θ= 1 −  dy =   − 2  dy

δ δ ⌡δ δ 
⌡ 0
0
δ
 y2 y3  δ2 δ2 δ δ
 − 2 = − 2 = −
 2δ 3δ 0 2δ 3δ 2 3
δ
Momentum thickness =
6
Energy thickness δ** is given by (Eq. 6.21)
δ δ
⌠u u2  ⌠ y y2 
δ** =  1 −  dy =  1 −  dy
⌡V  V2 ⌡δ δ2 
0 0
δ
δ
⌠  y y3   y2 y4 
=   −  dy =  − 
  δ δ3   2δ 4δ3 0
⌡
0
2 4
= δ − δ
2δ 4δ3
δ
Energy thickness =
4
Ratio of Displacement thickness to momentum thickness.
δ
δ*
= 2 = 3.0
θ δ
6
6.15 VON-KARMAN MOMENTUM INTEGRAL EQUATION

The equation is given as :
τ0 ∂θ
= ...(6.22)
ρV 2 ∂x
where
δ
⌠u  u
θ= 
⌡V 1 − V  dy
0
τ0 = Shear stress at surface.

This equation is applied to following flows :
(i) Laminar boundary layer
(ii) Transition boundary layer
(iii) Turbulent boundary layer
For a given velocity profile in laminar, transition or turbulent zone of
boundary layer, the shear stress τ0 is obtained from Von-Karman momentum
integral equation.
Further total drag on the length L is,
L
FD = ∫ τ0 × b × dx ...(6.23)
0
where, b = width of plate.
6.16 LOCAL COEFFICIENT OF DRAG

1
It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress τ0 to the quantity ⋅ρ⋅V 2
2
τ0
CD* = ...(6.24)
1
ρV 2
2
where, V = Free stream velocity of fluid.

Average coefficient of Drag :
1
It is defined as the ratio of the total drag force to the quantity ⋅ρ⋅ A ⋅V 2
2
FD
CD = ...(6.25)
1
⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅V 2
2
where,
A = Area of the surface
V = Free stream velocity
ρ = Mass density of fluid
Boundary conditions to be satisfied by any velocity profile :
du
(1) At y = 0 , u = 0 and has some finite value.
dy
(2) At y = δ, u = V
du
(3) At y = δ, =0
dy
Problem 6.8
2
u  y  y
Velocity profile for a Laminar boundary layer flow is given as=   −  .
V  δ  δ
Determine expression for boundary layer thickness (δ), shear stress (τ0).
Solution :
Given Data :
2
u  y  y
=   − 
V  δ  δ
Rewriting Von–Karman equation.
δ 
τ0 ∂ ⌠ u  u 
=   1 −  dy
ρV 2 ∂x ⌡ V  V 
 0 
δ 
∂ ⌠  y  y  2    y   y  2  
=  − 1 − −  dy
∂x ⌡  δ  δ     δ   δ   
 
0 
δ
∂ ⌠  y   y     y   y 2  
2
=      1 −    −     dy
−
∂x 
⌡ δ δ    δ   δ   
0
δ 2
∂  ⌠  y y2   y y2  
=   − 2  − 1 − + 2   dy
∂x  
⌡ δ δ   δ δ  
0 
δ 
∂  ⌠  y y 2 y 3 y 2 y3 y 4  
=
∂x    δ − 2 + 3 − 2 + 3 − 4  dy 
⌡ δ δ δ δ δ 
0
δ 
∂  ⌠  y 2 y 2 2 y3 y 4  
=
∂x   δ − 2 + 3 − 4   dy
⌡ δ δ δ 
0 
δ
∂  y 2 2 y 2 2 y 4 y5  
=  − 2 + 3 − 4 
∂x  2δ 3δ 4δ 5δ  0
∂  δ2 2δ2 2δ4 δ5 
=  − 2 + 3 − 4
∂x  2δ 3δ 4δ 5δ 
∂  δ 2δ δ δ  ∂  2 δ
= − + − = δ− δ− 
∂x  2 3 2 5  ∂x  3 5
∂ 15δ − 10δ − 3δ  ∂  2δ 
=
∂x  15  = ∂x 15 
2 ∂
= (δ )
15 ∂x
2 ∂
∴
2
τ 0 = ρV × (δ )
15 ∂x
2 ∂
= ρV 2 (δ ) ...(i)
15 ∂x
The shear stress at the boundary in laminar flow is also given by
Newton’s law of viscosity as :
 du 
τ0 = µ   at y = 0 ...(ii)
 dy 
 2
But u = V  y  −  y  
 δ   δ  
du  1   2 y  
=   −  2  
dy  δ δ 
Putting y = 0
du  2 2 (0 )  2V
∴ =V  − 2 =
dy δ δ  δ
Substituting this value in (ii)
2V
τ0 = µ ×
δ
2µ ⋅ V
τ0 = ...(iii)
δ
Equating the values of τ0 obtained
2 ∂ (δ ) 2µ ⋅ V
ρV 2 =
15 ∂x δ
∂( ) 15 × 2 ⋅ µ ⋅ V
[δ ] δ =
∂x 2ρV 2
∂( ) 15 ⋅ µ
[δ ] δ = ρ V
∂x
15µ
δ ∂ (δ ) = ρ V ∂ x
Converting the partial derivative to total derivative

15 ⋅ µ ⋅ x
δ d (δ) = dx
ρ ⋅V
Integrating we get,
δ2 15µ
= ρV ⋅ x + C
2
µ
where is constant, at x = 0 , δ = 0 and hence C = 0
ρV
δ2 15µ ⋅ x
= ρV
2
2 × 15µ ⋅ x µx
δ= = 5.48
ρ⋅V ρ⋅V
Multiplying the numerator and denominator under root by x.
µ⋅x ⋅x x2
= 5.48 = 5.48
ρ ⋅V ⋅ x Re
ρ⋅V ⋅ x
since Re is Reynold’s number =
µ
x
τ0 = 5.48 ...(iv)
Re
Shear stress (τ0) from Eq. (iii), we get
2 ⋅ µ ⋅V
τ0 =
δ
Substituting value τ0, from (iv)
2⋅ µ ⋅V 2µ ⋅ V Re
τ0 = =
x 5.48 ⋅ x
5.48
Re
µ ⋅V
= 0.365 Re
x
6.19 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLAT PLATE

Blasius on the basis of experiments gave the following velocity profile
equation for turbulent boundary layer.
n
u  y
=   ...(6.26)
v  δ
1
where n = for Reynold’s number less than 10 7 but more than 5 × 105.
7
1/7
u  y
=  
v  δ
The value of τ0 in this case is taken
1/4
 µ 
τ0 = 0.0225 ρV 2  ρ ⋅ δ ⋅ V  ...(6.27)
Problem 6.9
By making use of Blasius equation of velocity profile for turbulent boundary
1/7
u  y
layer =   . Obtain an expression for boundary layer thickness, shear
V  δ
stress, drag force on one side of plate and coefficient of drag in terms of
Reynolds number.
1/4
 µ 
2
Given that τ0 = 0.0225 ρ ⋅ V  ρ ⋅ δ ⋅ V  .
 
Solution :
(i) Boundary layer thickness (δ) :
Substituting Blasius equation in Von–Karman momentum integral
equation.
δ 
τ0 ∂ ⌠ u  u 
=   1 −  dy
ρV 2 ∂x ⌡ V  V 
 0 
δ 
∂ ⌠  y    y  1/7  
1/7
   1 −  dy 
∂x ⌡  δ    δ   
=
0 
δ 
∂  ⌠  y1/7 y2/7  
=
∂x    1/7 − 2/7  dy 
 ⌡ δ δ 
0
δ
∂  7  y8/7 7 y9/7   ∂ 7 7 
=   1/2 −   =  δ − δ
∂x  8  δ 9 δ   0 ∂x  8
2/7 9 
∂  63 − 56 
=  δ
∂x  72 
τ0 7 ∂δ
= ...(i)
ρV 2 72 ∂x
The integration limits in the above expression are from laminar sublayer
(δ´) to δ. Considering thickness of laminar sublayer as negligible.
Rewriting Eq. (i) again
7 ∂δ
τ0 = ρV 2
72 ∂x
Also τ0 is given by
1/4
2  µ 
τ0 = 0.0225 ρ V  ρ V δ  ...(ii)
Equating (i) and (ii)

1/4
7 ∂δ 2 µ 
ρ⋅V 2 = 0.0225 ρV 
72 ∂x  ρV δ 
1/4
7 ∂δ  µ 
= 0.0225 
72 ∂x  ρV δ 
1/4
72  µ 
δ1/4
∂δ = 0.0225 × 7 ×  ρV  ∂x
1/4
 µ 
= 0.2314  ∂x
 ρV 
By integrating the above equation we get
1/4
δ1/4 +1  µ 
= 0.2314  x +C
1   ρV 
 + 1
4 
1/4
4
× δ5/4 = 0.2314  µ  x + C
5  ρV 
Applying boundary conditions at x = 0,

δ = 0 and therefore C = 0
1/4
4  µ 
× δ5/4 = 0.2314  x
5  ρV 
4/5
 0.2314 × 5  µ  1/4 
δ=   ρV  x 
 4 
1/5 1/5
 µ   1 
∴ δ = 0.37  ⋅ x1/5 × x 4/5 = 0.37   ×x
 ρVx   Re 
0.37x
δ=
(Re)1/5
(ii) Shear stress (τ0)

1/4
 µ 
τ0 = 0.0225 ρV 2 
 ρV δ 
1/5
 µ 
Putting value of δ = 0.37  x 4/5
 ρV 
1/4
 µ 
∴ τ0 = 0.0225 ρV 2  1/5 
 ρV × 0.37 +  µ  × x 4/5 
  ρV  
1/5
ρV 2  µ 
τ0 = 0.0577 ×
2  ρVx 
(iii) Drag force (FD) on one side of the plate
L
FD = ∫ τ0 × b × dx
0
Substituting value of τ0 as obtained above

L 1/5
ρV 2  µ 
= ∫ 0.0577 × ⋅ b ⋅ dx
0
2  ρVx 
1/5 L
ρV 2  µ 
= 0.0577 × 2 ×  ρVx  × b ∫ x −1/5dx
0
L
1/5  x 4/5 
ρV 2  µ 
= 0.0577 × × ×b×  4 
2  ρV   
 5 0
1/5
5 ρV 2  µ 
= 0.0577 × × × × b × L4/5
4 2  ρV 
1/5
ρV 2  µ 
= 0.072 × × × b × L4/5
2  ρV 
Drag coefficient, CD is
FD
CD =
1
⋅ ρ ⋅ AV 2
2
Area = Length × Breadth

1/5
ρV 2  µ 
0.072 × × b × L4/5 × 
2  ρV 
=
ρV 2
×b× L
2
1/5
 µ  0.072
= 0.072 
 ρVL 
=
R1/5
ρVL
[Since Reynolds number = ]
µ
6.20 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER

Along the length of solid body, the thickness of the boundary layer increases.
The fluid layer near solid surface losses its kinetic energy. This loss of kinetic
energy is recovered through momentum exchange. A certain stage may come
when the boundary layer may not be able to stick to the solid surface,
resulting in separation from the surface. This phenomenon is called
boundary layer separation.
The separation point is determined from the condition.
 ∂u 
 ∂y  =0
y=0
 ∂u 
If   = 0 is negative then the flow has separated.
 ∂y  y = 0
 ∂u 
If   = 0 then the flow is on the verge of separation.
 ∂y  y = 0
 ∂u 
If   = 0 is positive then the flow will not separate.
 ∂y  y = 0
Problem 6.10
For the below given velocity profile, determine whether the flow has separated
or not or on the verge of separation.
2
u  y  y
(i) = −2   +  
V  δ  δ
3
u 3  y 1  y
(ii) =  −  
V 2  δ 2  δ
Solution :
2
u  y  y
(i) = −2   +  
V  δ  δ
2
 y  y
u = −2V   + V  
 δ  δ
∂u  1  y 1
= −2V   + 2V   ×
∂y δ δ δ
 ∂u  −2V  0  1 −2V
at y = 0,  ∂y  = + 2V   × =
y=0 δ  δ δ δ
 ∂u 
As  ∂y  is negative, the flow has separated.
y=0
3
u 3  y 1  y
(ii) =  −  
v 2 δ 2 δ
3
3  y 1  y
u = V − V 
2  δ 2  δ
Differentiating w.r.t y the above equation we get
∂u 3 1 V  y
2
1
= V × − × 3  ×
∂y 2 δ 2  δ δ
Applying boundary condition
 ∂u  3V 3V
At y = 0,  ∂y  = −0 =
y=0 2δ 2δ
 ∂u 
As the value of   is positive the flow will remain attached with
 ∂y  y = 0
the surface.
SOLVED PROBLEMS FROM UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS

Problem 6.11
A smooth flat plate is exposed to a wind velocity of 6 km/min. If the laminar
boundary layer exists upto a value of Re = 2 × 105. Find the maximum distance
upto which laminar boundary layer exists and its maximum thickness.
Solution :
Given Data :
Free stream velocity = 6 km/min = 100 m/s
V ⋅x
Reynold’s number =
v
Assuming v = 1.5 × 10–5 m2/s
Laminar boundary layer exists upto 30 mm from *leading edge.
4.91x
From Blasius’s equation δ =
Re
4.91 × 0.03
δ = = 0.000329 m = 0.329 mm.
2 × 105
Thickness of laminar boundary layer = 0.329 mm.
(Leading edge : The point from where the boundary layer region beings.)
Problem 6.12
If the velocity distribution in the boundary layer flow over a flat plate is
3
u 3  y 1  y
given by, =  −  
U 2  δ 2  δ
Find the displacement thickness where,
u = velocity of the fluid at any distance y from the plate in normal
direction.
U = free-stream velocity.
δ = boundary layer thickness at any distance x from the leading edge in
the direction of flow.
Solution :
δ
⌠ u
Displacement thickness δ* =  1 −  dy
⌡  U
0
3
u 3 y 1  y
Substituting = −   in the above equation.
U 2 δ 2 δ
δ δ
⌠  3 y 1  y3  ⌠  3 y y3 
 1 − +    dy =  1 − +  dy
δ* =
⌡ 2 δ 2 δ  ⌡  2 δ 23 
0 0
δ
 3 y2 y4   3 δ2 δ4 
= y − + 3  = δ − + 
 4δ 8δ 0  4 d 8δ3 
 3δ δ   8δ − 6δ + δ 
= δ − +
 4 8   8 
 9ρ − 6δ 
= 
 8 
 3δ 
δδ* =   Ans.
8
Problem 6.13
Velocity distribution in a boundary layer with usual notations is given as
u y
= .
U δ
Find the ratio of displacement thickness to energy thickness of boundary
layer.
Solution :
Given Data :
u y
=
U δ
δ
⌠ u
Displacement thickness δ*=  1 −  dy
⌡ U
0
u y
Substituting = in the above equation.
U δ
δ
δ
⌠ y  y2  =  δ − δ 
2
δ* = 
 1 −  dy =  y −   
⌡ δ  2δ 0  2δ 
0
 δ δ
= δ −  δ*= Ans.
 2 2
Energy thickness
δ
⌠u u2 
δ** =  1 −  dy
⌡ U  U2 
0
u y
Substituting =
U δ
δ δ
⌠ y y2  ⌠  y y3 
=  1 −  dy =   −  dy
⌡ δ  δ2  ⌡  δ δ3 
0 0
δ
 y2 y4   δ 2 δ4 
=  −  =  − 3
 2δ 4δ 0  2δ 4δ 
3
δ δ  δ
=  − = Ans.
2 4  4
Ratio of displacement thickness to energy thickness :
δ
2 δ 4
Ratio = = ×
δ 2 δ
4
=2 Ans.
Problem 6.14
Determine the head loss in kPa for a pipeline 700 m long carrying petrol at
the flow rate of 200 LPS. Given ρ = 730 kg/m3, µ = 2.92 × 10–4 N S/m2.
The diameter of the pipe is 30 cm and the equivalent roughness magnitude
is 0.3. Make use of Moody’s Diagram.
Solution :
Given Data :
Length of pipe = 700 m (L)
Q = 0.20 m3/s
ρ = 730 kg/m3
µ = 2.92 × 10–4 N S/m2
Diameter D = 0.30 m
K = 0.3 mm = 0.0003 m
K 0.0003
Ratio = = 0.001
D 0.3
Q 0.2
Vavg = = = 2.829 m/s
A π
× (0.3)2
4
ρ ⋅ Vavg ⋅ D
Reynold’s number Re =
µ
730 × 2.829 × 0.30

= = 2121750
2.92 × 10−4
K
From Moody’s chart for the above value of Re and , of f = 0.0195.
D
fLV 2
∴ Loss of head = ...(i)
2g ⋅ D
Q 0.2
V= = = 2.829 m/s
A π
× (0.3)2
4
V2 = (2.829 )2 = 8.005
Substituting the respective values in (i)
0.0195 × 700 × 8.005
hf =
2 × 9.81 × 0.3
= 18.56 m of petrol.
pp
∴ = 18.56
w
Loss of pressure = 18.56 × 730 × 9.81
= 132913.728 N/m2 = 132.913 kPa.
Problem 6.15
If the velocity distribution in the laminar boundary over a flat plate is in the
form of a polynomial, u = a + by + cy2.
Where y is the distance measured normal to the plate and a, b and c are
2
u  y  y
constants, obtain the velocity profile in the form. = 2  − 
U  δ  δ
Using appropriate boundary conditions, where U is the free stream
velocity and δ the boundary layer thickness. Also find the displacement
thickness and momentum thickness for the above velocity distribution in the
boundary layer.
Solution :
Given Data :
The general velocity equation be u = a + by + cy2
Applying boundary conditions :
At y = 0, u = 0 ∴ a = 0 ...(i)
At y = δ, u = U ∴ U = bδ + cδ2 ...(ii)
du
At y = δ, =0
dy
du
But = b + 2yc
dy
∴ b + 2yc = 0
or b + 2c δ = 0 ( ∴ y = δ) ...(iii)
Solving (ii) and (iii) simultaneously
U = bδ + cδ2 ...(ii)
0 = b + 2cδ ...(iii)
Multiplying (iii) by (– δ) throughout
U = bδ + cδ2
0 = – bδ – 2cδ2
−U
U = – cδ2 ∴ c=
δ2
Substituting this value of c in Eq. (ii)
U
U = bδ − 2
δ2 2U= bδ
δ
2U
b=
δ
2U  −U 
∴ u= − y +  2 y2  as a = 0
δ δ 
2
u  y  y
or = 2   −   is the velocity distribution in
U  δ  δ
the laminar boundary over a flat plate.
δ
δ
⌠
  u ⌠ 2 y y2 
Displacement thickness δ* = 1 −  dy =  1 − + 2  dy

 U ⌡ δ δ 
⌡ 0
0
δ
 2 y2 y3   −2δ2 δ3 
= y − + 2  = δ + 2
 2δ 3δ 0  2δ 3δ 
 δ
= δ − δ + 
 3
δ
δ* =
3
Momentum thickness (θ)

δ
⌠u u
θ =  1 −  dy
⌡ U  U
0
δ
⌠   y   y  2  2 y y2   
θ =  2   −   1 − +   dy
  δ  δ 
⌡   δ δ2   
0
δ
⌠ 2 3 2 3 4
θ =   2 y − 4 y + 2 y − y + 2 y − y  dy
⌡ δ δ2 δ3 δ2 δ3 δ4 
0
δ
 2 y 2 4 y3 2 y 4 y3 2 y4 y5 
=  − 2 + 3 − 2 + 3 − 4
 2δ 3δ 4δ 3δ 4δ 5δ 0
 2δ2 4δ3 2δ4 δ3 2δ4 δ5 

=  − 2 + 3 − 2 + 3 − 4
 2δ 3δ 4δ 3δ 4δ 5δ 
= δ−{ 4δ δ δ δ δ
+ − + −
3 2 3 2 5 }
= {
30δ − 40δ + 15δ − 10δ + 15δ − 6δ
30 }
θ= { } { }
4δ
30
=
2δ
15
Ans.
Problem 6.16
A smooth flat plat 2 m wide, 5 m long is subjected to airflow at a velocity of
10 kmph. Estimate length at which boundary layer changes from laminar to
turbulent and the corresponding thickness. Assume the following properties
for air, Density = 1.22 kg/m3, Viscosity = 1.8 × 10–5 Pa.S.
Solution :
Given Data :
Plate width = 2 m
Velocity of air = 2.78 m/s
Length of plate = 5 m
Density ρ = 1.22 kg/m3
N⋅S
Viscosity µ = 1.8 ×10–5
m2
ρ ⋅U ⋅ x
Reynolds number =
µ
where x denotes the distance from leading edge of plate upto which laminar
boundary layer exists.
For flow to be laminar, maximum
Re = 2 × 105
2.78 × x × 1.22
∴ 2×105 =
1.8 × 10−5
x = 1.06 m from leading edge.
at x = 1.06 m corresponding thickness of boundary layer
5.48 ⋅ x 5.48 × 1.06
δ= =
Re 2 × 105
= 0.0129 m = 12.98 mm.
Boundary layer thickness = 12.98 mm.
uu
+0)26-4
7 Flow Through
Pipes
7.1 GENERAL
A pipe is a closed conduit, generally of circular cross section, used to carry
water or any other fluid. When the pipe is running full, the flow is under
pressure. But if the pipe is not running full (e.g., sewer pipes) the flow is
not under pressure. In such a case the atmospheric pressure exists inside
the pipe. Here this chapter deals with flow under pressure.
7.2 ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES : (LOSS OF HEAD IN PIPES)

When the water is flowing in a pipe, it experiences some resistance to its
motion, which results in reduction of velocity and ultimately the head of
water available. Major loss is due to frictional resistance of the pipe which
depends upon the roughness of the pipe. Darcy–Weisbach equation is
commonly used for loss of head in pipes due to friction.
Apart from loss of head from frictional resistance of pipe (denoted as
major loss) some minor losses also take place. The minor loss of energy (or
head) includes the following cases :
(1) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
(2) Loss of head due to sudden contraction
(3) Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe
(4) Loss of head at the exit of a pipe
(5) Loss of head due to an obstruction in the pipe
(6) Loss of head due to a bend in the pipe
(7) Loss of head in various pipe fittings.
In long pipes the above mentioned losses are small as compared to the
loss of head due to friction.
7.3 DARCY–WEISBACH EQUATION

FOR HEAD LOSS IN PIPES DUE TO FRICTION
Consider a horizontal uniform long pipe of cross sectional area A and
diameter D. The fluid inside has a mean velocity V.
(235)
Consider two sections (1) and (2) as shown in Fig. 7.1, which are L
distance away from each other. The pressure intensities at these sections
are p1 and p2 respectively.
1 2
1 2
Fig. 7.1 Uniform long pipe
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2, we get
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 + hf
w 2g w 2g
(Consider the fluid flowing from section 1 towards section 2)
As pipe is horizontal and uniform
V1 = V2 = V and Z1 = Z2
p1 p2
∴ Loss of head = hf = − ...(7.1)
w w
Let f´ be the frictional resistance per unit area at unit velocity.
Frictional resistance = f´ × (Wetted area) × V n = f´ × P . L × V n ...(7.2)
where P is the wetted perimeter of the pipe.
Pressure force on section (1) = p1 A
Pressure force on section (2) = p2 A ...(7.3)
Resolving these forces horizontally, (i.e., Eqs 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3)
p1A = p2 A + frictional resistance
(p1 – p2) A = frictional resistance
(p1 – p2) A = f´ × PL ×V n
f′
(p1 – p2) A = × PL × V n
A
Dividing both sides by specific weight of water w.
p1 − p2 f´ P
= × × LV n
w w A
p1 − p2
Also, = hf
w
Flow Through Pipes 237
f´ P
∴ hf = × × LV n
w A
A
In the above equation is hydraulic mean depth which is the ratio of
P
 A
the cross-sectional area of the flow to the perimeter in contact, i.e.  
P
D
denoted by m and is equal to for pipes running full.
4
f ´ LV n
∴ hf = ×
w m
where m is hydraulic mean depth.
4 f ´ LV n
∴ hf = × (take n = 2)
w D
4 f ´ LV 2
∴ hf = ×
w D
4f´ f
Putting =
w 2 g
fLV 2
hf = ...(7.4)
2 gD
where f is known as friction factor and is a dimensionless quantity.
SOLVED PROBLEMS ON DARCY—WEISBACH EQUATIONS

Problem 7.1
Find the head loss due to friction in a pipe of 1 metre diameter and 16 km
long. The velocity of water in the pipe is 0.75 m/s. f = 0.05.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of pipe = 1 m
Velocity of water V = 0.75 m/s
f = 0.05
Using the relation
fLV 2 0.05 × 16000 × (0.75)2

hf = =
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 1
hf = 22.94 m
Loss of head in pipe = 22.94 m Ans.
Problem 7.2
The two ends of a pipe 300 m long and 350 mm in diameter has difference in
head of 3 m. Taking f = 0.01. Calculate the discharge flowing through the
pipe.
Solution :
Given Data :
Length of pipe = L = 300 m
hf = 3 m
Using the relation,
fLV 2 0.01 × 300 × V 2

hf = 3=
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.350
V = 2.62 m/s
π
Discharge Q = A . V = × (0.35 ) 2 × 2.62
4
= 0.252 m3/s
Problem 7.3
An oil of specific gravity 0.7 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 25 cm and
the rate of flow is 550 litres/s. Find the loss in head due to friction and the
power to maintain the flow for a length of 900 m.f = 0.031.
Solution :
Given Data :
Specific gravity of oil = 0.7
f = 0.031
Q 0.550
Velocity of flow, V= = = 11.203 m/s
A π
× (0.25)2
4
Head loss due to friction
fLV 2 0.031 × 900 × (11.203)2

hf = =
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.25
= 713.89 m
Power required = w. Q. hf = ( 0.7 × 9810 ) × 0.550 × 713.89

= 2696.25 kW
Problem 7.4
Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 18 cm with a velocity of 2.75 m/
s. Find the head loss due to friction for a length of 4.75 m if the coefficient of
0.09
friction is given by ; f = 0.02 + where Re is Reynolds number. Kinematic
Re0.3
viscosity of water = 0.01 Stoke.
Solution :
Given Data :
Velocity of water = V = 2.75 m/s
Length = L = 4.75 m
Kinematic viscosity,
v = 0.01 stoke = 0.01 × 10–4 m2/s
V × D 2.75 × 0.18
Reynold’s number Re = = = 4.95 × 105
v 0.01 × 10−4
0.09
Value of f = 0.02 + = 0.0217
(495 × 105 )0.3
fLV 2 0.0217 × 4.75 × (2.75)2

Head lost due to friction = hf = =
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.18
= 0.220 m
Head loss due to friction = 0.220 m.
7.4 MINOR ENERGY (HEAD) LOSSES

The minor losses may be due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in
magnitude or direction. The minor losses includes the cases as listed in
Section 7.2
7.4.1 Loss of Head due to Sudden Enlargement

Consider a section. of pipe which has sudden enlargement as shown in Fig.
7.2.
Consider sections (1)– (1) and (2) – (2) before and after the enlargement
as shown in Fig. 7.2. Let p1 be pressure intensity at section 1–1.
V 1 be velocity of flow at section 1–1
A 1 be area of pipe at section 1–1
1
B C
A
P1 P2
P0
1
Fig. 7.2 Sudden enlargement
also p1, V2 and A2 are corresponding values at sections (2) – (2), p0, is pressure
of the liquid eddies on area (A2 – A1). As the liquid flows from smaller section
of pipe to larger section and due to sudden change of diameter of the pipe
from D1 to D2 , the flow separates from the boundary and eddies are formed.
Here assumption is made that p1 and p0 are nearly equal to each other.
Key Equation :
Force responsible for change in momentum / sec = change of momentum
per second.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1–1 and 2–2
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ = + + losses (Z1 = Z2)
w 2g w 2g
 p1 p2   V12 V22 
Losses =  − + −
w w   2 g 2 g 
...(i)
Momentum of water per second at section 1 – 1
w ⋅ A ⋅ V1 w ⋅ A1 ⋅ V12
= Mass × Velocity = × V1 =
g g
Also momentum of water per second, at section 2 – 2
w ⋅ A2 ⋅ V22
=
g
∴ Change of momentum/second from 1–1 to 2– 2
w ⋅ A2 ⋅ V12 w ⋅ A2 ⋅ V22
= − ...(ii)
g g
Applying continuity equation between 1 –1 and 2–2
A1V1 = A2V2
A2V2
∴ A1 = V1
Substituting this value of A 1 in Eq. (ii) and rewriting the equation again.
∴ Change of momentum/sec
 w ⋅ V12 A2 ⋅ V2  w ⋅ A2 ⋅ V22
=  ⋅ −
 g V1  g
w ⋅ A2 ⋅ V2 × V1 w ⋅ A2V22
= − ...(iii)
g g
The force responsible for the change of momentum per second.
= p2 . A2 – p1 . A1 – p0 (A2 – A 1)
= p2 A 2 – p 1 . A 1 – p 0 A 2 + p 0 A 1
= A 2 ( p 1 – p 0)
Taking p1 = p0
= A2 (p2 – p1) taking p0 = p1 ...(iv)
Equating the Eqs (iii) and (iv) as per key equation stated earlier.
w ⋅ A2 ⋅ V2 ⋅ V1 w ⋅ A2 ⋅ V22
A 2 (p2 – p1) = −
g g
 2
= w. A 2 V2V1 − V2
 
g g 
p1 p2 V2V1 V22
− = −
w w g g
p1 p2 V22 V2V1
− = −
w w g g
p1 p2
Substituting this value of − in Eq. (i),
w w
 V22 V1 V2   V12 V22 

Losses = 
 g
−  + − 
g   2g 2g 
=
1
2g
(
2V22 − 2V1V2 + V12 − V22 )
Losses =
1
(
V 2 + V22 − 2V1V2
2g 1
)
2
(V1 − V2 )
Losses =
2g
Therefore losses due to sudden enlargement
2
(V1 − V2 )
=
2g
SOLVED PROBLEMS ON SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT OF

PIPE SECTIONS
Problem. 7.5
A pipe of 150 mm diameter is suddenly enlarged to 250 mm. If the discharge
is 80 liters per sec. Find the loss of energy.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of pipe at section 1 –1 = 150 mm
Diameter of pipe at section 2 – 2 = 250 mm
π
∴ A1 = 0.152 = 0.0176 m2
4
π
A2 = 0.252 = 0.0491 m 2
4
Discharge through the pipe
Q = 80 litres/s = 0.08 m3/s
he = loss due to sudden enlargement
Q 0.08
V1 = A = 0.0491 = 4.545 m/s
1
Q 0.08
V2 = A = 0.0491 = 1.629 m/s
2
2
(V1 − V2 ) (4.545 − 1.629)2
he = =
2g 2 × 9.81
Head loss = 0.433 m
Loss of energy = 0.433 kg-m.
Problem 7.6
A pipe of area 0.15 m2 suddenly changes to 0.48 m2 area. The discharge in
the pipes 0.40 m3/sec and the pressure on the smaller part of pipe is 7.848
N/cm 2 . Find,
(i) head loss due to sudden enlargement and

(ii) Pressure on the larger part of the pipe
(iii) Also find the power lost due to enlargement.
Solution :
Given Data :
Area of pipe at section 1–1 = 0.15 m2
Area of pipe at section 2–2 = 0.48 m2
Discharge through pipe = 0.40 m3/sec
Pressure on smaller part = 7.848 N/cm2 = 78480 N/m2
(i) Head loss due to sudden enlargement
Q 0.04
V1 = = = 2.667 m/s
A1 0.15
Q 0.4
Also V2 = A = 0.48 = 0.833 m/s
2
2
 V1 − V2  (2.667 − 0.833)2
he =  =
 2 g 
Using relation
2 × 9.81
= 0.1714 m
(ii) Pressure on the larger part of the pipe (p2)
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at 1 –1 and 2 – 2
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 ; Z1 = Z2
w 2g w 2g
78480 2.6672 p2 0.8332

+ = +
9810 2 × 9.81 9810 2 × 9.81
p2
= 8.327
9810
p2 = 8.327 × 9810 = 81687.87 N/m2
(iii) Power lost due to enlargement
= w. Q . he = 9810 × 0.40 × 0.1714
= 672.57 Watts
Problem 7.7
At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm diameter,
the hydraulic gradient rises by 10 mm. Estimate the discharge through the
pipe.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of smaller pipe = D 1 = 240 mm = 0.24 m
Diameter of enlarged pipe section D2 = 480 mm = 0.48 m.

π
A1 = × (0.24)2 = 0.0452 m2
4
π
A2 = × (0.48 )2 = 0.1809 m2
4
Rise of hydraulic gradient means.
 p2   p1  1
 Z2 +  −  + Z1  = 10 mm =
 m
w w 100
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to both sections, i.e. smaller pipe section
and larger pipe section.
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 + loss due to sudden enlargement
w 2g w 2g
2
(V1 − V2 )
But loss due to enlargement = he = ...(i)
2g
By continuity equation
A1V1 = A2V2
π 2 2
A2V2 4 × D2 × V
=
∴ V1 = A1 π
× D12
4
2 2
 D2   0.48 
=  × V =   × V2
 D1  0.24 
2
V1 = 4V2
Substituting this value of V 1 in Eq. (i)
(4V2 − V2 )2 =
9V22
he =
2g 2g
Rewriting Bernoulli’s equation and substituting value of he and V1
p1 (4V2 − V2 )
2
p V2 9V 2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 + 2
w 2g w 2g 2g
Resolving further
16V22 V22 9V22  p2  p 

− − =  + Z2  −  1 + Z1 
2g 2g 2g w   w 
16V22 V22 9V22 1

− − =
2g 2g 2g 100
2 × 9.81
V2 = = 0.181 m/s.
6 × 100
π
Discharge Q = A2 × V2 = × D22 × V2 = 0.1809 × 0.181
4
= 0.03274 m2/s = 32.74 litres/s.
Discharge through pipe is 32.74 litres per second.
7.4.2 Loss of Head due to Sudden Contraction

As shown in Fig. 7.3, due to sudden contraction, the liquid will be further
contracted forming a vena-contracta at section 1–1. Section 2 –2 is considered
after the jet of liquid again enlarges to pipe diameter.
1 2
A B
1 2
Fig. 7.3 Sudden contraction
Let
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1–1
V1 = Velocity of liquid at section 1 –1
A 2, V2 = Corresponding values at section 2–2
hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction.
Here loss of head takes place because of sudden enlargement of the jet
of liquid after vena contracta, i.e., between section 1–1 and section 2–2
2
 V1 − V2 
he = 
 2 g 
Hence
But in this case

A1 = 0.62 A2
where 0.62 is coefficient of contraction. Also by continuity equation.

A1V1 = A2V2
∴ 0.62 A 2 V1 = A2V2
V2
∴ V1 =
0.62
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement after section 1–1
(V1 − V2 )2
=
2g
V2
Substituting V1 = in the above equation.
0.62
2
 V2 
 − V2 
0.62 
hc =
2g
0.375V22
hc =
2g
V22
or hc = K .
2g
D1
Value of K may change as per ratio.
D2
Problem 7.8
In a pipe line laid horizontal there is a sudden contraction from 50 cm to 25
cm because of which the pressure changes from 107910
N/m 2 to 83385 N/m2. Calculate the discharge through the pipe if Cc = 0.62.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of pipe at section 1–1 = 50 cm = 0.50 m
Diameter of pipe at section 2 – 2 = 25 cm = 0.25 m
π
A1 = × (0.50)2 = 0.1963 m2
4
π
A2 = × (0.25 )2 = 0.0491 m2
4
Pressure at section 1 –1 = 107910 N/m2
Pressure at section 2 – 2 = 83385 N/m2.
and Cc = 0.62
Applying continuity equation between sections 1 – 1 and 2–2.
A1V1 = A2V2
0.0491
V1 = × V2
0.1963
V1 = 0.250 V2 ...(i)
Loss of head due to sudden contraction
0.375V22
hc = ...(ii)
2g
Applying Bernoulli’s equation for section 1 –1 and section 2–2
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 +hc
w 2g w 2g
107910 V12 83385 V22

+ = + + hc
9810 2g 9810 2 g
( Z1 = Z2 as pipe is assumed horizontal).
11 +
(0.25V22 ) V22 0.375V22
= 8.5 + + hc +
2g 2g 2g
V22 0.25V22 0.375V22

11 − 85 = − +
2g 2g 2g
1.125V22
2.5 =
2g
V22 = 43.6
V2 = 6.603 m/s
and Q = A2V2 = 0.0491 × 6.603 = 0.3242 m3/s
Discharge through pipe= 324.21 liters/s.
Problem 7.9
In the above problem, if the rate of flow of water is 300 liters/sec, other data
remaining the same find the value of Cc .
Solution :
Given Data :
D1 = 0.5 m, D2 = 0.25 m
p1 = 10.791 × 104 N/m2
p2 = 8.3385 × 104 /m2
Q = 0.300 m3/s
V1 = 0.25 V 2 from Prob. 7.8
Q 0.30
V1 = = = 1.528 m/s
A1 π 2
× 0.5
4
0.30
V2 = = 6.112 m/s
π
× (0.25)2
4
From Bernoulli’s equation, we get
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ = + + hc
w 2g w 2g
10.791 × 104 (1.528)2 8.3385 × 104 (6.112)2

+ = + + hc
9.81 × 1000 2 × 9.81 9.81 × 1000 2 × 9.81
hc = 0.7149 m.
From the derivation of loss due to sudden contraction.
2
 V2 
 C − V2 
c
hc =
2g
2
V22  1 
∴ hc =  − 1
2 g  Cc 
2
(6.112)2  1

− 1
2 × 9.81  Cc
0.7149 =

2
 1 
 C − 1 = 0.3754
c
Taking roots of both sides.

1
− 1 = 0.612
Cc
1
– 1 = 1.612
Cc
C c = 0.62 Ans.
Problem 7.10
A horizontal pipe 250 mm in diameter suddenly enlarges to 350 mm and
then after some length it is suddenly reduced to 150 mm in diameter. If the
discharge in the pipe is 250 litre/s find.
(i) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement, and
(ii) Loss of head due to sudden contraction.
Solution :
Given Data :
π
Area (A1) = × ( 0.25)2
4
= 0.0491 m2
π
Area (A2) = × (0.35)2 = 0.0962 m2
4
π
Area (A3) = × ( 0.15 )2 = 0.0176 m2
4
2
1
3
2 50
3 50 m m 1 50 m m
mm
Fig. 7.4
Discharge through pipe is 250 litres/s

= 0.250 m3/s
he = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement. Velocity of water in
section-1
Q 0.25
V1 = = = 5.0916 m/s
A1 0.0491
Also, velocity of water in section 2
Q 0.25
V2 = = = 2.598 m/s
A2 0.0962
Velocity of water in section 3.
Q 0.25
V3 = = = 14.205 m/s
A3 0.0176
(V1 − V2 )2 =
(5.0916 − 2.598)2
he =
2g 2 × 9.81
= 0.317 m
Loss of head due to sudden contraction.
0.375V32 0.375 × (14.204 )2

he = =
2g 2 × 9.81
= 3.856 m.
V3 is velocity after contraction.
7.4.3 Loss of Head at Entrance in a Pipe
0.5V 2
The value of loss of head at entrance has been found to be equal to
2g
where V is the velocity of the liquid in the pipe.
7.4.4 Loss of Heat at the Exit of a Pipe

V2
The value of loss of head at exit has been found to be equal to
2g
where, V = Velocity of liquid in pipe.
7.4.5 Loss of Head due to an Obstruction in a Pipe

Here head loss due to obstruction in a pipe = h0
2
V2  A 
− 1
2 g  ( A − a ) × Cc
=

where,
V = Velocity of liquid at section 2–2
A = Area of full pipe at section 2–2
1 2
A C
1 1
Fig. 7.5
(A –a) = Area of pipe at section 1 – 1 through which the liquid has to

pass.
C c =Coefficient of contraction.
a = Area of obstruction
7.4.6 Loss of Head due to Bend in Pipe

Loss of head in pipe due to bend is expressed as
KV 2
hb =
2g
where
hb = Loss of head due to bend.
V = Velocity of flow.
K = Coefficient of bend which depends upon angle of bend, diameter
of pipe and radius of curvature of bend.
7.4.7 Loss of Head in various Pipe Fittings
KV 2
Loss of head =
2g
where
K = Coefficient of pipe fitting and
V = Velocity of flow.
Problem 7.11
Find the discharge of water through a pipe of diameter 30 cm and length
100 m. The pipe is connected to a tank and the other end of the pipe is
discharging freely in atmosphere. Consider the pipe as horizontal and the
height of water in tank is 5 m above the centre of the pipe. Also consider all
minor losses and f = 0.036.
Solution : 1
Given Data :

Height of water in tank = 5 m 5m
f = 0.036
Consider velocity of water V in 0 .3 m
pipe. Applying Bernoulli’s equation
at the top of the water surface in the
tank and at the outlet of pipe. Take 2
point 1 on the top and point 2 at the
Fig. 7.6
outlet of pipe.
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 + losses.
w 2g w 2g
Consider the datum line which passes through the centre of pipe line
and substituting subsequent values in Bernoulli’s equations.
V22
0 + 0 + 5 = 0+ + 0 + (hf + hen + hex )
2g
where
hen = Loss of head at entrance
hex = Loss of head at exit
V22
5= + hf + hen + hex
2g
Velocity in pipe = V = V 2
V2
∴ 5= + hf + hen + hex
2g
V 2 fLV 2 0.5V 2 V 2
5= + + +
2g 2g 2g 2g
V 2 0.0036 × 100 × V 2 0.5V 2 V 2

5= + + +
2g 2g 2g 2g
5 × (2 × 9.81) = 6.1V 2
V = 4.010 m/s
π
∴ Discharge = Area × Velocity = × ( 0.30 )2 × 4.010
4
=0.2834 m3/s = 283.48 litres/s.
Discharge through pipe is 283.48 L.P.S.
Problem 7.12
A horizontal pipe 60 m long is discharging freely in atmosphere whereas the
other end is connected to a tank. For the first 30 m length from the tank, the
pipe is 20 cm diameter and its diameter is suddenly enlarged to 35 cm. The
height of water level in the tank is 7 m above the centre of the pipe.
Considering all losses of head which occur, determine the discharge through
pipe if f = 0.01 for both sections.
Solution :
Given Data :
Total length of pipe = 60 m
where L1 = 30 m and D1 = 0.20 m
L2 = 30 m and D2 = 0.35 m.
Height of water in tank= 7 m.
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at point 1 (free surface of water in tank)
and at point 2 (outlet of pipe). Consider datum line passing through the
centre of the pipe.
7m
D 2 = 0.35 m
D 1 = 0.20 m
2
L 1 = 0.30 m
L 2 = 0.30 m
Fig. 7.7
p1 V22
0+0+7= + + 0 + all losses
w 2g
V22
7 = 0+ + hen + he + hex + hf ...(i)
2g
where,
0.5V12
hen = Loss due to entrance =
2g
(V1 − V2 )2
he = Loss due to sudden enlargement =
2g
V22
hex = Loss due to exit =
2g
fL1V12 fL2V22
hf = Loss due to friction in pipe = +
2 gD1 2 gD2
By applying continuity equation.
A1V1 = A2V2
π 2
A2V2 4 D2 × V2  D2 
2 2
 0.35 
V1 = = = × V =   V2
π  D1  0.20 
2
A1
( )
4 1
D
2
V1 = 3.063 V2 ...(ii)
Substituting the value of V 1 in the various head losses.
0.5 (3.063V2 )
2
hen = = 0.2391 V22

2g
he =
(3.063V2 − V2 )2 = 0.217 V22
2g
hf = For the first part of the pipe (20 cm diameter)
fL1 (3.063V2 )
2
0.478 fL1V22
= =
2 g D1 D1
Again substituting all these values as calculated above in Eq. (i)
V22 V22 0.478 fL1V22 fL2V22

7 =0+ + 0.2391 V22 + 0.217 V22 + + +
19.62 19.72 D1 2 g D2
V22 V22
7 = + 0.2391 V22 + 0.217 V22 + + 0.717 V22 +0.00022 V22
19.62 19.62
7 = 1.275 V22
∴ V22 = 5.489
V2 = 2.342 m/s
π
∴ Discharge through pipe = A2V 2 = × ( 0.35 )2 × 2.342 = 0.225 m3/s
4
Problem 7.13
Find the difference in the elevations between the water surface in the two
tanks connected by a horizontal pipe of area 0.126 m 2 and length 300 m.
The discharge through the pipe is 350 litres/s. Consider all major and minor
losses in the pipe if f = 0.08.
Solution :
Given Data :
Area of pipe = 0.126 m2
∴ Diameter of pipe = 0.40 m

f = 0.08
1
H1 – H2 2
H1
H2
D = 0 .40 , L = 300 m
1 s t Tan k 2 nd Ta nk
Fig. 7.8
Q 0.350
Velocity of flow through pipe = V = = = 2.78 m/s
Area π
× (0.40 )2
4
As shown in Fig. 7.8, let H1 be the level of water above centre of pipe in
the 1st tank, let H2 be the level of water above centre of pipe in tank 2.
Difference in elevation between water surface
= H1 – H2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the free surface of water at points 1
and 2 in two tanks,
H1 = H2 + losses = H2 + hen + hf + he x
2 2 2
H1 = H2 + 0.5V + fLV + V
2g 2 gD 2 g
0.5 × (2.78)2 0.08 × 300 × (2.78)2 (2.78)2

H1 = H2 + + +
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 × 0.40 2 × 9.81
H1 – H2 = 24.225 m.
∴ Difference in water elevation in two tanks = 24.225 m.
Problem 7.14
A pipe line of length 300 m is laid inclined at an angle of 30° with horizontal.
The diameter of pipe is 35 cm and the discharge through pipe is 60 litres/s.
The flow takes place from point C to point D as shown in Fig. 7.9. Find the
pressure at C if the pressure at D is 20 N/cm 2. Take f = 0.036.
D
P D = 20 N /cm 2
0m Z D =1 5 0 m
30
l=
3 0°
H o rizon ta l surface
C
PC
Fig. 7.9
Solution :
Given Data :
f = 0.036
pD = 20 N/cm2 = 2 × 105 N/m 2
ZC = 0, ZD = height of point D above datum.
ZD
sin 30° = ,
300
∴ ZD = 150 m
Q 0.060
Velocity of flow = V = = = 0.624 m/s
Area π
× (0.35)2
4
Applying Bernoulli’s equations at point C and D and considering datum
surface as the horizontal surface.
pc Vc2 p V2
+ + Zc = D + D + Z D + hf
w 2g w 2g
As the diameter of pipe is constant V C and VD are equal.

Zc = 0, ZD = 150 m.
fLV 2 0.036 × 300 × (0.624 )2

Also, hf = = = 0.612 m
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.35
pc 2 × 105
+0 = + 150 + 0.612
w 9810
pc
= 170.99
w
p c = 170.99 ×9810 = 16.7 ×105 N/m 2
Pressure at lower end of pipe = 16.77 × 105 N/m2
7.5 DISCHARGE FROM ONE RESERVOIR TO ANOTHER

THROUGH A PIPE LINE
Two reservoirs are connected to each other by pipe lines of different lengths
and diameter either in series or in parallel.
7.5.1 Pipes in Series
Loss du e to
entra nce Frictional H
loss
L1 D Loss du e to sudden enlarg em ent
1
V1 L2 D
2 S udde n con traction
V2
L3 D
3
V3
Frictional
less
E xit loss
Fig. 7.10 Pipes in series
As shown in Fig. 7.10, D1,D2 and D3 are diameters of pipe line connected
in series and L1 L2 and L3 are respective lengths.
The difference in liquid surfaces in two tanks is equal to the
sum of the head losses in all sections.
The key equation for solving such a problem considering major and minor
losses can be written as :
0.5V12 f1 L1V12 (V1 − V2 )

2
f2 L2V22 0.375V32 f3 L3V32 V32
H= + + + + + +
2g 2 gD1 2g 2 gD2 2g 2 gD3 2g
By continuity equation,
A 1V 1 = A 2 V 2 = A 3V 3
If minor losses are neglected,
f1 L1V12 f2 L2V22 f3 L3V32

H= + +
2 gD1 2 gD2 2 gD3
SOLVED PROBLEMS ON PIPES IN SERIES

Problem 7.15
Two tanks are connected by three pipes in series of lengths 250 m, 150 m and
100 m and of diameters 35 cm, 25 cm and 20 cm respectively. The difference
in water level in the two tanks is 15 m. If coefficient of frictions are 0.052,
0.048 and 0.05 respectively, find the rate of flow.
Solution :
Here the rate of flow can be determined in two ways (i) by considering
minor losses, and (ii) by neglecting minor losses,
(i) By considering minor losses : (Ref. Fig. 7.11)
H
L1 =
25 0
m
D1 =
35 c L2 =
m 1 50
m
D2 = L3 =
25 c 1 00
m m
D3 =
20 c
m
Fig. 7.11
Let the velocities in the three pipes be V1, V 2, V 3 respectively.

Applying continuity equation, we have
A 1V 1 = A 2 V 2 = A 3V 3
For simplicity, determining values of V 2 and V 3 in terms of V1 as follows,
A1V1
V2 = A2
A1V1
and V3 = (from continuity equation)
A3
π
D12V1 ×
4 = ( D1 ) × V = (0.35) × V
2 2
V2 =
π ( D2 )2
1
(0.25)2
1
D22 ×
4
∴ V2 = 1.96 V 1 ...(a)
Similarly V3 =
( D1 )2 × V1 =
(0.35)2
× V1
(D3 )2 (0.20)2
∴ V3 = 3.063 V 1 ...(b)
Writing down the expression for H with reference to Fig. 7.11
f1 L1V12
H = loss of head at entrance + + Loss due sudden contraction +
2 g D1
f2 L2V22 f L V2
+ ... + loss due to sudden contraction + 3 3 3 + Loss due to exit
2 g D2 2 g D3
0.5V12 f1 ⋅ L1 ⋅ V12 0.375V22 f2 L2V22

H= + + +
2g 2 gD1 2g 2 gD2
0.375V32 f3 L3V32 V32

+ + +
2g 2 g D3 2g
0.052 × 250 × V12 0.375 (1.96V1 )

2
0.5V12
= + +
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 × 0.35 2 × 9.81
0.0480 × 150 × (1.96V1 ) 0.375 × (3.063V1 )

2 2
+ ....+ +
2 × 9.81 × 0.25 2 × 9.81
0.05 × 100 × (3.063V1 ) (3.063V1 )

2 2
+.... + +
2 × 9.81 × 0.20 2 × 9.81
= 0.025 V1 + 1.893 V 1 + 0.0734 V 1 + 5.639 V 12
2 2 2
....+ 0.179 V12 + 11.95 V 12 + 0.478 V 12

H = 20.24 V12
15 = 20.24 V 12
V1 = 0.861 m/s
π
Discharge through pipe= A1V1 = × ( 0.35 ) 2 × 0.861
4
= 0.0828 m3/s = 82.85 litres/s.
(ii) Rate of discharge by neglecting minor losses :
f1 L1V12 f2 L2V22 f3 L3V32

H= + +
2 g D1 2 ⋅ g ⋅ D2 2 ⋅ g ⋅ D3
0.052 × 250 × V12 0.048 × 150 × (1.96 V1 ) 0.05 × 100 × (3.063 V1 )

2 2
15 = + +
2 × 9.81 × 0.35 2 × 9.81 × 0.25 2 × 9.81 × 0.20
15 = 1.893 V21 + 5.639V 12+ 11.95 V21
15
V12 =
19.482
V1 = 0.877 m/s
π
Discharge through pipe = A 1V 1 = × ( 0.35 )2 × 0.877
4
= 0.0843 m3/s = 84.388 liters/s
7.5.2 Flow through Parallel Pipes

When a main pipe line divides into two or more parallel pipes which again
join together downstream and continue as a main line are said to be pipes
in parallel. Referring Fig. 7.12 the discharge in the main line is equal
to the sum of the discharges in each of the parallel pipes.
Q
1
Q
1
V
1
D
2
V
2
Q
Fig. 7.12 Pipes running parallel
∴ Q = Q 1+ Q 2
f1 L1V12 f2 ⋅ L2 ⋅ V22
and hf = =
2 g D1 2 g D2
SOLVED PROBLEMS ON PIPES IN PARALLEL

Problem 7.16
Determine the discharge through a main pipe which divides into two parallel
pipes W hich again forms one pipe as already discussed in Fig. 7.12. The
length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2500 m and 1.5 m
respectively, while the length and diameter of 2 and parallel pipe are 2500
m, and 1.0 m. If the total rate of flow in the main is 4.0 m 3/s, find the rate of
flow in each parallel pipe, f= 0.06 for both pipes.
Solution :
Given Data :
L1 = 2500 m
L2 = 2500 m
D1 = 1.5 m
D2 = 1.0 m
f1 = f2 = f = 0.06
Total flow = 4.0 m3/s
Let Q1 = discharge in pipe 1
Q2 = discharge in pipe 2
Q = Q1 + Q2 ...(i)
f1 L1V12 2 V12 V22

Also, = f2 L2V2 ∴ =
2 g D1 2 g ⋅ D2 D1 D2
V12 V2
= 2 V 21 = 1.5V 22
1.5 1.0
V1 = 1.224 V2 ...(ii)
π π
Now, Q1 = × D12 × V1 = × (1.5)2 × 1.224V2
4 4
Q1 = 2.163 V2 ...(iii)
π π
and also Q2 = × D22 × V2 = × (1)2 × V2
4 4
Q2 = 0.7855 V2 ...(iv)
Substituting the value of Q1 and Q2 in Eq. (i)
Q = 2.163 V2+ 0.7855 V 2
4 = 2.948 V2
∴ V2 = 1.357 m/s
Substituting this value of V 2 in Eq. (ii)

V1 = 1.224 (1.357) = 1.660 m/s
Hence,
Q1 = 2.163 (1.357) from Eq. (iii)
= 2.935 m3/s
Q2 = 0.7855 × (1.357) = 1.065 m3/s
Problem 7.17
A pipe line of diameter 0.75 m is 2 km long. To increase the discharge, another
line of the same diameter is introduced in the second half of the main line in
parallel. If minor losses are neglected, find the increase in discharge because
of addition of another pipe, f = 0.04.
The head loss at inlet = 0.40 m.
Solution :
Given Data :
D = 0.75 m
L = 2000 m
Head at inlet = 0.40 m (Point A)
Head at outlet = 0 (Point E)
∴ Head lost = 0.40 m = hf
0 .40 m
D = 0 .75 L 1 = 1 00 0 m , D 1 = 0.75 m Q
A Q B 1 C
L 2 = 10 00 m D 2 = 0.75 m Q2 E
Fig. 7.13
Case 1 :
Determining discharge for a single pipe of diameter = 0.75 m and length =
2000 m.
fLV 2
hf =
2 gD
0.04 × 2000 × V 2
0.40 =
0.75 × 2 × 9.81
V = 0.271 m/s
π
∴ Discharge Q* = Area × Velocity = × ( 0.75 )2 × 0.271
4
= 0.119 m3/s ...(i)
Case 2 :
Determining discharge when an additional pipe of diameter 0.750 m and
length 1000 m is connected in parallel for the last half length of the main
pipeline.
Let
Q1 = discharge of first parallel pipe.
Q2 = discharge of second parallel pipe.
As the length and diameters of each parallel pipe is same.
Q
Q 1 = Q2 =
2
Consider the flow through ABC or ABE (Fig. 7.13)
Head loss through ABC = Head lost through AB + head lost through BC
...(ii)
Head loss due to friction through ABC = 0.4 m (given)
Head loss due to friction through AB
fL1V 2 0.04 × 1000 × V 2

=
2 gD 0.75 × 2 × 9.81
= 2.718 V2 ...(iii)
Q Q Q
But, V= = =
Area π 0.441
× (0.75)2
4
Substituting this value of V in (iii)
Hence, head loss due to friction through AB
2.718
= × Q2 = 13.92 Q2
(0.441)2
Head lost due to friction through BC
2
f × 1000 × V12
 Q 
0.04 × 1000
= = ×π 
2 × 9.81 × 0.75 2 × 9.81 × 0.75  × 0.752 × 2 
4 
= 3.481 Q2
Substituting these values in (ii)

0.4 = 13.92 Q2 + 3.481 Q2
Q = 0.1516 m3/s
∴ Increase in discharge = Q – Q* = 0.1516 – 0.119
= 0.0326 m3/s.
7.5.3 Siphon
A siphon is a long bent pipe which is used to carry water from a reservoir at
a higher elevation to another reservoir at a lower elevation when the two
reservoirs are separated by a hill or high level ground in between as shown
in Fig. 7.14.
The pressure at C is less than atmospheric pressure. The pressure at C
is reduced upto – 7.6 m of water for unobstructed flow.
C (S um m it)
h
A
S iph on
L1
Fig. 7.14 Siphon
Problem 7.18
A Siphon of diameter 25 cm connects two reservoirs having a differece in
elevation of 25 m. The length of the siphon is 450 m and the summit is 4.0 m
above the water level in the upper reservior. The length of the pipe is 150 m
from upper reservoir. Determine the rate of flow through siphon and also
determine the pressure at the summit. f = 0.04.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of siphon pipe = 0.25 m
Length of siphon = 450 m
Length of siphon upto summit L1 = 150 m
f = 0.04
H = 25 m
h = 4.0 m
(Refer Fig. 7.14)
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points A and B.
pA VA2 p V2
= + Z A = B = B + Z B + loss of head due to friction from A to B
w 2g w 2g
0 + 0 + ZA = 0 + 0 + ZB + hf
where PA and PB are atmospheric pressures and VA and V B = 0
f ⋅ L ⋅V 2
ZA – ZB = hf- =
2g ⋅ D
Here ZA – ZB = 25 m
0.04 × 450 × V 2
∴ 25 =
2 × 9.81 × 0.25
V = 2.61 m/s
π
∴ Discharge Q = A ⋅ V = × (0.25)2 × 2.61
4
Q = 0.1281 m3/s = 128.13 liters/s.
Calculating Pressure at Summit:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points A and C.
pA V A2 p V2
= + Z A = C + C + Zc + loss of head due to friction in between A
w 2g w 2g
and C
Consider datum line passing through A.
p V2
0+0+0=
C
+ + 4 + hf
w 2g
pC (2.61)2 0.04 × 150 × (2.61)2

∴ 0= + +4+
w 2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 × 0.25
pC
= –12.68 m of water
w
Pressure at summit = – 124390.8 N/m2
Problem 7.19
Two reservoirs are connected by a Siphon of diameter 25 cm. The difference
in elevation between is 20 m and the total length of the Siphon is 550 m and
the summit is 4 m above the water level in the upper reservoir. If the
separation of flow takes place at 2.8 m of water absolute. Determine the
maximum length of siphon from upper reservoir to the summit. Take f =

0.05 and atmospheric pressure = 10.3 m of water.
Solution :
C (S um m it)
A h
n
ho
S ip L1
Fig. 7.15
Given Data :
Diameter of siphon = D = 0.25 m.
Difference in elevation between reservoirs = 20 m.
Total length of siphon = 550 m.
h = 4 m.
pC
Pressure at summit, i.e. = 2.8 m of water absolute,
w
pC
Atmospheric pressure head = = 10.3 m of water absolute.
w
To determine L1,
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A and C and taking the datum
line through point A.
pA VA2 p V2
= + Z A = C + c + Zc + Loss of head between A and C
w 2g w 2g
(Neglecting minor losses.)
VC2
10.3 + 0 + 0 = 2.8 + + 4.0 + hf
2g
V2
hf = 3.5 − ...(i)
2g
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points A and B. Consider datum
line passing through B.
pA VA2 p V2
= + Z A = B + B + Z B + Loss of head between A and B
w 2g w 2g
pA pB
But and are at atmospheric pressures and hence are equal.
w w
VA = 0, VB = 0, ZA = 20 m, ZB = 0
0 + 0 + 20 = 0 + 0 + 0 + hf ∴ hf = 20 m
fLV 2 0.05 × 550 × V 2

∴ = 20 =
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.25
V = 1.889 m/s.
Substituting this value of V in (i)
(1.889)2
hf = 3.5 −
2 × 9.81
hf = 3.318 m (i.e. head loss between A and C.
fL1 (V )2
Further, hf = between A and C.
2 gD
0.05 × L1 × (1.889)2
3.318 =
2 × 9.81 × 0.25
L 1 = 91.22 m. Ans.
Maximum length of summit from upper reservoir = 91.22 m.
7.5.4 Equivalent Pipe Concept

Equivalent pipe is defined as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of
head and discharge equal to the loss of head and discharge of pipes in series
(compound pipe) consisting of several pipes of different lengths and
diameters. The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is called equivalent
size of the pipe. The length of equivalent pipe is sum of lengths of all pipes
joined in series.
L L1 L2 L3
= + + +......
D 5 D15 D25 D35
Here, L1 L2 L3 ... are lengths of pipes in series and D1 D2 D3 are the
diameters of pipes’in series. L and D is the length and diameter of equivalent
pipe. In other words, if a compound pipe of variable diameters and lengths
is replaced by a single pipe of uniform diameter, then it is called equivalent
pipe.
SOLVED PROBLEMS ON PIPES IN SERIES, AND PARALLEL,

SIPHONS FROM UNIVERSITY PAPERS
Problem 7.20
Two reservoirs are connected by three pipes in series.
L (Length) D (Diameter)
First Pipe 300 m 30 cm
Second Pipe 250 m 25 cm
Third Pipe 200 m 20 cm
Assuming f = 0.02, 0.025 and 0.03 respectively for the three pipes.
Calculate the discharge through them if the elevation difference of the levels
in the reservoirs is 20 m. Neglect minor losses.
20 m
L1 =
3 00
m
L1 = L2 =
30 c 25 0
f1 = 0 m m
.0 2
D = L3 =
2 25
f2 = 0 cm 200
.0 2 5 m
D3 =
20 c
f3 = 0 m
.0 3
Fig. 7.16
Solution :
By continuity equation,
A 1V 1 = A 2 V 2 = A 3V 3
Determining V2 and V 3 in terms of V 1 for simplicity.
A1V1
∴ V2 = A2
A1V1
Also V3 = A3
π
× (0.3)2 × V1
4
∴ V2 =
π
× (0.25)2
4
V2 = 1.44 V1 ... (i)
π
× (0.3)2 × V1
4
V3 =
π
× (0.20 )2
4
V3 = 2.25 V1 ...(ii)
Applying equation for head loss
f1 L1V12 f2 L2V22 f3 L3V32

H= + +
2 g D1 2 g D2 2 g ⋅ D3
0.02 × 300 × V12 0.025 × 250 × (1.44V1 )

2
20 = +
2 × 9.81 × 0.30 2 × 9.81 × 0.25
0.03 × 200 × (2.25V1 )

2
+....+
2 × 9.81 × 0.20
20 = 1.019V 21 + 2.642 V 21 +7.741 V 21
= 11.402 V 21
V1 = 1.324 m/s.
π
Discharge through pipes = A1 . V1 × (0.3 )2 × 1.324
4
= 0.0936 m 3/s = 93.60 liters/s. Ans.
Discharge through compound pipe is 93.60 L.P.S.
Problem 7.21
A conical pipe has diameters at the two ends of 0.5 m and 1.5 m and is 15
metres long. It is vertical and the frictional loss is 2.5 Q where Q is the flow
of water in m3/s. The velocity at smaller end is 10 m/s. If the smaller end is
at the top and pressure head there is 2 meters of water. Find the pressure
head at lower end when the flow is (i) downwards, (ii) upwards.
Solution :
Case (i) When the flow is downwards
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the upper end and lower end of pipe with
datum at the lower end of pipe.
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 + losses
w 2g w 2g
D 1 = 0.5 m
V 1 = 10 m /s
P1 = 2 m
w
15 m
D 2 = 1.5 m
Fig. 7.17
(10)2 p2 V22
2+ + 15 = + + 0 + head loss ...(i)
2 × 9.81 w 2g
V1 = 10 m/s
π
and A1 = × 0.52 = 0.196
4
∴ Q = A1V1 = 0.196 × 10 = 1.96 m3/s ;
also Q = A2V2
π
1.96 = × (1.5)2 × V 2 (since A 1V 1 = A 2V 2)
4
V2 = 1.108 m/s.
Head loss = 2.5 Q = 2.5 × 1.96 = 4.9 m.
Substituting the above worked out values in (i)
(10)2 p2 (1.108)2
2+ + 15 = + + 4.9
2 × 9.81 w 2 × 9.81
p2
= 17.13 m of water.
w
Pressure head at lower end is 17.13 m of water if water flows downwards.
Case (ii) When the flow is upwards.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the upper and lower end of pipe with datum
at the lower end of pipe.
p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 + losses = 2 + 2 + Z2
w 2g w 2g
(10)2 p2 (1.108)2
2+ + 15 + 4.9 = + +0
2 × 9.81 w 2 × 9.81
p2
= 26.93 m of water.
w
Pressure head at lower end is 26.93 m of water if the flow is upwards.
Problem 7.22
Three pipes 300 m long 30 cm diameter; 150 m long, 20 cm diameter 200 m
long, 25 cm in diameter are connected in series between two reservoirs. The
friction factors for the three pipes are 0.018, 0.020 and 0.019 respectively.
Determine the rate of flow if the difference in elevations of water levels between
fLV 2
the two reservoirs is 15 m. Use hf = for friction loss and account for
2 gD
all losses. Contractions and expansions are sudden.
If the three pipes are to be replaced by a single pipe of same total length.
Find the diameter of the pipe required if f = 0.02 for the pipe for the same
discharge.
Solution :
15 m
L =2
1 00 m
L =1
D = 2 50 m
1 30 L =2
f1 = 0 c m 3 00 m
.0 1 8 D =
m 2 20 cm
f2 = 0 .
020 D =
3 25
f3 = 0 c m
.0 1 9
Fig. 7.18
Given Data :
L1 = 300 m, D1 = 0.30 m, f1 = 0.018
L2 = 150 m, D2 = 0.20 m, f2 = 0.020
L3 = 200 m D3 = 0.25 m, f3 = 0.019.
Elevation difference H = 15 m.
Here H = Loss due to entrance + friction loss (1) + contraction loss +
friction loss (2) + sudden expansion + friction loss (3) + exit loss.
Step 1 :
Determining values of V 2 and V 3 in terms of V 1
Applying Continuity equation.

A 1V 1 = A 2V 2 = A 3V 3
A1V1
V2 = A2
A1V1
and V3 = A3
π
× (0.30 )2 × V1
V2 = 4
π
× (0.20 )2
4
π
× (0.30 )2 × V1
4
and V3 =
π
× (0.25)2
4
V2 = 2.25V1 ...(i)
and V3 = 1.44 V1 ...(ii)
Step 2 :
0.5V12 f1 L1V12 0.5V22 f2 L2V22 (V2 − V3 )

2
f L V2 V2
H= + + + + + 3 3 3 + 3
2g 2 g D1 2g 2 g D2 2g 2 gD3 2g
Rewriting again,
0.5V12 0.018 × 300 × V12 0.5 × (2.25V1 )

2
H= + +
2g 2 × 9.81 × 0.30 2 × 9.81
0.020 × 150 × (2.25V1 )

2
(2.25 − 1.44 )2 V12
+....+ +
2 × 9.81 × 0.20 2 × 9.81
0.019 × 200 × (1.44V1 ) (1.44V1 )

2 2
+...+ +
2 × 9.81 × 0.25 2 × 9.81
Resolving further,
H = 0.0254 V12 + 0.917 V12 + 0.129 V12 + 3.87 V12 + 0.0334 V12 + 1.606
V12 + 0.1056 V12
15 = 6.68 V12
V1 = 1.497 m/s.
Step 3 :
π
Discharge = A1V1 = × ( 0.30 )2 × 1.497 = 0.1058 m3/s
4
Rate of flow = 105.83 litres/s.
Replacement of pipe or Equivalent pipe diameter.
By applying equation.
Q2  f1 L1 f2 L1 f3 L3 
h Loss =  5 + 5 + 5 
2
 π   D1 D2 D3 
2g  
 4
fQ 2 L
Also h Loss = 2
⋅
 π D5
2g  
 4
Equating R.H.S. of both equations as above.
Q2  f1 L1 f2 L1 f3 L3  fQ 2 L
 5
+ 5
+ 5  = ⋅ 5
2 2
 π   D1 D2 D3   π D
2g   2g  
 4  4
f1 L1 f2 L2 f3 L3 fL
+ + =
D15 D25 D35 D5
0.018 × 300 0.020 × 150 0.019 × 200 0.20 × 6.50

+ + =
(0.30 )5 (0.20 )5 (0.25)5 D5
D = 0.3844 m
Diameter of new single diameter pipe = 38.44 cm.
Problem 7.23
A 54.6 m long 102 mm diameter clean galvanised iron pipe discharges water
from a closed constant head reservoir A to an open constant head reservoir B.
The pipe has three bends and 2 gate valves, and the actual level difference
between A and B is 6.7 m. What is must be the gauge pressure of the air above
the water level in A if discharge of 0.034 m3/s of water through the pipe is
required ? Assu efficient (1) for bend K, = 0.80, (2) gate value KV = 0.2.
f ⋅ L ⋅V 2
Consider all minor losses. Take f = 0.02 in the equation h f = ,
2 gD
for the pipe.
Solution :
Given Data :
Length (L) = 54.6 m.
Diameter (D) = 0.102 m
(Level difference) H = 6.7 m.
Q = 0.034 m3/s
H = 6 .7 m
C losed L=5
re se rvoir 4 .6 m D
A
D=
0 .1 0
2m
O pe n
re se rvoir B
Fig. 7.19
Q 0.034
Velocity of flow = = = 4.161 m/sec
A π
× (0.102)2
4
Losses in the Pipes :
H = Loss of entrance + frictional loss + Loss due to 3 bends + Loss due to
gate 2 valves + Loss at exit
0.5V 2 fLV 2  kV 2   kV 2  V 2
= + + 3  + 2 +
2g 2g D  2g   2 g  2 g
V2  fL 
=  0.5 + + 3 K B + 2 K v + 1

2g D
(4.161)2  0.02 × 54.6 

=  0.5 + + (3 × 0.8 ) + (2 × 0.2) + 1
2 × 9.81  0.102 
Head loss = 13.242 m.
Applying Bernoulli’s at surface of water levels in the two reservoirs at
C and D.
VC2 PC VD2 PD
ZC + + Z
= D + + + Head loss
2g w 2g w
Consider datum at surface of water in reservoir B.
PC
0+0+ = 6.7 + 0 + 0 + 13.242
w
PC
= 19.942 m of water
w
p c = 19.942 × 9810
= 195631.02 N/m2
Pressure at top of reservoir A = 195.631 kN/m 2
Problem 7.24
Two reservoirs having a constant difference in water level of 66 m are
connected by a 225 mm diameter pipe, 4 km long. The pipe is tapped at a
point distance 1.6 km from the upper reservoir, and the water is drawn of at
the rate of 42.5 lit/s. If the friction coefficient f is 0.029, determine the rate
in lit/s at which water enters the lower reservoir. Neglecting all losses except
pipe friction.
Solution :
Given Data :
Difference in water level = 66 m
Total length of pipe = 4000 m
Initial discharge through single pipe = 0.042 m3/s
Let Q1 be the discharge through upper 1.6 km pipe
Let Q2 be the discharge through remaining 2.40 km pipe
Let Q3 be the discharge through the newly laid 2.40 km pipe in parallel
The diameter of new pipe = 0.225 m
Discharge Q2 and Q3 are equal as diameters are equal.
Also Q 1 = Q2 + Q 3
Q1 = 2Q2
Q1
∴ Q2 =
2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to the surface of water levels in the
two reservoirs and considering flow through the straight pipe.
fL1V12 f ⋅ L2 ⋅ V22
66 = + ...(i)
2 g ⋅ D2 2 ⋅ g ⋅ D2
Q1 4Q1
where, V1 = =
π 0.159
× (0.225)2
4
Q2 4Q2
V2 = =
π 0.159
× (0.225)2
4
Substituting values of V 1 and V 2 in (i)

2 2
 4Q1   4Q2 
0.029 × 1600 ×  0.029 × 2400 × 
 0.159   0.159 
66 = +
2 × 9.81 × 0.225 2 × 9.81 × 0.225
66 = 6652.15 Q12 + 9978 Q22
Also Q1 = 2Q2
66 = 6652.15 (2 Q2)2 + 9978 Q22
Q2 = 0.04247 m3/s
∴ Q1 = 2 × 0.04247 = 0.0849 m3/s.
The rate of discharge due to addition new pipe is 0.0849 m3/s in the
lower reservoir.
Problem 7.25
Two reservoirs whose water levels differ by 20 m are connected with a compound
pipeline consisting of three pipes in series. Pipe of 200 mm diameter is connected
to upper reservoir and pipe of 300 mm diameter is connected to lower reservoir.
Middle pipe is 150 mm diameter. All pipes are 100 m long with friction factors
0.023, 0.024, and 0.025. Considering all losses. Find rate of flow of water and
velocity in each pipe.
20 m
D =
1 0 .2
m
L = D =
1 1 00
f1 = m 2 0 .1
0 .0 2 50 m
3
L = D =
2 10 0 3 0 .3
f2 = m 0 m
0 .0 2
4
L =
3 1 00
f3 = m
0 .0 2
5
Fig. 7.20
Solution :
Given Data :
Level difference H= 20 m.
D1 = 0.200 m, L1 = 100 m, f1 = 0.023
D2 = 0.150 m, L2 = 100 m, f2 = 0.024
D3 = 0.300 m, L3 = 100 m, f3 = 0.025
A1 = 0.0314 m ,2 A2 = 0.0176 m A3 = 0.0706 m2
2
Total losses
H = Loss at entrance + hf1 + Loss due to sudden contraction + Loss due
to sudden enlargement + hf3 + Loss at exit.
0.5V12 f1 L1V12 0.5V22 f2 L2V22 (V2 − V3 )

2
f L V2 V2
H = + + + + + 3 3 3 + 3 ..(i)
2g 2 g ⋅ D1 2g 2 g ⋅ D2 2g 2 g ⋅ D3 2 g
Q
Also V1 =
A1
Q
V2 =
A2
Q
V3 = A
3
Substituting values of V 1 , V 2 , V3 in Eq. (i).
2
Q Q
−
0.5 (Q 2 ) f1 L1Q 2
0.5 ⋅ Q 2
f2 ⋅ L2 ⋅ Q 2 
 A2 A 
3
H = + + + +
2 g ⋅ A12 2 ⋅ g ⋅ D1 ⋅ A12 2 g ⋅ A22 2 ⋅ g ⋅ D2 ⋅ A22 2g
f3 L3 ⋅ Q 2 Q2
+ +
2 g ⋅ D3 ⋅ A32 A32 × 2 g
0.5Q 2 0.023 × 100 × Q 2 0.5Q 2

20 = + +
0.0193 2 × 9.81 × 0.2 × (0.0314 )2 2 × 9.81 × (0.0176)2
2
 Q Q 
 − 
0.0176 0.0706  ...+
2
0.024 × 100 × Q
+ +
0.15 × 2 × 9.81 × (0.0176)2 2 × 9.81
0.025 × 100 × Q 2 Q2
+ +
2 × 9.81 × 0.3 × (0.0706)2 (0.0706 )2 × 2 × 9.81
20 = 3523.49 Q2
Q = 0.0753 m3/s
0.753 0.0753 0.0753

V1 = , V2 = V3 =
A1 A2 A3
0.0753 0.0753 0.0753

V1 = , V2 = V3 =
0.0314 0.0176 0.0706
V1 = 2.398 m/s, V2 = 4.28 m/s, V3 = 1.066 m/s
Problem 7.26
The difference in level between the catchment reservoir and the service
reservoir of a town supply is 160 m and the distance between them is 50 km.
The reservoirs were originally connected by a single pipe designed to carry
260 lit/s. It was later found necessary to increase the flow to 375 liter s/s
and it was decided to lay another pipe of 500 mm diameter along side the
first over part of the length the two pipes being cross connected. Calculate
the diameter of the original pipe and the length of the second pipe. Take f =
0.028 for all pipes. Neglect minor losses.
Solution :
1 60 m
A x
3
1 B
50 km D
2
C
Fig. 7.21
Given Data :
Level difference in reservoirs = 160 m
Total-length of pipe = 50,000 m
Initial discharge = 260 liters/s
f = 0.028.
Consider single pipe discharge
fLV 2
hf = ...(i)
2 gD
Q 0.260 0.331
Also, V= = =
A π D2
× D2
4
Rewriting Eq. (i) again and substituting value of V.

2
0.028 × 50000  0.331 
hf =  
2 × 9.81 D2 
7.817
160 =
D4
Diameter of pipe :
D = 0.470 m.
Consider second case to increase the rate of flow to 375 litres/s
Referring Fig. 7.21
The new pipe BD is laid to the increase the discharge.
Now, ( loss of head in BC ) and ( Loss of head in BD ) are equal.
f2 L2V22 f3 ⋅ L3V32
∴ =
2 gD2 2 g ⋅ D3
L2 = L3
and f2 = f3 (Given)
D2 = 0.470 m
and D3 = 0.500 m
V22 V32
=
D2 D3
Q22 Q32
∴ =
A22 × D2 A32 × D3
Q22 Q32
2
= 2
π 2 π 2
 × 0.470  × 0.470  × 0.5  × 0.500
4 4
Q22 = 0.733 Q32

Q2 = 0.856 Q3 ...(ii)
Also, Q 1 = Q2 + Q 3
0.375 = 0.856 Q3 + Q3 = 1.856Q3
Q3 = 0.201 m3/s
Q3 = 0.172 m3/s.
To determine velocity in BC and AB.
0.172
Velocity in BC = V2 = = 0.991 m/s
π
× (0.470 )2
4
0.375
Velocity in AB = V1 =
π
× (0.47 )2
4
V1 = 2.161 m/s
Consider total head in ABC and consider length of AB equal to x.
fL1V12 fL2V22
H = hf1 + hf2 = +
2 gD1 2 gD2
0.028 × x × (2.161)2 0.028 × (50000 − x )(0.991)2

160 = +
2 × 9.81 × 0.470 2 × 9.81 × 0.470
(1400 − 0.028x )(0.991)2

160 = 0.0142 x +
9.22
1374.91 − 0.0275x
160 = 0.0142 x +
9.22
1475.2 = 0.1309 x + 1374.91 – 0.0275 x
969.92 m = x
Length of second pipe = 49.035 km
7.6 POWER TRANSMISSION THROUGH PIPES

Power transmission through pipe
Due to weight of liquid flowing through pipe and the total head available
at the end of the pipe. The power available at the end B of the pipe.
A B
V D
Fig. 7.22
π  fLV 2 
in Watts = w× × D2 × V  H −
4  2 gD 
Efficiency of power transmission
Power available at outlet of pipe H − hf

η= =
Power supplied at the inlet of pipe H
Condition for maximum transmission of power
H
hf =
3
i.e., Power transmitted through a pipe is maximum when the loss of head
due to friction is one third of the total head at inlet.
Problem 7.27
A pipe of diameter 35 cm and length 4000 m is used for the transmission of
power by water. Total head at inlet of pipe is 500 m. Determine the maximum
power available at the outlet of the pipe, if value of f = 0.05.
Solution :
Given Data :
Head = 500 m
f = 0.05
For maximum power transmission
H 500
hf = = = 1.667 m ...(i)
3 3
fLV 2 0.05 × 4000 × V 2

Also hf = =
2 gD 2 × 9.81 × 0.35
hf = 29.12 V2 ...(ii)
Equating (i) and (ii)
1.667 = 29.12V2
V = 0.239 m/s
π
Discharge Q = A .V × (D)2 × 0.239
4
π
=× (0.35 )2 × 0.239
4
Q = 0.0229 m3/s
Head available at the end of the pipe
H 2H 2 × 500
= H – hf = H – = =
3 3 3
= 333.33 m
∴ Maximum power available = w . Q × head at the end of pipe

= 9810 × 0.0229 × 333.33
= 74882.25 watts
Problem 7.28
A pipe line of length 2500 m is used for power transmission. The pressure at
inlet is 550 N/cm2 and the 165 horse power is to be transmitted through the
pipe. Determine the diameter of the pipe and efficiency of transmission if the
pressure drop over the length of pipe is 100 N/cm 2 f = 0.052.
Solution :
Pressure at inlet = 550 N/cm2
H.P to be transmitted = 165
Pressure drop = 100 N/cm2
100 × 104
Loss of head = hf = = 1010.936 m
9810
Let the diameter of the pipe = D
w × Q × ( H − hf )
Power transmitted in H.P =
75
1000 × Q × (560.65 − 101.94 )

165 =
75
Q = 0.0269 m3/s
π
But discharge Q = Area × Velocity = × D2 × V
4
π
0.0269 = × D2 × V
4
0.0343
V=
D2
Head lost due to friction
fLV 2
hf =
2 gD
0.052 × 2500 × (0.0343)2

101.94 =
2 × 9.81 × D × ( D 2 )
2
D = 0.150 m = 15.0 cm.

Efficiency of power transmission is given by

H − hf 560.65 − 101.94
η= =
H 560.65
= 0.8181
η = 81.81%
7.7 WATER HAMMER PHENOMENON

When a liquid is flowing through a long pipe fitted with a valve at the end of
the pipe and if the valve is closed suddenly a pressure wave of high intensity
is produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high intensity is having
the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe. This phenomenon is
known as water hammer.
The intensity of pressure rise due to water hammer is given by
ρ ⋅ L ⋅V
p=
t
When valve is closed gradually.
p = V K ⋅ρ
When the valve is closed suddenly and pipe is assumed rigid
ρ
p= V
1 D
+
K E ⋅t
When the valve is closed suddenly but pipe is elastic

where
L = Length of pipe
V = Velocity of flow
t = Time required to close the valve
k = Bulk modulus of water
ρ = Mass density of water
D = Diameter of pipe
E = Modulus of elasticity for pipe material.
If the time required (t) to close the valve is
2L
... greater than (the closure of valve is gradual)
C
2L
... less than (The closure of valve is said to be sudden)
C
Here
L = Length of pipe
C = Velocity of pressure wave produced due to water hammer.
K
=
ρ
Problem 7.29
Water flows through a pipe of diameter 35 cm with a velocity of 1.42 m/s.
The length of pipe is 3000 m. A valve is provided at the end of pipe to regulate
the flow. Determine the rise in pressure if the valve is closed in 30 seconds.
Take the valve of C = 1450 m/s.
Solution :
Given Data :
Velocity of water V = 1.42 m/s
Time of closure of valve = 30 seconds
C = 1450 m/s
Let the rise in pressure = p
2L 2 × 3000
∴ = = 4.137
C 1450
2L
If t> the closure of valve is gradual.
C
In our case, t = 30 seconds which is greater than 4.137 seconds and
hence valve is closed gradually.
For gradually closure of valve, the rise in pressure as
ρ ⋅ L ⋅V w V 9810 1.42
P= = ⋅L × = ⋅ 3000 ×
t g t 9.81 30
= 142000 N/m2
Problem 7.30
If in the above problem, the valve is closed in 2.5 seconds. Find the rise in
pressure behind the valve. Take Bulk modulus of water = 191295 N/cm2.
Solution :
Given Data :
V = 1.42 m/s, L = 3000 m
Diameter D = 0.35 m
Time to close the valve = 2.5 seconds
Bulk modulus of water = 191295 N/cm2 = 191295 × 10 4 N/m 2
Assume pipe to be rigid one.

∴ Velocity of pressure wave
K 191295 × 104
C= = = 1283.09 m/s
ρ 9810
9.81
2L 2 × 3000
= = 4.338
C 1383.09
2L
As t< the valve is closed suddenly.
C
In case of rigid pipe, the rise in pressure due to sudden closure of valve
19195 × 104 ⋅ 9810

P = V K ⋅ ρ = 1.42
9.81
= 1963.99 ×103 N/m2
uu
+0)26-4
8 Flow Around
Imersed Bodies
8.1 GENERAL
If a body is held immersed in a large stationary mass of moving fluid the body
experiences a force which tends to oppose its motion. The force exerted by the
fluid on the body may be inclined to the direction of motion and therefore there
are two force components one in the direction of motion as well as one
perpendicular to the direction of motion.
The component of force in the direction of motion is called the drag and
the component perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift.
FL
FR
FD
V
Fig. 8.1 Forces on immersed body
Viscosity of the fluid is mainly responsible for causing the drag on the
bodies.
8.2 EXPRESSION FOR DRAG AND LIFT

The drag and lift for a body moving in a fluid of density (ρ) at a uniform
velocity (V) are given as:
(286)
Flow Around Immersed Bodies 287
ρV 2
FD = CD ⋅ A ⋅ ...(8.1)
2
ρV 2
FL = CL ⋅ A ⋅ ...(8.2)
2
where
CD = Coefficient of drag
CL = Coefficient of lift
A = Area of the body which is the projected area of the body
perpendicular to the direction of flow
Resultant force on body FR = FD2 + FL2

ρ = Density of fluid
V = Stream velocity
8.3 POWER REQUIRED TO KEEP THE PLATE IN MOTION

ρ = Force in the direction of motion × velocity = FD × V watts ...(8.3)
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 8.1
A flat plate of 2 m × 2 m moves at 15 m/s in air of specific weight 11.28
N/m 3. If CD= 0.15 and CL = 0.75. Determine
(i) the drag force
(ii) the lift force
(iii) the resultant force
(iv) power required to keep the plate in motion.
(v) Calculate the direction of resultant force.
Solution :
Given Data :
Size of plate = 2 m × 2 m
Velocity = 15 m/s
Specific weight of air = 11.28 N/m3
CD = 0.15, CL = 0.75
C D × A × ρV 2
(i) Drag force FD =
2
0.15 × (2 × 2) × 11.28 × (15)2

= = 77.61 N
2 × 9.81
CL × A × ρV 2
(ii) Lift force FL =
2
0.75 × (2 × 2) × 11.28 × (15)2

= = 388.07 N.
2 × 9.81
(iii) Resultant force FR = FD2 + FL2
= (77.61)2 + (388.07)2 = 395.76 N

(iv) Power required to keep the plate in motion using Eq. 8.3
Power (P) = FD × V = 77.61 × 15 = 1164.15 watts
(v) Direction of resultant force :
FL 388.07
tan θ = = = 5.000
FD 77.61
θ = 78°41´ 26.29´´
Problem 8.2
A truck is travelling at a speed of 85 kmph has a total resistance of 19620 N
on a projected area of 6.5 m2. Of the total resistance 30% resistance is due to
rolling friction and surface friction. Remaining resistance is due to form drag.
Calculate the coefficient of drag if the specific weight of air is 12.27 N/m3.
Solution :
Given Data :
Speed of truck = 85 kmph = 23.61 m/s
Total resistance = 19620 N
Resistance due to rolling and friction = 5886 N
∴ Form drag = 19620 –5886
FD = 13734 N
From Eq. 8.1
ρV 2
FD = CD ⋅ A ⋅
2
w (23.61)2
13734 = CD . 65 × ×
g 2
12.25 (23.61)2
13734 = CD . 65 × ×
9.81 2
CD = 6.07
Coefficient of drag = 6.07. Ans.
Problem 8.3
Wind blows normal to a circular disc. 20 m2 in area at a velocity of 22 m/s.
Determine the force required to hold it at rest, if density of wind is 1.2 kg/m3.
Take CD of disc = 1.5.
Solution
Given Data : Area = 20 m2
Velocity = 22 m/s
(ρ)wind = 1.2 kg/m3
CD = 1.5
The force required to hold the circular disc = Drag exerted by wind.
ρV 2 (22)2
∴ Drag exerted by wind = CD × A × = 1.5 × 20 × 1.2 ×
2 2
kg.m
= 8712 = 8712 N
sec2
Hence, force required to hold the circular disc at rest = 8712 N.
Problem 8.4
A man weighing 981 N descends to the ground from an aeroplane with the
help of a parachute against the resistance of air. The shape of parachute
being hemispherical of 2.0 m diameter. Find the velocity of the parachute
with which it comes down. CD = 0.5 and ρ = 0.00125 gm/cc. v = 0.015 stokes.
Solution :
Given Data :
Weight of man = 981 N = W
Drag force = 981 N = W
Diameter of parachute = 2.0 m
CD = 0.5
ρ = 1.35 kg/m3
V = Velocity of parachute in m/s.
By equation
ρ⋅V 2
FD = C D × A ×
2
π 
0.5 ×  × 22  × 1.25 × V 2
4 
981 =
2
V2 = 999.238
V = 31.61 m/s
The parachute comes down at a velocity of 31.61 m/s. Ans.
Problem 8.5
A kite weighing11 N has an effective area of 0.9 m2. The tension in the kite
string is 33 N. When the string makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal.
For a wind of velocity 9 m/s. Determine the coefficient of drag and lift.
Specific weight of air is given as 12.25 N/m. Kite assumes 8° angle with the
horizontal.
Solution : See Fig. P8.5.
FL
K ite
V = 9 m /s 8° FD
4 5°
g
r in
St
N)
33
=
n
s io
W =11N
en
(T
Fig. P8.5
Given Data :
Effective area of kite = 0.9 m2
Weight of kite = 11N
Angle made by kite with horizontal = 8°
Angle made by string with horizontal = 45°
Pull on string = 33 N
Speed of wind = 9 m/s
Sp. wt of air = 12.25 N/m3
∴ ρ×g=w
12.25
ρ = = 1.248 kg/m3
9.81
Drag force, FD = Force exerted by wind in x direction,
i.e. Component of pull along FD
= 33 cos 45° = 23.33 N
Lift force = 33 sin 45 + W = 33 sin 45 + 11
= 34.33 N.
2 ⋅ FD 2 × 23.33
Drag coefficient CD = =
A ⋅ ρV 2 (0.9 × 1.248 ) × (9 )2
= 0.512
FL × 2 34.33 × 2
Lift coefficient CL = =
A ⋅ ρ.V 2
0.9 × 1.248 × (9 )2
= 0.755
Problem 8.6
A jet plane which weighs 29430 N and having a wing area of 20 m2 flies at a
velocity of 950 km/hour, when the engine delivers 750 kW. 65% of the power
is used to overcome the drag resistance of wing. Calculate the coefficients of
lift and drag for the wing. The specific weight of the atmospheric air is 11.87
N/m 3.
Solution :
Given Data :
Weight of plane W = 29430 N
Wing area A = 20 m2
Speed of plane V = 950 km/hour = 263.88 m/s
Engine Power = 750 kW
Power used to overcome the drag resistance = 0.65 × 750 = 487.5 kW
w 11.81
Density of air = ρ = = = 1.203 kg/m3
g 9.81
Let CD = Coefficient of drag and
CL = Coefficient of lift.
Power required to overcome drag resistance = FD × V
4875.5 × 1000 = FD × 263.88
FD = 1847.43 N
ρ ⋅V 2
Also, FD = C D ⋅ A ⋅
2
(263.88)2
1847.43 = CD × 20 ×1.203 ×
2
CD = 0.0022
ρV 2
Lift force FL = CL ⋅ A ⋅
2
Here, FL = W = 29430 N.
CL ⋅ 20 ⋅ 1.203 × (263.88 )2
29430 =
2
CL = 0.0351
8.4 DRAG ON A SPHERE

The drag on a sphere for Reynolds number less than 0.2 is given by
FD = 3 π µ . D .V ...(8.4)
where
V = velocity of flow of fluid over sphere
D = diameter of sphere
ρ = mass density of the fluid
µ = viscosity of fluid
2
Out of the total drag given by Eq. (8.4) above is contributed by skin
3
friction and the remaining 1/3 by pressure difference.
Thus, Skin friction drag,
2
FDf = × 3 πµ ⋅ DV = 2 πµ ⋅ D ⋅ V ...(8.5)
3
1
Pressure drag FDp = × 3 πµ ⋅ D ⋅ V = πµ ⋅ D ⋅ V ...(8.6)
3
Values of CD for a sphere for different Reynold number are
24
CD = when Re < 0.2
Re
24  3 
1+
Re  16Re 

CD = ...0.2 < Re < 5
= 0.4 ... when Re lies between 5 and 1000

= 0.5...when Re lies between 1000 to 100,000
= 0.2 ... when Re > 105
Problem 8.7
Determine the weight of a ball of diameter 10 cm supported by a vertical air
stream flowing at a velocity of 10 m/s. The specific weight of air is given by
12.25 N/m3, kinematic viscosity of air = 1.5 × 10–4 m2/s.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of ball = 10 cm
Velocity of air = 10 m/s
Kinematic viscosity ( v ) = 1.5 × 10–4 m2/s
V ⋅D 10 × 0.1
Reynolds number = =
v 1.5 × 10−4
Re = 6666.67
Value of Re lies between 1000 and 100,000 and hence CD = 0.5
The weight of ball is equal to the drag force : ( FD)
ρ ⋅V 2
FD = C D ⋅ A ⋅
2
π
where, A = projected area of ball = × (0.1) 2
4
= 0.00785 m2
12.25 (10)2
Drag-force, FD = 0.5 ×0.00785 × ×
9.81 2
= 0.245 N
Weight of ball = 0.245 N.
8.5 TERMINAL VELOCITY OF A BODY

Terminal velocity is defined as the maximum constant velocity of a falling
body with which it will travel. At the terminal velocity, the weight of the body
is equal, to the drag force plus the buoyant force.
∴ W = FD + FB
where,
FD = Drag force acting vertically upwards
FB = Buoyant force acting vertically up.
Problem 8.8
A sphere falls in an oil of specific weight 7848 N/m 3. The sphere has specific
gravity of 8.0 and diameter of 10 mm. It attains a terminal velocity of 0.05
m/s. Determine the viscosity of oil.
Solution :
Given Data :
Specific weight of sphere = 8 × 9810 = 78480 N/m3
Specific weight of oil = 7848 N/m3
Diameter of sphere, D = 10 mm = 0.01 m
Terminal velocity = 0.05 m/s
Let the viscosity of oil = µ
Weight of sphere = sp.wt of sphere × volume of sphere
π π
= 78480 × × D3 = 78480 × × (0.01)3
6 6
= 0.0411 N
Buoyant force on sphere
FB = sp.wt of oil × volume of sphere
π
= 7848 × × ( 0.01)3 = 0.00411 N.
6
The Drag force on sphere
FD = 3 πµ . D.V. = 3 × π . µ . (0.01) × 0.05
FD = 0.0047 µ
Also W = FD + FB
0.0411 = 0.0047 µ + 0.00411
0.03699 = 0.0047 µ
N⋅S
µ = 7.870
m2
Viscosity of oil = 7.870 N.S/m2 Ans.
Problem 8.9
A metallic ball of diameter 1.5 × 10–3 m is dropped in a liquid of specific
N ⋅S
gravity 1.20 and viscosity of 1.50 Specific weight of ball is 117020 N/
m2
m3. Determine
(i) the drag force on ball by fluid
(ii) pressure drag and skin friction
(iii) terminal velocity of ball in liquid
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of ball = 1.5 × 10–3 m
Sp. gravity of liquid = 1.20
Viscosity of liquid = 1.5 NS/m2
Sp. wt of ball = 117020 N/m3
Weight of ball = Sp.wt of ball × vol. of ball
π
= 117020 × × (1.5 × 10–3 )3
6
= 0.000206 N
Buoyant force FB = sp.wt of fluid × volume of ball
π
= (1.2 × 9810) × (1.5 ×10–3 )3
6
= 0.0000208 N
Now, W = FD + F B
FD = W – FB = 0.000206 – 0.0000208
Drag force = 0.0001852 N
1 1
Pressure drag = × Drag force = × 0.0001852
3 3
= 0.0000617 N.
2 2
Skin friction drag = × FD = × 0.0001852
3 3
= 0.000123 N
The terminal velocity is V
FD = 3 π . µ. D .V
Here FD = 0.0001852
∴ 0.0001852 = 3 π . µ. D .V
0.0001852 = 3 × π × 1.5 ×1.5 ×10–3 × V
V = 0.00873 m/s
It is necessary to check for Reynolds number
ρ.V ⋅ D
Re =
µ
117020
× 0.00873 × 1.5 × 10 −3
Re = 9.81 = 0.104
1.5
As the Reynolds number is less than 0.2 and therefore expression
FD = 3 π . µ. D .V is valid.
Problem 8.10
A steel ball spherical in shape has diameter 6 cm and of specific weight 81670
N/m3 is dropped in a large mass of water. CD value of ball in water is 0.48.
Determine the terminal velocity of the ball in water. How much will be the
increase in terminal velocity of ball in air.
Specific weight of air = 12.53 N/m and C = 0.12.
Solution :
Given Data :
Diameter of steel ball = 6 cm
Specific wt. of steel ball = 81670 N/m3
CD for ball in water = 0.48
Making use of equation
W = FD + FB
Determining W (weight)
W = Sp.wt of ball × Vol. of spherical ball
= 81670 × 7 × ( 0.06 )3 = 9.236 N
Also, FB = sp. wt of water × volume of ball
π
FB = 9810 × × (0.06)3 = 1.109 N
6
ρ ⋅V 2
FD = C D ⋅ A ⋅
2
π 9810
0.48 × × (0.06)2 × ×V2
FD = 4 9.81
2
= 0.678V2
Substituting values of W, FB and FD in
W = FD + FB
9.236 = 0.678 V 2 + 1.109
V = 3.46 m/s
When the ball is in air the terminal velocity be V1.
Buoyant force, FB = sp. wt of air × vol. of ball
π
= 12.53 × × (0.06 )3 = 0.00141 N
6
ρV12
Drag force = FD = CD × A ×
2
FD = 0.000216 V12
Using weight W = FB + FD
9.236 = 0.00141 + 0.000216 V12
V1 = 206.76 m/s
Increase in terminal velocity = 206.76 – 3.46 = 203.3 m/s
8.6 DRAG ON A CYLINDER

The drag force exerted by the flowing fluid on a circular cylinder of diameter
D and length L when the cylinder is placed in the fluid such that its length is
perpendicular to the direction of flow.
(1) When (Re) < 1, the drag force is directly proportional to velocity and
CD is inversely proportional to Re.
(2) Re from 1 to 2000 then
CD = 0.95 (minimum)
(3) Re from 2000 to 3 × 104
CD = 1.2
(4) At Re = 3 × 105, CD = 0.3
(5) For Re > 3 × 104, CD = 0.7
8.7 DEVELOPMENT OF LIFT ON AN AIRFOIL

Figure 8.3 shows two airfoils symmetrical or unsymmetrical in shapes. The
airfoil has chord length C and angle between the direction of the flowing fluid
and chord line (angle of attack) span of airfoil is L.
Circulation developed on the airfoil is given by
Γ = π . C . V sin α
where,
C = Chord length
V = Velocity of airfoil
α = Angle of attack.
Expression for coefficient of lift for an airfoil is CL = 2 π . sin α
C h ord le n gth
u
U
(a ) S ym m e trica l L (b ) U n sym m e trica l

a ir foil a ir foil
U
C h ord α
line (c)
Fig. 8.3 Shapes of air foil
When a flying object is in steady stage, then

Weight of flying object = lift force and
Thrust developed by engine = Drag force
CL ⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅ V 2
W= = lift force.
2
where, w = weight of the airplane.
Problem
8.11 An airfoil has chord length of 2.5 m and span 17 m has angle of attack
equal to 7°. The airfoil is moving in air with a velocity of 75 m/s. Find the
weight of airfoil if specific weight of air is 12.25 N/m 3 CD = 0.029 and CD =
0.48.
Solution :
Given Data :
Chord length = 2.5 m.
Span of airfoil L = 17 m
α = 7°
Velocity of airfoil V = 75 m/s
(coefficient of Drag) CD = 0.029
Density of air = 12.25 N/m3

(coefficient of lift) CL = 0.48
CL ⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅ V 2
Weight of airfoil = Lift force =
2
12.25 752
= 0.48 × × (C × L ) ×
9.81 2
= 1685.78 (2.5 × 17) = 71645.64 N.
CD ⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅ V 2
Drag force FD =
2
12.25 (75)2
= 0.029 × × (2.5 × 17) ×
9.81 2
= 4328.59 N. Ans.
Problem 8.12
Calculate the coefficient of lift and coefficient of drag for a jet plane wings
which weighs 30000N and wing area of 22 m2. The plane flies at an velocity of
70 m/s. out of the power delivered (750 kW) 60% of the power is used to
overcome the drag resistance of the wing. Take specific weight of air equal to
11.88 N/m3 .
Solution :
Given Data :
Weight of plane = 30000 N
Wing area of plane = 22 m2
Velocity = 70 m/s
Power delivered by plane engine = 750 kW
Power required to overcome drag resistance = 0.60 × 750 = 450 kW
ρ⋅V 2
Weight of plane = Lift force = CL × A ×
2
11.88 (70)2
30000 = CL × 22 × ×
9.81 2
CL = 0.459
Power required to overcome drag resistance
= FD × V
450 ×103 = FD × 70
FD = 10714.28 N
ρ⋅V 2
Drag force, FD = CD × A ×
2
11.88 702
6428.57 =CD × 22 × ×
9.81 2
CD = 0.098
Problem 8.13
A metallic chimney on the top of a tall structure has inner diameter 1 m with
wall thickness 10 cm uniform throughout. Height of chimney is 10 m. Assuming
the chimney as vertical hollow chimney, find total drag in it. Air velocity is 30
m/s, horizontal. Take air density 1.2 kg/m3 and drag coefficient 0.2
Solution :
Given Data :
Inner diameter = l m
Height of chimney = 10 m
Air velocity = 30 m/s
Air density = 1.2 kg/m3
CD = 0.2
Diameter = (1 + 0.1 + 0.1 ) = 1.2 m
ρ⋅V 2
Total drag FD = CD × A ×
2
Area (A) is the projected area. In our case it is the area exposed equal to
( 1.2 × 10) = A = 12 m2
0.2 × 12 × 1.2 × (30)2

FD = =1296 N.
2
Problem 8.14
Calculate the power required to overcome aerodynamic drag for the two cars
both travelling at 90 km/hour using the following data :
Car A (old vintage car) CD = 0.8 A frontal = 2m2
Car B (Streamlined modern car) CD = 0.4 Afrontal = 1.8 m2
Take ρ for air = 1.164 kg/m3. Comment on the result obtained,

Solution :
Given Data :
Speed of both cars = 90 kmph = 25 m/s
ρ for air = 1.164 kg/m3
FD for old vintage car,
1
FD = ⋅ ρ ⋅ A ⋅ V 2 × CD
2
1
= × 1.164 × 2 × (25) 2 × 0.8
2
= 582 N.
Power required to overcome drag
= FD × V = 14550 watts
For streamlined modern car.
1
FD = × 1.164 × 1.8 × (25)2 × 0.4
2
= 261.9 N.
Power required to overcome drag.
= FD × V = 261.9 × 25 = 6547.5 watts
Streamlined car experiences less drag and hence less power is required to
run that car as compared to old car. The old car is a bluff body whose surface
does not coincide with the streamline.
But the modern car is a stream lined body whose surface coincides with
the streamlines and hence less resistance.
Problem 8.15
The lift coefficient of an aeroplane wing at take off is 1.6. If the total wing
area is 25 m2 and density of air is 1.2 kg/m3. Find the total load that the
plane can carry when the speed at take off is 120 kmph. If the drag coefficient
is 0.02. Estimate the power required at take off.
Solution :
CL = 1.6
Total wing area = 25 m2
Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3
Take off speed = 120 kmph = 33.33 m/s
CD = 0.02
ρ⋅V 2
Weight of plane = Lift force = CL × A ×
2
1.6 × 25 × 1.2 × (33.33)2
=
2
= 26661.33 N.
Power required at take off = FD × V
ρV 2
But FD = Drag force = CD × A ×
2
(33.33)2
= 0.02 × 25 × 1.2 ×
2
= 333.27 N
Now power required
= 333.27 × 33.33 = 11107.77 watts.
uu
+0)26-4
9 Dimensional
Analysis
9.1 GENERAL
Dimensional analysis is widely used in research work for developing design
criteria and also for conducting model tests.
There are two systems for fundamental dimensions
(1) FLT (Force, Length, Time )
(2) MLT (mass, Length, Time )
Below are given the dimensions and units for the various physical
quantities.
S. No. Quantity Dimension in M-L-T system
1. Length L
2. Mass (M) M
3. Time (T) T
4. Force (f) MLT–2
5. Area (A) L2
6. Volume (V) L3
7. Slope (S) Non-dimensional
M°L°T°
8. Angle (θ) Non dimensional
9. Linear Velocity (V) LT–1
10. Angular Velocity (ω) T–1
11. Linear acceleration (a) LT–2
12. Angular acceleration ( α ) T–2
13. Discharge (Q) L3T–1
14. Frequency (f) T–1
15. Gravitational acceleration (g) LT–2
16. Circulations ( Γ ) L2T–1
17. Discharge per unit width (q) L2T–1
Contd.
(301)
Contd.
S. No. Quantity Dimension in M-L-T system
18. Kinematic viscosity ( v ) L2T–1
19. Moment ML2T–2
20. Mass density ( ρ ) ML–3
21. Specific weight ( γ ) ML–2V2
22. Dynamic Viscostiy ( µ ) ML–1 T –1
23. Relative density or Specific Non-dimensional
gravity (s)
24. Surface tension ( σ ) MT–2
25. Pressure intensity (p) ML–1 T2
26. Weight w MLT–2
27. Modulus of elasticity (E) ML–1 T –2
28. Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) ML–1 T –2
29. Shear stress ( τ ) ML–1 T –2
1
30. Compressibility   M–1 LT2
K
31. Work (w) ML2 T–2
32. Energy (E) ML2 T–2
33. Power (P) ML2 T–3
34. Torque (T) ML 2 T–2
35. Momemtum impulse (M) MLT–1
36. Strain Non-dimensional
37. Angular momemtum ML2T–1
38. Temperature (t) θ
39. Heat ML2 T–2
40. Coefficient of friction (f) Dimensionless
41. Specific heat L2 T–2 θ
42. Efficiency ( η ) Dimensionless
43. Energy Correction factor (α) Dimensionless
44. Momemtum Correction factor (B) Dimensionless
45. Hydraulic Mean radius (m) L
46. Wetted Perimeter (P) L
47. Curvature L–1
Dimensional Analysis 303
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 9.1
Determine the dimensions of the following quantities in M-L-T system.
(i) Force
(ii) Pressure
(iii) Specific weight
(iv) Surface tension.
Solution :
Length
(i) Force = Mass × Acceleration = M ×
(Time)2
ML
= = MLT−2
T2
Force MLT−2
(ii) Pressure = = = ML−1 T −2
Area L2
Weight Force
(iii) Specific weight = =
Volume Volume
(∴ Weight = Force )
M ⋅ L ⋅ T-2
= = M ⋅ L−2 ⋅ T −2
L3
Force MLT−2
(iv) Surface tension = = MT−2
Volume L
9.2 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

If the fundamental dimensions have identical powers of M . L .T on both
sides of an equation, e.g. Q = AV.
L3T–1 = L2 × LT–1 = L 3 × T –1
Both equations have right hand side and left hand side equal.
Note : Two dimensional homogeneous equations can be multiplied or
divided without effecting the homogeneity. But the two dimensionally
homogeneous equations cannot be added or subtracted, as the resulting
equation may not be dimensionally homogeneous.
Problem 9.2 Check the dimensional homogeneity of the following common
equation :
Q = Cd . a . 2gH .
Solution :
Q = Cd . a . 2gH
Substituting the dimensions on the L.H.S. and R.H.S. of the equation.

L3 T–1 = [1] ×[L2] [LT–2 ×L]1/2
[Dimension of Cd is taken 1]
= L3T–1
Since the dimension on both the sides of the equation are same, therefore
the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
9.2.1 Method of Dimensional Analysis : (Buckingham’s π

theorem)
The theorem states ‘If there are n variables in a dimensionally homogeneous
equation, and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions. Such
as ( M – L –T), they may be grouped into (n – m) non-dimensional
independent π-terms.
The use of Buckinghams’ π –method may now be illustrated by means of
an example.
* Prove that the discharge over a spillway is given by the reactions.
 gD H 
Q = VD2f  ⋅ 
 V D
where
V = Velocity of flow
D = Depth at the throat
H = Head of water
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Step 1 :
The physical quantities involved in the phenomenon are Q, V, D, g, H.
The functional equation for the discharge Q may be expressed as
Q = f (VD g H)
Which in its most general form may be written as :
f(Q,V, D, g, H) = C.
Thus, the total number of variables n = 5 and all these variables can be
described by the two fundamental dimensions of M.L.T. system. Hence m =
2. Thus, there are(n– m) = 3 dimensionless π-terms.
Step 2 :
In order to form these π terms, we have to choose two repeating variables
Since m =2
These variables should be such that they contain all the three
fundamental dimensions and they themselves do not form a dimensionless
parameter. Let us choose V and D as repeating variables.
Step 3 :
We get
π 1 = (V )a1 ⋅ ( D )b1 ⋅ Q ...(i)
π 2 = (V )a2 ⋅ ( D )b2 ⋅ H ...(ii)
π 3 = (V )a3 ⋅ ( D )b3 ⋅ g ...(iii)

Step 4 :
Expressing, π1, π2 and π3 dimensionally in terms of M.L.T system.
π 1 =M° L° T° = [LT−1 ] × [L ]b1 × [L3 T−1 ]

a1
For dimensional homogeneity, equating the powers of M, L and T on

both sides of the equation.
For L: 0 = a1 + b 1 + 3
For T: 0 = – a1 – 1
or a1 = – 1
Also 0 = a1 + b 1 + 3
but a 1 = – 1 ∴ b1 = – 2
Substituting values of a1 and b1in Eq. (i)
π 1 = V–1 . D–2 . Q
Q
π1 = ...(iv)
VD2
Also π 2 = (V )a2 ⋅ ( D )b2 ⋅ H
π 2 = M° L° T° = [LT−1 ] 2 ⋅ [L]b2 ⋅ [L]

a
For L : 0 = + a1 + b2+1
For T : 0 = – a2
as a2 = 0
Hence b2 = –1
Thus, π2 = V° . D–1 . H
H
π2 = ...(v)
D
and π3 = (V )a3 ⋅ ( D )b3 ⋅ g
= [LT−1 ] 3 ⋅ [L ]b3 ⋅ [LT−2 ]

a
For L : 0 = + a3 + b3+1
For T : 0 = – a3 – 2 ∴ a3 = – 2
∴ b3 = 1
Thus π3 = V–2 . D1 . g
gD gD L
= 2
= ... (ii)
V V T2
Now rewriting functional relationship :
 Q H gD 
f ⋅ ⋅
2 D  =0
 VD V 
Q  gD H 
2 = f ⋅ 
VD  V D
 gD H 
Q = VD2 f  ⋅  Ans.
 V D
Problem 9.3
A viscous fluid is confined between two long concentric cylinders the torque
per unit length T is required to turn the inner cylinder at a constant angular
velocity (ω), cylinder radii r and R and a viscosity µ Set up a non-dimensional
equation for the set of parameters given.
Solution :
Given Data :
Torque = T
Angular velocity = ω
Inner Cylinder radii = r
Outer cylinder radii = R
Dynamic Viscosity = µ
Let the functional relationship be
T = f (ω, r, R, µ)
In general form
f (T, ω, r, R, µ) = 0
Thus n = 5, and m = 3
There are n – m = 2 dimensionless π-terms
As m = 3, Choosing 3 repeating variables ω , µ and r.
We get
π 1 = (ω )a1 ⋅ (µ ) 1 ⋅ (r )c1 T
b
...(i)
π 2 = (ω )a2 ⋅ (µ ) 2 ⋅ (r )c2 ⋅ R
b
and ...(ii)
Expressing π1 and π2 dimensionally in terms of M .L .T system.
a b2
1  1  M  1 c1 ML
π 1 = M° L° T° =   ⋅  ⋅ ( L ) ⋅
 T   LT  T2
For M : 0 = + b1 + 1 ∴ b2 = – 1
For L : 0 = – b1 + c1 + 2
c1 =3
For T : 0 = – a1 _ b 1 – 2
= – a1 + 1 – 2
= – a1 – 1
a1 = – 1
π1 = (ω )−1 ⋅ (µ )−1 ⋅ (r )−3 ⋅ T 
a2 b
1  M2
π2 = M°L°T° =   ⋅ ⋅ [L ]c2 [L ]
T  LT 
For M: 0 = b2
For L: 0 = – b2 + c2 + 1 0 = 0 + c2 + 1
c2 = –1
For T: 0 = – a2 – b2 ∴ a2 = 0
π2 = (ω )° ⋅ (µ )° ⋅ (r )−1 ⋅ R 
Rewriting the functional relationship.

f( π1 . π2 ) = C
 T R
f ⋅
3 r = C
 ω⋅µ⋅r 
3  R
T = ω ⋅ µ ⋅ r f  
r
Problem 9.4
In a lubrication system an oil ring is provided. In order to determine the
functional relationship between properties of the oil, the rotational speed n,
the diameter of the shaft d and the discharge of oil Q,a dimensional analysis
is carried out.
The properties of the oil to be reckoned with are :
(i) The density ρ
(ii) The viscosity µ
(iii) Specific weight w.

Choosing ρ, µ and d as repeating variables, determine the non-
dimensional parameters.
Solution :
Given Data :
1
Rotational speed = n = ( r.p.m )
T
Diameter of shaft = d = L
L3
Discharge of oil = Q =
T
M
Density ρ =
L3
M
Viscosity( µ) =
LT
M
Specific weight (w) =
L T22
Repeating variables ρ, µ and d

Q = f ( n, d, ρ µ w )
In general form
f(Q, n,d, ρ, µ, w) = C
n = 6, and m = 3
We get
π1 = (ρ)a1 ⋅ (µ )b1 ⋅ (d )c1 ⋅ (Q )
π2 = (ρ)a2 ⋅ (µ )b2 ⋅ (d )c2 ⋅ n 
π3 = (ρ)a3 ⋅ (µ )b3 ⋅ (d )c3 ⋅ w 

Expressing π1, π2 and π3 dimensionally in terms of M-L-T system
 M a1 b 3
π1 = M°L°T° =    M 1
⋅ ⋅ ( )c1 L
⋅ 
 LT 
L
 L 
3 T
For M : 0 = a1 + b 1
For L : 0 = – 3a1 – b1 + c1 + 3
For T : 0 = – b1 – l b1 = – l
a1 =1 c1 = –1
ρ .Q
π1 = (ρ)1 ⋅ (µ )−1 ⋅ (d )−1 ⋅ Q  =
µ⋅d
 M a2 b2
 1
π2 =    M
⋅ ⋅ (L )c2 ⋅   
 L 
3  LT   T 
For M : 0 = a2 + b 2
For L : 0 = – 3a2 – b2 + c2
For T : 0 = – b2 – l b2 = – l
a2 =1 c2 = –1
π1 = (ρ) ⋅ (µ ) ⋅ (d )−2 ⋅ n 
1 −1
 ρd 2 ⋅ n 
π2 =  
 µ 
 M a3 b3 
π3 =    M M
⋅ ⋅ (L )c3 ⋅ 
 L 
3  LT  2
L ⋅T  2
For M : 0 = a3 + b 3 + 1
For L : 0 = – 3a3 – b3 + c3 – 2
For T : 0 = – b3 – 2 ; b3 = – 2,a3 = 1
c3 =3
 ρd 3 ⋅ w 
π3 = (ρ)1 ⋅ (µ )−1 ⋅ (d )3 ⋅ w  =  3 
 µ 
Rewriting the functional relationship again.
f( π1 . π2 . π3 ) = C
 ρQ ρd2 n ρd3w 
f ⋅ ⋅ 2  =C
 µ⋅d µ µ 
 µd   ρd2 n ρd3w 
Q =  ρ  ⋅  µ ⋅ 2 
f
 µ 
Problem 9.5
Show by the method of dimensions that a rotational formula for the flow
 v γ 
over a Vee-notch is given by Q = gl/2 . h5/2. φ ⋅ ⋅ θ Where Q is
 g1/2 ⋅ h3/2 gh2ρ 
the flow, h is the head above the vertex, ρ is the density, u is the kinematic
viscosity and y the surface tension coefficient, θ is the angle of the notch and
g the acceleration due to gravity.
Solution :
Given Data :
L3
Q = Discharge =
T
L
g = Acceleration due to gravity
T2
h = Head above vertex = L
L2
v = Kinematic viscosity =
T
M
ρ = Density =
L3
M
γ = Surface tension =
T2
θ = Angle = M° L° T°.
Q = f (g, h , v, ρ, γ, θ) = 0
In general form the above equation may be written as :
f (Q, g, h, v, ρ, γ, θ) = 0
Here n = 7 and m = 3
( n – m ) i.e. (7 –3 ) = 4 dimensionless π terms.
Choosing three repeating variables.
(g, h, ρ)
f (π1, π2, π3, π4) = 0
π1 = ( g ) 1 ⋅ (h)b1 ⋅ (ρ) 1 ⋅ Q 

a c
π2 = ( g ) 2 ⋅ (h )b2 ⋅ (ρ) 2 ⋅ v 

a c
π3 = ( g )a3 ⋅ (h )b3 ⋅ (ρ)c3 ⋅ γ 
π4 = (ρ) 4 ⋅ (h )b4 ⋅ (ρ) ⋅ θ 

a c4
Expressing π1, π2 and π3 dimensionally in terms of M-L-T system
 L a1 M 1 L3 
c
π1 =   , (L )b1 ⋅   ⋅ 
 T   L3 
2 T
For M : 0 = c1
For L : 0 = a1 + b1 –3c1 + 3
For T : 0 = – 2a1 – l
1
∴ 2a1 = – l a1 =
2
c1 = 0 b1 = – 2.5
π1 = ( g )−1/2 , (h )−2.5 ,(ρ)0 ,Q 
 L a2 c2
L2 
Also for, π2 =   , (L )b2  M
, 3  ⋅ 
 T  L 
2 T
For M : 0 = c2
For L : 0 = a2 + b2 – 3c2+ 2
For T : 0 = – 2a2 – l
1
a2 = – b = – l5 c2 = 0
2 2
π2 = ( g ) , (h )−1.5 ,(ρ) ,v 

−1/2 0
 L a3  M 3 M 
c
For, π3 =   , (L )b3 , 3  , 2 
 T  L  T 
2
For M: 0 = c3 + 1 c3 = – 1
For L : 0 = a3 + b3 – 3c3
For T : 0 = – 2a3 – 2 a3 = – 1
b3 =–2
π3 = ( g ) , (h )−2 , (ρ) , γ 

−1 −1
 L a4 c 
π4 =   , (L )b4 ,   , (M°L°T°)
M 4
For
 T   L3 
2

For M : 0 = c4
For L : 0 = a4 + b4 – 3c4
For T : 0 = – 2a4 a4 = 0
b4 =0
π4 = ( g ) , (h )° , (ρ) , θ 
° °
Rewriting functional relationship.

φ ( π 1, π 2 , π 3 , π 4 ) = C
 Q v γ 
φ  1/2 25 ⋅ 1/2 3/2 ⋅ ⋅θ = C
 g ,h g ⋅h g ⋅ h ⋅ ρ 
2
 v γ 
Q = g1/2 . h5/2 φ  1/2 3/2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ θ
 g ,h gh ρ 
 1 1 1
or π1 = φ  ⋅ ⋅
 π2 π3 π4 
 g1/2 ⋅ h3/2 gh2ρ 

Q= g1/2 . h5/2 .φ  , .θ 
 v γ 
Problem 9.6
Torque T of a propeller depends on density of liquid ρ, viscosity of liquid µ,
speed of shaft N r.p.m. Linear velocity V and diameter of propeller shaft D.
 N ⋅ D ρ .N ⋅ D 2 
Using π-theorem. Show that T = ρ . N2 . D5 φ  ,  .
 V µ
Solution :
Given Data :
ML2 M
Torque T = 2
Density ρ =
T L3
M 1
Viscosity µ = Speed N =
LT T
L
Velocity V = Diameter D = L
T
Number of variables n = 6 and m = 3. Hence, number of repeating
variables are m = 3 and π terms (n – m ) = 3.
Selecting (ρ , N, D) as repeating variable.
Expressing π1, π2, π3 dimensionally in terms of M-L-T system.
 M a1 b1
ML2 
π1 =   ,  1  , (L )c1 , 
 L   T  T2 
3
For M : 0 = a3 + 1 a1 = – 1
For L : 0 = – 3a1 + c1 + 2 ∴ c1 = – 5
For T ; 0 = – b1 – 2 b1 = – 2
T
∴ π1 =
ρ ⋅ N 2 ⋅ D5
 M a2 b2
M
π2 =   ,  1  , (L )c2 , 
 L   T 
3 LT 
For M : 0 = a2 + 1 a2 = – 1
For L : 0 = – 3a2 + c2 – 1 c2 = – 2
For T : 0 = – b2 – 1 b2 = – 1
π2 = (ρ) , ( N )−1 , ( D )−2 , µ 

−1
∴
 µ 
π2 =  2
 ρND 
 M a3 b
L 
For π3 =   ,   , (L )c3
1 3
,   
 L 
3  T  T 
For M: 0 = a3
For L : 0 = – 3a3 + c3 + 1
∴ c3 =–1
For T : 0 = – b3 –1
∴ b3 =–1
V
π3 = (ρ) , ( N )−1 , ( D )−1 ,V  =
0
ND
φ ( π1, π2 ,π3 ) = C
 T µ V 
φ  2 5
, ,
2 ND  = C
 ρN D ρND 
2 5  ND ρND 
2
T = ρN D φ  ,
 V µ 
Problem 9.7
Velocity V through an orifice is a function of water depth h, density ρ, orifice
diameter D, and gravitational acceleration g. Prove that the density of fluid
V2
is insignificant and that the two important groups are and D .
2 gh h
Solution :
Given Data :
L
Velocity V =  
T
Depth h = [ L ]
M
Density ρ =  3 
L 
Orifice diameter D = [ L ]
L 
Gravitational acceleration g =  2 
T 
Number of variables = n = 5
No. of fundamental dimensions involved m = 3,
∴ Number of π-terms = n – m = 2
Selecting h. ρ. g as repeating variabler
We get,
π1 = (h )a1 , (ρ) 1 , ( g ) 1 ,V 

b c
π2 = (h )a2 , (ρ)b2 , ( g )c2 , D 
 a  M  b1  L  c1  L  
π1 = (L ) 1  3  ,  2  ,   
  L  T  T 
For M: 0 = b1
For L : 0 = a1 – 3b1 + c1 +1
For T : 0 = – 2c1 – 1 2c1 = – 1
1 1
c1 = – ∴ a1 = –
2 2
π1 = (h )−1/2 , (ρ)0 , ( g )−1/2 ,V 
V
= 1/2
⋅ ρ0
h ⋅ g1/2
 b
 L 2 
c
π2 = (L )a2  
M 2
,  2  ,L 
  L3  T  
For M: 0 = b2
For L : 0 = a2 – 3b2 + c2 +1
For T : 0 = – 2c2 c2 = 0
∴ a2 =–1
 Dρ0 g 0 
π2 = (h ) (ρ) , ( g ) , D  = 
−1 0 0

 h 
V D
π1 = ,π =
2 gh 2 h
In the above π1 and π2 groups ρ has power of zero and hence density of
V2 D
fluid is insignificant and that the two important groups are and .
2 gh h
Problem 9.8
Resisting torque T against the motion of a shaft in a lubricating bearing
depends on the dynamic viscosity µ, the rotational speed N. The diameter D
and the bearing pressure intensity p. By using Buckingham’s π - theorem
 p 
show that T = (µ . ND3) . φ  µ ⋅ N  .
Solution :
Given Data :
 ML2 
Torque T =  
 T2 
M
Dynamic viscosity µ = 
 LT 
1 
Rotational speed N =  
T
 M 
Pressure intensity p =  2 
 LT 
Diameter D = [ L ]
Here number of variables n = 5
and number of fundamental dimensions m = 3
∴ Number of π terms n – m = 2
Number of repeating variables = 3
∴ φ ( π1, π2 ,π3 ) = C
Writing for each π term by considering µ, N and D as repeating variables.
π1 = φ (µ )a1 , ( N )b1 , ( D )c1 T 
π2 = φ (µ ) 2 , ( N )b2 , ( D )c2 p 

a
Expressing π1 and π2 in terms of M-L-T system.
 a1 b1
ML2 
π1 = φ  M  ,  1  , (L )c1 
 LT   T  T2 
For M: 0 = a1 + 1 a1 = – 1
For L : 0 = – a1 + c1 + 2 = + 1 + c1 + 2
c1 = –3
For T : 0 = – a1 – b1 – 2 = (1) – 2 – b1
+1 = – b1 b1 = – 1
∴ π1 =  µ −1 , N −1 , D −3 ,T 
 T 
π1 =  
 µND 
 a2 b2
M 
For π2 =  M  ,  1  , (L )c2 , 
 LT   T  LT2 
For M: 0 = a2 + 1 a2 = – 1
For L : 0 = – a2 + c2 – 1 c2 = 0
For T : 0 = – a2 – b 2 – 2 b2 = – 1
p
π2 = µ , N , D p  =
−1 −1 0
∴
µN
Rewriting the functional relationship.
 T p 
f( π1, π2) = C = φ  ⋅
 µ ⋅ ND3 µ ⋅ N 
3  p 
T = µ ⋅ ND φ  µ ⋅ N 
Problem 9.9
The pressure drop through a diffuser depends on rate of flow, inlet area, exit
area and fluid density. Obtain the relation between appropriate dimensional
parameters to describe the flow conditions.
Solution :
Given Data :
L3
Consider rate of flow = Q =
T
Inlet area A0 = L2
Outlet area A e = L2
M
Pressure ∆p =
LT2
M
Fluid density p =
L3
∆p = f(Q, A 0 , A e ρ)
Total number of variables n = 5
Hence number of n terms = 2
Number of fundamental dimensions m = 3
Number of repeating variables = 3
Let ρ, Q and A 0 be repeating variables.
In General form
f(∆p, Q, A0 A e ρ) = c
We get
π1 = (ρ) 1 , (Q ) 1 , ( A0 ) 1 ∆p 
a b c
π2 = (ρ) 2 , (Q ) 2 , ( A0 ) 2 Ae 
a b c
Expressing π1 and π2 dimensionally in terms of M-L-T system.
 M a1  3  b1 M 
π1 = M°L°T°   ,  L  , (L2 )c1 
 L3   T  LT2 
For M: 0 = a1 + 1 ∴ a1 = – 1
For L : 0 = – 3a1 + 3b1 + 2 c1 – 1
For T : 0 = – b1 – 2 b1 = – 2 and
c1 =2
 2
(ρ)−1 , (Q )−2 , ( A )2 ∆p  =  ∆P ⋅ A0  
π1 =  0  2
 ρQ  
 M a2  3
b2 
π2 =   , L  ⋅ (L2 ) 2 ,L2 
c
 L   T 
3
For M; 0 = a2
For L ; 0 = – 3a2 + 3b2 + 2c2 + 2 c2 = –1
For T ; 0 = – b2
Ae
π2 = (ρ) , (Q ) , ( A0 ) Ae  = A
0 0 −1
Rewriting the functional relationship

f (π1, π2) = C
 ∆P ⋅ A02 Ae 
 ,  =C
 ρ ⋅ Q 2 A0 
∆P ⋅ A02  Ae 
= fA 
ρ⋅Q 2
 0
Problem 9.10
The power P developed by a water turbine depends on the rotational speed
N, operating head H, diameter D and breadth B of the runner, density ρ and
viscosity µ of water and gravitational acceleration g. Show by dimensional
 H B ρD2 N ND 
analysis that P = ρ . D5 . N3 . φ  , , , .
 D D µ g 
Solution :
Given Data :
Power P = [ ML2 T–3]
Rotational speed N = T–1
Operating head H =L
Diameter D =L
Breadth B = L
Density ρ = ML–3
µ = ML–1 T–1
L
g=
T2
The functional equation for the power (P) may be expressed as
P = φ (H, N, H, D, B, ρ, µ,)
The above equation in its most general form may be written as :
φ ( P, N, H, D, B, ρ µ, g )= C
The total number of variables n = 8 and m = 3 (repeating variables)
Thus there are ( 8– 3 ) = 5 number of dimensionless terms.
Let N, D and ρ be repeating variables we get
π1 = ( N )a1 , ( D )b1 ,(ρ) 1 P

c
π2 = ( N )a2 , ( D )b2 ,(ρ) 2 H

c
π3 = ( N )a3 , ( D )b3 ,(ρ) 3 B

c
π4 = ( N )a4 , ( D )b4 ,(ρ) 4 µ

c
π5 = ( N )a5 , ( D )b5 ,(ρ) 5 g

c
Expressing π1 , π2, π3, π4 and π5 in terms of M.L.T system.

a c
1  1 M 1  ML2 
π1 = M0 L0 T0 =   ⋅ (L )b1 ⋅ 3  ⋅ 
T L   T3 
For M: 0 = c1 + 1 ∴ c1 = – 1
For L : 0 = b1 – 3c1 + 2 ∴ b1 = – 5
For T : 0 = – a1 – 3 ∴ a1 = – 3
π1 = ( N )−3 , ( D )−5 , (ρ) ,P 

−1
We get
 a2
M 2 
c
π2 = M°L°T° =  1  ⋅ (L )b2 ⋅   ⋅ L 
 T   L3  
For M: 0 = c2
For L : 0 = b2 – 3c2 + 1 b2 = 1
For T : 0 = – a2 a2 = –2
π2 = ( N ) °, ( D )−1 ,(ρ) °,H 
 a3
 M
c3 
π3 = M °L°T ° =  1  ⋅ (L )b3 ⋅  3  ⋅ L
 T  L  
For M : 0 = c3
For L : b3 = – 1
For T : 0 = – a3 a3 = 0
π3 = ( N )0 , ( D )−1 ,(ρ) ,B 

0
 a4
 M
c4
M
π4 =  1  ⋅ (L )b4 ⋅ 3  ⋅ 
 T  L  LT 
For M : 0 = c4 + 1 c4 = – 1
For L : 0 = b4 – 3c4 + 1 b4 = – 3
For T : 0 = – a4 – 1 a4 = – 1
π4 = ( N )−1 , ( D )−3 , (ρ) , µ 

−1
 a5
 M
c5
L
π5 =  1  ⋅ (L )b5 ⋅ 3  ⋅ 
 T  L  T2 
For M : 0 = c5
For L : 0 = b5 – 3c5 + 1 b5 = – 1
For T : 0 = – a5 – 2 a5 = – 2
π5 = ( N )−2 , ( D )−2 , (ρ) g 

0
Rewriting the functional relationship

φ ( π1, π2 ,π3 , π4, π5) = C
 P H B µ g 
φ 3 5 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ =C
 N D ρ D D N ⋅ D3 ⋅ ρ N 2 D 
H B µ g⋅ 
P = ρ ⋅ D5 ⋅ N 3 ⋅ φ  ⋅ ⋅ 3
⋅ 2 2
 D D N ⋅ D ⋅ρ N D 
 H B ρ ⋅ D 2 ⋅ N ND 
P = ρ⋅ D ⋅ N ⋅ φ D ⋅ D ⋅ ⋅
5 3

 µ g 
9.2.2 Method of Dimensional Analysis (Rayleigh’s Method)

In this method, the functional relationship of some variables is expressed in
the form of an exponential equation, which must be dimensionally homogeneous
e.g., if Y is some function of independent variables X1 X2 X3 etc., then functional
relationship may be written as:
Y = f(X1, X2, X3...)
In this equation Y will be a dependent Variable, whereas X1, X 2, X3 are
independent variables and f is a function.
Steps to Solve Rayleigh’s method :
(1) Write the functional relationship with the available data.
(2) Write the equation in terms of a constant with exponents a,b,c...
(3) Determine the values of a,b,c... by obtaining simultaneous
equations.
(4) Simplify the equation, by substituting the values of the exponents.
Problem 9.11
The thrust (P) of a propeller depends upon the diameter (D), speed (V), Mass
density (ρ), revolutions per minute (N) and coefficient of viscosity (µ).
Solution :
Given Data :
Thrust = P,
Diameter = D,
Speed = V,
Mass density = ρ,
Revolutions = N,
Viscosity = µ
P = f[ D, V, ρ , N, µ ]
∴ P = K[Da, V bρc, Nd µ e ] ...(i)

where K is a dimensionless constant.
Substituting the respective dimensions in the above equation.
[ MLT–2 ] = K[ (L)a’ (LT–1)b’ (ML–3)c’ (T–1)d’ (ML–1 T–1)e ]
Equating the powers of M, L and T on both sides of the equation
For M : 1=c+e ...(ii)
For L : 1 = a + b – 3c – e ...(iii)
For T : –2 = – b – d– e ...(iv)
From Eq. (ii) we get
c=1–e
Also, from Eq. (iv) we get
b =2 – e
and from Eq. (iii) we get
a = l – b + 3c + e
= 1 – (2 – e – d) + 3 (1– e) + e
= l – 2 + e + d + 3 – 3e + e
= 2+d–e
Substituting the values of a, b and c in Eq. (i)
P = K[D2+d–e. V 2–e–d. ρ1– e . Nd. µe ]
 µ  e  DN  d 
= ρD 2V 2 K   ⋅  
 ρ.D ⋅ V   V  
2 2  µ DN 
= ρD V f  ρ ⋅ D ⋅ V ⋅ V 
 
Problem 9.12
The resistance (R) experienced by a partially submerged body depends upon
the velocity (V), length of the body (l), Viscosity of the fluid ( µ), density of
the fluid ( ρ ) and gravitational acceleration (g). Obtain a dimensionless
expression for (R).
Solution :
Given Data :
Resistance = (R) Velocity = (V)
Length of the body = (l) Viscosity of fluid = ( µ )
Density of fluid = (ρ) Gravitational acceleration = (g)
The functional relationship be :
R = f(V, l, µ. ρ, g)
= K [V a, lb µc , ρd , ge ] ... (i)
Where K is a dimensionless constant.

Substituting the respective dimensions in the above equation.
[MLT–2] = K[(LT1)a.(L)b.(ML–1 T1)c.(ML–3)d (LT–2)e ]
Equating the powers of M, L and T on both sides of the equation.
For M : 1=c+d ... (ii)
For L : 1 = a + b – c –3d + e ... (iii)
For T : – 2 = – a – c – 2e ... (iv)
From Eq. (ii) we get
d = 1– c
From Eq. (iv) we get
a = 2 – c – 2e
From Eq. (iii) we get
b = l – a + c + 3d – e
= l – (2 – c – 2e) + c + 3 (l – c)– e
Substituting the values of a and d, obtained
= 1 – 2 + c + 2e + c + 3– 3c – e
=2–c+e
Substituting these values of d, a and b in Eq. (i)
R = K[V(2 – c – 2e) . l(2–c+e). µ c . ρ(1–c).ge )
  µ  l g 
c e
= K (V 2l2ρ)  ⋅ 
  v / ρ   V 2  
  µ   l g
e
= f (V 2l2ρ)  ⋅ 
  v / g   V 2  
9.3 MODEL INVESTIGATION

To try to find out, how the machine behaves when actually installed, it is
essential to conduct a model study. There should be a complete similarity
between the model and prototype.
There are in general three types of similarities between model and its
prototype. These are
(i) Geometric Similarity
(ii) Kinematic Similarity
(iii) Dynamic Similarity
(i) Geometric similarity. Geometric similarity exists between the model
and the proto type, if the ratios of corresponding length dimensions in the
model and the prototype are equal.
(ii) Kinematic similarity. Kinematic similarity exists between the model
and the prototype if the ratios of the velocity and acceleration at the
corresponding points in the model and at the corresponding points in the
prototype, are the same. The directions of veloctiy and accelerations at the
corresponding points in the model and prototype should be parallel.
(iii) Dynamic similarity. Dynamic similarity exists between the model
and the prototype which are geometrically and kinematically similar if the
ratio of all the forces acting at homologous points in the two systems are
equal for the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on a fluid mass may be
any one or a combination of the several of the following forces :
(i) Inertia force ( Fi)
(ii) Viscous force ( Fv)
(iii) Gravity force ( Fg)
(iv) Pressure force ( FP )
(v) Surface tension force ( Fs)
(vi) Elastic force ( Fe )
Since inertia force always exists when any mass in motion, all force ratios
are developed by considering with respect to inertia force to get following
dimensionless numbers :
(1) Reynold’s number
(2) Froude’s number
(3) Euler’s number
(4) Weber’s number
(5) Mach’s number
Inertia force
(1) Reynold’s number =
Viscous force
ρ .V .D
Re =
µ
Inertia force
(2) Froude’s number =
Gravity force
V
Fe =
Lg
Inertia force
(3) Euler’s number =
Pressure force
V
Eu = p
ρ
Inertia force
(4) Weber’s number =
Surface tension force
V
We =
σ
ρL
where σ = Surface tension per unit length.
Inertia force
(5) Mach’s number =
Elastic stress
V
=
K
ρ
where K = Elastic force

uu
Index
A Drag on a Sphere, 292
Acceleration of A Fluid Particle E

(Convective and Local), 117 Energy Losses in Pipes :
Advantages of Triangular Notch (Loss of Head in Pipes), 235
When Compared with Rectangular Notch,
Equation for Discharge over A Rect-
157
angular Notch, 155
Archimede’s Principle, 95
Equation for Discharge over A Trian-
B gular Notch, 156
Equivalent Pipe Concept, 267
Bernoulli’s Theorem, 132
Euler’s Equation of Motion Along a
Boundary Layer Theory, 214
Stream Line, 131
Buoyancy; Buoyant Force and Centre
Experimental Determination of Hy-
of Buoyancy, 95
draulic Coefficients, 152
C Experimental Determination of Meta-
centric height (GM), 97
Coefficient of Friction, 212
Expression for Drag and Lift, 286
Conditions of Equilibrium of floating
Expression for Friction Factor in
body or Darcy–Weisbach Equation for
Terms of Shear, 204
Head Loss in Pipes Due to Friction, 235
Expression for Loss of Head due to
D Friction in Pipes, 204
Expression for Shear Stress in Tur-
Development of Lift on an Airfoil, 297
bulent Flow, 205
Dimensional Homogeneity, 303
Expression for Velocity Distribution
Discharge from One Reservior to an- for Turbulent
other through a Pipe Line, 257
Flow in Smooth Pipes, 206
Discharge or Rate of Flow (Q), 130
Discharge over A Trapezoidal Notch, F
158
Flow over Weir, 158
Drag on a Cylinder, 296
Flow Through Orifice and Mouth-
pieces, 151 Method of Dimensional Analysis

Flow through Parallel Pipes, 260 (Rayleigh’s Method), 320
Fluid Pressure, 37 Method of Dimensional Analysis :
Fluid Properties, 1 (Buckingham’s p theorem), 304
Fluid gauge pressure and absolute Minor Energy (Head) Losses, 239
pressure, 39 Model Investigation, 322
G N
General, 185, 204, 235, 286, 301 Notches, 154
H P
Hydraulic Coefficients, 152 Parcitical Application of Hydrostatic
Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Forces,73
Boundaries, 206 Pascal’s Law, 38
Pipes in Series, 257
I
Potential Lines and Flow Net, 116
Introduction, 1, 113, 129, 151, 95 Power Required to keep the Plate in
Motion,287
K
Power transmission through pipes, 280
Kinetic Energy Correction and Mo- Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s
mentum Correction Factor, 201 Equation, 132
L Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for
Turbulent Shear Stress, 205
Laminar Flow between Two Parallel Pressure Diagram, 70
Fixed Plates, 191
Pressure Measurement, 40
Local Coefficient of Drag, 218
Relationship between
Loss of Head at Entrance in a Pipe,
Atmospheric pressure,
250 Rotameter, 159
Loss of Head due to an Obstruction
in a Pipe, 250 S
Loss of Head due to Bend in Pipe, Separation of Boundary Layer, 226
251 Siphon, 264
Loss of Head due to Sudden Stability of a floating body, 96
Contraction, 245 Steady Laminar Flow in Circular
Loss of Head due to Sudden Pipes (Hagen–Poiseuille Law), 185
Enlargement, 239 Stream Function (Y), 118
Loss of Head in various T
Pipe Fittings, 251
Terminal Velocity of a Body, 293
Loss of Heat at the Exit of a Pipe, 250
Total Energy of Flowing Fluids
M (Or Total Head), 130
Metacentre and Metacentric Height, Total Pressure and centre of Pressure,
95 69
Index 327
Total Pressure Force and Centre of Velocity Distribution for Turbulent

Pressure force for Horizontal, Flow in Terms of Average
Vertical and Inclined surfaces, 70
Velocity ( V ), 210
Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flate
Velocity Distribution for Turbulent
Plate, 222 Flow in Smooth Pipe (Power Law), 212
Types of Flow Lines or Path Line, Velocity Distribution in
Stream Line, Turbulent Flow, 205
Stream Tube, Streak Line, 115 Velocity of Approach, 158
Types of Flow, 113 Velocity Potential (f), 118
Types, 155 Vena Contracta, 151
Venturimeter, 133
V
Von-Karman Momentum
Velocity Distribution for Integral Equation, 218
Rough Pipes, 206
W
Water Hammer Phenomenon, 283

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Comprehensive

Prof. G.K. Pathak

STANDARD BOOK HOUSE

First Published : 2017

Price: < 320.00

February 2017 Dr. D.K. Chavan

Chapter 1 Fluid Properties 1–36

2.12 Experimental Determination of Metacentric height (GM) 97

Solved Problems 193

Solved Problems on Pipes in Series 258

1.3 FLUID PROPERTIES

3. Specific Volume (v). It is defined as the volume of the fluid/unit

Mass density of fluid

5. Compressibility and Elasticity. Compressibility is defined as the

Fig. 1.1 Newton’s law of viscosity

i.e., Shear stress is proportional to velocity gradient

Fig. 1.2 Surface tension

Whereas molecule B and other molecules at the surface are attracted

downwards. So, because of downward forces, the upper surfaces of water is

Now, capillary rise or depression,

Note : (i) If MN < 1, then the flow is known subsonic flow

(8) Surface tension

Mass density of fluid ρfluid

(ii) Specific weight w or γ = ρ . g N/m3

∴ On the planet with g = 5 m/sec2

Stress Change in pressure

τ (at boundary) = 0.9 × 0.68

and P2V2 = mRT

Now from (1)

S.F. (Resisting force)

where T = torque = S.F. × radius of shaft

Solution : N = 180 rpm

πDN π × 0.4 × 180

2.1 FLUID PRESSURE

2.2 PASCAL’S LAW

2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE,

2.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

P atm (b) U-tube manometer. These are

Balancing the pressure values about 2–2´ we get,

Note. In case of differential manometers and in case of manometers

Figure 2.9 shows a U-type differential manometer, connected to the two

(ii) Inverted differential manometer. It is used to measure the difference

Writing the pressure equation,

∴ ρfluid = 0.8 × 1000 kg/m3

To produce this much pressure if kerosene is used, we have to find its

i.e., Pabs + ρfluid × g × 0.06 = Patm + ρHg × g × 0.15 ...(1)

= 1000 × 9.81 × 10 m of H2O

Now writing the pressure equation,

Writing the pressure equation, starting from point A,

difference in Pa. What will be the deflection if a manometric fluid of relative

For Figs. P2.18, writing pressure equation,

Note. If ρ is in kg/m3, g is in m/sec2, Z is in m, then the resultant unit

(iii) Pressure at the intersurface of water and Hg

This is balanced by PIII

PA (abs) + 800 × 9.81 × 2 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.6 – 13600 × 9.81 × 0.1