Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

TM
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Third Edition

Written for the second-year engineering students of undergraduate level, this well
Fluid Mechanics
set out textbook explains the fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. Written in question-
answer form, the book is precise and easy to understand. Fundamentals of
The book presents an exhaustive coverage of the theory, definitions, formulae
and examples which are well supported by diagrams (wherever necessary) and
problems in order to make the underlying principles more comprehensive.
In the present third edition, the book has been thoroughly revised and enlarged. Fluid Mechanics
Fundamentals of
Modification to every chapter has been carried out on the basis of suggestions
received and new developments in this area. Additional typical problems based on
the examination papers of various technical universities have been included with
Third Edition
solutions for easy understanding by the students.
Objective questions of competitive examinations of GATE, IES and IAS have
also been included with solutions and explanations at the end of each chapter.
G.S. Sawhney has served as Professor and Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
G.S. Sawhney
GNIT Greater Noida. Earlier he was at Lord Krishna College of Engineering, Ghaziabad in
the same capacity. Prior to joining teaching, he had served for 28 years in the Corps of
Engineers and for 10 years in industry. His other books published by I.K. International Pvt.
Ltd. are:
? Biomedical Electronics and Instrumentation
? Fluid Machinery Made Easy
? Fundamentals of Computer Aided Manufacturing
? Fundamentals of Biomedical Engineering Made Easy
? Heat and Mass Transfer
? Manufacturing Science (Volume-I, II)
? Materials Science and Engineering
? Mechanical Experiments and Workshop Practice
? Project Management Made Easy
G.S. Sawhney
978-93-89795-22-6
Distributed by:
9 789389 795226 TM
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics
Third Edition
G.S. SAWHNEY
B.Tech. (IIT Madras), ME, Ptsc
GNIT, Greater Noida
AIMT, Greater Noida
Formerly, Professor and HoD
Lord Krishna College of Engineering
Ghaziabad
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 3/E
Authors: G.S. Sawhney
Published by I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.

4435, 36/7, Ansari Rd, Daryaganj, New Delhi, Delhi 110002
ISBN: 978-93-90455-20-1
EISBN: 978-93-90455-25-6
©Copyright 2020 I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110002.
This book may not be duplicated in any way without the express written consent of the publisher, except in the
form of brief excerpts or quotations for the purposes of review. The information contained herein is for the
personal use of the reader and may not be incorporated in any commercial programs, other books, databases, or
any kind of software without written consent of the publisher. Making copies of this book or any portion for any
purpose other than your own is a violation of copyright laws.
Limits of Liability/disclaimer of Warranty: The author and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing
this book. The author make no representation or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the
contents of this book, and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness of any
particular purpose. There are no warranties which extend beyond the descriptions contained in this paragraph.
No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The accuracy and
completeness of the information provided herein and the opinions stated herein are not guaranteed or warranted
to produce any particulars results, and the advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every
individual. Neither Dreamtech Press nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial
damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Trademarks: All brand names and product names used in this book are trademarks, registered trademarks, or
trade names of their respective holders. Dreamtech Press is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned
in this book.
Edition: 2020
Printed at: Rekha Printers

PREFACE TO THE THIRD
EDITION
In the third edition, the book has been thoroughly revised and enlarged. Additional typical
problems based on the examination papers of various technical universities have been included
with solutions for easy understanding by the students.
Objective questions of competitive examinations of GATE, IES and IAS have been included
with solutions and explanations at the end of each chapter.
I once again request students and teachers to send constructive suggestions and criticism by
emailing at channi_sawhney@hotmail.com
G.S. Sawhney
PREFACE TO THE SECOND
EDITION
In the second edition, the book has been thoroughly revised and enlarged. Additional typical
problems based on the examination papers of various technical universities have been included
with solutions for easy understanding by the students.
I thank all the faculty members of Mechanical Department of GNIT, Greater Noida for their
assistance in completing the second edition of the book.
I once again request students and teachers to send constructive suggestions and criticism by
emailing at channi_sawhney@hotmail.com
G.S. Sawhney
PREFACE TO THE FIRST
EDITION
Fluid Mechanics is an important subject which has been given equal weightage in Mechanical,
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Based on my teaching experience, I have tried to explain principles and concepts of Fluid
Mechanics in simple and clear terms. The endeavour is to present the subject matter in the most
comprehensive and useable form. The derivation of fundamental relations has been kept as
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FDQQRW EH H[SODLQHG H൵HFWLYHO\7KH WKHRU\ LV IXUWKHU VXSSRUWHG ZLWK LOOXVWUDWLRQV DQG VXLWDEO\
worked out examples. The book has an easy-to-read style, as it is written in question-answer
IRUPWKDWLVJRLQJWREHQH¿WWKHUHDGHUVLPPHQVHO\
I express my gratitude to K.K Aggarwal, Chairman, and Dr. A.M. Chandra, Director, Lord
Krishna College of Engineering, Ghaziabad for their support and encouragement extended to me
during the compilation of this book. I am grateful to my doctoral guide, Dr. Prasad, Galgotia
Engineering College, Greater Noida for moral support extended to me.
Above all, I wish to record my sincere thanks to my wife, Jasbeer Kaur for her patience shown
throughout the preparation of the book.
I would appreciate constructive suggestions and objective criticism from students and teachers
alike with a view to enhance further usefulness of the book. They may mail me their views at
channi_sawhney@hotmail.com
G.S. Sawhney
CONTENTS
Preface to the Third Edition ............................................................................................................ v

Preface to the Second Edition ........................................................................................................ vi
Preface to the First Edition ........................................................................................................... vii
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1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 States of Matter 2
1.3 Fluids 4
1.4 Applications of Fluid Mechanics 6
1.5 Types of Fluids 13
1.6 Properties of Fluids 14
1.7 Newton’s Law of Viscosity 18
1.8 Change of Phase 43
1.9 Cohesion and Adhesion 45
1.10 Surface Tension 46
1.11 Pressure Inside a Droplet 49
1.12 Capillary Rise or Fall 51
1.13 Questions from Competitive Examinations 65
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2.1 Introduction 79
2.2 Hydrostatic Law and Aerostatic Law 79
2.3 Absolute and Gauge Pressures 83
2.4 Pressure Measuring Devices 85
2.5 Manometers 87
x Contents
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3.1 Introduction 133
3.2 Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure 133
3.3 Pressure on Plane Surface 135
3.4 Pressure on Inclined Surface 136
3.5 Centre of Pressure: Vertical and Inclined Surfaces 138
3.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane and Curved Surfaces 166
3.7 Pressure Diagram 192
3.8 Stability of Dam 196
3.9 Gate and Lock Gates 203
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4.2 Buoyancy 233
4.3 Floatation 235
4.4 Stability of Floating and Submerged Body 237
4.5 Metacentre 240
4.6 Rolling of Floating Body 244
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5.2 Dynamic Equilibrium 300
5.3 Translational Acceleration 301
5.4 Rotational Acceleration 302
5.5 D’Alembert’s Principle 302
5.6 Horizontal Acceleration 303
5.7 Vertical Acceleration 305
5.8 Acceleration on Inclined Plane 307
5.9 Radial Acceleration 309
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6.2 Dimensional Analysis 332
6.3 Fundamental and Secondary Dimensions 334
6.4 Dimensional Homogeneity 335
Contents xi
6.5 Methods of Dimensional Analysis 337
6.6 Dimensionless Numbers 342
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7.2 Model and Prototype 358
7.3 Hydraulic Similitude 360
7.4 Geometric Similarity 361
7.5 Kinematic Similarity 362
7.6 Dynamic Similarity 362
7.7 Reynolds Model Law 366
7.8 Froude’s Model Law 367
7.9 Euler’s Model Law 369
7.10 Weber’s Model Law 370
7.11 Mach’s Model Law 370
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8.2 Methods of Describing Fluid Motion 396
8.3 Lines of Flow 398
8.4 Types of Displacements of Fluid Particles 400
8.5 Types of Fluid Flows 402
8.6 One-, Two- and Three-Dimensional Flows 404
8.7 Equation of Continuity 406
8.8 Rotation and Vorticity 411
8.9 Circulation 414
8.10 Stream Function 415
8.11 Flow Net 421
8.12 Velocity and Acceleration Vector 425
8.13 Forced and Free Vortex Flow 428
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9.2 Forces and Energies in Fluid Flow 486
9.3 Concept of Control Volume 487
xii Contents
9.4 Reynolds Transport Theory 488

9.5 Navier-Stokes Equations 489
9.6 Euler’s Equations 490
9.7 Bernoulli’s Equations 492
9.8 Pitot Tube 493
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9.10 Vena Contracta 497
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9.12 Mouthpiece 505
9.13 Free Liquid Jet 517
9.14 Weir and Notch 520
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10.2 Momentum Principle 579
10.3 Force on Vane 581
10.4 Moment of Momentum 589
10.5 Vortex Motion 591
10.6 Force Exerted on a Bend 594
10.7 Torque Acting on a Sprinkler 603
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10.9 Rotometer 615
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11.2 Laminar Flow 637
11.3 Turbulent Flow 638
11.4 Reynolds Number 638
11.5 Flow in Horizontal Pipes 640
11.6 Average Velocity 642
11.7 Hagen Poiseuille Formula 644
11.8 Friction Factor 645
11.9 Flow in Parallel Plates 646
11.10 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor 659
11.11 Flow in Inclined Pipe 663
11.12 Flow in Inclined Plates 671
Contents xiii
11.13 Darcy’s Equation 673
11.14 Oil Bearings 674
11.15 Dashpot 680
11.16 Measurement of Viscosity 682
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12.2 Turbulent Flow 701
12.3 Instantaneous Velocity 704
12.4 Eddy Viscosity 706
12.5 Turbulence Shear Stress 707
12.6 Mixing Length Concept 707
12.7 Similarity Concept 709
12.8 Velocity Distribution 712
12.9 Smooth and Rough Boundary 713
12.10 Average Velocity 720
12.12 Moody’s Diagram 725
12.13 Hot Wire Anemometer 726
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13.2 Concept of Boundary Layer 746
13.3 Laminar Sublayer 750
13.4 Boundary Layer Thickness 751
13.5 Von Karman Momentum Equation 757
13.6 Separation of Boundary Layer 764
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14.2 Major and Minor Energy Losses 809
14.3 Friction Head Loss 812
14.5 Chenzy’s Formula 815
14.6 Sudden Enlargement and Head Loss 818
14.7 Sudden Contraction and Energy Loss 820
xiv Contents
14.8 Bend and Energy Loss 821

14.9 Total Energy and Hydraulic Gradient Line 822
14.10 Equivalent Pipe 826
14.11 Parallel Pipes 826
14.12 Pipe Networking 841
14.13 Syphon 844
14.14 Power Transmitted by a Flow 850
14.15 Water Hammer 852
14.16 Time to Empty a Tank 854
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15.2 Ideal Fluid Flow 893
15.3 Uniform Flow 895
15.4 Source Flow 896
15.5 Sink Flow 899
15.6 Vortex Flow 900
15.7 Doublet Flow 903
15.8 Superposition of Flow 903
15.9 Plotting Streamlines 906
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16.2 Submerged Bodies 910
16.3 Drag and Lift Force 911
16.4 Friction Pressure and Shear Drag 912
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16.6 Stokes’ Law Concerning Skin and Pressure Drag 916
16.7 Circulation in Free Vortex 918
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16.9 Karman Vortex Trail 922
16.10 Aerofoil 923
16.11 Aeroplane in Equilibrium 926
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Chapter 1
FLUIDS: DEFINITIONS &
PROPERTIES
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

CONCEPT OF CONTINUUM COMPRESSIBILITY
IDEAL FLUID VAPOUR PRESSURE
REAL FLUID COHESION
VISCOSITY ADHESION
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY SURFACE TENSION
NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY CAVITATION
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS DROPLET & PRESSURE
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS CAPILLARITY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
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pressure forces is called fluid dynamics7KHVWXG\RIÀXLGVLQPRWLRQZLWKRXWSUHVVXUHIRUFHV
is called fluid kinematics.
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compressed. Hence, liquids are regarded as incompressible.
2 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
1.2 STATES OF MATTER

What do you understand by the composition and intermolecular forces in matter? How
does intermolecular force vary?
Every matter in nature is made up of molecules. Each molecule has positively charged
nucleus and negatively charged electrons. The molecule is electrically neutral as negative
charge in electrons is equal to the positive charge of its nucleus. When two molecules come
close to each other, the distribution of charge in them becomes such that the force of attraction
between opposite charges (positive charge of nucleus of one molecule and negative charge
of electron of other molecule) becomes greater than the force of repulsion between similar
charges (nucleus – nucleus and electron – electron of one and other molecule). This net
force of attraction between the molecules is called “intermolecular force”. As the distance
between the molecules increases, the net attractive force between them decreases and vice
versa. However, at mean distance r0, no net force acts between them. In case distance is
decreased below r0, then a repulsive force is generated.
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of the intermolecular force is attractive?
+ A
Potential Energy
Intermolecular
r0
r
O B
E F
D
The equilibrium state of the molecules is at point D because it is a point of minimum potential
energy. In portion DBA of the curve, the potential energy increases as r decreases, i.e.,
intermolecular force is repulsive. In portion DEF of the curve, U increases as r increases.
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intermolecular cohesive bonding forces to hold it as a continuous mass but without a shape.
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incompressible, liquids are slightly compressible and gases are compressible.
Gas
Solid Vessel Liquid
Definite Volume Definite Volume No Volume, No Shape

and Shape
Solid, Liquid & Gas
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deformation occurs in solids on the application of shear force and deformation disappears
when intermolecular force between the molecules restores the molecules to their original
position on the removal of the shear force.
T = Torque
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Fixed
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have equilibrium position with the applied torque (TDQGWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHUVWDUWVSLFNLQJ
up velocity from the stationary state. However, the outer cylinder will attain an equilibrium
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Ê df ˆ
the equilibrium rate of deformation Á ˜ or equilibrium velocity. The deformation (f) in
Ë dt ¯
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1.3 FLUIDS
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equivalent deformation (f LQ RUGHU WR DFKLHYH D HTXLOLEULXP ZLWK WKH H[WHUQDO DSSOLHG
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Ê df ˆ
rate of change of deformation Á ˜ DQGWKHQWKHDFFHOHUDWLRQRIÀXLGEHFRPHV]HUR+HQFH
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equilibrium rate of deformation and in which (4) the deformation does not disappear on the
removal of the torque.
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mation which is continuous as the long as the force is applied.
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force is called viscosity. The resistance does not depend upon the deformation (f) but on
Ê df ˆ
the rate of deformation Á ˜ :KHQWKHUHLVDUHODWLYHPRWLRQEHWZHHQGL൵HUHQWOD\HUVRI
Ë dt ¯
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but larger in liquids.
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Features Solid Fluid
1. Spacing of molecules Closely spaced Spacing is large
2. Intermolecular force Large Low
3. External shape Does not change 6KDSHFKDQJHVDQGLWFDQÀRZ
4. Shear force Can withstand elastic limit &DQQRWZLWKVWDQGDQGLWÀRZVLQWKH
direction of the shear force
5. Extent of deformation Deformation is constant and Continuous with force
force dependent
6. Deformation Disappears on the removal Deformation does not disappear
of shear force
7. Rate of deformation Deformation does not The rate of deformation becomes
change with time, i.e., rate constant
of change of deformation is
zero
8. Motion on shear force Solid deforms without motion It is in motion in the direction of
shear force. It comes to rest on the
removal of shear force.
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Fluid mechanics is the science in which we study the behaviour of fluids, which are either
at rest or in motion. The study of the fluids under static conditions (fluids at rest) is
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are done in fluid statics. Aerostatics is the term used for the study of incompressible
gases under static conditions. The study of mechanics of fluids in motion is called fluid
dynamics. The flow of fluids through pipes and channels due to shear force is studied
in fluid dynamics.
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elements without any consideration to the force or energy which is causing such motion or
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(incompressible) in motion or rest.
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1.4 APPLICATIONS OF FLUID MECHANICS

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the main forces acting on a dam is static water pressure (F) against upstream face and
the weight of the masonry (W). The resultant of these two forces must pass through
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from one place to another by gravitational action. Weir is any angular obstruction in an
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Dam
Weir
Height of F W
water Flow
R
Middle third
Dam Weir
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of water against gravity.
Overhead reservoir
Service tank
Pump
Underground water supply line
Water Supply Installation and Distribution
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Hole in
plug
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Disc & washer
Seat
Close Open
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Pin at the centre of

Water curvature of the
gate
Seat
Angle Valve Hydraulic Radial Gate
Head race
Dam
Penstock
Tailrace
Dam
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Hydraulic gates are used in dams to allow the water out of the dam by rotating the gate.
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the limbs of U-tube is an indicator of the pressure of the liquid in the vessel or pipe.
Pipe with h
filled liquid
Fluid
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Orifice Metering Venturi Metering
6. In designing an airplane. As an airplane is a mechanically driven machine and is heavier

than air, it is supported by the dynamic reaction of the air over its wings, which are in
the shape of aerofoils to provide the required lift. The airstream moves at higher speed
over the upper surface of aerofoil as compared to airstream moving at the lower surface,
thereby providing lift.
Lift
V1
V1>V2
Propulsive
Drag
thrust
V2
Weight Aerofoil Lift
Flying of Aircraft
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The air stream moves with lesser velocity on the rough side as compared to smooth
side, thereby providing side force.
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on rotating ball.
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hydraulic ram or press. It is possible to lift a heavy load with the application of small
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Load = 1 ton
Effort = 50 kg
Lift
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grain in a separator.
Steam lined
hull
Hull
Higher drag Lower drag
Stream Lining to Reduce Drag
Part of wing Grains with chaff

is raised
Wing
Gains Chaff
Airbrake of an aircraft Separator
Application of Drag
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is used as a cardio-pulmonary bypass to enable the operation of the heart.
Heart
Lungs
Oxygenation
O2 Artery
Deoxygenated
Blood
Vein
Pump
Oxygenated blood
Artificial Blood Oxygenation
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Impeller
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Inlet
Centrifugal Pump
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falling water. The oldest type of water turbine is the water wheel in which wheel is
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and heads are small. The principle of these turbines is that the water is diverted to obtain
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direction of entry, causing turbine rotor to rotate. Guide vanes are provided to ensure
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1.5 TYPES OF FLUIDS

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Liquids Gases
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/LTXLGVKDYHVLJQL¿FDQWFRKHVLYHIRUFHV Gases have weak cohesive forces due
2. 2.
due to closely packed molecules. to widely spaced molecules.
3. Liquids cannot expand. 3. *DVHVFDQH[SDQGWR¿OODQ\YROXPH
4. Liquids are almost incompressible. 4. Gases are compressible.
The change of temperature and pressure The volume of gas changes with
5. 5.
does not alter the volume of liquid. temperature & pressure.
Liquids form a free surface in gravitational
6. 6. Gases do not form free surface.
¿HOG
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surface
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Ideal Fluids Real Fluids
1. Have no viscosity. 1. Have viscosity
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3. Incompressible. 3. Slightly compressible
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zero.
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A substance is composed of a vast number of molecules. In the concept of continuum, the
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rather than the microscopic or molecular behaviour. Hence in most cases, it is convenient to
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analysis is large, the discontinuity of the order of intermolecular spacing or the free mean
path is negligible The properties such as pressure, temperature and velocity, which are
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from one point to another if they are not the same. However, there are certain instances
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concept of continuum cannot be applied.
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with spacing matter
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mean free path of about 5 to 7.5 ¥–6 cm. The molecular spacing of air increases under
low pressures and this large spacing between the molecules cannot be neglected. In that
case, the concept of continuum cannot be applied on air while determining its properties.
1.6 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

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properties?
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pressure, temperature, density, mass, volume, etc.
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converted into intensive properties by dividing them by mass, which gives us the properties
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NJP.
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Specific weight of the liquid

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Guidance The mass of air can be calculated by the gas equation PV = mRT where P =
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gas constant R = MR where M = molecular weight and R = gas constant. The value of R
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through pipes; energy conversion by pump and turbine, the storage capacity and stability
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When a solid mass slides over a surface, a friction force is developed to oppose the motion.
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is developed between them opposing the relative motion. This tangential force is called
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surface ABDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZ7KHOD\HURIWKHÀXLGLQWKHFRQWDFWRIWKHVXUIDFH
remains stationary (at rest), while the velocity of other layers increases with distance from
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c uc
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Velocity
a ua
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A
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increasing order. The layer a tends to retard the layer b and layer b tends to retard the layer
c. Therefore, each layer tries to decrease the velocity of the layer above it. It also means that
each layer tries to increase the velocity of the layer below it. There is therefore an internal
tangential resistive force acting between two layers which is opposing their relative motion.
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viscosity.
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1.7 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

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plate is moved by tangential force PZKLOHWKHORZHUSODWHLVNHSWVWDWLRQDU\7KHPRYHPHQW
of upper plate is resisted by the liquid through its viscosity. Therefore, the magnitude of
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line OA deforms to the position OA. Point B on line OA at a height dy from O, will move
to B due to its velocity du.
Now, BB = velocity ¥ time
= du ¥ dt

Also, BB = dy ¥ dq
\ du ¥ dt = dy ¥ dq
dq du
or =
dt dy
The angle of deformation dq or strain increases with time but the time rate of shear strain per
Ê dq ˆ
time Á ˜ remains constant as long force P is unchanged. As shear stress (t = PA) depends
Ë dt ¯
upon the applied force (P) and area of contact (A), it remains constant and it depends upon
the time rate of shear strain
dq
ta
dt
du
a
dy
du
t=m
dy
This is called the Newton’s equation of viscosity. The constant of proportionality m is called
YLVFRVLW\$ÀXLGLQZKLFKWKHVKHDUVWUHVVt ) is linearly proportional to time rate of strain
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Newtonian fluids. 8378
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where, = velocity gradient which is equal to the time rate of shear strain Á ˜
dy Ë dt ¯
m = viscosity
Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

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du
viscosity, t = m du
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ndy
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changes with the rate of deformation. changes with the rate of deformation.
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fluids
t
Newtonian fluids t
tan q = μ
= Viscosity Ideal fluid
q
du
dy
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polymer solutions and paints.
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Fluids in which the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing rate of deformation are
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Fluids in which the apparent viscosity increases with increasing rate of deformation are
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The solids deform or undergo strain on application of shear strain but their strains do not
df du
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dt dy
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)ORZRIDIOXLGLVJLYHQE\

Ê du ˆ
t m
ÁË dy ˜¯
7KHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQLVJLYHQE\
uPD[ È y y ˘
u Í - ˙
Î h h ˚
where uPD[ PD[YHORFLW\DQGh ¿OPWKLFNQHVV,IYLVFRVLW\ 1VPWKHQ¿QG

shear stress at solid surface for uPD[ PVDQGh PPDQGZKDW1HZWRQLDQ
IOXLGFDQLQGXFHVDPHVKHDUVWUHVVIRUVDPHYHORFLW\JUDGLHQWDQGPD[LPXPYHORFLW\"
Ê du ˆ
Guidance: The velocity gradient Á ˜ can be founG RXW E\ GL൵HUHQWLDWLQJ WKH JLYHQ
Ë dy ¯
relationship of velocity distribution. Shear stress can be found out by using shear stress and
velocity gradient relationship.
umax È y y3 ˘
u= Í2 - 3 ˙
3 Î h h ˚
du umax È 2 3 y 2 ˘
= Í - ˙
dy 3 Î h h3 ˚
Ideal or non-viscous fluid
du
dy
Behaviour of Ideal Fluids

At solid surface y = 0,
Ê du ˆ umax 2
ÁË dy ˜¯ = ¥
y =0 3 h
Ê du ˆ 0.3 2
ÁË dy ˜¯ = ¥
y =0 3 0.01
V±
1.5
Ê du ˆ
t0 = m Á ˜
Ë dy ¯
= 0.5 ¥
1P
)RU1HZWRQLDQÀXLG
Ê du ˆ
t0 = m Á ˜
Ë dy ¯
m ¥
24.56 Ns
m= 2
20 m
Ns
1HZWRQLDQÀXLGRIYLVFRVLW\ can induce same shear stress.
m2
:KDW GR \RX XQGHUVWDQG IURP SRLVH FHQWLSRLVH VSHFL¿F YLVFRVLW\ DQG
kinematic viscosity?
Or
Differentiate between dynamic and kinematic viscosity.
8378
Ns
Poise is the unit of viscosity in CGS system. One SRLVH . Poise is a relatively
m2
large unit. Hence, centipoise is used which is equal WR SRLVH:DWHU KDV YLVFRVLW\ DW
& FHQWLSRLVH
.LQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\LVWKHUDWLRRIWKHYLVFRVLW\RIÀXLGWRLWVGHQVLW\
Viscosity m Ê m2 ˆ
Kinematic viscosity = =
Density r ÁË s ˜¯
7KHNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\LQ&*6V\VWHPLVVWRNH –4 mV6WRNHLVDUHODWLYHODUJHXQLW

DQGFHQWLVWRNHcstZKLFKLVHTXDOWRVWRNHLVXVHG7KHNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\RIZDWHU
DW&DQGDLUDW673DUHcstDQGcstUHVSHFWLYHO\$LUKDVKLJKHUNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\
than water.
Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity

1. It is the ratio of shear stress produced by 1. It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity by unit
1 m
unit rate of shear strain, t = . density u =
Ê du ˆ r
ÁË dy ˜¯
2. It has unit of poise in CGS system and 2. It has unit of stoke in CGS system or m2/s
in SI units
Ns
in SI units
m2
Ns 104 stokes = 1 m2/s

4
10 poise = 1
m2
Poise = 100 centipoises 1 stoke = 100 centistokes.
3. It is an indicator of only viscous force of 3. It is the ratio of viscous force to the inertia
the liquid. IRUFHRIWKHÀXLG,IYLVFRXVIRUFHLVODUJH
kinematic viscosity is large and vice versa.
4. It is used where viscosity forces are 4. It is used where both viscous and inertia
predominant. forces are predominant.
:KDWDUHWKHHIIHFWVRIWHPSHUDWXUHDQGSUHVVXUHRQYLVFRVLW\"
Increase of temperature causes a decrease in the viscosity of liquid while it increases the
YLVFRVLW\RIJDVHV7KHYLVFRXVIRUFHVLQDÀXLGDUHSURGXFHGE\WKHLQWHUPROHFXODUFRKHVLRQ
and molecular moment transfer. The molecules of a liquid are comparatively more closely
SDFNHGDQGPROHFXODUDFWLYLW\LVUDWKHUVPDOO+HQFHYLVFRVLW\RIDOLTXLGLVSULPDULO\GXH
to molecular cohesion. The molecular cohesion decreases with elevated temperature which
results into drop in viscosity of liquid. The molecular cohesive forces are very small in
a gas and the viscosity is primarily due to the molecular momentum transfer. The rise of
temperatures increases the molecular activity thereby increasing the viscosity of gas.
+LJKSUHVVXUHVDOVRD൵HFWWKHYLVFRVLW\RIDOLTXLG7KHYLVFRVLW\LVIRXQGWREHLQFUHDVLQJ
with rising pressure. Viscosity increases, as more energy is required for the relative movement
of liquid molecules at elevated pressure.
$SODWHPPGLVWDQFHIURPZLWKD¿[HGSODWHIOXLGLQEHWZHHQPRYHVRIPV,W
UHTXLUHVDIRUFHRI1P to maintain the speed. Determine the viscosity.
du = 1 m/s
2
t = 2 N/m
0.05
Guidance: We have to apply the Newton’s law of viscosity, which relates velocity gradient
to the applied shear stress. Shear force and velocity gradient are given.
du
t=m
dy
1
m ¥
0.05 ¥ 10 -3
m ¥ 0.05 ¥–61VP

¥± poise
$SODWHKDYLQJVL]H¥PPLVSXOOHGZLWKYHORFLW\RIPVRYHUD¿[HGSODWH
DWGLVWDQFHRIPP)LQGIRUFHDQGSRZHUWRPDLQWDLQYHORFLW\LIIOXLGKDV
m SRLVH
Guidance 7KHVKHDUVWUHVVLVIRUFHGLYLGHGE\DUHDRIWKHSODWH1HZWRQ¶VODZRIYLVFRVLW\
LVXVHGWR¿QGWKHVKHDUVWUHVVIURPWKHYHORFLW\JUDGLHQWdu and dy are given)
du
t=m
dy
¥ 0.5 1P

¥ -
F
=t
A
F=A¥t
¥¥–6 ¥
N1
Power = Force × Velocity
du = 0.05 m/s
0.25
¥ ¥ 0.5
N:
$ VNDWHU ZHLJKLQJ 1 LV VNDWLQJ ZLWK VSHHG RI PV7KH VNDWHV KDYH DUHD RI
cm)LQGWKHWKLFNQHVVRIZDWHUOD\HUEHWZHHQVNDWHVDQGLFHLIm ¥± poise and
G\QDPLFFRHIILFLHQWRIIULFWLRQRIWKHLFH
Guidance 7KHVKHDUIRUFHHQDEOLQJVNDWHUWRPRYHLVIULFWLRQIRUFH7KHWKLFNQHVVRIZDWHU
layer can be found out from Newton’s law of viscosity.
Friction force
dy du = 20 m/s
Ice
Friction force = md ¥ mg
¥ 900
1
t = mwater du
dy
¥ -5 ¥
\ dy = m

¥–5 m
¥± mm
$ SODWH RI VL]H FP ¥ FP DQG ZHLJKW 1 VOLGHV GRZQ RQ LQFOLQHG VXUIDFH
LQFOLQLQJWRWKHKRUL]RQWDOZKLFKKDVFHUWDLQWKLFNQHVVRIOXEULFDWLRQZLWKm
SRLVH 7KLV DWWDLQV YHORFLW\ RI PV RYHU WKH OXEULFDWHG VXUIDFH )LQG WKLFNQHVV RI
lubrication.
Guidance 7KHFRPSRQHQWRIWKHZHLJKWDFWLQJDORQJWKHLQFOLQHGVXUIDFHZLOODFWDVVKHDU
force.
Shear force = wVLQ
1
t ¥ = 500 N
2
F 500
t= = = 0.8 ¥41P
A ¥ ¥ -4
Plate
W cos q
W sin q
W = 100
30°
du
t=m
dy
¥
8 ¥ =
dy
¥ -
dy =
¥
¥± mm
$SLVWRQKDYLQJPPGLDPHWHUDQGPPOHQJWKPRYHVLQVLGHDF\OLQGHURI
PPGLDPHWHU7KHZHLJKWRIWKHSLVWRQLV1DQGDQQXODUVSDFHEHWZHHQSLVWRQDQG
cylinder has lubrication oil of m 1VP)LQGWKHYHORFLW\ZLWKZKLFKWKHSLVWRQ
will slide inside the cylinder.
100.4
Piston
Cylinder
100 L = 150
w = 50 N
Guidance ,WLVWKHZHLJKWRIWKHSLVWRQZKLFKLVSURYLGLQJVKHDUIRUFH7KHVXUIDFHRI
shear force is the surface area of the piston.
Shear force = Weight of piston

= 50 N
Surface area = p DL
= p ¥¥¥–6 m
¥± m
-
2LO¿OPWKLFNQHVVdy = ¥±

¥±
50
t= ¥ N
¥ -
du
t=m
dy
du
¥
¥ -
¥ ¥ ¥ -

\ du =
0.5
PV
'HWHUPLQHWKHYLVFRVLW\RIDIOXLGKDYLQJNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\RIVWRNHVDQG6*RI
m
Guidance .LQHPDWLFYLVcosity = , m FDQEHIRXQGRXWIURPNQRZQNLQHPDWLFviscosity
r
and density.
r
SG =
rwater
r = rwater ¥ SG
¥ NJP
m
g=
r
or m=r¥g
¥¥–4 VWRNH –4 mV
1VP
7KURXJK D YHU\ QDUURZ JDS RI KHLJKW h D WKLQ SODWH RI ODUJH H[WHQW LV SXOOHG DW D
velocity v. On one side of the plate is oil of viscosity m and on other side oil of viscosity
m &DOFXODWH WKH SRVLWLRQ RI WKH SODWH VR WKDW WKH SXOO UHTXLUHG WR GUDJ WKH SODWH LV
minimum. 8378
y μ1
h V
μ2
Guidance :KHQSODWHLVSXOOHGGUDJIRUFHVF & FZLOOEHH[HUWHGDWXSSHUDQGlower

d (F1 + F2 )
VXUIDFHRIWKHSODWHE\ÀXLGV7KHWRWDOGUDJFF) will be minimum, when
dy
= 0, where y = distance of the plate from the upper surface of the gap.
F GUDJIRUFHH[HUWHGE\XSSHUÀXLG
V
= m1 ¥A
y
V
F = m 2 ¥A
h-y
Êm m ˆ
F = VA Á 1 + 2 ˜
Ë y b - y¯
dF
For minimum F, =0
dy
dF Ê m m ˆ
= VA Á - 1 - 2 ˜ = 0
dy Ë y b - y¯
2
(h - y ) =
m2
y 2 m1
h 2 + y 2 - 2hy m
= 2
y2 m1
2
Ê hˆ Ê hˆ Ê m2 ˆ
ÁË y ˜¯ - 2 ÁË y ˜¯ + ÁË 1 - m ˜¯ = 0
1
Ê m ˆ
2 ± 4 - 4 Á1 - 2 ˜
h Ë m1 ¯
=
y 2
h m2 Êh ˆ
y
ÁË y KDVWREH > ˜¯
m1
h
y=
1 + m 2 m1
7ZRODUJHSODQHVXUIDFHVDUHPPDSDUW7KHVSDFHLQEHWZHHQ¿OOHGZLWKJO\FHULQ
:KDWIRUFHLVUHTXLUHGWRPRYHDYHU\WKLQSODWHKDYLQJVXUIDFHDUHDP between
WKH WZR SODQH VXUIDFHV ZLWK YHORFLW\ RI PV ZKHQ WKLQ SODWH LV LQ WKH PLGGOH RI
WZRDQGWKLQSODWHLVDWPPIURPRQHVXUIDFH7DNHm 16P.
Guidance 7KHVKHDUIRUFHLVWKHVXPRIWKHVKHDUIRUFHRIXSSHUDQGORZHUÀXLG
dy1 = 12 dy1 = 16
du = 1 m/s
du = 1 m/s
dy2 = 12
dy2 = 8
Case 1 Case 2
Case dy dy \ t = t or F = F

t = 0.5 ¥
¥ -
= 1P
F = A ¥ t = ¥ 1
= 1
F = F + F
= ¥
= 1
Case dy = 8, dy

t = 0.5 ¥ t = 0.5 ¥
¥ - ¥ -
= 1P = 1P
F = ¥ F = ¥
= 1 = 1
F = F + F
= +
= 1
$VTXDUHSODWHPVLGHDQGPPWKLFNZHLJKLQJ1LVWREHOLIWHGWKURXJKDYHUWLFDO
JDSRIPPRILQ¿QLWHH[WHQW7KHRLO¿OOLQJWKHJDVKDVm 1VPDQG6*
7KHSODWHLVPRYHGZLWKPV¿QGIRUFHDQGSRZHUUHTXLUHGIRUPRYLQJWKHSODWH
Drag force
du = 0.5
Drag force
Plate
Vertical gap
w
Fb = w1
Ê du ˆ
Guidance 7KHSODWHKDVWREHPRYHGDJDLQVWGUag force Á ª Am ˜ acting both surfaces
Ë dy ¯
and weight (w) but the buoyancy force wl (weight of liquid displaced) is acting upwards.
Weight of liquid displaced (w) = volume of the plate ¥ SG of liquid

¥ density of water
¥¥¥± ¥ 0.9 ¥
1
%XR\DQF\IRUFH 1
Drag force = t ¥A
du
= ¥ 4 ¥ m
dy
0.5 Ê 21 - 1 ˆ
¥ 4 ¥¥ ÁË dy = 2 ˜¯
10 ¥ 10 -3
1
)RUFHUHTXLUHG 'UDJIRUFHZHLJKW±Fb
±
1
Power required = force required ¥ velocity

¥ 0.5
ZDWWV
7KH YHORFLW\ GLVWULEXWLRQ LQ D YLVFRXV IORZ RYHU D SODWH LV JLYHQ DV u uy – y for
y £PZKHUHu YHORFLW\PVDWGLVWDQFHy from the plate. If m 1VP)LQG
shear stress at y DQGy
Guidance %\GL൵HUHQWLDWLQJWKHYHORFLW\HTXDWLRQZHFDQ¿QGYHORFLW\JUDGLHQWDQGVKHDU
stress.
u = 4y – y
du
±y
dy
2
y u = 4y – y
Plate
Ê du ˆ Ê du ˆ
ÁË dy ˜¯ =4& Á ˜ =0
Ë dy ¯ y = 2
y =0
Ê du ˆ Ê du ˆ
t0 = m Á ˜ t0 = m Á ˜
Ë dy ¯ y = 0 Ë dy ¯ y = 2
¥ 4
1P t = 0
$ IOXLG NLQHPDWLF YLVFRVLW\ VWRNHV IORZV RYHU D KRUL]RQWDO SODWH ZLWK DUHD P.
7KHYHORFLW\LVJLYHQE\u y±y where y is distance from the plate. If shear force
PHDVXUHGRQSODWHLV1¿QGVSZHLJKWDQG6*RIWKHIOXLG
Guidance7KHYLVFRVLW\JUDGLHQWLVWREHIRXQGRXWE\GL൵HUHQWLDWLQJYHORFLW\HTXDWLRQ
y 3
u = 2y – y
t = 0.4 N (due to flow)
Plate F0 = t0 ´ A = t0 ´ 1
u y±y
du
=±y
dy
Ê du ˆ
ÁË dy ˜¯
y =0
Ê du ˆ
t0 = m Á ˜ and F0 = t0 ¥ A = t 0 ¥
Ë dy ¯ y = 0
F0 = m ¥
0.4 Ns
m=
2 m
m
g=
r
0.2
¥– 4 =
r
0.2
\ r= NJP
2.5 ¥ 10 -4
NJP
r 800
SG = = = 0.8
rwater 1000
7KH YHORFLW\ RI D IOXLG RYHU D KRUL]RQWDO SODWH LV YDU\LQJ DV SDUDEROD ZLWK YHUWH[ DW
FP IURP WKH SODWH ZKHUH WKH YHORFLW\ LV PV ,I m 16P ¿QG YHORFLW\
JUDGLHQWDQGVKHDUVWUHVVDWy DQGy PIURPWKHSODWH
Guidance 7KH YHORFLW\ SUR¿OH FDQ EH DVVXPHG DV u = ay by c as it is varying
SDUDEROLF7KHUHDUHWKUHHXQNQRZQVDQGZHUHTXLUHWKUHHFRQGLWLRQV$WSODWHZKHQy = 0,
Ê du ˆ
then u DWYHUWH[y YHORFLW\u PVJLYHQ$OVRYHORFLW\JUDGLHQW Á ˜
Ë dy ¯ y = 0.1
DWWKHYHUWH[
U = 0.1 m/s
Velocity profit of the fluid

y = 0.1 M
Plate
u = ay 2 + by + c
u = aybyc
Putting y = 0, u = 0
0=c
\ u = ayby
Putting y u
¥ ab
or ab
Ê du ˆ
Puttting Á ˜ =0
Ë dy ¯ y = 0.1
Ê du ˆ
ÁË dy ˜¯ = ¥ a ¥b (4)
y = 0.1
or a = – 5b
)URPHTXDWLRQVDQG
– 5bb
b
and a = –
\ u ±yy
Ê du ˆ
ÁË dy ˜¯ = – y
Ê du ˆ Ê du ˆ
ÁË dy ˜¯ Á ˜ ±
y =0
Ë dy ¯ y = 0.05
Ê du ˆ Ê du ˆ
t0 = m Á ˜ t0.05 = m Á ˜
Ë dy ¯ y = 0 Ë dy ¯ y = 0.05
= 0.9 ¥ ¥

1P 1P
Ns
$IOXLGRIYLVFRVLW\P LVPRYLQJRYHUD¿[HGVXUIDFHZLWKKHLJKW PA
m2
IORDWPRYHVPLQVHFRQGV)LQGWKH YHORFLW\JUDGLHQWDQGVKHDUVWUHVVDFWLQJRQ
the float.
Guidance 7KHYHORFLW\JUDGLHQWLVHTXDOWRWLPHUDWHRIVWUDLQ
x - x
d q tan q
Rate of strain = ª = h
dt dt

= = 0.05 per sec.
¥
dq du
= = 0.05 per sec.
dt dy
du
But, t=m ¥ 1
dy
)LQGWKHWRUTXHDQGSRZHUUHTXLUHGWRWXUQFPORQJFPGLDPHWHUVKDIWDW
USP LQ D FP GLDPHWHU FRQFHQWULF EHDULQJ IORRGHG ZLWK OXEULFDWLQJ RLO RI YLVFRVLW\
Ns
.
m2
Oil
Shaft
Bearing dy
Guidance 7KHSUREOHPLVVLPLODUWRDWKLQSODWHPRYLQJEHWZHHQWZR¿[HGSODWHV7KH
YHORFLW\ FDQ EH FDOFXODWHG IURP USP DQG ZKHQ LW LV GLYLGHG E\ WKH WKLFNQHVV RI ÀXLG WKH
velocity gradient is found out.
d bearing - dshaft
dy =

0.07 - 0.05
=

= P
p dN p ¥ 0.05 ¥ 600
du = =
60 60
= PV
du
t=m
dy

= ¥ = 1P
¥ -
Area = p dL
= p ¥ ¥ ¥ -4
= ¥ - P
\ F = p¥ A
= ¥ ¥ -
= N
d
Torque = F ¥

5
= ¥ ¥ -

= ¥ - 1P
p NT
Power =
60
p ¥ ¥ ¥ -
=
60
= ZDWWV
$YHUWLFDOF\OLQGHURIGLDPHWHUPPURWDWHVFRQFHQWULFDOO\LQVLGHDELJJHUF\OLQGHU
RIGLDPHWHUPPERWKKDYLQJKHLJKW PP7KHJDSEHWZHHQWKHF\OLQGHUV
FRQWDLQVDIOXLGZLWKYLVFRVLW\XQNQRZQ)LQGYLVFRVLW\LIWRUTXHRI1PLVDSSOLHG
WRURWDWHWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHUZLWKUSP
T = 30 Nm
Fluid
200
200.4
Guidance 9HORFLW\ JUDGLHQW FDQ EH IRXQG IURP WKH USP DQG ÀXLG JDS %\ 1HZWRQ¶V
equation of viscosity, viscosity can be calculated.
p dN
du =
60
p ¥ 0.2 ¥ 200
=
60
PV
do - di 200.4 - 200
dy = = ¥±
2 2
¥± m
Force = t ¥ A
t¥ A¥d
Torque =
.2
A = pdL = p ¥¥¥– 6
¥± m
200
t ¥¥± ¥ ¥±
2
30 ¥ 2
t=
18.84 ¥ 200 ¥ 10 -5
¥1P
du
t=m
dy
2.093
¥ = m ¥
0.2 ¥ 10 -3
1.592 ¥ 10 3 ¥ 0.2 ¥ 10 -3
m=
2.093
Ns2
m
A circular disc haviQJUDGLXVRLVNHSWDWVPDOOKHLJKWDERYHD¿[HGVXUIDFHE\DOD\HU

RIRLOKDYLQJYLVFRVLW\m'HWHUPLQHWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHYLVFRXVWRUTXHRQWKHGLVF
Disc w
R
Oil
h
r dr
,QRUGHUWR¿QGYLVFRXVWRUTXHZHWDNHDQHOHPHQWDU\ULQJDWUDGLXVrDQGWKLFNQHVVdr. If
w is angular velocity of the disc, the tangential velocity at ring is u = r.w and area of ring
pr.dr
du
t=m
dy
m ¥ rw
=
h
dFr = tr ¥ area of ring
m ¥ rw
= ¥p rdr
h
2pmw
= ¥ r dr
h
Torque = Force ¥ radius
2pmw
dTr = ¥ r dr
h
R 2pmw R 3
dTr = r dr
h Ú0
Total torque = Ú
0
2pmw R 4 D
T= ¥ but R=
h 4 2
2pmw D4
= ¥
h 4 ¥ 16
pmwD4
=
32h
$WKUXVWEHDULQJKDVFPGLDPHWHULVVHSDUDWHGE\DQRLO¿OPRIKHLJKWPPIURP
¿[HGEDVH)LQGSRZHUGLVVLSDWHGLQWKHEHDULQJLQFDVHLWURWDWHVDWUSP*LYHQm
Ns

m2 N = 400 rpm
3
h = 2 ´ 10
0.1 m
Guidance 9LVFRXVWRUTXHT = pmwD can be calculated. Power is equal T ¥ w

4
32h
w = 2p N / 60
2p ¥ 0.1 ¥ 400
=
60
= 41.86 rad / sec.
pmwD4
T=
32h
p ¥ 0.9 ¥ 41.86 ¥ (0.1)4
=
32 ¥ 2 ¥ 10 -3
= 0.1851 ¥ 10 -3 Nm
Power = T ¥ w
= 0.1851 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 41.86
= 7.74 ¥ 10 -3 watts
$VROLGFRne of radius RDQGYHUWH[DQJOHqLVPDGHWRURWDWHDWDQJXODUYHORFLW\w in
WKHFRQLFDOFDYLW\FRQWDLQLQJRLOZLWKYLVFRVLW\m. If hLVWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHFRQHDQG
FDYLW\¿QGWRUTXHT to rotate the cone.
R
r + dr q
20 h r ds
r
r + dr
Oil
7DNHDVODQWKHLJKWds between a radius r and rdr

dr
sin q =
ds
dr
or ds =
sin q
Velocity at radius, r = u = wr
9HORFLW\GL൵HUHQFHdu at r from stationary outer cone surface = wr
du
Shear stress at strip, tr = m
dy
wr
=m
h
Force at strip, dF = tr ¥ dA
wr dr dr
=m ¥pr ¥ as ds =
h sin q sin q
2pmw
= r dr
h sin q
Torque at strip = dF ¥ r
2pmw
dTr = r dr
h sin q
R 2pmw R
\ Torque = Ú dTr = Ú r 3 dr
0 h sin q 0
2pmw R 4 pmwR 4
= ¥ =
h sin q 4 2h sin q
:KDWLVWKHFRPSUHVVLELOLW\DQGFRHIILFLHQWRIFRPSUHVVLELOLW\RIDIOXLG"
Compressibility. )OXLGV FDQ EH FRPSUHVVLEOH RU LQFRPSUHVVLEOH ,QFRPSUHVVLEOH ÀXLGV
KDYH FRQVWDQW GHQVLW\ ZKLOH LQFRPSUHVVLEOH ÀXLGV KDYH YDULDEOH GHQVLW\ ,Q FRPSUHVVLEOH
ÀXLGVZKHQSUHVVXUHLVDSSOLHGÀXLGVFRQWUDFWDQGZKHQSUHVVXUHLVUHGXFHGWKH\H[SDQG
&RPSUHVVLELOLW\LVWKHSURSHUW\RIDÀXLGZKLFKFKDUDFWHUL]HVLWVDELOLW\WRFKDQJHLWVYROXPH
under pressure.
dp
dv
V
Coefficient of compressibility. It is the ratio of the change of volume per unit volume, i.e.,
volumetric strain to change of pressure. If there is change of volume – dv from the original
volume V and the change of pressure is dp, then
dv
-
V
&RH൶FLHQWRIFRPSUHVVLbility (b) =
dp
:KDWLVEXONPRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\")LQGWKHYDOXHRIEXONPRGXOXVIRULVRWKHUPDODQG
adiabable processes.
7KHEXONPRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\k) is the ratio of compressive stress to the volumetric strain
dp 1
k= =
dV b
-
V
7KHEXONPRGXOXVFDQEHDOVRH[SUHVVHGLQUHODWLYHFKDQJHLQGHQVLW\
m = rV
dm = dr ¥ Vr ¥ dV
dV dr
\ – =
V r
dP
\ \ K=
dr
r
,VRWKHUPDOSURFHVVFDQEHH[SUHVVHGDV
PV = constant
\ pdVVdp = 0
dp
p= =k
dV
-
V
\ %XONPRGXOXVRILVRWKHUPDOSURFHVVLVHTXDOWRWKHSUHVVXUHRIWKHÀXLG
$GLDEDWLFSURFHVVFDQEHH[SUHVVHGDVPV g constant
Pg Vg ± dVVg dp = 0
dp
gP = – =k
dV
V
\ %XONPRGXOXVLQDGLDEDWLFSURFHVVLVHTXDOWRg time the pressure.
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PRGXOXVLIFRPSUHVVLRQLVGRQHLVRWKHUPDOO\DQGDGLDEDWLFDOO\*LYHQg
Guidance %XONPRGXOXVLQLVRWKHUPDOSURFHVVLVHTXDOWRP which it is g P for adiabatic
process
PV = PV for isothermal process
PV 100 ¥ 10 3 ¥ 0.4
\ P = 1 1
=
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= 500 ¥1P
\%XONPRGXOXV k = P
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1.8 CHANGE OF PHASE
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Evaporation (YDSRUDWLRQ PHDQV D FKDQJH RI SKDVH IURP OLTXLG WR JDVHRXV 7KH UDWH RI
evaporation depends upon the pressure and temperature. Evaporation increases with the rise
of temperature or lowering of pressure.
Vapour Pressure&RQVLGHUDOLTXLGZKLFKLVHQFORVHGLQDFORVHGVSDFH7KHPROHFXOHVRI
the liquid which attain high energy leave the liquid phase to vapour phase. However, some
of the molecules in vapour phase have a tendency to rebound and get absorbed in the liquid.
Hence, there is continuous interchange of molecules between the liquid and the vapour
above it. The vapour pressure will have a constant value when the molecules leaving and
HQWHULQJLQWRYDSRXUVWDWHLVVDPH7KHFRQVWDQWYDSRXUSUHVVXUHH[HUWHGE\WKHYDSRXURQ
liquid is called the saturated vapour pressure. Higher the vapour pressure, more volatile is
WKH OLTXLG 3HWURO KDV YDSRXU SUHVVXUH RI N1P while water has vapour pressure of
N1PDW&+HQFHSHWUROYDSRUL]HVIDVWHUWKDQZDWHU0HUFXU\KDVYHU\ORZYDSRXU
SUHVVXUHDQGKLJKGHQVLW\'XHWRWKLVLWLVYHU\VXLWDEOHDVÀXLGIRUPDQRPHWHU
Boiling (YDSRUDWLRQRIOLTXLGFHDVHVZKHQVDWXUDWHGYDSRXUSUHVVXUHKDVEHHQDFKLHYHGRQ
the liquid. In case vapour pressure decreases below the saturated vapuor pressure, evaporation
of liquid starts again and it continues until new equilibrium condition is attained. If the vapour
pressure falls considerably, then the molecules leave the liquid surface very rapidly to vapour
state and this is called boiling. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its
YDSRXUSUHVVXUHHTXDOVWKHH[WHUQDOSUHVVXUH)RUZDWHUWKHYDSRXUSUHVVXUHEHFRPHV
EDUDW&ZKLFKLVHTXDOWRWKHDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHUHVXOWLQJERLOLQJRIWKHZDWHU$W
ORZHUDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHOLNHLQKLOOVWDWLRQVZDWHUDWWDLQVYDSRXUSUHVVXUHHTXDOWRORZHU
atmospheric pressure at lower temperature and water boils at lower temperature.
:KDWLVFDYLWDWLRQ":KDWLVLWVHIIHFW"+RZLVLWDYRLGHG"
7KHÀXLGVWDUWVERLOLQJHYHQDWORZWHPSHUDWXUHLISUHVVXUHRQWKHÀXLGIDOOVWRLWVYDSRXU
SUHVVXUHDWWKDWWHPSHUDWXUH6XFKERLOLQJRIWHQRFFXUVLQÀRZLQJÀXLGVVSHFLDOO\RQVXFWLRQ
VLGH RI WKH SXPS :KHQ VXFK ERLOLQJ RFFXUV LQ WKH ÀRZLQJ ÀXLGV YDSRXU EXEEOHV EHJLQ
to grow in local regions of very low pressure. The formation of bubbles of vapour in the
ÀRZLQJÀXLGLVFDOOHGFDYLWDWLRQ
Air at Patm
Vapour at Vapour
Pvapour
Patm > Pvapour Pvapour > Patm Bubbles
Evaporation Boiling
The bubbles of vapuor are formed due to cavitation in the region of low pressure and
EXEEOHV DUH FDUULHG E\ WKH ÀXLG ÀRZ WR RWKHU UHJLRQV VXFK DV GHOLYHU\ VLGH RI WKH SXPS
where the pressure is high. In the region of high pressure, bubbles suddenly collapse and
vapour condenses, resulting in drop in volume occupied. The space occupied by the bubbles
LVQRZDYDLODEOHIRUWKHÀXLGWRUXVKLQWR¿OOLW
7KHUXVKLQJRIÀXLGJHQHUDWHVQRLVHDQGYLEUDWLRQV,IEXEEOHVFROODSVHRQWKHLPSHOOHU
YDQHV WKH UXVKLQJ ÀXLG FRUURGHV WKH YDQHV DQG RWKHU VXUIDFHV RI WKH SXPS &DYLWDWLRQ
can also occur if a liquid contains dissolved air or other gases in liquid. The solubility of
gases in a liquid decreases as the pressure is reduced. Gas or air bubbles are released in
WKHVDPHZD\DVYDSRXUEXEEOHVZLWKWKHVDPHGDPDJLQJH൵HFWV7KHFDYLWDWLRQRFFXUVLQ
K\GUDXOLFPDFKLQHVKDYLQJÀRZRIKLJKVSHHGÀXLGVVXFKDVWXUELQHVSXPSVSURSHOOHUVRI
VKLSDQGSLSHOLQH7KHFDYLWDWLRQKDVWREHDYRLGHGE\HQVXULQJWKDWSUHVVXUHRQWKHÀXLG
VKRXOGQRWIDOOEHORZLWVYDSRXUSUHVVXUHLQDQ\UHJLRQRIWKHÀRZE\SURSHUGHVLJQLQJ
WKHÀXLGÀRZ
Pfluid < Pvapour Pvapour > Pfluid
Bubble Vapour Fluid
Cavitation Collapse of Bubble
1.9 COHESION AND ADHESION

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Cohesion Adhesion
1. Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction 1. Adhesion is the force of attraction
EHWZHHQWKHPROHFXOHVRIVDPHÀXLGOLNH between alike molecules, i.e., the
molecules). PROHFXOHVRIÀXLGDQGWKHPROHFXOHVRI
solid boundary surface in contact with
WKHÀXLG
2. 7KHÀXLGWHQGVWRUHVLVWWKHVKHDUVWUHVV 2. The property of adhesion enables a
due to cohesion. liquid to stick to another surface.
3. If cohesive force is more than adhesive 3. If adhesive force is more than cohesive
force, liquids form droplets without wetting force, liquids spread on the contact
the contact surface. surface and wet the surface.
Example: mercury. Example: water
4. For higher cohesion, contact angle is more 4. For higher adhesion contact angle is
than 90° for most surfaces. less than 90°.
:KDWDUHZHWWLQJDQGQRQZHWWLQJOLTXLGV"
Adhesion < Cohesion
Contact surface
Cohesion < Adhesion

q = Contact angle Liquid
q
q Liquid
Contact surface Contact surface
Wetting Liquid (Spread Out) Non-Wetting Liquid (forms Droplet)
:KHQ D OLTXLG OLNH PHUFXU\ LV VSLOOHG RQ D VPRRWK VXUIDFH LW WHQGV WR IRUP GURSOHWV7KH
cohesive molecular forces between the molecules of mercury are more than the adhesive
forces between the molecules of mercury and the contact surface. Mercury tends to stay away
from the contact surface. Hence, mercury is said to be a non-wetting liquid.
In the case of water, cohesive molecular forces between molecules of water are smaller
than the adhesive molecular forces between the molecules of water and the contact surface.
Hence, when water is poured on the contact surface, it spreads and wets the contact surface.
The wetting and non-wetting liquids are decided by the angle of contact between the liquids
and the surface material. Liquids wet the contact surface if contact angle q < p7KHGHJUHH
RIZHWWLQJLQFUHDVHVDVFRQWDFWDQJOHGHFUHDVHVWR]HUR,QWKHFDVHRIQRQZHWWLQJOLTXLGV
the contact angle > p7KHFRQWDFWDQJOHIRUZDWHULVDOPRVW]HURZKLOHLWLVWR
in case of mercury.
1.10 SURFACE TENSION

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7KHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQRIDOLTXLGLVGH¿QHGDVWKHIRUFHSHUXQLWOHQJWKLQWKHSODQHRIOLTXLG
surface which is acting at right angles on either side of an imaginary line drawn in that
surface.
/HWDOLTXLGVXUIDFHEHLQGLFDWHGE\SRLQWVDQGDQLPDJLQDU\OLQHAB is drawn
LQDQ\GLUHFWLRQLQWKHOLTXLGVXUIDFHDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH7KHVXUIDFHRQHLWKHUVLGHRI
this line (AB H[HUWV D SXOOLQJ IRUFH RQ WKH OLQH ZKLFK LV LQ WKH SODQH RI WKH VXUIDFH DQG
at right angle to the line (AB). The magnitude of this force per unit length of the line is a
measure of the surface tension of the liquid. In case length of line = l and surface tension
= sWKHQIRUFHDFWLQJRQRQHVLGHRIWKHOLQHLV
F=s¥l
F
or surface tension s= . The XQLWLV1P
l
2
F
B
1 3
A
F Liquid surface
4
Surface Tension on Liquid Surface
Cause of Surface Tension:5DLQGURSVDQGVRDSEXEEOHVH[LVWLQSHUIHFWO\VSKHULFDOVKDSH

Hence there is some other force besides gravity which is controlling the behaviour of the
liquids. For a given volume, the surface area of a sphere is the least. Hence, we can say that
free surface of the liquid has a tendency to contract to a minimum possible area under the
action of this force, which is called surface tension. The free surface of the liquid tends to
KDYHDPLQLPXPSRVVLEOHDUHDDQGLWEHKDYHVOLNHDVWUHWFKHGHODVWLFPHPEUDQH$OLTXLG
VXUIDFHLVDOZD\VLQDVWDWHRIWHQVLRQ7KLVWHQVLRQLQWKHVXUIDFHLVNQRZQDVVXUIDFHWHQVLRQ
The tension in a liquid surface always remains constant. The surface tension is caused by
intermolecular cohesive forces between the molecules of the liquid.
In order to understand how is surface tension caused on the free surface of a liquid, we
FRQVLGHUIRXUOLTXLGPROHFXOHVOLNHA, B, C, and D with their sphere of molecular activity
DVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHDERYH$VPROHFXOHA is well inside the liquid, it is attracted equally
by other molecules in all directions, resulting no force acting on it. Similarly, force on the
molecule BLVDOVR]HUR7KHVSKHUHRIDFWLYLW\RIPROHFXOHC is partly outside the liquid
and more molecules are pulling it down as compared to molecules, which are pulling it up.
Hence, there is a net force acting on it to pull it down. Similarly, molecule DZLOOH[SHULHQFH
D QHW IRUFH SXOOLQJ LW GRZQ ZKLFK LV LQ IDFW PD[LPXP$OO PROHFXOHV RQ WKH OLTXLG IUHH
VXUIDFH RU QHDU DERXW KDYH WR ZRUN DJDLQVW WKH GRZQZDUG FRKHVLYH IRUFH WR UHDFK WKHUH
+HQFH ZRUN LV VWRUHG LQ WKHVH PROHFXOHV LQ WKH IRUP RI SRWHQWLDO HQHUJ\ 7KH SRWHQWLDO
energy of the molecules lying on the free surface is greater than the molecules inside the
OLTXLG:HNQRZWKDWDV\VWHPDWWDLQVHTXLOLEULXPZKHQLWKDVPLQLPXPSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\,Q
order to have minimum potential energy, the liquid surface tries to have minimum number
of molecules in the surface, which is possible by contracting its surface to a minimum area.
The contraction produces tension, which is called surface tension.
(VWDEOLVKUHODWLRQEHWZHHQVXUIDFHWHQVLRQRIDOLTXLGDQGWKHZRUNGRQHLQLQFUHDVLQJ
its surface area.
The molecules in the surface have some additional energy due to their position. This
additional energy per unit area of the liquid free surface is called surface energy.
/HWDOLTXLG¿OPEHIRUPHGEHWZHHQDEHQWZLUHABCD in which the portion of the wire
CD FDQ VOLGH RQ WKH UHVW RI WKH ZLUH$V WKH ¿OP VXUIDFH WHQGV WR FRQWUDFW WR UHGXFH WKH
surface area, the wire CD tends to move upwards which is opposed by applying a force F.
,WFDQEHVHHQWKDWWKHUHDUHWZRIUHHVXUIDFHVRIWKH¿OPIURQWDQGEDFN/HWWKHZLUHCD

move a distance dx.
F ¥ l ¥ s (l = length of wire CD & s = surface tension)
:RUN F ¥ dx ¥ l ¥ s ¥ dx
or W = DA ¥ s (DA LQFUHDVHRIVXUIDFHDUHDRI¿OPIRUERWKVLGHV l ¥ dx)
W
s=
DA
Downward
Molecules cohesive force
Liquid surface
Central D
C
molecule B
A
Sphere of
molecular activity
Molecule and Sphere of Cohesive Force – Downward on Surface

Molecular Activity
If DA WKHQ s = W

+HQFHWKHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQRIDOLTXLGLVHTXDOWRWKHZRUNUHTXLUHGWRWKHLQFUHDVHWKHVXUIDFH
DUHDRIWKHOLTXLG¿OPE\XQLW\DWFRQVWDQWWHPSHUDWXUH7KHUHIRUHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQFDQDOVR
EHH[SUHVVHGLQMRXOHPHWUH
A B
Liquid film
Surface tension
D C
dx
Surface Tension & Work Done
([SODLQIORDWDWLRQRIQHHGOHRQZDWHUELJJHUEXEEOHVFDQEHIRUPHGIURPVRDS

VROXWLRQDQGVRDSKHOSVLQFOHDQLQJWKHFORWKHV
7KHQHHGOHÀRDWVRQWKHZDWHUGXHWRWKHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQ7KHUHDUHWKUHHIRUFHVDFWLQJRQ
WKHQHHGOHDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHLHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUFHVT & T and the weight of the
QHHGOH7KH KRUL]RQWDO FRPSRQHQWV RI WKH VXUIDFH WHQVLRQ T & T cancel each other while
vertical components add up to balance the weight W.
T T
Needle
Floatation of Needle
%XEEOHV IRUPHG IURP SXUH ZDWHU FROODSVH LQ FDVH WKHLU VL]H JURZ 7KH UHDVRQ LV WKDW WKH
surface tension of the water is large and pressure density inside the bubble varies inversely
4s ˆ
with the diameter ÊÁ P = , resulting in the formation of smaller bubbles. However, the
Ë d ˜¯
soap solution has a comparatively much lower surface tension (s is less) and it has two
surfaces, resulting in the formation of bigger bubbles.
The soap reduces the surface tension of the solution. Therefore a drop of soap solution
wets a larger surface area of the cloth in comparison to a drop of pure water. Hence, the
soap solution can enter and reach the restricted points of the cloth surface where pure water
cannot reach and bring out the dirt particles with it. Also the cohesive forces between the
molecules of soap solution are smaller than cohesive force between the molecule of soap
solution and the dirt, resulting removal of the dirt.
1.11 PRESSURE INSIDE A DROPLET

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7KH H൵HFW RI VXUIDFH WHQVLRQ RI D OLTXLG LV WR UHGXFH WKH VXUIDFH DUHD RI LWV IUHH VXUIDFH
UHVXOWLQJGURSVRIOLTXLGWHQGWRWDNHDVSKHULFDOVKDSHLQRUGHUWRPLQLPL]HLWVVXUIDFHDUHD
Formation of such droplet due to surface tension will cause an increase of pressure (P) of
the liquid inside the droplet, which balances the surface tension. Consider a spherical droplet
of diameter dDQGH[FHVVSUHVVXUHGHYHORSHGLQVLGHWKHGURSOHWLVP. If the surface tension is
s on the spherical surface of the droplet, then applying the equilibrium on the half droplet
DVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHZHJHW
6XUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUFH )RUFHGXHWRH[FHVVSUHVVXUH
s ¥ p ¥ d = P ¥ pd
2
4s
or P=
d
Since d is very small, the value of P becomes very large. Also if the pressure P is greater
than the pressure of vapour or gas in a bubble, the bubble will collapse.
s
s
d P
s
s
s
Spherical Droplet
:KDWLVWKHSUHVVXUHLQWHQVLW\LQVLGHDVRDSEXEEOH"
Soap bubble has two surfaces in contact with air i.,e., inside and outside spherical surfaces.
)RUHTXLOLEULXP
)RUFHGXHWRVXUIDFHWHQVLRQ )RUFHGXHWRH[FHVVSUHVVXUH
p
spd = P ¥ d
4
8s
P=
d
The intensity of pressure inside the soap bubble is twice as that of water droplet of the same
diameter.
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6XUIDFHWHQVLRQDOVRLQFUHDVHVWKHLQWHUQDOSUHVVXUHLQDF\OLQGULFDOMHWRIÀXLG&RQVLGHUD
OLTXLGMHWRIF\OLQGULFDOVKDSHZLWKGLDPHWHUd and length lLVDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH)RU
HTXLOLEULXP
)RUFHGXHWRH[FHVVSUHVVXUH )RUFHGXHWRVXUIDFHWHQVLRQ
P(d ¥ l) = s l)
2s
P=
d
3UHVVXUHLVKLJKDVGLDPHWHURIWKHMet is small.
d
s
s
s s
s
l l P
s s
s s
s s
s
Jet of Water Forces on Jet
$LULVVHQWLQWRDZDWHUWDQNWKURXJKDQR]]OHWRIRUPDVWUHDPRIEXEEOHVRIGLDPHWHU
PP +RZ PXFK SUHVVXUH RI WKH DLU DW WKH QX]]OH PXVW H[FHHG IURP WKH ZDWHU IRU
EXEEOHVIRUPDWLRQLIVXUIDFHWHQVLRQRIZDWHULV¥±1P
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4s
P=
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4 ¥ 72 ¥ 10 -3
=
3 ¥ 10 -3
= 96 N/m 2
1.12 CAPILLARY RISE OR FALL

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DOLTXLGLQDYHU\VPDOOGLDPHWHUWXEH 8378
When a small diameter tube (diameter < 6 mm) open at both ends is lowered vertically into
a liquid, which wets the tube, the liquid rises in the tube. However, if the liquid is such that
it does not wet the tube, then the level of liquid in the tube depresses below the level of the
liquid outside the tube. This phenomenon of the rise or fall of liquid level in the capillary
tube is called capillarity. The cause of capillarity is the molecular forces of cohesion and
adhesion. If the adhesion force between the molecules of liquid and the tube is more than
the cohesion force between the liquid molecules, the liquid has the property to wet the glass
as well as it rises in the capillary. The free surface of the liquid attains concave shape when
liquid rises in the capillary. The surface tension forms angle q with the vertical, which is
DOVROHVVWKDQ,QFDVHWKHOLTXLGLVVXFKWKDWLWKDVJUHDWHUFRKHVLYHIRUFHEHWZHHQLWV
molecules than the adhesive force between its molecules and the molecules of the tube
material, then liquid level falls below its level outside the tube. The free surface of the liquid
LQ WKH WXEH DWWDLQV FRQYH[ VKDSH DQG WKH VXUIDFH WHQVLRQ IRUPV DQJOH q with the vertical
ZKLFKLVJUHDWHUWKDQ
Expression for capillary rise and fall: Let h be the capillary rise or fall of the liquid w.r.t.
RXWVLGHÀXLGOHYHOd = diameter of tube, s = surface tension, and r GHQVLW\RIWKHÀXLG
)RUFHGXHWRVXUIDFHWHQVLRQDFWLQJRQÀXLGLQYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQ ZHLJKWRIWKHZDWHURI
height hZUWRXWVLGHÀXLGOHYHO
pd 2
s cos q ¥ pd = ¥h¥r¥g
4
4s cos q
h=
rgd
)LQGWKHFDSLOODU\ULVHRUIDOOIRUZDWHUDQGPHUFXU\
For capillary rise or fall
4s cos q
h=
rgd
For water, q=0
4s
h=
rgd
For mercury, q

+ 4s cos 140
h=
rgd
- 4s cos 50
=
rgd
2.57 s
=–
rgd
Minus sign indicates fall of mercury level inside the tube.
7KHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQRIVRDSVROXWLRQLV¥± 1P+RZPXFKZRUNZLOOEHGRQHLQ
PDNLQJDEXEEOHRIGLDPHWHUFPE\EORZLQJ"
Guidance 7KHZRUNGRQHLQPDNLQJDEXEEOHE\EORZLQJLVVWRUHGLQWKHIRUPRIHQHUJ\
LQWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHEXEEOH7KHVRDSEXEEOHKDVWZRVXUIDFHVLHLQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDO
6XUIDFHDUHDRIEXEEOH ¥ 4pr
= 8 ¥ p ¥
¥± m
:RUNGRQH s ¥ area
¥± ¥¥±
= 5 ¥–5MRXOHV
$PHUFXU\GURSRIUDGLXVFPLVVSUD\HGLQWRGURSOHWVRIHTXDOVL]H&DOFXODWHWKH
HQHUJ\H[SDQGHG7DNHs ¥± 1P
Guidance :H KDYH WR ¿QG WKH FKDQJH RI VXUIDFH DUHD 7KH FKDQJH RI VXUIDFH DUHD LV
multiplied by surface tension for obtaining energy.
Let smaller droplets have radius = r
4 4
pR 6 ¥ ¥ pr (Volume remains same)
3 3
\ R r
r ¥– 4 m
Let DAEHWKHGL൵HUHQFHRIVXUIDFHDUHDRIVPDOOHUGURSOHWVDQGELJJHUGURSOHWV
DA 6 ¥ 4pr – 4pR

= 4p >6r±r)]
= 4p ¥ 99 ¥– 4 m
:RUNGRQH s = DA
= ¥± ¥ 4p ¥ 99 ¥– 4
.98 ¥±MRXOHV
7ZRFDSLOODU\WXEHVRIGLDPHWHUPPDQGPPDUHKHOGYHUWLFDOO\LQVLGHZDWHURQH
E\RQH+RZPXFKKLJKWKHZDWHUZLOOULVHLQWRHDFKWXEH7DNHs ¥±1P
,QFDSLOODU\WKHULVHRIOLTXLGLV
4s cos q
h=
rgd
For water, q = 0
for tube having d = 5 mm
4s
h =
rgd
4 ¥ 7 ¥ 10 -2
=
5 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 1 ¥ 10 3 ¥ 9.8
= 9.7 mm
Now for d = 4 mm
h d = h d
9.7 ¥ 5
h =
4
PP
1RWHRise and fall increases with the decrease of tube diameter.
'ULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU WKH FDSLOODU\ ULVH RI D OLTXLG EHWZHHQ SDUDOOHO SODWHV DW D
distance t apart.
Let the length of parallel plates be l
Let the liquid rise to height be h
Weight of liquid of height h = The force of surface tension at surface acting vertically
h ¥ r ¥ g ¥ t ¥ l = s ¥¥ l cos q
2s cos q
or h=
t ◊r◊ g
7ZRSDUDOOHOSODWHVRIJODVVDUHKHOGZLWKDJDSRIPP)LQGWKHULVHRIZDWHULQWKH
JDSZKHQSODWHVDUHGLSSHGLQZDWHU7DNHs 1P
The rise of water due to capillary action
2s cos q
h=
t ¥r¥ g
2 ¥ 0.075 ¥ cos 0
=
0.001 ¥ 9.8 ¥ 10 3
PP
s s
Capillary Rise in Parallel Plates
$JODVVWXEHZLWKGLDPHWHUPPLVLPPHUVHGLQPHUFXU\:KDWLVWKHIDOORIPHUFXU\
in tube w.r.t. outside mercury? Take s 1PDQGq
Capillary fall of mercury (h) is
4s cos q
h=
rgd
4 ¥ 0.5 ¥ cos 130
=
13.6 ¥ 10 3 ¥ 9.81 ¥ 3 ¥ 10 -3
±PP
Minus sign shows that the mercury in the tube falls below the mercury level outside the
tube.
)LQGPLQLPXPGLDPHWHURIJODVVWXEHLQZKLFKFDSLOODU\HIIHFWLVWREHUHVWULFWHGWR
mm when immersed in water. Take s 1P
Capillary rise (h) is
4s cos q
h=
rgd
4 ¥ 0.075 ¥ cos 0
¥± =
10 3 ¥ 9.81 ¥ d
4 ¥ 0.075
d=
3 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 10 3 ¥ 9.81
PP
$ 8 WXEH KDV WZR OLPEV RI LQWHUQDO GLDPHWHU RI DQG PP UHVSHFWLYHO\7KH WXEH
FRQWDLQVZDWHU)LQGWKHGLIIHUHQFHRIOHYHOLQWKHOLPEVLIswater 1P
7KH ZDWHU ZLOO ULVH PRUH LQ WKH VPDOO GLDPHWHU OLPE7KH GL൵HUHQFH LQ WKH OHYHO ZDWHU LQ
the limbs is
6 16
U Tube: 2 Capillaries
Ê 4s cos q ˆ Ê 4s cos q ˆ
H = h1 - h2 = Á -
Ë rgd1 ˜¯ ÁË rgd2 ˜¯
q=0 \ cos q = 1
4s Ê 1 1ˆ
H= Á - ˜
rg Ë d1 d2 ¯
4 ¥ 0.075 È 1 1 ˘
= Í - -3 ˙
10 ¥ 9.81 Î 6 ¥ 10
3 -3
16 ¥ 10 ˚
0.3 È 1 1 ˘
= -
9.81 ÍÎ 6 16 ˙˚
0.3
=
9.81
[0.166 - 0.0625]
0.3
= ¥ 0.1035
9.81
= 3.16 mm
+RZGRHVWKHULVHRIOLTXLGOHYHOLQFDSLOODU\WXEHJHWDIIHFWHGLZKHQWKHWXEHKDV
LQVXIILFLHQWOHQJWKWRWKHSRVVLEOHULVHRIWKHOLTXLGOHYHODQGLLZKHQWRSRIWXEHLV
closed.
The radius r of capillary tube and the radius of curvature of liquid free surface (R) are related
DV
r
r = R cos q or =R
cos q
2s cos q
h=
rgr
2s
=
rgR
1
R R R
s s s s 1
q R >R
q q q1 q1 > q
1
h <h
2r
h
h1
Capillary: Sufficient Length Capillary: Insufficient Length
If the length of capillary tube h is less than the normal rise of liquid h, the free surface of
the liquid will change its radius of curvature to R (contact angle q increasing) such that
2s
h1 = or Rh = R1 h1
pgR1
as R1 > R \ h1 < h
1RWHWater will never rise beyond the height of capillary and spill or fountain out of it.
,IWRSRIFDSLOODU\LVFORVHGDLUHQWUDSSHGDWWRSRIWKHFDSLOODU\H[HUWVSUHVVXUHVWRRSSRVH
WKHULVHRIÀXLGLQWKHFDSLOODU\GXHWRFDSLOODULW\+HQFHWKHULVHRIOLTXLGOHYHOZRXOGEH
less than the normal rise.
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7KH PHWKRGV RI PHDVXULQJ YLVFRVLW\ DQG NLQHPDWLF YLVFRVLW\ DUH FDSLOODU\ WXEH
VSKHUHUHVLVWDQFHURWDWLRQDOF\OLQGHUDQGYLVFRPHWHU
Capillary Tube: The method is based on the fact that the volume (V ) per second of
DÀRZWKURXJKDKRUL]RQWDOFDSLOODU\WXEHRIDJLYHQUDGLXVr) and length (l) under a
FRQVWDQW GL൵HUHQFH RI SUHVVXUH dp) between its ends is inversely proportional to the
YHORFLW\RIWKHÀXLG
V pr 4 dP
Flow Q = =
t 8lm
Linear drop of pressure
dp
Distance
2r
l
Flow through Capillary
Sphere Resistance /LNH IULFWLRQ H[HUWLQJ UHVLVWDQFH WR PRWLRQ RQ GU\ VXUIDFH WKH
viscosity of a liquid causes a frictional resistance to the motion of any body moving
WKURXJKWKHOLTXLG$PHWDOEDOOZKHQGURSSHGLQWRDMDURIDOLTXLGPRYHVGRZQDQG
DWWDLQVDFRQVWDQWWHUPLQDOYHORFLW\ZKLFKGHSHQGVXSRQWKHYLVFRVLW\RIWKHÀXLG7KH
terminal velocity also varies inversely with the radius of sphere. The viscous force
acting on the sphere is given by
F = 6pmru
where u = velocity, m = viscosity, and r = radius
At the time of terminal velocity, the weight of sphere is equal to the drag force and
buoyancy force. No more variation of velocity is possible after achieving terminal
velocity.
4 3 4
pr grsolid = 6 pmruterminal + pr 3 grfluid
3 3
2r 2
or uterminal = g (rsolid - rfluid )
gm
Sphere Achieving Terminal Velocity
Rotational Cylinder$F\OLQGHURIUDGLXVriLVURWDWHGFRD[LDOO\LQVLGHD¿[HGF\OLQGHURI
radius ro7KHDQQXODUVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHF\OLQGHUVLV¿OOHGZLWKDOLTXLGKDYLQJYLVFRVLW\
m. The cylinders have equal length of l. Now a torque T is applied on the inner cylinder
to move with angular velocity w the inner cylinder
du
Shear stress on the ÀXLG m
dy
T
Fluid
ri
r0
ro - ri
dy = , V = ri w

dv
t=m
ro - ri

F = t¥ A
r +r
A = DUHD = p o i ¥ l

r +r
Torque, T = F ¥ o i

(4) Viscometer ,Q WKLV PHWKRG WLPH WDNHQ WR SDVV D FHUWDLQ YROXPH RI OLTXLG WKURXJK
DQ RUL¿FH ¿WWHG DW WKH ERWWRP RI WKH YLVFRPHWHU LV PHDVXUHG 7KH VD\EROW XQLYHUVDO
YLVFRPHWHUKDVDYHUWLFDOWXEHRIOHQJWK±PPDQG±PPGLDPHWHU
The time measured in seconds to pass 60 cc of any liquid is called “second saybolt”
ZKLFKKHOSVLQ¿QGLQJYLVFRVLW\E\
m
v= = t - IRU t £
r t

= t - IRU t >
t
$ EDOO RI PP GLDPHWHU LV GURSSHG LQWR D OLTXLG RI VS ZHLJKW N1P. If the sp
ZHLJKWRIPDWHULDORIEDOOLVN1PDQGYHORFLW\RIEDOOGRZQZDUGLVPPLQ
WKHQ¿QGYLVFRVLW\RIWKHOLTXLG
r
u terminal = (rsolid ¥ g – rÀXLG ¥ g)
9m
0.08 ¥ ¥ -

= [gsolid – gÀXLG]
60 9¥m
¥ ¥ -6
¥– = [78 – 8] ¥
9¥m
¥ ¥ -
m=
¥ ¥ -
Ns

m
$Q RLO RI PHDQ GHQVLW\ NJIP IORZV XQGHU D KHDG RI P WKURXJK P RI
SLSHRIFPGLDPHWHU2ZLQJWRFRROLQJYLVFRVLW\FKDQJHVDORQJWKHOHQJWKDQGPD\
EH WDNHQ DV SHU VHFRQG RYHU WKH ¿UVW P DQG RYHU WKH VHFRQG P
Determine the flow in mVHFQHJOHFWLQJHQWUDQFHDQGH[LWORVVHV
3000 m
m1 m2 0.3
1500 1500
dP1
h = 30
d2P2
Head Variation
Flow through a pipe per second,

pr 4 d r Q ¥ 8l m
Q= or dr =
8l m pr 4
where dp SUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHDWERWKHQGV
r = radius
l = length
m = viscosity
dP dP
Total head = + 0
rg rg
Q ¥ 8 ¥ lm Q ¥ 8 ¥ l ¥ m
+ =
pr 4 ¥ rg pr 4 ¥ rg
s ¥ P ¥ g ¥ pr 4
Q=
(lm + l m )8
¥ ¥ ¥ p ¥ 4
= l = l =
+ ¥
= P V
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DQGFPUHVSHFWLYHO\LVXVHG,IWKHSLVWRQZKLFKKDVOHQJWKRIFPVOLGHVLQRLO
RIYLVFRVLW\SRLVHZLWKDYHORFLW\RIFPVHF¿QGWKHUHVLVWDQFHWRPRYHPHQW
Cylinder
9.8 10 cm
Piston
12 cm Oil
du
Shear force, t = m
dy
-
du PVdy =

P

t ¥

1P
Area, pdL = p ¥ 0.098 ¥
P
Resistance, F = t ¥ A
¥
1
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RIHDFK 8378
7KHGL൵HUHQWNLQGVRIÀXLGVFDQEH
du
Newtonian Fluids:7KHVHÀXLGVIROORZ1HZWRQ¶VHTXDWLRn of viscosity, i.e., t = m
dy
. WaWHUDQGNHURVHQHDUH1HZWRQLDQÀXLGV
Non-Newtonian Fluids:7KHVHÀXLGVGRQRWIROORZWKH1HZWRQ¶VHTXDWLRQRIYLVFRVLW\
du
i.e., t π m . Suspensions or solution of clay or graphites, polymer solution and even
dy
ouUEORRGDUHQRQ1HZWRQLDQÀXLGV
Plastics: 6RPH ÀXLGV ZKLFK ÀRZ RQO\ DIWHU WKH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI VRPH ¿QLWH VWUHVV DUH
NQRZQDVSODVWLFV
7KHEHKDYLRXURIWKHVHÀXLGVLVDVVKRZQLQ5KHRORJ\GLDJUDPEHORZ
Elastic solids
Ideal plastic
Thyxotropic
fluids
Newtonian fluids
Shear
Real plastic
stress
Ideal fluids
du
dy
Rheology Diagram
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RIWKHWXEHLQPPZKLFKFDQFDUU\LWWRDKHLJKWRIP$VVXPHWKHVDSWRKDYHWKH
VDPHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDVWKRVHRIZDWHU 8378
4cos q ¥ s
Capillary rise, h =
rgd
s water = 1P

¥ ¥
\ h=
¥ ¥ ¥ d
¥ ¥
d=
¥ - ¥ ¥ ¥
d = ¥ -6 P
= ¥ - PP
Discuss effect of temperature and pressure on the physical properties of the fluid.
8378
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Viscosity: Viscosity of liquids drops with increase of the temperature of the liquids. On
the other hand, viscosity of gases rises with increase in the temperature of the gases.
,QOLTXLGVFRKHVLYHIRUFHVDUHSUHGRPLQDQWDVOLTXLGVKDYHFORVHO\SDFNHGPROHFXOHV
The cohesive forces of the molecules in liquids decrease with increase in temperature.
In gases, cohesive forces are small and the molecular momentum transfer predominates
which increases with increase in temperature. Hence, viscosity of gases increases with
WKHULVHRIWHPSHUDWXUH7KHYLVFRVLW\RIOLTXLGVDWDQ\WHPSHUDWXUHFDQEHJLYHQDV
m0
m= where m0, a & b are constants. On the other hand viscosity of gases
+ at + b t
foUDQ\WHPSHUDWXUHFDQEHJLYHQDV
m = m0a tbt
Density: Density of liquids may be considered constant. However, the density of gases
varies as per the variation of pressure and temperature. The relationship is
PV = m RT
V
P = RT
m
P
= RT
r
The density varies inverse proportionally to temperature and proportionally to pressure.

Surface Tension: Surface tension of the liquids decreases with the increase of temperature.
)RUm SRLVHr JPFPNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\LQVWRNHVLV
D E
F G &LYLO6HUYLFHV
m 0.06
u= = = 0.067
r 0.9
Option (c) is correct.
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D DUHERWKJUHDWHUWKDQDLU
E DUHERWKOHVVWKDQDLU
F DUHUHVSHFWLYHO\JUHDWHUWKDQDQGOHVVWKDQDLU
G DUHUHVSHFWLYHO\OHVVWKDQDQGJUHDWHUWKDQDLU ,(6
7KHG\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\RIZDWHULVJUHDWHUWKDQDLUEXWLWVNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\LVOHVVWKDQ
air.
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LQVHUWHGDWWKHZDWHUVXUIDFHZRXOGEH
D PP E PP
F PP G PP ,(6
s s
pd
s cos q ¥ pd = ¥ r ¥ g ¥ h q = 0 for water
4
s ¥ ¥ -
h= =
rg ¥ d ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ -
ª PP
Option (d) is correct.
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VORSHYHUWLFDOKRUL]RQWDOZLWKDXQLIRUPYHORFLW\RIPV,IDWKLQOD\HURIRLO
RIWKLFNQHVVFP¿OOVWKHVSDFHEHWZHHQWKHSODWHDQGWKHLQFOLQHGSODQHGHWHUPLQH
WKHFRHIILFLHQWRIYLVFRVLW\RIWKHRLO 8378
W sinq
q

tan q =

\ q
Force = W sin q
¥VLQ
1
du
Now shear stress = m ¥
dy
0.4
=m¥
× −
6KHDUIRUFHUHVLVWDQFH t¥A
0.4
=m¥ ¥ ¥ 50 ¥ 50 ¥–4
0.5
m
\ Force due to gravity = shear resistance
m
Ns
\ m= =
m
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VOHHYH OHQJWK LV FP ORQJ DQG WKH VSDFH LV ¿OOHG ZLWK DQ RLO RI G\QDPLF YLVFRVLW\
m NJPVGHWHUPLQHWKHWRUTXHUHVLVWDQFH 8378
Shaft
15 cm Sleeve
1 mm Oil
pdN
du =
60
-
= p ¥ ¥ ¥
60
PV
dy ¥± m
du
t=m◊
dy

¥
¥ -
= 4¥1P
Force = t ¥ A ¥ ¥ pdl
¥ ¥ p ¥ ¥±) ¥ ¥±)
1

Torque = Force ¥5DGLXV 8 ¥ ¥±

1P
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UDLQGURSRIPPGLDPHWHUZLOOEH
D 1P E 1P
F 1P G 1P ,(6
4s
Pressure in droplet =
D
¥
=
¥ -
1P
1.13 QUESTIONS FROM COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS

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D 9LVFRXVDQGFRPSUHVVLEOH
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G 9LVFRXVDQGLQFRPSUHVVLEOH ,$6
,GHDOÀXLGKDVQRYLVFRVLW\DQGFRPSUHVVLELOLW\
Option (b) is correct.
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VKHDUVWUHVVDQGUDWHRIVKHDUVWUDLQLVJLYHQE\
du
D μ d u

E μ
dy dy

⎛ ⎞
F μ ⎜ du ⎟ G μ ⎛ du ⎞ ,$6
⎝ dy ⎠ ⎜⎝ dy ⎟⎠
FoU1HZWRQLDQÀXLGVZHKDYHVKHDUVWUHVVSURSRUWLRQWRWKHUDWHRIVWUDLQFKDQJHRUYHORFLW\
gradient
du
T= m
dy

7KH UHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ VKHDU VWUHVV W YHORFLW\ JUDGLHQW IRU LGHDO IOXLG 1HZWRQLDQ
IOXLGVDQGQRQ1HZWRQLDQIOXLGVDUHJLYHQEHORZ

⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ du ⎞
a) W , t = μ ⎜ ⎟ , t = μ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠

⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ du ⎞
b) W , t = μ ⎜ ⎟ , t = μ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠

⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ du ⎞
F W μ⎜ ⎟,t = μ⎜ ⎟ ,t = μ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠

⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ du ⎞
G W μ ⎜ ⎟ , t = μ ⎜ ⎟ , t = 0 ,$6
⎝ dy ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠
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du
= m⋅ whLOHQRQ1HZWRQLDQÀXLGVKDYHVRPHSRZHURIYHORFLW\JUDGLHQWIRUVKHDUVtress
dy
)OXLGVWKDWUHTXLUHDJUDGXDOO\LQFUHDVLQJVKHDUVWUHVVWRPDLQWDLQDFRQVWDQWVWUDLQ
rate are known as
D 5KHGRSHWLFIOXLGV E 7KL[RWURSLFIOXLGV
F 3VHXGRSODVWLFIOXLGV G 1HZWRQLDQIOXLGV ,$6
⎛ du ⎞
1HZWRQLDQÀXLGVKDYHDFRQVWDQWVWrain rate ⎜ ⎟ for a given shear stress (W)
⎝ dy ⎠
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D +LJKHURQWKHFRQFDYHVLGHWRWKDWRQWKHFRQYH[VLGH
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F (TXDOWRERWKVLGHV
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The pressure inside the air bubble is higher, i.e., concave side.
Option (a) is correct.
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DQRWKHUVWDWLRQDU\SODWHORFDWHGDWDGLVWDQFHFPIURPLWDQGWKHVSDFHLQEHWZHHQLV
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D 1 E 1
F 1 G 1 ,$6
⎛ du ⎞
W = m⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠

= ×

1P
Force = W × A î
1
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*DVHVDUHFRQVLGHUHGLQFRPSUHVVLEOHZKHQ0DFKQXPEHULVOHVVWKDQ
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select the correct answer.
/LVW, /LVW,,
du
D $EVROXWHYHORFLW\ is constant
dy
E .LQHPDWLFYHORFLW\ 1HZWRQSHUPHWUH
F 1HZWRQLDQÀXLG 3RLVH
G 6XUIDFHWHQVLRQ 6WUHVVVWUDLQLVFRQVWDQW
6WRNHV
&RGHV $ % & '

D
E
F
G ,$6
Assertion (A): ,QDIOXLGWKHUDWHRIGHIRUPDWLRQLVIDUPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQWKHWRWDO
deformation itself.
Reason (R): $ÀXLGFRQWLQXHVWRGHIRUPVRORQJDVWKHH[WHUQDOIRUFHVDUHDSSOLHG
D %RWK$DQG5DUHLQGLYLGXDOO\WUXHDQG5LVWKHFRUUHFWH[SODQDWLRQRI$
E %RWK$DQG5DUHLQGLYLGXDOO\WUXHEXW5LVQRWWKHFRUUHFWH[SODQDWLRQRI$
F $LVWUXHEXW5LVIDOVH
G $LVIDOVHEXW5LVWUXH ,$6
%RWK$DQG5DUHFRUUHFWDQGDOVR5LVDFRUUHFWH[SODQDWLRQIRU5
Assertion (A): ,QDIOXLGWKHUDWHRIGHIRUPDWLRQLVIRUPRUHLPSRUWDQWWKDQWKHWRWDO
deformation itself.
Reason (R): $IOXLGFRQWLQXHVWRGHIRUPVRORQJDVWKHH[WHUQDOIRUFHVDUHDSSOLHG
D %RWK$DQG5DUHLQGLYLGXDOO\WUXHEXW5LVWKHFRUUHFWH[SODQDWLRQRI$
E %RWK$DQG%DUHLQGLYLGXDOO\WUXHEXW5LVQRWWKHFRUUHFWH[SODQDWLRQRI$
G $LVIDOVHEXW5LVWUXH ,(6
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F 6KHDUVWUHVVDQGUDWHRIVWUDLQ
G 9LVFRVLW\DQGVKHDUVWUHVV ,(6
A per Newton’s law
du
W = m⋅
dy
where
W = shear stress
du
and = velocity gradient or rate of strain
dy
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D G\QHFP E JPVFP

F G\QHVFP G JPFPV ,(6
⎛ du ⎞
W = m⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠
dyne
τ dyne − s
= cm =

or m du FP V cm
dy cm
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SDUDOOHOSODWHVFPDSDUWDQGPRYLQJZLWKUHODWLYHYHORFLW\RIPVLV
D 1P E 1P
N
F G 1P ,(6
m
⎛ du ⎞
T = m×⎜ ⎟
⎝ dy ⎠

= î î

1P
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m 6WUHVV UDWH RI VWUDLQ
v= =
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±
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= LT ±
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m ?
D E
F G ,(6
μ
7KHNLQHPDWLFYLVFosity v =
ρ
m = m × r î–4îî)
1VP
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D DQLQFUHDVHLQYLVFRVLWLHVRIERWKJDVHVDQGOLTXLGV
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G DQGHFUHDVHLQWKHYLVFRVLWLHVRIOLTXLGVDQGDQLQFUHDVHLQWKDWRIJDVHV,(6
The viscosity of water will increase with decrease of temperature as cohesion increases
while the viscosity of air will decrease with decrease of temperature as transfer of molecular
momentum decreases.
Assertion (A): ,Q JHQHUDO YLVFRVLW\ LQ OLTXLGV LQFUHDVHV DQG JDVHV ZKLOH LW GHFUHDVHV
with rise in temperature.
Reason (R): 9LVFRVLW\LVFDXVHGE\LQWHUPROHFXODU IRUFHVRI FRKHVLRQDQGWUDQVIHURI
PROHFXODUPRPHQWXPEHWZHHQIOXLGOD\HUVRIZKLFKLQOLTXLGVWKHIRUPHUDQGLQJDVHV
WKHODWHUFRQWULEXWHWKHPDMRUSDUWWRZDUGVYLVFRVLW\
D %RWK$DQG5DUHLQGLYLGXDOO\WUXHDQG5LVFRUUHFWH[SODQDWLRQRI$
The assertion (A) is false but reason (R) is true.
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D %RWK$DQG5DUHLQGLYLGXDOO\WUXHEXW5LVQRWWKHFRUUHFWH[SODQDWLRQRI$
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,IWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKHVKHDUVWUHVVWDQGWKHUDWHRIVKHDUVWUDLQLVH[SUHVVHG
n
du ⎛ du ⎞
as WKHQWKHIOXLGZLWKW μ ⎜ ⎟ ZLWKH[SRQHQWn!LVNQRZQDVZKLFKRQHRI
dy ⎝ dy ⎠
thHIROORZLQJ"
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F 1HZWRQLDQIOXLG G 3VHXGRSODVWLFIOXLG ,(6
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0DWFK/LVW,5KHRORJLFDOHTXDWLRQZLWK/LVW,,7\SHVRIIOXLGVDQGVHOHFWWKHFRUUHFW
answer
/LVW, /LVW,,
n
a) τ = μ ⎛ du ⎞ , n = %LQJKDPSODVWLF
⎜⎝ dy ⎟⎠
n
⎛ du ⎞
E W μ ⎜ ⎟ , n > 'LODWDQWIOXLG
⎝ dy ⎠
n
⎛ du ⎞
F W μ ⎜ ⎟ , n ! 1HZWRQLDQIOXLG
⎝ dy ⎠
n
⎛ du ⎞
G W τ + μ ⎜ ⎟ , n 3VHXGRSODVWLFIOXLG
⎝ dy ⎠
&RGHV $ % & '
D
E
F
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D ,GHDOÀXLG 9LVFRVLW\GRHVQRWFKDQJHZLWKUDWHRI
deformation
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m
F '\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\
r
G 0HUFXU\LQJODVV .LQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\
&DSLOODU\ULVH
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D
E
F
G ,(6
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for a fluid
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D 1HZWRQDLQIOXLG E %LQJKDPSODVWLF
F 3VHXGRSODVWLF G 'XNDWHQW ,(6
4
2.6 n>1
t
1
n=
1.4 1
n<
2 3 4
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Chapter 2
PRESSURE AND HEAD
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

PASCAL’S LAW VACUUM PRESSURE
HYDROSTATIC LAW PIEZOMETER
PRESSURE HEAD U-tube MANOMETER
HYDROSTATIC PARADOX MICROMETER
MERCURY BAROMETER DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE MICROMANOMETER
GAUGE PRESSURE BOUDON TUBE GAUGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
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2.3 ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE PRESSURES

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Low Atmospheric pressure Low pressure line
Absolute pressure
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2.4 PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

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HQGPRYHVLQZDUGDQGRXWZDUG7KHÀXLGZKRVHSUHVVXUHWREHPHDVXUHGLVFRQQHFWHGWR
WKH¿[HGHQGRIWKH%RXUGRQWXEHDQGWKHIUHHHQGRIWKH%RXUGRQWXEHPRYHVGXHWRWKH
SUHVVXUHRIWKHÀXLG7KH%RXUGRQWXEHPHDVXUHVWKHJDXJHSUHVVXUHRIWKHÀXLGDVSHUWKH
SRVLWLRQRIWKHSRLQWHURQWKHVFDOH
0
5 5 Scale
10 10
15 15
Pointer
Free end
Bourdon tube
Fixed end
Fluid
Bourdon Pressure Gauge
:KDWLVDSUHVVXUHWXEHRUSLH]RPHWHU":KDWGRHVLWPHDVXUH"
7KHPDQRPHWHUVZRUNRQWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKHSUHVVXUHDQGWKHFROXPQRIWKHÀXLG
EDODQFHGE\LW7KHVLPSOHVWIRUPRIPDQRPHWHULVWKHSUHVVXUHWXEHRUSLH]RPHWHUDVVKRZQ
EHORZ7KHSUHVVXUHWXEHFRQVLVWVRIDVLQJOHYHUWLFDOWXEHRSHQDWWKHWRSFRQQHFWHGWRWKH
YHVVHO RU SLSH FRQWDLQLQJ WKH ÀXLG XQGHU SUHVVXUH 'XH WR SUHVVXUH RI WKH ÀXLG DERYH WKH
DWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHWKHÀXLGULVHVLQWKHWXEHWRDKHLJKWGHSHQGLQJXSRQLWVSUHVVXUH,I
WKHÀXLGULVHVhPHWHUWKHQZHKDYHJDXJHSUHVVXUHRIWKHÀXLGDV
Patm
Tube
Vessel with high

pressure fluid (Pabs) h
Pressure Tube
PDEV = PDWP + rgh
PDEV – PDWP = rgh
PJDXJH = rgh
+HQFHSUHVVXUHWXEHPHDVXUHVWKHJDXJHSUHVVXUHRIWKHÀXLG
2.5 MANOMETERS
:KDWLVD8WXEHPDQRPHWHU":KDWDUHWKHGHVLUHGSURSHUWLHVRIWKHOLTXLG¿OOHGLQ
WKHPDQRPHWHU"
8WXEHPDQRPHWHUFRQVLVWVRIDJODVVWXEHLQ8VKDSHZLWKRQHHQGRILWLVFRQQHFWHGWRWKH
YHVVHOZKRVHSUHVVXUHLVWREHPHDVXUHGDQGRWKHUHQGLVRSHQWRWKHDWPRVSKHUHDVVKRZQ
EHORZ7KHWXEHFRQWDLQVPHUFXU\RUDQ\RWKHUOLTXLGZKLFKKDVWKHIROORZLQJSURSHUWLHV
LPPLVFLEOHZLWKWKHÀXLGLQWKHYHVVHODQGGHQVLW\RIWKHOLTXLGLVJUHDWHUWKDQWKH
GHQVLW\RIWKHÀXLGLQWKHYHVVHO,IWKHSUHVVXUHLQWKHYHVVHOLVPRUHWKDQWKHDWPRVSKHULF
SUHVVXUHWKHOLTXLGRIWKHPDQRPHWHUKDVKLJKHUOHYHOLQRSHQOLPEWKDQLQWKHFORVHGOLPE
LH+JLVWKHULVHRIWKHOLTXLGLQWKHRSHQOLPE7KHKHLJKWKJLVFDOOHGWKHJDXJHSUHVVXUH
KHDG RI WKH PDQRPHWHU 2Q RWKHU KDQG LI SUHVVXUH LQ WKH YHVVHO LV OHVV WKDQ DWPRVSKHULF
SUHVVXUHWKHQOLTXLGULVHVLQWKHFORVHGOLPELHhvLVWKHULVHRIWKHOLTXLGLQWKHFORVHG
OLPE7KHKHLJKWhvLVFDOOHGWKHYDFXXPJDXJHSUHVVXUHRIWKHPDQRPHWHU&RQVLGHULQJWKH
HTXLOLEULXPIURPOLQHx – xIRUWKHPDQRPHWHU
hg hf
hf
hv
X X X X
Gauge Pressure Vacuum Pressure
D *DXJHSUHVVXUH
PDEV + r f gh f = rl ghg + PDWP
PDEV - PDWP = rl ghg - r f gh f
PJDXJH = rl ghg - r f gh f
If rl >> r f
PJDXJH = rl ghg
E 9DFXXPSUHVVXUH
PDEV + h f r f g + hv rl g = PDWP
PDWP - PDEV = h f r f g + hv rl g
PYDFXXP = h f r f g + hv rl g
If rl >> r f
PYDFXXP = hv rl g
:KDWDUHPLFURPHWHUV":K\DUHWKH\FDOOHGVHQVLWLYHPDQRPHWHUV"
0LFURPHWHUVDUHPRGL¿HGIRUPRIGRXEOHFROXPQPDQRPHWHUVLQZKLFKWKHFURVVVHFWLRQDO
DUHDRIWKHOLPEFRQQHFWHGWRWKHYHVVHOLVVRODUJHZLWKUHVSHFWWRRWKHUOLPERSHQWRWKH
DWPRVSKHUH WKDW DQ\ FKDQJH LQ WKH OHYHO LQ WKH ODUJH OLPE FDQ EH QHJOHFWHG +HQFH WKH
JDXJHSUHVVXUHLQVLGHWKHYHVVHOLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHOHYHOLQWKHRSHQOLPE,Q
PLFURPHWHUV HLWKHU RQH OLPE LV PDGH PXFK ODUJHU RU D UHVHUYRLU RI ODUJH FURVVVHFWLRQDO
DUHD LV LQWURGXFHG LQ RQH RI WKH OLPEV ,Q FDVH WKH FURVVVHFWLRQDO DUHD RI ODUJHU GLDPHWHU
OLPEaODUJHLVWLPHVPRUHWKDQWKHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIVPDOOHUGLDPHWHUOLPEWKHQ
YROXPHPRYLQJIURPRQHOLPEWRRWKHULVVDPH
\&KDQJHRIYROXPHRIODUJHGLDPHWHUOLPE &KDQJHRIYROXPHLQVPDOOGLDPHWHUOLPE
h
dh
dh h
Micrometer
dh ¥ a = h ¥ aVPDOO
dh aVPDOO 1
= = Æ0
h aODUJH 100
AV PJDXJH = rgh – rgdh

Ê dh ˆ
= rg Á h - ˜
Ë h¯
= rg (h - 0)
= rgh
+HQFHZHFDQGLUHFWO\UHDGWKHSUHVVXUHLQWKHYHVVHOE\WKHOHYHOLQWKHVPDOOHUGLDPHWHU
OLPE7KHFKDQJHRIWKHOHYHOLQWKHOLPEVLVDOVRVX൶FLHQWIRUDOOSUHVVXUHV+HQFHVXFK
LQVWUXPHQWV DUH DOVR FDOOHG VHQVLWLYH PDQRPHWHUV $V WKH SUHVVXUH FDQ EH UHDG IURP WKH
VPDOOHUGLDPHWHUOLPEWKLVOLPELVUHTXLUHGWREHPDGHRIJODVVDQGODUJHUGLDPHWHUOLPE
FDQEHPDGHRIDQ\PHWDO
:KDWLVWKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQYHUWLFDODQGLQFOLQHGVLQJOHFROXPQPLFURPHWHUV"
Vertical single column micrometer Inclined single column micrometer
1. 1DUURZOLPELVYHUWLFDODVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH 1. 1DUURZOLPELVNHSWLQFOLQHGDQJOHq) to the
horizontal.
2. 7KH GLVWDQFH PRYHG E\ WKH OLTXLG LQ WKH 2. 7KH GLVWDQFH PRYHG E\ WKH OLTXLG LQ WKH
narrow limb is small narrow limb is more.
3. 7KHGLVWDQFHPRYHGE\WKHOLTXLGLVh 3. 7KHGLVWDQFHPRYHGE\WKHOLTXLGLVl where
h
l= . As q < 1, hence l > h.
VLQ q
4. Less sensitive 4. More sensitive.
5. Fixed sensitiveness 5. 6HQVLWLYHQHVV FDQ EH LPSURYHG E\ LQFOLQLQJ
more the narrow limb
h
h l h
dh θ
dh
θ
Vertical Single Column Micrometer
Inclined Single Column Micrometer
:KDWDUHGL൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHUV" 8378
2U
'HULYHDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHDEVROXWHSUHVVXUHWREHPHDVXUHGLQSLSHFDUU\LQJKLJKO\
SUHVVXULVHGZDWHUZLWKWKHKHOSRIDGRXEOH8WXEHPDQRPHWHUKDYLQJPHUFXU\LQHDFK
WXEHZLWKGL൵HUHQWOHYHOVLQWKHIRXUOLPEV 8378
'L൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHULVDQLQVWUXPHQWZKLFKLVXVHGWRPHDVXUHWKHGL൵HUHQFHRISUHVVXUHV
EHWZHHQ DQ\ WZR SRLQWV LQ D SLSHOLQH RU WKH GL൵HUHQFH RI SUHVVXUHV EHWZHHQ WZR SLSHV
'L൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHUVFDQEH7ZRSLH]RPHWHUWXEHVPHWKRG8WXEHGL൵HUHQWLDO
PDQRPHWHUDQG,QYHUWHG8WXEHGL൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHU
7ZR 3LH]RPHWHU 7XEHV 0HWKRG 7ZR VHSDUDWH SLH]RPHWHU WXEHV DUH LQVHUWHG DW WZR
SRLQWVDQGEHWZHHQZKLFKWKHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHLVWREHIRXQGRXW7KHSUHVVXUH
GL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWVLVHTXDOWRWKHGL൵HUHQFHRIWKHOHYHOVRIWKHOLTXLGLQWKH
WZRWXEHVLHdp = h1 – h2.
h1
h2
1 2
Flow Flow
Two Piezometer Tubes Method
,QYHUWHG 8WXEH 0DQRPHWHU ,Q FDVH WZR SLH]RPHWHU WXEHV DUH MRLQHG DW WRS WKH\
IRUP DQ LQYHUWHG 8WXEH PDQRPHWHU$Q RSHQLQJ DW WKH WRS RI WKH LQYHUWHG 8WXEH LV
SURYLGHGWRGULYHDZD\WKHDLUSUHVHQWLQWKH8WXEH7KHXSSHUSDUWRIWKHPDQRPHWHU
FDQDOVREH¿OOHGZLWKDOLJKWPHDVXULQJÀXLGZKLFKLVOLJKWHUWKDQWKHÀXLGÀRZLQJ
WKURXJKWKHSLSHOLQH7KLVKHOSVLQUHVWULFWLQJWKHKHLJKWRIWKHOLPEV
DP
= h1 - h2 = h or DP = rgh
rg
)RUPDQRPHWHUKDYLQJPHDVXULQJOLTXLGPO
1 Ê r ˆ
DP = h r g Á1 - ml ˜
Ë r ¯
= h1 rg(1 – smlLIZDWHULVÀRZLQJWKHQSml 6*RIPHDVXULQJOLTXLG
Air cock Air cock

Measuring
Air liquid
h’ h’
X h1 X X h1 X
h2 h2
Flow Flow
Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer Differential Manometer with Lighter Fluid
8WXEH'L൵HUHQWLDO0DQRPHWHU,QFDVHWKHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQWZRSRLQWV
LVKLJKWKHQOHQJWKRISLH]RPHWHUWXEHVDQGLQYHUWHG8WXEHGL൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHULV
ORQJDQGXQVXLWDEOH,QVXFKFDVHV8WXEHGL൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHULVXVHGWRPHDVXUHWKH
SUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFH7KHPHDVXULQJOLTXLGJHQHUDOO\PHUFXU\XVHGLQVXFKDPDQRPHWHU
LVKHDYLHUWKDQWKHÀXLGÀRZLQJWKURXJKWKHSLSHRUSLSHV7KHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHFDQ
EHJLYHQDV
l
Fluid
density = ρ h2
h
X X
SG = S X X
Hg
(density = ρHg)
Hg
U-Tube Differential SG = SHg
Manometer: One Pipe
U-Tube Differential
Manometer: Two Pipes
D 2QH3LSH/LQH
dP = hr+J g - hrg
Ê r+J ˆ
= hrg Á
Ë r
(
- 1˜ = hrg S+J - 1
¯
)
E 7ZR3LSH/LQHV
Ê r+J ˆ
DP = hrg Á - 1˜ - k rg
Ë r ¯
( )
= rg ÈÎ h S +J - 1 - k ˘˚
:KDWDUHGL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQVLPSOHDQGGL൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHUV"
Simple manometer 'LႇHUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHU
1. ,WLVXVHGWRPHDVXUHSUHVVXUHDWDSRLQW 1. ,WLVXVHGWRPHDVXUHSUHVVXUHEHWZHHQWZR
points.
2. One limb is connected to the point and 2. Limbs are connected to the two points.
the other is open to air.
3. 7KHSUHVVXUHDWDSRLQWLVREWDLQHG 3. 7KHGLႇHUHQFHRISUHVVXUHLVREWDLQHGLQ
LQWHUPVRIGLႇHUHQFHRIOHYHORIÀXLG WHUPVRIPHDVXULQJWKHGLႇHUHQFHRIWKH
WKURXJKSLSH ÀRZLQJOHYHOVRIPDQRPHWHUOLTXLG
4. It can be a manometer-like piezometer 4. ,WFDQEHDPDQRPHWHUOLNHGLႇHUHQWLDO8WXEH
8WXEHRUVLPSOH8WXEHW\SH LQYHUWHG8WXEHRUWZRSLH]RPHWHUWXEHV
:K\PHUFXU\LVXVHGDVDPDQRPHWHULFOLTXLG"
7KHPHUFXU\LVXVHGDVPDQRPHWULFOLTXLGIRUWKHIROORZLQJUHDVRQV
,WKDVKLJKGHQVLW\VRWKDWPHUFXU\ULVHLVUHDVRQDEOHIRUDSUHVVXUH
,WLVLPPLVFLEOHZLWKWKHOLTXLGÀRZLQJLQWKHSLSHV
,WGRHVQRWVWLFNWRWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHWXEHVRIWKHPDQRPHWHU
7KHYDSRXUSUHVVXUHLVQHJOLJLEOHDWURRPWHPSHUDWXUH
,WGRHVQRWUHDFWFKHPLFDOO\ZLWKPRVWRIWKHOLTXLGVÀRZLQJWKURXJKSLSHV
:KDWLVDPLFURPDQRPHWHURUWZROLTXLGVGRXEOHFROXPQVHQODUJHGHQGVPDQRPHWHU"
0LFURPDQRPHWHULVXVHGIRUYDU\KLJKSUHFLVLRQPHDVXUHPHQWRISUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFH,WLVD
8WXEHPDQRPHWHUZLWKWZRHQGVZLGHQHGRUWZRUHVHUYRLUVSURYLGHGDWWKHHQGV,QRUGHU
WRPDJQLI\WKHUHDGLQJVWZROLTXLGVRIGL൵HUHQW6*DUHXVHGIRUWKHUHVHUYRLUVDQG8WXEH
7KHVHWZROLTXLGVDQGÀXLGLQSLSHVDUHUHTXLUHGWREHLPPLVFLEOH,QLWLDOOHYHOVLQUHVHUYRLUV
DQG8WXEHDUHx – xDQGy – y2QDSSOLFDWLRQRISUHVVXUHVWKHULVHRIOLTXLGVLQ8WXEHLV
hZKLFKLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHGL൵HUHQFHRISUHVVXUHV
1 2
h1
dh
x x
Manometer liquid 2 dh
(SG = S2) h2
h/2
y y
h/2
z z
Manometer liquid 1
(SG = S1)
Micro Manometer
9ROXPHRIOLTXLGIDOOLQUHVHUYRLU 9ROXPHRIOLTXLGULVHLQWXEH
h
dh ¥ A = ¥ a A &URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIUHVHUYRLU
2
a &URVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWXEH
a h
\ dh = ¥ Æ0
A 2
7KHSUHVVXUHDERYHWKHOLQHz – zLVHTXDOLQERWKOLPEV
Ê h ˆ
P1 + r f ¥ g (h1 + dh ) + r z ¥ g Á h2 + - dh˜
Ë 2 ¯
Ê h ˆ
= P2 + r1 ¥ gh + r2 ¥ g Á h2 - + dh˜ + r f ¥ g (h1 - dh )
Ë 2 ¯
P1 – P2 = r1gh – r2gh
P1 - P2 Êr r ˆ
= h Á 1 - 2 ˜ ZKHUHrGHQVLW\RIZDWHU
rg Ër r¯
= h(S1 – S2)
,IDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHLVN3DDQGSUHVVXUHJDXJHAUHDGVN3DSUHVVXUHJDXJH
BUHDGV± N3DWKHQ¿QGWKHDEVROXWHSUHVVXUHRI+DQG2$OVR¿QGWKHUHDGLQJ
RISUHVVXUHJDXJHC
O2
A B
H2
7KHSUHVVXUHJDXJHALVUHDGLQJJDXJHSUHVVXUHRI+2DVLWVRQHHQGLVRSHQWRDWPRVSKHUH
7KHDEVROXWHSUHVVXUHRI+2LV
PDEV = PJDXJH + PDWP
N3D
+HQFHDEVROXWHSUHVVXUHRI+2LVN3D
7KH SUHVVXUH JDXJH B LV UHDGLQJ WKH YDFXXP SUHVVXUH RI 22 DV LWV RQH HQG LV RSHQ WR
DWPRVSKHUH7KHDEVROXWHSUHVVXUHRI22LV
PDEV = PDWP + PYDFXXP
±
N3D
+HQFHDEVROXWHSUHVVXUHRI22LVN3D
7KH SUHVVXUH ODQJXDJH C LV UHDGLQJ JDXJH SUHVVXUH RI +2 ZUW 22 ,I LW LV UHDGLQJ PJDXJH
WKHQ
PH2 = PJDXJH + PO2
\ PJDXJH = PH2 – PO2
±
N3D
7KHSUHVVXUHJDXJHCZLOOVKRZN3D
,IWKHUHDGLQJVRIDEDURPHWHUDWWRSDQGERWWRPRIDKLOODUHDQGPPRI+J
WKHQ¿QGWKHKHLJKWRIWKHKLOO7DNHVSHFL¿FZHLJKWRIWKHDLUg 1P
P1 3UHVVXUHRIWRSRIKLOO= h ¥ r+J ¥ g

= ¥ ¥ ¥
1000
=N1P2
P2 3UHVVXUHDWERWWRPRIKLOO h ¥ r+J ¥ g

= ¥ ¥ ¥
1000
N1P
1RZ P1 – P2 = g h
RU h=
( - ) ¥
12
¥
=
12
= P
$ WDQN LV ¿OOHG ZLWK ZDWHU DQG PHUFXU\ ZLWK DLU DW WRS DV VKRZQ EHORZ ,I JDXJH
UHDGVN3DDEVROXWH¿QGKHLJKWRIWKHZDWHUDQGUHDGLQJRIJDXJH
Pr = 230 kPa
Air
h
Water
Hg
2 1 120 cm
P1 = 140 kPa
7KHSUHVVXUHUHDGE\JDXJHLVP1 N3D1RZSUHVVXUHP1ZLOOEHHTXDOWRSUHVVXUH
H[HUWHGE\FPRI+JKHLJKWhRIZDWHUDQGDLU7KHUHIRUHLVHTXLOLEULXP
P = ¥ r+J ¥ g + h ¥ r ¥ g + PDLU

¥ ¥ ¥ h ¥ ¥
= + +
10 10
= + ¥ h +
10
h = = P

1RZSUHVVXUHDWSUHVVXUHJDXJHLVVXPRIWKHSUHVVXUHH[HUWHGE\ZDWHUDQGDLU
P2 =
( + ) ¥ ¥ +
10
= +
= N3D
$WDQNFRQWDLQVDLURLODQGZDWHUDVVKRZQEHORZ7KHPDQRPHWHUDWWDFKHGWRWKHWDQN
KDVPHUFXU\DQGPHUFXU\ULVHLVFP)LQGWKHDLUSUHVVXUHPaLIrRLO
Air
Oil 90
150 cm
h2
Water
h1
50 cm
x x
Hg
h2 FP
h1 = h2± ± FP
$VÀXLGLVLQEDODQFHLQERWKOLPEVIURPGDWXPx – x
3UHVVXUHLQOHIWOLPE 3UHVVXUHLQWKHULJKWOLPE

Pa + h ¥ rw ¥ g + (h - h )rRLO ¥ g =
¥ r+J ¥ g
100
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
Pa + ¥ + =
100 10 100 ¥ 10 10
Pa + + =
Pa = N3D
$8WXEHLVXVHGWRPHDVXUHWKHZDWHUSUHVVXUHLQWKHSLSHOLQH7KHPHUFXU\OHYHOLV
PP EHORZ WKH FHQWUHOLQH LQ WKH OHIW OLPE FRQQHFWHG WR LW DQG FP DERYH WKH
FHQWHUOLQH LQ WKH ULJKW OLPE RSHQ WR WKH DWPRVSKHUH )LQG WKH JDXJH SUHVVXUH RI WKH
ZDWHULQWKHSLSHOLQH
(2)
100
(1)
P1
Water Hg
100
x x (datum)
Gauge Pressure
Let P1EHDEVROXWHSUHVVXUHRIWKHZDWHULQWKHSLSHOLQHGXULQJHTXLOLEULXP
3UHVVXUHLQWKHOHIWOLPEIURPGDWXP 3UHVVXUHLQWKHULJKWOLPEIURPGDWXP
100 Ê 100 + 100 ˆ

P + ¥ rw ¥ g = Á ¥ r+J ¥ g + PDWP
1000 Ë 1000 ˜¯
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ g ¥
P - PDWP = -
1000 1000
PJDXJH = -
PJDXJH = N3D
7KH ¿JXUH EHORZ VKRZV D FRQLFDO YHVVHO KDYLQJ D 8WXEH PDQRPHWHU DWWDFKHG WR LWV
RXWOHWDWA:KHQWKHYHVVHOLVHPSW\WKHUHDGLQJRIWKHPDQRPHWHULVJLYHQLQWKH¿JXUH
)LQGWKHUHDGLQJRIWKHPDQRPHWHUZKHQWKHYHVVHOKDVEHHQFRPSOHWHO\¿OOHGZLWKZDWHU
2.4 m
Water 3m
200 mm A H
x
x
Hg
:KHQWKHYHVVHOLVHPSW\WKHSUHVVXUHLQERWKOLPEVLVVDPHIURPGDWXPOLQHx – x
3UHVVXUHOHIWOLPE 3UHVVXUHLQULJKWOLPE
PDWP¥ r+J ¥ g = H ¥ rw ¥ g + PDWP
¥ ¥ ¥

\ H=
¥
P
:KHQWKHYHVVHOLV¿OOHGDVVXPHWKHPHUFXU\PRYHVGRZQE\hPHWHULQWKHULJKWOLPEDV
VKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
h+H+3
2 + 2h
x x
h
y
y
1RZHTXDWLQJSUHVVXUHLQERWKOLPEVZUWGDWXPOLQHy – y
3UHVVXUHOHIWOLPE 3UHVVXUHLQULJKWOLPE
PDWP + + hr+J ¥ g = PDWP + h + H + rw ¥ g
+ h ¥ ¥ ¥ g = h + ¥ g ¥ rw
+ h = h +
+ h = h +
h =

h= P

= PP
7KHPDQRPHWHUUHDGLQJZLOOEH
= 200 + 2 ¥
PP
'HWHUPLQHWKHGL൵HUHQWLDOUHDGLQJhRIDQLQYHUWHG8WXEHPDQRPHWHUKDYLQJPHDVXULQJ
OLTXLGRIGHQVLW\1PZKHQFRQQHFWHGWRSRLQWDQGRIWKHSLSHOLQHVFRQWDLQLQJ
IOXLGVZLWKGHQVLWLHV¥DQG¥1P$OOIOXLGVDUHLPPLVFLEOHDQGSUHVVXUH
DWSRLQWVDQGLVHTXDODQGORFDWHGDWWKHVDPHGDWXPOHYHO
7DNHWKHGDWXPOLQHDWx – x7KHSUHVVXUHRQWKHGDWXPOLQHLVVDPHIURPWKHOHIWDQGULJKW
OLPE
P1 + ¥ r1 ¥ g + h ¥ rml ¥ g = P2 + + hr2 ¥ g
N N
P1 = P2 r1 = ¥ r2 = ¥ rml = 1P
m
m
¥ ¥ ¥ g + h ¥ ¥ ¥ g = + h ¥
h h
h
h P
PP
Measuring
liquid, ρml
x x
24 cm
Pressure = P1 ρ2
ρ1 Pressure = P2
(1) (2)
/LTXLGVRI6*IORZVWKURXJKSLSHVADQGBDWDQGEDUUHVSHFWLYHO\3LSHA
LVPKLJKHUWKDQSLSHB:KDWZRXOGEHWKHGL൵HUHQFHRIOHYHOVRI8WXEHPDQRPHWHU
FRQQHFWHG WR A DQG B LQ FDVH 6* RI PDQRPHWHU OLTXLG LV DQG ZKHQ OLTXLG LV DW
KLJKHUOHYHOLQWKHOLPEFRQQHFWHGWRB
2
A
h1
B
S1 = 1
h S1 = 1
x x
S2 = 13.6
(TXDWLQJSUHVVXUHRQOHIWDQGULJKWOLPEIURPGDWXPOLQHx – x
Pa ¥ (2 + h + h1 )r1 ¥ g = Pb + hr2 g + h1r1 g
¥ + + h ¥ ¥ = ¥ + h ¥ ¥ ¥
¥ 2 + + h = ¥ ¥ K
h h
h

h= = P

:DWHUIORZVGRZQZDUGLQDSLSHLQFOLQLQJDWZLWKWKHKRUL]RQWDODVVKRZQEHORZ
)LQGWKHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQSRLQWA & BLIlDQGh P7KHPDQRPHWHU
IOXLGLVPHUFXU\S
l
A
Water 30° B
h1
h
h/2
x x
Mercury
'XULQJHTXLOLEULXPWKHSUHVVXUHLQOHIWDQGULJKWOLPELVVDPHIURPGDWXPOLQHx – x
Ê hˆ Ê hˆ
PA + ¥ ¥ Á " VLQ + h1 + ˜ = ¥ ¥ h ¥ + ¥ ¥ Á h1 - ˜ ¥ + PB
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
PA - PB = ¥ ¥ - -
= ¥
N3D
'HWHUPLQHWKHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHPA±PBZKHQWKHUHDGLQJRIPDQRPHWHULVDVVKRZQ

EHORZ
A
RD = 0.8 B
24 cm
10 cm
10 cm 15 cm
12 cm
RD = 13.6
Guidance: 7R VLPSOLI\ VXFK PXOWLWXEHV SUREOHP LW LV EHVW WR GLYLGH WKH VHWXS LQ WZR RU
PRUHSDUWVDVVKRZQEHORZ
A
B
10 cm
24 cm P1 P1
10 cm 15 cm
12 cm
x x
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dx dh h
Air
Front View Side View

Vertical Surface
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KRUL]RQWDOVWULSRIWKLFNQHVVdxDQGZLGWKbDWDGHSWKRIxIURPWKHVXUIDFH7KHLQWHQVLW\
RISUHVVXUHRQWKLVVWULSLV
P = xrg ZKHUHr GHQVLW\
Force dF = P ¥ dA
Ú dF = Ú xrg ¥ b ¥ dx
Ú dF = rg Ú bxdx
F = rg x ¥ A
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YHUWLFDOO\ LQ ZDWHU7KH ORQJHU HGJH LV YHUWLFDO DQG WKH XSSHU HGJH LV P EHORZ WKH
IUHHVXUIDFH
F = rgA ¥ x
5m
2
x
P
2
$UHDA ¥ P2
F = 1 ¥ 103 ¥¥¥ 6
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3.4 PRESSURE ON INCLINED SURFACE
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WKHFRQWDFWVXUIDFH
q
Plate surface
x dF y
x
h
F y
hy
G dA = b ´ dx y x
C q
G
dy
C x = y sin q
Total Pressure on the Inclined Surface

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LQWKH¿JXUH/HWDQHOHPHQWDU\VWULSRIWKLFNQHVVdxDQGEUHDGWKbDWGHSWKRIxLVWDNHQ
7KHLQWHQVLW\RISUHVVXUHDFWLQJQRUPDODWWKLVVWULSLV
P = rxg = ryVLQqg
dF = P ¥ dA = ryVLQqg ¥ bdyDVdA = bdy
F= Ú dF = Ú ryVLQq gbdy
F = r ¥VLQqg Ú bydyEXW Ú bydy = y A
F = rgVLQq y A
F = rg x ADV y VLQq = x
+HQFHWRWDOSUHVVXUHLVLQGHSHQGHQWRIDQJOHRILQFOLQDWLRQRIWKHFRQWDFWVXUIDFH
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LVKRUL]RQWDODQGLWVWRSHGJHLVDWDGHSWKRIPIURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH
x
30°
x
0.6
G
2m
F = rg x A
2
x VLQ P
2
A ¥ P2
F ¥ 103 ¥¥¥
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RIWKHOLTXLG,IWKHOLTXLGVXUIDFHLVQRWDIUHHVXUIDFHDQGLWKDVDSUHVVXUHLQWHQVLW\P1
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r1 ¥ g
SLH]RPHWULFVXUIDFH
Imaginary free surface
P1
r.g
Air with P
pressure P1
Actual free
surface
Plate
Plate
3.5 CENTRE OF PRESSURE: VERTICAL AND INCLINED SURFACES

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Point A = CG
Point B = Centre of pressure
x
h
A
B
h >x
Increasing Pressure Intensity on Vertical Surface
x b
x
h
Expression for Centre of Pressure

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dxDQGZLGWKbDWWKHGHSWKRIxIURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH
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or M = rg Ú x2◊dA
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2
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h = +
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IG
h = +x
Ax
IG
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Ax
IG
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Ax
IG
x LVODUJHZKHQWKHYHUWLFDOVXUIDFHLVLPPHUVHGIRUDJUHDWHUGHSWKWKHQ WHQGVWREH
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sXUIDFHRIWKHSODWH,QWKLVFDVHWKHFHQWUHRIJUDYLW\DQGWKHFHQWUHRISUHVVXUHLVVDPH
LH h = x
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O
q O
x x yy
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CG
C
Inclined Surface
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RQWKLVVWULSGXHWRGHSWKx
P = xrgEXWx = yVLQq
= yVLQq rg
dF = PdA = y VLQ qrgbdy DV dA = dy b
F= Ú dF = rgVLQq Ú ybda
= rgVLQq y A L
= rg x A LL
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dM = ydF = rgVLQq y2bdy
M= Ú dM = rgVLQq Ú y2bdy
= rgVLQq I00 LLL

,QFDVHGHSWKRIFHQWUHRISUHVVXUHLVhyIURPWKHD[LVWKHQ
M = F ¥ hy = rg VLQ q yAhy LY
)URPHTQVLLLDQGYL
M = rg VLQ q I 00 = rg VLQ q yAhy
\ I 00 = yAhy
8VLQJWKHSDUDOOHOD[LVWKHRUHP
I 00 = I G + A y 2
I G + A y 2 = yAhy
h x
1RZ hy = DQG y =
VLQ q VLQ q
x 2 x h
IG + A = ¥ A¥
VLQ q VLQ q VLQ q
I G VLQ 2 q
or h = x+
Ax
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S. N. Plane surface CG from base Area Moment of
inertia about CG
1. Square a a2 a
4
x=
2 12
G
a
x
x
2. Square with diagonal horizontal a2 a4

x= a
2 12
a
G
a x
3. Rectangle d bd bd 3
x=
2 12
G
d
x
Contd.
4. Triangle with base vertical d 1 h.b 3

x= bd
2 2 48
b
G
x
5. Triangle with base horizontal h 1

bh bh 3
x=
3 2 36
h
G x
6. Circle d πd 2
πd 2
x=
2 4 64
G
7. Semicircle 2d πd 4
x= πd 2
3p 8 128
G x = 0.21d
8. Trapezoidal
Ê 2a + b ˆ h a+b
¥h
⎛ a 2 + 4ab + b 2 ⎞ 2
x=Á
a
Ë a + b ˜¯ 3 2 ⎜⎝ 36(a + b ) ⎟⎠ h
h
x
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x
A
G
G
3m
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2
AG = ¥ =P
3
x = + VLQ

1
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2
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= 1 × 103 îîî
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IRUFHRQWKHSODWH
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y
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y=
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a+b 2+3
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= + =

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Case-1 Case-2
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4
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2
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x
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d
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Air
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d bd 3
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2
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_ _
x
h
4
Gate Side view
Pipeline
PreVVXUHDW x N1P2
\ P = x ¥r¥ g
or ¥ 3 = x ¥ ¥ 3 ¥

x =
¥
P
3UHVVXUHforce = x ¥ r ¥ g ¥ A
p 2
= ¥ ¥ 3 ¥ ¥
4
= 2261 kN
7KHGHSWKRIFHQWUHRISUHVVXUH
IG
h = x+
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p d 4 p ¥ 4
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64 64

h = +
¥
= + = P
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2
x = + ¥= += P
3
1
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2
bh3 6 ¥ 33
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36 36
IG
h = x+
Ax

= 4+
9¥4

F = xArg
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
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C
Side a P
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or 2d2 = 16
or d= P

\ x = 3+
2

a 4 24
IG = = =
A = 2 ¥ P2 12 12
IG
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= 4+
¥

P
F = xArg
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
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4
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12 64
p ¥
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±

d
x = + = + = P
2
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A vertical square having area 1 m ¥ 1 m submerged in water with layer edge 50 cm
below the free surface. Find the distance of horizontal line from the upper edge of the
square so that the forces on the upper and lower portions are equal on the square.
0.5 m
Upper portion
F1 y (1)
F2 Horizontal line
(2)
Lower portion
Guidance: We can solve the problem considering two rectangular surfaces at depth of 0.5
m and (0.5 + y) which have same total pressure force depending upon their areas.
F1 on area 1 = x1rA1 g
Ê yˆ 3
= Á 0.5 + ˜ ¥ 1 ¥ 10 ¥ ( y ¥ 1) ¥ 9.81
Ë 2¯
F2 on area 2 = x2rA2 g
Ê 1- yˆ
= Á 0.5 + y + ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ [(1 - y ) ¥ 1] ¥ 9.81
Ë 2 ˜¯
Now, F1 = F2
Ê yˆ 3 Ê y + 1ˆ
ÁË 0.5 + 2 ˜¯ ¥ 1 ¥ 10 ¥ ( y ¥ 1) ¥ 9.81 = Á 0.5 + ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ (1 - y )9.81
Ë 2 ˜¯
y2 Ê y + 2ˆ
0.5 y + = Á ¥ (1 - y )
2 Ë 2 ˜¯
2
y2 + y = - y - y + 2
2 y2 + 2 y - 2 = 0
y2 + y - 1 = 0
-1 ± 1 + 4
y= = 0.62 m
2
A circular opening of 4 m diameter in a vertical wall of a water tank is controlled by a
circular disc of 4 m diameter and which can rotate about its horizontal diameter. Find
(1) total pressure on the disc, and (2) torque required to maintain the disc in vertical
position, and when the free surface is 6 m from its centre.
hinges
Thydrostatic
B
Tapplied
4
Guidance:7RWDOSUHVVXUHIRUFHFDFWVEHORZWKH&*DWFHQWUHRISUHVVXUH7KHWRUTXHWR
VWRSWKHGLVFIURPURWDWLQJGXHWRFLVHTXDOWRK\GURVWDWLFWRUTXH = F ¥ h - x
F = x ¥ A ¥ rg
p 2
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
4
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IG pd 4 p ¥ 44
h = x+ IG = = = 4p
Ax 64 64
4p
= 6+
4p ¥ 6

P
\ h - x = - =
\ +\GURVWDWLFWRUTXH h - x ¥ F
=¥
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GRRUFORVHG"7KHXSSHUHGJHRIWKHGRRULVDWPIURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH
hinge
hinge 4 A A
_
_ x
h _
h–4
G G a _
C C F
5–h
a=1 P
P = applied
force
1
x = + =
2
A=1¥1=1
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= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
= N1
1
IG 12
h = x+ = +
Ax ¥

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- P
¥
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-DGDYSXU8QLYHUVLW\
A 4
_
_ x
h C
2 sin 60
G F y2
y1 Fc sin 60
C 45°
45°
60° 60°
B
2 3
x = VLQ = =
2 2
F = x ¥ A¥r¥ g
= ¥ ( ¥ ) ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
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2
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h = x+ = +
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¥ ¥
= + = +
¥ ¥

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h
= 2-
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= 2-
13
±

2
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2
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¥ = Fc ¥ ¥
¥
\ Fc =

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LVDERXWWRWULSWKHIODVKERDUG
,,7.KDUDJSXU
A
_ h
h 3
hinge 3
x sin 60
strut
1
60º 30º
Guidance 7KHÀDVKERDUGZLOOWULSZKHQWKHWRWDOSUHVVXUHIRUFHVWDUWVDFWLQJDERYHWKH
KLQJH+HQFH h ≥ x - ¥ VLQ LVWKHFRQGLWLRQIRUWULSSLQJ
6XSSRVHWKHKHLJKWRIZDWHULVxWKHQ
I G VLQ 2 q
h = CHQWUHRISUHVVXUH x +
A¥ x
x x ¥1
x = A= = x
VLQ
3
Ê x ˆ
1¥ Á
Ë VLQ ˜¯
IG = = x 3
12
x 3 ¥ VLQ 2
h = x +
x ¥ x
= x + x = x

1RZIRUWULSSLQJRIÀDVKERDUG
h = x - ¥ VLQ
x = x±
x

x= = P

F = x ¥ A¥r¥ g
x
= ¥ x ¥ ¥ 3 ¥ g
2

= ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
2
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A rectangular gate of size 6 ¥ 2 is hinged at the base at inclination angle of 60° with
the horizontal. The gate is kept in position by a weight of 6 tonnes by an arrangement
as shown below. Find the water level (x) when the gate is about to open. Neglect the
weight of the gate.
P
6 tonnes 2
90º
_ 6
F
h sin 60 F 6
6
x x0
y2
60º
I G sin 2 q
h = x+
Ax
3
Ê x ˆ 2
2¥Á ˜ ¥ (sin 60)
x Ë sin 60 ¯
= +
2 x x
12 ¥ 2 ¥ ¥
sin 60 2
2x
= 0.5 x +
12
= 0.5 x + 0.167
= 0.667x
Force (P) acting on top edge to hold the gate,
P = 6 ¥ 1000 ¥ g = 58.86 kN
h 0.667 x
y = x- = x-
sin 60 sin 60
= x - 0.767 x = 0.233 x
x x
F= ¥2¥ ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ g = 0.233 x
2 sin 60
During equilibrium, the moment from hinge is zero, i.e., SM = 0
F ¥ y = P¥6
11.28 x 2 ¥ 0.767 x = 58.86 ¥ 6
¥
x3 = =
¥
x P
7KHJDWHZLOOWULSZKHQKHLJKWRIZDWHU x ≥ P
$ YHUWLFDO UHFWDQJXODU JDWH P KLJK DQG P ZLGH KDV ZDWHU WR D GHSWK RI P DW
XSVWUHDP DQG P DW GRZQVWUHDP &DOFXODWH WRWDO SUHVVXUH H[HUWHG DW XSVWUHDP
DQGGRZQVWUHDPDQGWKHUHVXOWDQWWRWDOSUHVVXUHDQGLWVORFDWLRQZLWKUHVSHFWWR
WKHERWWRPHGJH
4
_
x1 h1
6
5 F1
5
x2 y1 F2
2 2
y2
F1 = x1 ¥ A1 ¥ r ¥ g

= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
2
N1
IG
h = x+
Ax
3
¥ ()
= +
2
¥ ¥ ¥
2

= +
6
RUy1 ± P
F2 = x2 ¥ A2 ¥ r ¥ g
= ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
N1
IG
h2 = x2 +
A2 x2
4 ¥1
= 1+
12 ¥ 4 ¥ 1 ¥ 1
RUy2 ±
5HVXOWDQWR = F1±F2
± N1
Let RDFWDWGLVWDQFHyIURPWKHEDVH
R ¥ y = F1 y1 - F2 y2
¥ y = ¥ - ¥
-
y=

=

P
+HQFHUHVXOWDQWIRUFHLVN1ZKLFKLVDFWLQJWRZDUGVGRZQVWUHDPDWPIURPWKH
ERWWRPRIWKHJDWH
7KHSUHVVXUHRIDLURYHUDWDQNLVNJFPN17KHUHLVDQRSHQLQJLQWKH
WDQNZLWKIODSRIPVTXDUHZLWKFHQWUHRIVTXDUHDWPIURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH7KH
IODSLVKLQJHGDWWKHFHQWUH)LQGWKHIRUFHPWREHDSSOLHGYHUWLFDOO\DWERWWRPHGJH
RIWKHIODSDWSRLQWBWRKROGWKHZDWHU
1
4
Air
A hinged
A _ _A P
x h P
B
B B F
Flap
Hinged at
centre
6LQFHDLUKDVSUHVVXUHRINJIFP2 PRIZDWHUKHQFHLPDJLQDU\IUHHVXUIDFHLVP
DERYHWKHDFWXDOIUHHVXUIDFH
\ x P
Force F = x1 ¥ A ¥ r ¥ g
= ¥ ( ¥ ) ¥ ¥ 3 ¥ g
N1
)RUWKHVTXDUHSODWHIURPIUHHVXUIDFHDFWXDO
I G VLQ 2 q
h2 = x +
Ax
¥ ¥ VLQ 2
= 2+
12 ¥ 1 ¥ 1 ¥ 2

= 2+

=
1RZIRUFHFLVEDODQFLQJDJDLQVWWKHDSSOLHGIRUFHPDERXWWKHKLQJH

\ SM IURPWKHKLQJH
F¥
(h - x ) = P ¥ VLQ ¥
VLQ
( - ) ¥ 1
¥ = P¥ ¥
3 2
¥ ¥ ¥
P=
¥
N1
$YHUWLFDOGRFNJDWHRIPKHLJKWLVUHLQIRUFHGE\WKUHHKRUL]RQWDOEHDPVLQVXFKD
ZD\WKDWHDFKFDUULHVHTXDOWRWDOSUHVVXUHGXHWRGHSWKRIZDWHU)LQGWKHORFDWLRQRI
EHDPVIURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH
_
F1 h1
h1 _
h2
_
h2 h3
F2
h3
F3
Guidance 7KHJDWHGRFNLVGLYLGHGLQWKUHHSRUWLRQVh1h2 & h3VRWKDWWKHWRWDOSUHVVXUH

LQ HDFK SRUWLRQ LV HTXDO F1 = F2 = F3 DQG EHDPV DUH ORFDWHG DW WKH FHQWUHV RI SUHVVXUH
JLYHQby h1 h2 h3
F = xArg = ¥ ¥ b ¥ r ¥ g
h12
F1 = ¥ b ¥ r ¥ g ZKHUHb ZLGWK
2
F2 =
(h 2
2
- h12 ) brg
2
F3 =
(h 2
3 ± h22 ) b rg
2
F
NRZ F1 = F2 = F3 =
3
h12 (
h22 ± h12 )
h32 ± h22 ( )
b rg = b rg = b rg = b rg
2 2 2 3
100
or ( ) (
h 12 = h22 ± h12 = h32 ± h22 = ) 3
NRZSXW h3 ZHJHWh1 Ph2 P
h1 IG
h1 = +
2 h1
A¥
2
h 1 ¥ h13
= 1+
2 h1
12 ¥ h1 ¥ 1 ¥
2
h1 h1
= +
2 6
2
= h1
3
2
= ¥ = P
3
7KHSRVLWLRQRIUHVXOWDQWIRUFHF2FDQEHIRXQGRXWE\WDNLQJPRPHQWIURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH
2 2
( F1 + F2 ) ¥ 3 ¥ h2 = F1 ¥
3
h1 + F2 ¥ h2
F
F1 = F2 =
3
2F 2 F 2 F
¥ ¥ h2 = ¥ h1 + ¥ h
3 3 3 3 3
¥ ± ¥
=
3
±
=
3

F1
h3
10 = h3 F2
F3
1RZDJDLQWDNLQJPRPHQWIURPIUHHVXUIDFH
2 2
(F + F
1 2 + F3 ) ¥ ¥ 10 = ( F1 + F2 ) ¥ ¥ h2 + F3 ¥ h3
3 3
F 3F 2 2F 2
¥ h3 = ¥ ¥ - ¥ ¥
3 3 3 3 3
-
or h3 =
3
P
$FLUFXODUSODWHRIPGLDPHWHULVLPPHUVHGLQZDWHULQVXFKDZD\WKDWLWVJUHDWHVW
DQG OHDVW GHSWK EHORZ WKH IUHH VXUIDFH DUH P DQG P UHVSHFWLYHO\ 'HWHUPLQH WKH
WRWDOSUHVVXUHRQRQHIDFHRIWKHSODWHDQGSRVLWLRQRIWKHFHQWUHRISUHVVXUH
8378
q
4 q
G
C
4
7KHDQJOHRILQFOLQDWLRQ
4-2 1
VLQq = = \ q = 30°
4 2
x VLQ
pd 2 p ¥ 42
A= =
4 4
pd 4
IG =
64
IG
h = x+ VLQ 2 q
A+ x
pd 4 ¥ VLQ 2
= 3+
pd 2
64 ¥ ¥3
4
16 ¥ 1
= 3+
¥

F = xArg
p ¥ 42
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
4
N1
$QDQJXODUJDWH$%&LVGHVLJQHGWRWLSDXWRPDWLFDOO\ZKHQZDWHUULVHVDERYHFHUWDLQ
OHYHOLQWKHWDQN7KHJDWHLVKLQJHGDWSRLQWBDQGABLVYHUWLFDOZKLOHBCPLV
KRUL]RQWDO )LQG WKH KHLJKW h IURP WKH KLQJH B ZKHQ ZDWHU ULVHV WR WLS WKH JDWH WR
DOORZWKHZDWHUWRIORZRXW
F2
h
B C y1
1 F1
x1
Guidance :KHQ OHYHO h LQFUHDVHV WKH IRUFH F2 RQ YHUWLFDO SODWH LQFUHDVHV :KHQ
F2 y1 ≥ F1 x1 WKHJDWHZLOOWLS7DNHZLGWKRIJDWH P
F1 = h ¥ AKRUL]RQWDO ¥ r ¥ g
= h ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
K
h
F2 = ¥ AYHUWLFDO ¥ r ¥ g
2
h
= ¥ h ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
2
h2
1
x1 = GLVWDQFH of CBIURPKLQJH =
2
2 1
y1 = h - h = h - h= h
3 3
F1 ¥ x1 = F2 ¥ y1
1
h ¥ = h 2 ¥ h
3
or h2 = 3
h= 3 P
7KHJDWHZLOODXWRPDWLFDOO\WLSZKHQZDWHUULVHVDERYHPIURPWKHKLQJHB
$ WDQN LV ¿OOHG XQGHU SUHVVXUH N3D ZLWK DQ RLO KDYLQJ 6* ,W KDV EHHQ D
FRYHURIVL]HP¥PKLQJHGDWWRSHGJH WRKRUL]RQWDODQGKHOGLQSRVLWLRQ
E\DIRUFHPDVVKRZQEHORZ)LQGIRUFHPDQGUHDFWLRQDWWKHKLQJHGSRLQW
*DXJHSUHVVXUHRIWKHRLO N3D
17 = h ¥ SG ¥ g
17
or h= PRIRLO
¥

x = + ¥ VLQ
2
P
F = x ¥ A ¥ r ¥ g = ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ N1
N1
I G VLQ 2 q
h = x+
A¥ x
1
¥ 3 ¥
= + 4
¥ ¥ ¥

P
7DNLQJPRPHQWIURPWKHKLQJHSRLQWA
h -
P ¥ AB = F ¥ AC AC = = =
VLQ 1
2
P ¥ ¥
¥
P=

N1
7KHUHDFWLRQDWSRLQWA is R
R=F-P
= -
= N1
$WDQNZLWKVTXDUHYHUWLFDOVLGHRIPDQGGHSWKRIPFRQWDLQVZDWHUXSWRDKHLJKW
RIPDQGRLORI6*XSWRPDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH¿QGWRWDOSUHVVXUHRQ
WKHYHUWLFDOVLGHDQGFHQWUHRISUHVVXUHIURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH
Pressure Intensity
3UHVVXUHLQWHQVLW\DWA = 0
3UHVVXUHLQWHQVLW\DWB = hRLO ¥¥N1
¥¥N1
N1
3UHVVXUHLQWHQVLW\DWC hZDWHU ¥¥ 1
¥
N1
,QWKHSUHVVXUHLQWHQVLW\GLDJUDPDVVKRZQDERYHWKHYDOXHVDUH
BD = CE N1
EF = CF±CE ± N1
1RZ SUHVVXUHIRUFHF1 DUHDRIDABD ¥ZLGWKRIWDQN
1
\ F1 = ¥ ¥ ¥
2
N1
2
7KHIRUFHDFWVDWGHSWKh1IURPWKHIUHHVXUIDFH ¥ = P
3
F2 DUHDRIWULDQJOHDEF ¥ZLGWKRIWDQN
1
= ¥ ¥ ¥
2
N1
1
7KLVIRUFHDFWVDWGHSWKh3 = + ¥ = P
2
7RWDOIRUFHF = F1F2F3

N1
¥ + ¥ + ¥
7KHFHQWUHRISUHVVXUH h =

P
3.6 HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON PLANE AND CURVED SURFACES

:KDWDUHWKHGL൵HUHQFHVRIK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHVDFWLQJRQDSODQHDQGFXUYHGVXUIDFH"
,QFDVHRISODQHVXUIDFHVWKHGL൵HUHQWLDOIRUFHVdFDFWLQJRQHYHU\HOHPHQWDU\DUHDRIWKH
VXUIDFHKDYHWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQ+HQFHWKRVHIRUFHVIRUPDV\VWHPRISDUDOOHOIRUFHV'XH
WRWKLVUHDVRQWKHPDJQLWXGHRIWRWDOIRUFHFDQGLWVSRLQWRIDSSOLFDWLRQFDQEHGHWHUPLQHG
E\LQWHJUDWLRQPHWKRG
dF = dP ´ dA & dP = xrg
x P
F = ò dPdA = ò xrgdbx
Area
P + dp
= rgxA
` (Note: Integration is possible)
,QFDVHRIFXUYHGVXUIDFHVDOOWKHHOHPHQWVRIWKHDUHDGRQRWOLHLQWKHVDPHSODQH$OWKRXJK
WKHGL൵HUHQWLDOIRUFHVUHPDLQSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHLUUHVSHFWLYHHOHPHQWVRIDUHDEXWWKH\GRQRW
IRUPDV\VWHPRISDUDOOHOIRUFHV'XHWRWKLVUHDVRQWKHPDJQLWXGHRIWRWDOIRUFHFDQGLWV
ORFDWLRQFHQWUHRISUHVVXUHFDQQRWEHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHPHWKRGRILQWHJUDWLRQ+RZHYHU
LQWHJUDWLRQFDQEHGRQHE\UHVROYLQJGL൵HUHQWLDOIRUFHVLQKRUL]RQWDODQGYHUWLFDOGLUHFWLRQV
dFv
dF
dF = normal force
dF H
dfH = resolved horizontal force
dfv = resolved vertical force, It can be
dF upward or downward
dF H
dFv
Inside Curved Outside Curved
+RZLVWRWDOIRUFHFDQGLWVORFDWLRQIRXQGRXWRQWKHFXUYHGVXUIDFH"
8378±±
D C
dFv x
E dF
B
q
dFH
A
dA
/HWDVPDOOHOHPHQWRIWKHFXUYHGVXUIDFHRIDUHDdAEHLQFOLQHGDWDQJOHqWRWKHKRUL]RQWDO
7KHGL൵HUHQWLDOIRUFHdFLVDFWLQJQRUPDOWRdA:HFDQUHVROYHdFDVXQGHU
dFH +RUL]RQWDOFRPSRQHQW dFVLQq
= PdFVLQq
= xrgdAVLQq
dFV 9HUWLFDOFRPSRQHQW dF cos q
= PdA cos q
= xrg dA cos q
FH = rg Ú xdAVLQq
FH = rg Ú xdA cos q
1RZdAVLQqDQGdA cos qUHSUHVHQWWKHSURMHFWLRQVRIWKHHOHPHQWDU\DUHDLQYHUWLFDODQG
KRUL]RQWDOSODQHV+HQFHLWIROORZV
D FH= rg Ú xdAVLQq
= rgxAEA 3URMHFWHGDUHDRIFXUYHGVXUIDFHRQYHUWLFDOSODQH /HQJWK

EA ¥ZLGWKRIWKHVXUIDFH
IG
h= x+ ZKHUH h &HQWUHRISUHVVXUHRISURMHFWHGDUHDEA ¥ZLGWKRIWKHVXUIDFH
Ax
ThHSRLQWRIDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKLVIRUFHLVWKHFHQWUHRISUHVVXUHRIWKHSURMHFWHGDUHDRI
WKHFXUYHGVXUIDFHRQWKHYHUWLFDOSODQH
E Fv = rg Ú xdA cos q
= rg ¥ V ZKHUH V YROXPH
ZHLJKWRIOLTXLGLQSUR¿OHAEDCBA, i.e., over the curved surface up to free surface.

The point of this force is vertically downward of the centroid of the liquid volume above
the curved surface.
Ê FV ˆ
The resultant force F is then equal to FH 2 + FV 2 which acts at angle q = tan–1 Á
Ë F ˜¯
H
Find the resultant force due to water pressure acting on the curved surface AB (a
quardant of a circle of radius 4 m) if width of the gate is unity.
The projected area of the curved surface on the vertical plane is a rectangle AA¢ B¢B as
shown above.
4
\ x = 2+ = 2+2= 4m
2
IG 1 ¥ (4)3
h = x+ IG =
Ax 12
A=4¥1=4
43
= 4+
4 ¥ 4 ¥ 12
= 4.33 m
FH = xArg
= 4 ¥ 4 ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
= 157 kN
FH is acting at centre of pressure, h = 4.33 m
FV = Weight of water supported by curved surface AB up to free surface
= Weight in rectangular part (1) + Weight in curved surface (2)
p 42
= 9.81 ¥ 2 ¥ 4 ¥ 1 ¥ 1 ¥ 103 + 9.81 ¥ 1 ¥ ¥ 1 ¥ 103
4
N1
N1
7KHSRLQWRIDSSOLFDWLRQRIFVFDQEHIRXQGE\9HULJQRQ¶VWKHRUHPE\WDNLQJPRPHQWRI
ZHLJKWRIZDWHULQHDFKSRUWLRQSRUWLRQ IURPWKHSRLQWBZUWWKHLUFHQWURLGV7KLV
PXVWEHHTXDOWRWKHZHLJKWRIWRWDOZDWHUZUWLWVFHQWURLGIURPWKHSRLQWB
Y1
W1
B
W2 Y2
W y = W1 y1 + W2 y2
Ê 4 ¥ 4ˆ
¥ y = ¥ + ¥ Á -
Ë 3p ˜¯
¥ y = +

y = = IURP%

F= FH2 + FV2
= ()2 + ()2
= ¥ 4 + ¥ 4
N1
FV
q WDQ± WDQ±
FH
$F\OLQGULFDOUROOHUJDWHRIPGLDPHWHULVSODFHGLQVXFKDZD\LQDGDPWKDWZDWHU
LV DERXW WR IORZ RYHU LW ,I WKH OHQJWK RI WKH F\OLQGULFDO UROOHU JDWH LV P ¿QG WKH
PDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQRIWKHUHVXOWDQWIRUFHDFWLQJRQLW
A 6
Projected
C D 3 area on
vertical
Fv
FH
B
FH = xA ¥ rg where A is the projected area on the vertical plane.

3
x = = 1.5
2
A = 3 ¥ 6 = 18
FH = 1.5 ¥ 18 ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
= 264.87 kN
FV = Weight supported by the curved surface ACB
= Volume ¥ r ¥ g
1 Ê pd 2 ˆ
= ¥ ¥"¥r¥ g
2 ÁË 4 ˜¯
1 p ¥ 32
= ¥ ¥ 6 ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
2 4
= 207.9 kN
F= FH 2 + FV 2
= (264.87)2 + (207.9)2
= 336.8 kN
-1 FV 207.9
q = tan = tan -1 = 38.2∞
FH 264.87
A cylindrical roller gate of diameter 2 m and length 3 m is positioned as shown in the
¿JXUH,IWKHZHLJKWRIWKHJDWHLVN1¿QGKRUL]RQWDOUHDFWLRQDWSRLQWADQG
YHUWLFDOUHDFWLRQDWSRLQWB
D 3
Projected _
x
RA area of
FH C 2
W A roller
RB
Fv
B
FH = xArg
2
= ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
2
N1
FV :HLJKWRIZDWHUVXSSRUWHGE\WKHFXUYHGVXUIDFHBCDLHKDOIDUHD
RIFLUFOH¥ZLGWK
1 Ê p ¥ 22 ˆ
= ¥ ¥3¥r¥ g
2 ÁË 4 ˜¯
N1
$SSO\LQJWKHFRQGLWLRQVIRUHTXLOLEULXPRQWKHUROOHUJDWH
SPx RA = FH N1
SPy W±FV = RB
\ RB ±
N1
$ WDQN DV VKRZQ EHORZ FRQWDLQV D OLTXLG RI 6* XS WR D GHSWK RI P )LQG WKH
PDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQRIK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHSHUXQLWOHQJWKRIWKHWDQNRQWKHYHUWLFDO
IDFHABFXUYHGVXUIDFHBCDQGKRUL]RQWDOERWWRPCD
9HUWLFDO)DFHAB
1
x = =
2
$UHD AA1 B1 B = 1 ¥ 1 = 1
FAB = xArg
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥

N1
&XUYHG6XUIDFHBC
FH = xArg
1
x = + = &HQWURLGRIBB1CC ZUWIUHHVXUIDFH
2
A = 1 ¥ $UHDRIBB1C1C
FH = ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
N1
FV ZHLJKWRIOLTXLGVXSSRUWHGRQBC
ZHLJKWRIOLTXLGLQYROXPHYROXPH
1
= (1 ¥ 1 ¥ 1) rg +p ¥ 12 ¥ rg
4
= ¥ ¥ ( + )
3
N1
2
F= (F ) + (F )
H2 V
2
= ()2 + ()2
= +
N1
FV
q = WDQ -1 = WDQ -1 = ∞
FH
%RWWRP6XUIDFHCD
x =2
A=1¥1
FCD = xArg
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥

N1
$F\OLQGULFDOUROOHUJDWHKDVGLDPHWHUPDQGOHQJWKP7KHZDWHUOHYHODWXSVWUHDP
LVDERXWWRIORZRYHUWKHJDWHZKLOHDWGRZQVWUHDPLWLVP)LQGDPDJQLWXGHDQG
GLUHFWLRQRIWKHUHVXOWDQWK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHDFWLQJRQWKHJDWHEWKHOHDVWZHLJKWRI
WKHJDWHWRDYRLGWKHJDWHWREHOLIWHGE\K\GURVWDWLFIRUFHDQGFFKHFNZKHWKHUWKH
UHVXOWDQWIRUFHSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHFHQWUHRIWKHF\OLQGHU
8SVWUHDP
FH1 = xArg
2
x = = A = ¥ =
2
FH1 = ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥

h1 = 2 ¥ = P IURPIUHHVXUIDFH
3
1
FV1 = rg ¥ p ¥ 2 ¥ = N1
2
4r 4 ¥ 1
FV1LVDFWLQJXSZDUGVDQGLVORFDWHG = = P IURPSRLQWO
3p 3p
'RZQVWUHDP
FH 2 = xArg
1
x = = P A = ¥ = P 2
2
FH 2 = ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
N1
h2 = 2 ¥ + = IURPIUHHVXUIDFH
3
FV2 :HLJKWRIWKHZDWHURQFXUYHGVXUIDFH
1
= ¥ p2 ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
4

FV2 ZLOODOVRDFWDWIURPSRLQWO
7RWDO
FV = FV1 + FV2

N1
FH = FH1 - FH 2
±
N1
1RZUHVXOWDQWIRUFH
F= FH 2 + FV 2
= ()2 + ()2
N1
FV
q = WDQ -1 = WDQ -1 = ∞
FH
7KHF\OLQGULFDOJDWHLVLQHTXLOLEULXP
If SPy = 0
or FV1 + FV2 = W
W = FV N1
7KHF\OLQGULFDOJDWHKDVWREHN1IRUWKHVWDELOLW\
1RZWDNHPRPHQWIURPSRLQWO
SM = - ¥ + ¥ + ¥ - ¥ =

+HQFHWKHUHVXOWDQWRIDOIRUFHVSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRLQWO
VHFWRUJDWHABCRIPUDGLXVRQWKHVSLOOZD\RIDGDPLVSODFHGDVVKRZQLQWKH
¿JXUH7KHJDWHLVKLQJHGDWCDQGACLVKRUL]RQWDODWWKHOHYHORIIUHHVXUIDFH,IWKH
OHQJWKRIJDWHLVP¿QGWKHPDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQRIWKHUHVXOWDQWSUHVVXUHRQWKH
JDWH
hinge
A 4m A 5
C
60°
4 4 sin 60
B B Side View
Guidance 7KHFXUYHGVXUIDFHABZLOOKDYHK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHQRUPDOWRLWVVXUIDFHZKLFK
FDQEHIRXQGRXWE\FDOFXODWLQJKRUL]RQWDODQGYHUWLFDOFRPSRQHQW
FH = xArg
VLQ
= ¥ VLQ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
2
3
= ¥¥ ¥ ¥
4
N1
FV :HLJKWRILPDJLQDU\YROXPHRIZDWHURQWKHFXUYHGVXUIDFHAB
$UHDRIVHFWRUABC±$UHDRIDBDC¥OHQJWK¥ r ¥ g
Ê 60∞ 1 ˆ
= Á pr ¥ - CD ¥ DC ˜ ¥ ¥ r ¥ g
Ë 30∞ 2 ¯
Ê 1 ˆ
= Á - ¥ ¥ ˜ ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
Ë 2 ¯
= ¥ ¥ N1
N1
F= FH 2 + FV 2
= ()2 + ()2
= ¥ 4 + ¥ 4

= ¥ 4
N1
-1 FV
q = WDQ = WDQ -1 = ∞
FH
$FLUFXODUSLSHRIPLQGLDPHWHUDQGPORQJUHVWVZLWKLWVD[LVKRUL]RQWDODWWKH
ERWWRPRIFDQDOKDYLQJPGHHSZDWHU)LQGWKHPDJQLWXGHRIK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHDQG
ORFDWLRQRIWKHFHQWUHRISUHVVXUHRQHDFKRILWVIODWVXUIDFHV
E F
10 B
FH FH A C
1 4 mf 2
Fv Fv
12 m D
Side View
Guidance: +HUHWKHFXUYHGVXUIDFHLVLQFLUFXODUVKDSH6LQFHWKHSUHVVXUHIRUFHLVDFWLQJ
QRUPDOWRWKHVXUIDFHZHKDYHWR¿QGKRUL]RQWDODQGYHUWLFDOFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHK\GURVWDWLF
IRUFHEHIRUH¿QGLQJWKHUHVXOWDQWIRUFH7KHKRUL]RQWDOFRPSRQHQWRQHDFKIODWIDFHLVVDPH
DQGLQRSSRVLWHGLUHFWLRQWKHUHE\EDODQFLQJHDFKRWKHU2QO\YHUWLFDOIRUFHZLOOEHDFWLQJ
4
x = + =P
2
pd 2 p ¥ 42
A= = = p = P3
4 4
pd 2 p ¥ 42
IG = = =
32 32
IG
h = x+
A¥ x

= +
¥
P
FH +RUL]RQWDOIRUFHDFWLQJRQHDFKÀDWIDFH
RIWKHVXUIDFHDQGEDODQFHHDFKRWKHU
= xArg
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥

N1
FV 9HUWLFDOIRUFH FADCXSZDUGV±FABCGRZQZDUGV
:HLJKWRIZDWHULQDUHDADLFE ¥P
±ZHLJKWRIZDWHULQDUHDABCFE ¥P
:HLJKWRIZDWHULQFLUFOHABCD ¥ 12
pd 2
= ¥ r ¥ g ¥ 12
4
p
= ¥ 2 ¥ ¥ 2 ¥ ¥
4
N1XSZDUGV
,QWKHYHUWLFDOVLGHRIDWDQNFRQWDLQLQJZDWHUKDVDKHPLVSKHULFDOSURMHFWLRQRIP
RQRQHYHUWLFDOVLGHDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH,IKHLJKWRIWKHZDWHUIURPWKHFHQWUHRI
VSKHUHLVP¿QGWKHKRUL]RQWDODQGYHUWLFDOK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHSURMHFWLRQ
x P
pd 2 p ¥ 22
A= = = P 2
4 4
FH = xArg
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥

N1
E D
Water
4m 4 C
C
B
O O B1 2
B
A
A
FV = FAB±FBC
= :HLJKWRIZDWHURQFXUYHGVXUIDFHAB
±:HLJKWRIZDWHURQFXUYHGVXUIDFHBC
:HLJKWRIZDWHULQKHPLVSKHUH
1 Ê 4 3ˆ
= ¥ pr ˜ ¥ r ¥ g
2 ÁË 3 ¯
1 4
= ¥ p ¥ 3 ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
2 3
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IUHHVXUIDFH
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¿JXUH)LQGWKHGHQVLW\RIWKHPDWHULDORIWKHF\OLQGHU
E A
Light oil
FV
D 1 O B
FV W
2
C
Heavy oil
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= ¥ 3 ¥ ¥ Á ¥ - ¥
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N1GRZQZDUGV
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Ë 4 ¯
= ¥ 3 ¥ ¥ ( + )
N1XSZDUGV
1HWK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHDFWLQJXSZDUGV
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±
N1XSZDUGV
'XULQJHTXLOLEULXPRIF\OLQGHUSPy = 0
:HLJKWRIF\OLQGHU ¥ 103
4 3
rr ¥ r PHWDO ¥ g ¥ 103
3
¥
rPHWDO =
¥ p ¥ 3 ¥
¥ 103NJP3
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x = + VLQ

F = xArg
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NN
1.6
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30°
1
1
IG 1 ¥ 13
h = x+ VLQ 2 q I G =
Ax 12
1
= + ¥
¥ ¥ ¥
PIURPIUHHVXUIDFH
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0.9 A
45°
B D
0.6 0.6
x = + AB VLQ
= + ¥

= + = P
A î
F = xArg
= ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
N1
a 4 4
IG = = =
12 12
IG
h = x+
Ax

= +
¥

P
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Imaginary
15 kPa B free surface
2m
C D Projected area
1.53 2.5
A
B A 2
15 15
The gauge reading = 15 kPa = = = 1.53 m of water
rg 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
2
x = 1.53 + = 2.53 m
2
A = 2 ¥ 2.5 = 5 m
FH = xArg
= 2.53 ¥ 5 ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
= 124.1 kN
FV = Imaginary weight of water in ABCD
Ê 1 ˆ
= rg Á1.53 ¥ 2.0 + ¥ p ¥ 12 ˜ "
Ë 4 ¯
= 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81 ¥ (2.06 + 0.785) ¥ 2.5

= 51.31 kN
F= FH 2 + FV 2
= (124.1)2 + (51.31)2
= 154 ¥ 104 + 0.26 ¥ 104
= 1.80 ¥ 104
= 134.16 kN
-1 FV 51.31
q = tan = tan -1 = 23.4
FH 124.1
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LQWKHGDPLVP
A A 1 A1
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2
x
y= Projected area
16 on vertical
dy
16 m 16 plane
1
B x B B
x 2 = 16y
or x= 16 y = 4 y
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16
y= =
2
FH = yArg
3
= ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
N1
FV :HLJKWRIZDWHURQWKHFXUYHGVXUIDFHAB
16
= rg ¥ 1Ú xdy
o
16
= ¥ 3 ¥ ¥ Ú ¥ ydy
o
16
Ê y 32 ˆ
3
= ¥ ¥ Á 3 ˜
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o
3
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16
3
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F= FH 2 + FV 2
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N1
F
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y
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x
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æx æ x0 = 6
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N1
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= rg ¥ DUHD OAB ¥
9
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o
9
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9
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FV
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A Imaginary water
surface
Oil
10
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)RU¿QGLQJFBCLWLVHVVHQWLDOWRFRQYHUWWKHKHLJKWRIRLOLQWRHTXLYDOHQWZDWHUKHLJKW
FAB = x1 A1 ¥ rg
10
= ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
2
N1
IG 2 ¥ 103
h1 = x1 + =+ = P
A1 x1 ¥ ¥ ¥
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x2 = h + = + =
2
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N1
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N1
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3 hcp = ¥ + ¥
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Guidance: &RQVLGHUWKHDUHDLQWRDUHFWDQJOHDQGDWULDQJOH7KHWRWDOIRUFHDFWLQJLVHTXDO
to F1DQGF2GXHWRUHFWDQJXODUDQGWULDQJXODUZDWHUFRQWHQW
F1 = x1 A1 ¥ rg
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N1
IG 2 ¥ 63
h1 = x1 + = + =P
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4m
3m
6m
CG
2m
CG
6m
Ê 1 ˆ Ê1 ˆ 3
= Á + ¥ ˜ ¥ Á ¥ ¥ ˜ ¥ ¥ ¥
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= ¥ ¥
= N1
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+
hcp = = P

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O
A
B q
D FH 1m
0.5 m FH
C
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RSSRVHHDFKRWKHUZKLOHWKHYHUWLFDOFRPSRQHQWVZLOODGGXS
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= ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ 3 ¥
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1
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N1XSZDUGV
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1
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A
6m
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F BC
3m
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FAB = x1 A1rg
6
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2
6
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VLQ
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Ë VLQ ˜¯
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= ¥ ¥

N1
3
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VLQq = = =
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=
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3.7 PRESSURE DIAGRAM

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$SUHVVXUHGLDJUDPLVWKHJUDSKLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHYDULDWLRQRILQWHQVLW\RISUHVVXUH
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DVZHPRYHGRZQDORQJWKHVXUIDFH
x
h
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h3 S3 4 5 6
P3
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Different Liquids Pressure Diagram
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height
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Fluids Pressure Diagram
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P2
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Water
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2
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1 1
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2 2
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F + F + F
= + + + + +
= N1
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F ¥ h = Fh + F h + F h + F h + F h + F h
= F + F + F ¥ hC + F h + F h + F h
Ê ˆ
= ( + + ) ¥ + ¥ Á + ˜
2 Ë3 ¯

+ ¥ + ¥ ¥
2 3
+ + +
h=

=

= P
3.8 STABILITY OF DAM

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The forces acting on a dam are:
(1) horizontal component of hydrostatic force (FHDFWLQJWRUZDUGVOHIWDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
FH = xArg
where x is centroid of water and ALVZHWWHGDUHDRIYHUWLFDOVLGH
(2) The weight of masonry of the dam acting down (W)
7KHGDPKDVWREHGHVLJQHGVXFKWKDWLWPXVWKDYH
7KHIDFWRUVDIHW\DJDLQVWVOLGLQJGXHWRK\GURVWDWLFIRUFHFHFH KDVWREHFRXQWHUDFWHG
E\WKHZHLJKWRIWKHGDPDQGFRH൶FLHQWRIIULFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHEDVHRIWKHGDPDQG
WKHIRXQGDWLRQRIVRLO+HQFHZHKDYH
D 6OLGLQJUHVLVWDQFH m ◊W
E 6OLGLQJIRUFH FH
F )RUVWDELOLW\m ◊W > FH where m FRH൶FLHQWRIIULFWLRQ$VVHHQIURPWKHGLDJUDP
m = tan aLHDQJOHRILQFOLQDWLRQRIWKHUHVXOWDQW)RUVWDELOLW\WKHDQJOHRIIULFWLRQ
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6OLGLQJ UHVLVWDQFH m◊W

FSsliding =
6OLGLQJ IRUFH FH
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PRPHQWLVJHQHUDWHGE\WKHZHLJKWRIWKHGDPZKLFKVKRXOGDFWDVQHDUWRKHHOVRWKDW
PRPHQWDUPZUWWKHWRHLVODUJH7KHIDFWRURIVDIHW\DJDLQVWRYHUWXUQLQJ
Total righting moment

FSRYHUWXUQLQJ =
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W ¥x
=
FH ¥ y
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$ FRQFUHWH GDP LV UHWDLQLQJ P RI ZDWHU DV VKRZQ LQ WKH ¿JXUH 7KH ZHLJKW RI WKH
masonry work of the dam is 30 kN/m2 )LQG IDFWRU RI VDIHW\ DJDLQVW VOLGLQJ
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= w1w2
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x LVJLYHQE\
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=
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w w ¥ - ¥ ¥
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≠ P ≠ P ≠ P ≠ P ≠ P ≠ P ≠B
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C
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n ¥ 2T = FH
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n=
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3.9 GATE, AND LOCK GATES
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XSVWUHDP DQG GRZQVWUHDP ,I WKHUH LV QR ZDWHU OHYHO DW GRZQVWUHDP WKHQ K\GURVWDWLF
IRUFHVZLOODFWRQRQHVLGHLHVWDWLFVLGHRQO\7KHJDWHVFDQEHVLPSOHJDWH
VOXLFHJDWHWDLQWHUJDWHRUUROOHUJDWH$VOXLFHJDWHLVXVHGWRFRQWUROWKHÀRZ
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PDVRQU\RXWOHWV$VOXLFHJDWHFRQVLVWVRIWZRYHUWLFDOSODWHVFDOOHGVNLQSODWHVLQZKLFK
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JXLGHVZKLFKDUH¿[HGRQWKHSLHUVRUYHUWLFDOZDOOVRIWKHRXWOHWV
Cable to move
sluice gate up & Rail
down
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the outlet
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Downstream
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Sluice Gate (to Control Flow)
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Downstream Lock gate Lock gate

Lock gate lock gate (open) (closed)
(closed)
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lock
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condition of stability
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h (SG = 2.56)
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Chapter 4
BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

BUOYANCY STABILITY FOR SUBMERGED BODY
BUOYANCY FORCE STABILITY FOR FLOATING BODY
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY METACENTRE
FLOATATION METACENTRIC HEIGHT
PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION ROLLING
CONDITIONS OF STABILITY PITCHING
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM TIME PERIOD
UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM RADIUS OF GYRATION
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM BILGE WATER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
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Chapter 5
FLUID MASSES SUBJECTED TO
ACCELERATION
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

STATIC BODY D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE
RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM ROTATIONAL ACCELERATION
TRANSLATION ACCELERATION INCLINED ACCELERATION
HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION PARABOLOID FREE SURFACE
VERTICAL ACCELERATION FORCED VORTEX
INCLINED FREE SURFACE VERTEX AND RISE OF LIQUID IN VORTEX
CONSTANT PRESSURE LINE ROTATION OF CLOSED VESSEL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
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5.2 DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

What do you understand by a static body?
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Is anybody at rest in the universe?
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How do we say that a body is at rest or in static state?
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What do you understand by relative or dynamic equilibrium in moving fluid mass?
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5.3 TRANSLATIONAL ACCELERATION

How can a fluid be subjected to horizontal translational acceleration?
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How can a fluid mass be subjected to vertical translational acceleration?

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5.4 ROTATIONAL ACCELERATION

How is a fluid subjected to rotational acceleration?
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5.5 D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE

What is D’Alembert’s principle?
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What is achieved by applying D’Alembert’s principle?
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5.6 HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION

What happens to a liquid when it is subjected to a horizontal acceleration? Determine
the slope of the free liquid surface when subjected to the constant horizontal
acceleration.
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5.7 VERTICAL ACCELERATION

What happens when a liquid is subjected to constant vertical acceleration?
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5.8 ACCELERATION ON INCLINED PLANE

What happens when a liquid is subjected to constant acceleration while moving up
along an inclined plane? Find the angle of slope of the free surface of the liquid.
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What happens when a liquid is subjected to constant acceleration while moving down
along an inclined plane?
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q
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tion
e l era
c
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The transport tanks for carrying liquid in mountainous region are specially designed
to avoid any spillover of the liquid. Elucidate.
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Free surface
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angular velocity. Determine the equation of the free surface of the liquid after liquid
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liquid to rise is unavailable in the closed vessel?
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time to attain this velocity without spilling out?
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downwards.
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inclined plane if the constant acceleration of liquid is 4 m/s.
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given a rigid body rotation about the axis of the cylinder and the pressure at the centre
OLQHDWWKHERWWRPVXUIDFHLVIRXQGWREHPRIOLTXLG:KDWLVWKHUDWLRRIYROXPH
of liquid spilled out of the cylinder to original volume?
3
D E
4 8

F G ,(6

0.6 m
1.2 m
2r
2ULJLQDOYROXPHRIOLTXLGV p r h
p r ¥ P

9ROXPHRIOLTXLGVSLOOHGRXWV p r ¥

p r ¥P
V pr ¥
NRZ
V pr ¥

4
2SWLRQDLVFRUUHFW
moved horizontally at an acceleration equal to acceleration due to gravity. The ratio
of the liquid left in the vessel to the liquid at static equilibrium is
D E
F G ,(6
C
E
q O
h D a=g
7KHOLTXLGDWWKHIURQWHQGZLOOIDOODQGOLTXLGDWWKHUHDUHQGZLOOULVH
a g
tanq
g g
ED ED
%XW WDQq
OD d
d h
\ or ED

+HQFHWDQNZLOOEHHPSW\E\KDOI
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
$QRSHQUHFWDQJXODUER[RIEDVHP¥PFRQWDLQVDOLTXLGRI6*XSWRDKHLJKW
RIP,IWKHER[LVLPSDUWHGYHUWLFDOO\XSZDUGDFFHOHUDWLRQRIPV, what will
be the pressure on the base of the tank?
D N3D E N3D
F N3D G N3D ,(6
Ê aˆ
P r ◊ g ◊ h ◊ Á + ˜
Ë g¯
Ê ˆ
¥ ¥¥¥ Á +
Ë ˜¯
NPa
2SWLRQGLVFRUUHFW

moved horizontally at acceleration equal to acceleration due to gravity. The ratio of
the liquid left in the vessel to the liquid at static equilibrium is
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.4
(c) 0.5 (d) 0.75 (IES 2001)
a g
tan q = =
g g
q
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
$Q RSHQ UHFWDQJXODU WDQN P ORQJ P ZLGH DQG P GHHS LV FRPSOHWHO\ ¿OOHG
ZLWKZDWHU,IWKHWDQNLVPRYHGZLWKDFFHOHUDWLRQRIPV¿QGWKHVORSHRIWKHIUHH
surface?
(a) 7.8° (b) 8.7°
(c) 6.7° (d) 9.7°
a
tan q = =
g
\ q
r A closed cylinder 2R diameter DQGFPGHHSLVFRPSOHWHO\¿OOHGDQGLWLVURWDWHGZLWK
angular speed of R radians per second. The pressure at top end is
π
(a) × R × − 1 (b) π × R × − 1
4 4
π
(c) × R × − 1 (d) π × R × − 1
4 4
πρω × x
PWRS
4
πρ × R × R × −

4
π × R × − 1
4
$QRSHQUHFWDQJXODUER[RIEDVHPîPFRQWDLQVDOLTXLGRI6*XSWRDKHLJKW
RIP,IWKHER[LVLPSDUWHGDYHUWLFDOO\XSZDUGDFFHOHUDWLRQRIPV, what will
be the pressure on the base of the box?
(a) 9.81 kPa (b) 19.62 kPa
(c) 36.8 kPa (d) 29.4 kPa (IES 2004)
⎛ a⎞
P ρgh ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ g⎠
⎛ ⎞
× × × ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ ⎠
N3D
If a liquid of height h in a vessel is accelerated upwards with acceleration a, the
pressure in liquid will be
⎛a ⎞
(a) rha (b) ρh ⎜ + ⎟
⎝g ⎠
⎛a ⎞
(c) ρh ⎜ − ⎟ (d) None of these
⎝g ⎠

If a liquid of height h is accelerated downwards with acceleration of g, the pressure in
liquid will be
(a) r ◊ g ◊ h (b) r ◊ h(2g)
(c) Zero (d) None of these
Chapter 6
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS DEPENDENT VARIABLES
SECONDARY DIMENSIONS REPEATING VARIABLES
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
DIMENSIONAL FORM REYNOLDS NUMBER
NON-DIMENSIONAL FORM FORDE’S NUMBER
RAYLEIGH’S METHOD WEBER’S NUMBER
p THEOREM MACH’S NUMBER
VARIABLES EULER’S NUMBER
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which uses the dimensions of quantities
in solving the engineering problems. Dimensional analysis helps in determining a possible
arrangement of variables in a physical relationship. Physical relationship is rational in case the
dimensions of the left hand of the relation are equal to the dimensions of the right hand. All
physical relationships are dimensionally homogeneous.
,QÀXLGPHFKDQLFVDÀXLGSDUWLFOHLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQXPEHURIIRUFHVVXFKDVLLQHUWLDIRUFH
LLYLVFRXVIRUFHLLLJUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFHLYSUHVVXUHIRUFHYVXUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUFHDQGYL
HODVWLFIRUFH'LPHQVLRQOHVVSDUDPHWHUVDUHXVHIXOLQÀXLGPHFKDQLFVZKHQDQ\WZRIRUFHVDUH
SUHGRPLQDQW 7KH GLPHQVLRQOHVV SDUDPHWHUV DUH L 5H\QROGV QXPEHU LL (XOHU¶V QXPEHU LLL
and Weber’s number.
6.2 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

What do you understand from dimensions and units?
$Q\ SK\VLFDO VLWXDWLRQ FDQ EH GHVFULEHG E\ FHUWDLQ IDPLOLDU SURSHUWLHV VXFK DV OHQJWK
YHORFLW\ DUHD YROXPH RU DFFHOHUDWLRQ 7KHVH DUH DOO NQRZQ DV GLPHQVLRQV DQG DUH RI QR
use without a magnitude being attached. Dimensions are properties which can be measured
Dimensional Analysis 333
VXFK DV OHQJWK DQG XQLWV DUH WKH VWDQGDUG HOHPHQWV ZKLFK ZH XVH WR TXDQWLI\ WKHVH
GLPHQVLRQV,QGLPHQVLRQDODQDO\VLVZHDUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHQDWXUHRIGLPHQVLRQVLH
its quality instead of its quantity. The common abbreviations which are used for dimension
DUHDOHQJWK LEPDVV MFWLPH TG)RUFH FDQGHWHPSHUDWXUH q. The
dimensions of common physical quantities are as per Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Dimensions of common physical quantities
Qunatity SI unit Dimensions

1. Velocity m/s LT –1
2. Acceleration m/s2 LT –2
2
3. Force Newton (N) or kg m/s MLT –2
4. Energy or work Nm or kg m2/s2 ML2T –2
5. Power Nm/s or kg m2s–3 ML2T –3
2 2
6. Pressure or stress N/m kg/ms ML–1T –2
7. Density kg/m3 ML–3T 0
2
8. Viscosity Ns/m or kg/ms ML–1T –1
9. Surface tension N/m or kg/s2 MT –2
What do you understand from dimensional analysis?

Dimensional analysis is a branch of mathematics which deals with the dimensions of
quantities. Dimensional analysis helps in determining a possible arrangement of variables
in a physical relationship. This is achieved by forming a number of non-dimensional group
free from units from a given number of dimensional quantities in such a way that variables
can be reduced and the physical relationship can be expressed in a possible arrangement of
remaining variables.
What are the uses of dimensional analysis?
The uses of dimensional analysis are:
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HTXDWLRQLVGLPHQVLRQDOO\KRPRJHQHRXVGLPHQVLRQDOXQLWVDWERWKVLGHVRIWKHHTXDWLRQ
DUHDVDPHWKHSK\VLFDOSKHQRPHQRQLVUDWLRQDO2WKHUZLVHLWLVLPSRVVLEOH
7RDVFHUWDLQZKHWKHUWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQYDULRXVTXDQWLWLHVLQDQHTXDWLRQVLJQLI\
a physical phenomenon.
7RUHGXFHWKHQXPEHURIYDULDEOHVLQYROYHGLQDSK\VLFDOSKHQRPHQRQ7KHSHUIRUPDQFH
of experiment becomes easy due to this reduction of variables.
7RFRQYHUWWKHWKHRUHWLFDOHTXDWLRQLQWRDVLPSOHGLPHQVLRQOHVVIRUP
7RVROYHDQ\FRPSOH[SK\VLFDOSKHQRPHQRQ
7RFRQYHUWWKHXQLWVRITXDQWLWLHVIURPRQHV\VWHPWRDQRWKHUV\VWHP
7R IDFLOLWDWH PRGHO WHVWLQJ E\ UHGXFLQJ WKH QXPEHU RI YDULDEOHV LQWR IRXU SULPDU\
quantities.
6.3 FUNDAMENTAL AND SECONDARY DIMENSIONS

What are the fundamental dimensions or primary quantities?
0DVV OHQJWK WLPH DQG WHPSHUDWXUH DUH IXQGDPHQWDO RU SULPDU\ GLPHQVLRQV 7KHVH IRXU
physical quantities are called fundamental dimensions or primary quantities as the units of
these quantities do not depend on the units of any other physical quantities.
What are the derived or secondary dimensions?
The unit of physical quantity which depends on the unit of other physical quantities is called
derived or secondary dimension.
Find the dimensions of (1) force, (2) angular velocity, (3) discharge, (4) torque, (5)
power, (6) density, and (7) viscosity
)RUFH 0DVV¥ Acceleration
L
F M ¥ MLT±
T2
Angles in radian
Angular velRFLW\
Time
1
w T–1
T
DiVFKDUJH 9HORFLW\¥ Area
L
Q ¥ L L T–1
T
TorTXH )RUFH¥ Distance
0DVV¥$FFHOHUDWLRQ¥ Distance
L
T M ¥ ¥ L ML T±
T -2
Work done
PoZHU
Time
Force ¥ Distance

Time
Mass ¥ Acceleration ¥ Distance

Time
L
M¥ ¥L
T -2
P ML T±
T
Mass
Density
Volume
M
r ML±
L3
Shear stress
ViscoVLW\
Velocity gradient
Force/Area

Velocity/Distance
Mass ¥ Acceleration ¥ Distance

Area ¥ Velocity
M ¥ LT -2 ¥ L

L2 ¥ LT -1
m ML–1 T–1
6.4 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

What is dimensional homogeneity? What are variables and dependent variables?
Or
What do you understand by a dimensionally homogenous equation? Write three
dimensionless parameters.
A physical phenomenon is given in variables in the form of an equation. The physical
phenomenon is rational in case the dimensions of left hand of the relation is equal to the
GLPHQVLRQV RI ULJKW KDQG ,I LW LV VR ZH VD\ WKDW HTXDWLRQ LV GLPHQVLRQDOO\ KRPRJHQRXV
)RUH[DPSOHWDNHWKHH[SUHVVLRQRIVWDWLFSUHVVXUH
P rgh
Mass ¥ acceleration
3UHVVXUH )RUFH$UHD
Area
M ¥ LT±L ML–1 T±
Mass
r GHQVLW\
Volume
M
ML±
L3
g DFFHOHUDWLRQ LT±
h KeighW L
P rgh
ML–1 T± ML± ¥ LT± ¥ L

ML–1 T±
GLPHQVLRQVRIOHIWVLGH GLPHQVLRQVRIULJKWVLGH
,QWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQP is a dependent variable and rg and h are variables.
What are the applications of dimensional homogeneity?
The applications of dimensional homogeneity are:
7R DVFHUWDLQ ZKHWKHU WKH HTXDWLRQ LV KRPRJHQHRXV WKHUHE\ ¿QGLQJ RXW ZKHWKHU WKH
phenomenon is rational.
7RDVFHUWDLQWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIDYDULDEOH
7RIDFLOLWDWHHDV\FRQYHUVLRQRIXQLWVIURPRQHV\VWHPWRDQRWKHU
7RKHOSLQGLPHQVLRQDODQDO\VLVDQGPRGHOWHVWLQJ
,QÀXLGPHFKDQLFVDÀXLGSDUWLFOHLVVXEMHFWHGWRDQXPEHURIIRUFHVVXFKDVLQHUWLDIRUFH
YLVFRXV IRUFH JUDYLWDWLRQDO IRUFH SUHVVXUH IRUFH VXUIDFH WHQVLRQ IRUFH DQG HODVWLF IRUFH
'LPHQVLRQOHVV SDUDPHWHUV DUH XVHIXO LQ ÀXLG PHFKDQLFV ZKHQ DQ\ RI WKH WZR IRUFHV DUH
SUHGRPLQDQW +HQFH GLPHQVLRQOHVV SDUDPHWHUV DUH WKH UDWLRV RI WZR IRUFHV ZKLFK DUH
predominant. The dimensionless parameters are:
D Reynolds number. ,WLVWKHUDWLRRILQHUWLDIRUFHWRYLVFRXVIRUFHLQÀXLG
r l2V 2
R e
mVL
rVL

m
b Euler’s number. ,WLVWKHUDWLRRILQHUWLDIRUFHWRSUHVVXUHIRUFHLQWKHÀXLG
r l 2V 2
E
DPL2
rV 2

DP
F Weber’s number. It is the ratio of inertia force to surface tension force.
r l 2V 2 r V 2L
W
sl s
What are dimensional form and non-dimensional form of homogenous equation?
,QGLPHQVLRQDOIRUPRIKRPRJHQRXVHTXDWLRQVWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHOHIWVLGHDUHHTXDOWR
the dimension of the right side. For example:
8
Q Cd 2 g tan q H
15
On reduction L T –1 L T –1
,Q QRQGLPHQVLRQDO IRUP RI KRPRJHQRXV HTXDWLRQV WKH OHIW VLGH DQG ULJKW VLGH KDYH
QR GLPHQVLRQ )RU H[DPSOH WKH DERYH KRPRJHQHRXV HTXDWLRQ FDQ EH ZULWWHQ LQ QRQ
dimensional form as:
Q 8
5 /2 2 Cd tan q
g ◊H 15
6.5 METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

What are different methods of dimensional analysis?
7KHUH DUH WZR PHWKRGV RI GLPHQVLRQDO DQDO\VLV YL] 5D\OHLJK¶V PHWKRG DQG
%XFNLQJKDP¶VPHWKRGRU%XFNLQJKDP¶Vp–theorem.
Explain dimensional analysis by Rayleigh’s method.
The Rayleigh’s method is used for determining the expression for a dependent variable
ZKLFK GHSHQGV XSRQ PD[LPXP WKUHH RU IRXU YDULDEOHV RU RWKHUZLVH LW EHFRPHV GL൶FXOW
WR¿QGWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH,IX is a variable which is dependent on
three variables X1X and XWKHQWKHH[SUHVVLRQFDQEHZULWWHQDVX fX1XX7KLV
H[SUHVVLRQFDQEHVLPSOL¿HGE\5D\OHLJK¶VPHWKRGE\ZULWLQJX m◊X1a Xb Xc where m
constant and ab and c are powers. The values of ab and c can be found out by comparing
fundamental dimensions of both sides. Hence the expression for dependent variable can be
obtained.
Prove by the method of dimensional analysis that R, the resistance to be motion of a
sphere of radius r falling with a velocity V through a fluid of viscosity h is given by R
= kh rV where k is a dimensional constant.
Guidance: 7KHGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHGHSHQGVXSRQWKUHHYDULDEOHVZKLFKPDNHVLWVXLWDEOH
for Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis
R μ ra ¥ rb ¥ Vc ¥ hd
Putting fundamental dimensions
MLT± μML±a ¥Lb ¥LT1c ¥ML–1 T–1d
MLT± μ Ma+d ¥ L±a+b+c–d ¥ T
1RZHTXDWHSRZHUVRIERWKVLGHVZHJHWWKUHHHTXDWLRQVDVXQGHU
a + d
±a + b + c – d
± ±c – d
)URPHTXDWLRQVDQGZHFDQ¿QGWKHYDOXHVRIab and c in term of d as under

a ±d
b ±d
c ±d
Putting the values to the equation

R μ r1–d r±d V±d hd
d
Ê n ˆ
k rr V Á
Ë r rV ˜¯
PXWWLQJ d
R kh rV
State Buckingham’s theorem. What are repeating variables? How are these selected
in dimensional analysis? (UPTU 2004-5)
Or
Describe Buckingham’s theorem? Why this theorem is considered superior to Rayleigh’s
method for dimensional analysis? (UPTU 2005-6)
BUCKINGHAM’S THEOREM
%XFNLQJKDP¶V WKHRUHP VWDWHV WKDW LI WKHUH DUH n number of variables and m number of
IXQGDPHQWDOGLPHQVLRQVLQDGLPHQVLRQDOO\KRPRJHQHRXVHTXDWLRQWKHQWKHYDULDEOHVFDQ
EHDUUDQJHGLQn – mQXPEHURIGLPHQVLRQOHVVWHUPV7KHVHGLPHQVLRQOHVVWHUPVDUHFDOOHG
p terms.
Let X1 fXX … Xn
or fX1X … Xn
If there are nYDULDEOHVZLWKIXQGDPHQWDOGLPHQVLRQVWKHQWKHHTXDWLRQFDQEHZULWWHQDV
fp1p … pn±
Each pWHUPLVIRUPHGZLWKYDULDEOHVLQZKLFKWKUHHYDULDEOHVDUHUHSHDWLQJYDULDEOHVVD\
XX and X
+HQFHp terms can be written as
p1 Xa1 Xb1 Xc1 X1
p Xa Xb Xc X and so on but up to
pn± Xan± Xbn± Xcn± Xn±
The above equations are solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity. When the
values of p1p … pn±DUHDNQRZQWKHUHTXLUHGH[SUHVVLRQFDQEHZULWWHQDV
fp1p … pn±
REPEATING VARIABLES
These are variables which are selected to appear in each p term. The number of repeating
variables is equal to the number of fundamental dimensions appearing in the variables of
the equation. The choice of repeating variables is made on basis of the following:
7KHGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVVKRXOGQRWEHVHOHFWHG
9DULDEOHVKDYLQJGL൵HUHQWFDWHJRULHVRISURSHUW\LQVWHDGRIRQHVKRXOGEHVHOHFWHG)RU
H[DPSOH YDULDEOHV VKRXOG EH RQH HDFK IURP JHRPHWULF SURSHUW\ OHQJWK KHLJKW DQG
GLDPHWHUÀRZSURSHUW\YHORFLW\DFFHOHUDWLRQDQGÀXLGSURSHUW\YLVFRVLW\GHQVLW\
6KRXOGQRWEHGLPHQVLRQOHVV
6KRXOGKDYHGL൵HUHQWGLPHQVLRQV
6KRXOGKDYHVDPHQXPEHURIIXQGDPHQWDOGLPHQVLRQV
Superiority of p theorem over Rayleigh’s method: The Rayleigh’s method of dimensional
analysis becomes more laborious as the number of variables becomes more than fundamental
dimensions. Such problem is not faced when p theorem is used.
The drag force F on a partially submerged body depends on the relative velocity V
between the body and the fluid, characteristics linear dimension l, height of surface
roughness k, fluid density r, the viscosity m and the acceleration due to gravity (g).
Obtain an expression for the drag force using the method of dimensional analysis.
(UPTU 2001-2)
Guidance: 7KHUH DUH VL[ YDULDEOHV ZKLFK VXJJHVW WR XVH %XFNLQJKDP¶V p theorem for
solving the expression.
Let the expression be
f FlkVmrg
7RWDOQXPEHURIYDULDEOHVm
7RWDOQXPEHURIIXQGDPHQWDOGLPHQVLRQn ML & T
Number of pWHUPV ±
Each p term consists of MYDULDEOHVLH
We select repeating variables as LV and r.
\ p1 La1 Vb1 rc1 F
p La Vb rc m
p La Vb rc g
p La Vb rc k
1RZ p1 La1LT–1b1ML±c1MLT±
MLT La1+b±c1+1 Mc1+1 T–b±
–b1± RUb1 ±
+ c1 RUc1 ±
a1 + b1±c1 RUa1 ±
\ p1 L± V±± rF
F

r L2V 2
1RZ p La Vb rcm

LaLT–1bML±c2ML–1 T–1
MLT Lab±c± Mc T –b±

\ c RUc ±
–b± RUb ±
a + b±c± RUa ±
m
\ p L–1 V–1 r–1 m
LV r
1RZ p La Vb rc g
MLT LaLT–1bML±cLT±
Lab±c Mc T–b±
\ c
–b± RUb ±
a + b±c RUa
L
p L1 V± g g
V2
1RZ p La Vb rc k
p LaLT–1bML±c L
Lab±c Mc T–b
\ c b a ±
k
\ p L–1 k
L
f p1ppp
Ê F m L kˆ
fÁ 2 2, , 2 g , ˜
Ë r L V LV r V L¯
F Ê m Lg k ˆ
f Á , ,
r L2 V 2 Ë LV r V 2 L ˜¯
Ê m Lg k ˆ
or F rLV ¥ f Á , ,
Ë LV r V 2 L ˜¯
Show by p theorem that a general equation for discharge Q over a weir of any shape
is given by
5 1 ⎛ n s ⎞
Q = H 2 g 2 f ⎜ 2/ 3 1/ 2 2 ⎟
⎝H g H gr ⎠
where H = head over weir, n = kinematic viscosity, r = density of the fluid g =
acceleration due to gravity and s = surface tension. (UPTU 2006-7)
FQHrngs
Select Hr and g as repeating variables.
+HQFHZHZLOOKDYHM YDULDEOHVLQHDFKp term and there will n – m
± p terms
p1 Ha1gb1rc1Q
La1LT±b1ML±c1 L T–1
La+b±c Mc T±b–1
-1
\ c1 b1 and a1 ±
2
Q
\ p1 H± g± Q
H g1/2
5 /2
1RZ p Ha gb rc n

LaLT±bML±c LT–1
Lab±c Mc T±b±
\ c b ±DQGa ±
\ p H± g± n
p Ha gb rc s
LaLT±bML±cMT±
Lab±c T±b± Mc
\ c ±b ±DQGa ±
p H± g–1 r–1 s
Ê Q n s ˆ
F Á 5/2 1/2 , 3/2 1/2 , 2 ˜
ËH g H g H gr ¯
Q Ê n s ˆ
f Á 3/2 1/2 , 2 ˜
H 5/2 g1/2 ËH g H gr ¯
Ê n s ˆ
Q H g f Á 3/2 1/2 , 2 ˜
ËH g H gr ¯
6.6 DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS

What do you mean by dimensionless numbers? Derive an expression for any two
dimensionless numbers. (UPTU 2002-3, 2007-08)
Or
What is the importance of dimensionless numbers? Derive their expressions and write
their applications.
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JUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFHඉUHVVXUHIRUFHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUFHDQGHODVWLFIRUFH7KH
ratio of any two forces is a dimensionless parameter. These parameters have great physical
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0DFK¶VQXPEHUDQG:HEHU¶VQXPEHU
Reynolds Number: ,I LQHUWLD IRUFH DQG YLVFRXV IRUFH DUH SUHGRPLQDQW LQ DQ\ ÀRZ
SKHQRPHQRQWKHQ5H\QROGVQXPEHULVXVHGWRFRPSDUHPRGHODQGSURWRW\SH5H\QROGV
number is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force.
Inertia force
R e
Viscous force
,QHUWLDIRUFH PDVV¥ acceleration
YROXPH¥ density ¥ acceleration
L ¥ r ¥ LT±
Ê Lˆ
2

L
ÁË T ˜¯ ¥ L ¥ r but T
V 9HORFLW\
VLr
9LVFRXVIRUFH 7HQVLRQ¥ area
dV
m ¥ area
dy
LT -1
m ¥ L
L
mL T–1 mVL
L2V 2r
\ R e
mVL
LV r

m
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VXEPDULQHV DHURSODQHV DQG DXWRPRWLYHV DQG LQFRPSUHVVLEOH ÀRZ WKURXJK SLSHV
bends and turbines in which inertia and viscous forces are predominant.
Froude’s Number: Froude’s number is used where inertia and gravitational forces are
predominant. It is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the gravitational force.
,QHUWLDIRUFH PDVV¥ acceleration
VLr
*UDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFH PDVV¥ g
YROXPH¥ r ¥ g
Lrg
Inertia force
F
Gravitational force
V 2 L2r

L3r g
V2

Lg
V

L◊ g
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VXFK DV VSLOOZD\V ZHLUV VOXLFHV DQG RSHQ FKDQQHOV ZKHUH JUDYLWDWLRQDO IRUFHV DUH
predominant.
Weber’s number: It is the square root of the ratio of the inertial force to the surface
WHQVLRQIRUFHLQWKHÀXLG
Inertia force
W
Surface tension force
IQHUWLDIRUFH VLr
6XUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUFH s ¥ L
V 2 L2r
W
sL
V

s
rL
7KH:HEHU¶VQXPEHULVXVHGIRUWKHVWXG\RIFDSLOODU\PRYHPHQWRIZDWHULQVRLODQG
ÀRZRIEORRGLQDUWHULHVDQGYHLQVZKHQWKHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUFHVDUHSUHGRPLQDQW
LQWKHÀRZ
Euler’s number: It is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force
LQWKHÀXLG
Inertia force
E
Pressure force
,QHUWLDIRUFH VLr
3UHVVXUHIRUFH P◊A PL
V 2 L2r
E
PL2
V

P
r
7KH(XOHU¶VQXPEHULVXVHGIRUWKHVWXG\RIÀXLGZKHUHSUHVVXUHIRUFHLVSUHGRPLQDQW
VXFKDVZDWHUKDPPHUH൵HFWVLQSHQVWRFNVRIK\GURSRZHUSODQWVDQGGLVFKDUJH
FRH൶FLHQWVRIRUL¿FHVVOXLFHJDWHVDQGPRXWKSLHFHV
Mach’s Number: (ODVWLFIRUFHEHFRPHVSUHGRPLQDQWLQFRPSUHVVLEOHÀXLGV0DFK¶V
QXPEHULVVLJQL¿FDQWLQ¿QGLQJG\QDPLFDOVLPLODULW\RIWKHÀXLGVZKHUHHODVWLFIRUFHV
are predominant. Mach’s number is the square root of the ratio of inertia force to the
HODVWLFIRUFHLQWKHÀXLG
Inertia force
M
Elastic force
V 2 L2r
ZKHUHE 9ROXPHWULFPRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\
E ¥ L2
rV 2

E
V
M
E
r
0DFK¶VQXPEHULVXVHGIRUWKHVWXG\RIÀRZDWKLJKVSHHGVXFKDVÀRZLQSLSHV
ZDWHUKDPPHUH൵HFWDQGKLJKVSHHGPRWLRQREMHFWVOLNHDHURSODQHVSURMHFWLYH
and missiles in atmosphere where the elastic forces are predominant.
Develop an expression for the distance travelled by a freely falling body in time (T).
Take it to be dependent on mass of the body, the acceleration of gravity and time.
Guidance: 7KHUHDUHYDULDEOHVYL]GLVWDQFHSPDVVMDFFHOHUDWLRQgDQGWLPHT
+HQFHZHFDQXVH5D\OHLJK¶VPHWKRGRIGLPHQVLRQDODQDO\VLV
S fMgT
M L T k ¥ Ma ¥LT±b ¥Tc
1
where k FRQVWDQW
1 a b ±b+c
M L T M L T
\ a b c
\ S k g T
Derive an expression for an ideal fluid flow (Q ZKLOH IORZLQJ WKURXJK DQ RUL¿FH
ZKLFKLVGHSHQGHQWRQWKHGHQVLW\RIIOXLGWKHGLDPHWHURIWKHRUL¿FHDQGWKHSUHVVXUH
difference.
Q frDP
k ra Db Pc
MLT–1 kML±aLbML–1T±c
k Ma+c L±a+b–c T±c
1
\ c a + b RUa ±±a + b – c ±
2
or b
Q k r± D P
P
kD
r
Derive an expression for the power delivered to a pump which is dependent on the sp.
wt. of the fluid, the flow and the head delivered.
3RZHUGHOLYHUHG P fvQH
MLT± kML± T±aL T–1bLc
kMa L±ab+c T±a–b
\ a b c
\ P k VQH
8VLQJ GLPHQVLRQDO DQDO\VLV ¿QG WKH H[SUHVVLRQ RI G\QDPLF SUHVVXUH H[HUWHG E\ D
flowing incompressible fluid on an immersed object if it is dependent on density and
velocity.
3UHVVXUH P frV
or P k ra Vb
a b
Ê Mˆ Ê Lˆ
ML–1 T ± k Á 3 ˜ Á ˜
Ë L ¯ ËT¯
k M a L±a+b T –b
\ b a
\ P krV
Using p theorem show that the shear stress of the pipe wall is given by
Ê r Vd ˆ
t = rV2 f Á
Ë m ˜¯
where, r = fluid density, m = viscosity,

V = average velocity, d = diameter of pipe
The relationship can be expressed as
ftrmVd
+HUHm DQGn +HQFHWKHUHZLOOEHWZRp terms with each p term having four variables.
Select dV & r as repeated variables
\ p1 da Vb rc ¥ t
\ MLT LaLT–1bML±c MLT±
Mc+1 La+b±c+1 T–b±
\ c ±b ±DQGa
p1 d V± r–1 t
t

V 2r
1RZ p da Vb rc m

LaLT–1bML±c ML–1 T–1
MLT Mc+1 La+b±c–1 T–b–1
b ±c ±DQGa ±
\ p d–1 V–1 r–1 m
m

dV r
Ê t m ˆ
f Á 2 ,
Ë V r dV r ˜¯
t Ê m ˆ
or f Á
V 2r Ë dV r ˜¯
Ê m ˆ
or t Vr f Á
Ë dV r ˜¯
Assuming that thrust T of a screw propeller is dependent upon the diameter d, speed
of advance V, fluid density r, revolution per second n and coefficient of viscosity m,
show using the principle of dimensional homogeneity that it can be represented by
Ê m d ◊nˆ
T = rd2V2 f Á ,
Ë rVd V ˜¯
(Allahabad University)
Let the expression be given by
FTrdVmn
+HUHm DQGn +HQFHWKHUHZLOOEHWKUHHp terms and each p term will have four
variables. Select rV & d as repeated variables
p1 ra Vb dcT
ML±aLT–1bLc MLT±
MLT Ma+1 L±a+b+c+1 T–b±
\ a ±b ±DQGc ±
T
p1 r–1 V– d± T
rV 2 d 2
NRZ p ra Vb dc m
ML±aLT–1bLc ML–1 T–1
MLT Ma+1 L±a+b+c–1 T–b–1
\ a ±b ±DQGc ±
m
p r–1 V–1 d–1 m
rVd
1RZ p ra Vb dc r
ML±aLT–1bLc T–1
Ma L±a+b+c T–b–1
\ a b ±c
\ p V–1 d1 n
d ◊n

V
Ê T m d ◊nˆ
FÁ , ,
Ë rV d rVd V ˜¯
2 2
T Ê m dn ˆ
or f Á ,
rV 2 d 2 Ë rVd V ¯˜
Ê m dn ˆ
T rV d f Á ,
Ë rVd V ¯˜
Show by the method of dimensional analysis that the volume rate of flow of a gas
WKURXJKDVKDUSHGJHRUL¿FHLVJLYHQE\
P ÊV Pˆ
Q = d2 fÁ ¥
r Ëd r ˜¯
where dLVWKHGLDPHWHURIWKHRUL¿FHr is the pressure difference between the two sides
RIWKHRUL¿FHr and V are the density and kinematic viscosity of the gas respectively.
Let the expression be given by
FQdPrV
Here m DQGn +HQFHWKHUHZLOOEHWZRp terms and each will have four variables.
Select dP and r as repeated variables.
p1 da pb rc Q
LaML–1 T±bML±c LT–1
MLT Mb+c La–b±c T±b–1
-1 1
\ b c and a ±
2 2
\ p1 d± P± r Q
NRZ p da Pb rc v
LaML–1 T±bML±c LT–1
MLT Mb+c La–b±c T±b–1
1
\ b ±c and a ±
2
p d–1 P± r v
V r
◊
d P
Ê Q V Pˆ
FÁ ,
Á d2 P d r ˜˜
ÁË r ˜¯
P ÊV Pˆ
or Q d f
r ÁË d r ˜¯
Prove by the method of dimensions that in the rotation of similar discs in fluid with
turbulent motion, the frictional torque T of a disc diameter D rotating at speed N, in
a fluid of viscosity m and density r.
Ê m ˆ
T = D 2N 2r f Á 2
Ë D N r ˜¯
Let the expression be
FTDNrm
+HUHm DQGn +HQFHWKHUHDUHWZRp terms and each p term has four variables
p1 Da Nb rc T
LaT–1bML±c ML T±
MLT Mc+1 La±c T–b±
\ c ±b ±DQGa ±
T
p 1
D N 2r
2
NRZ p Da Nb rcm

LaT–1bML±c Mc–1 T–1
MLT Mc+1 La±c–1 T–b–1
\ c ±b ±a
m
p
D Nr
2
Ê T m ˆ
\ F Á 2 2 , 2 ˜
Ë D N r D Nr ¯
Ê m ˆ
or T DNr f Á 2 ˜
Ë D Nr ¯
In turbomachinery, the relevant parameters are volume flow rate, density, viscosity,
bulk modulus, pressure difference, power consumption, rotation speed and a
characteristic dimension. According to Buckingham’s pi(p) theorem, the number of
independent non-dimensional groups for this case is
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6 (IES 93)
+HUHWRWDOQXPEHUVRIYDULDEOHVm
1XPEHURISULPDU\GLPHQVLRQn
+HQFHQXPEHURILQGHSHQGHQWQRQGLPHQVLRQDOJURXSV m – n ±
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
8VLQJ %XFNLQJKDP¶V pWKHRUHP VKRZ WKDW WKH YHORFLW\ WKURXJK D FLUFXODU RUL¿FH LV
given by
⎛D m ⎞
V 2 g H fn ⎜
⎝ H rVH ⎟⎠
where, H +HDGFDXVLQJÀRZ
D 'LDPHWHURIWKHRUL¿FH
m = Coefficient of viscosity
r = Mass density
g = Acceleration due to gravity (UPTU 2006-7)
:HKDYH
V fHDmrg
or FVHDmrg
Select Hg and r as repeating variables
\ m ZKLOH n
\ Variables in each p term will be
n – m ±
\ p1 Ha1 ◊ gb1 ◊ rc1 ◊ V
p Ha ◊ gb ◊ rc ◊ D
p H a1 ◊ g b1 ◊ r c ◊ m
Now putting dimensions in p1ZHKDYH
MLT La1LT±b1MLc1LT–1
Equating the power of ML and r on boWKVLGHVZHKDYH
c1
a1 ±
b1 ±
1
-
\ p1 H 2 . g± . r . V
V
or p1
H◊g
Putting now dimensions in pZHKDYH

MLT LaLT±bML±cL
Equating the powers of ML and rRQERWKVLGHVZHKDYH
c
a ±
b
p H–1 g r D
D

H
Putting now dimensions in pZHKDYH
M L T La ◊ gb ◊ rc ◊ m
Equating the power of ML and tRQERWKVLGHVZHKDYH
c ±
3
a -
2
b ±
\ p H± ◊ g± ◊ P–1 ◊ m
m

r ⋅ H ⋅ g
m V
¥
V ⋅H ⋅r gH
m
p1 ¥
V ⋅H ⋅r
\ F p1pp
⎛ V D m ⎞
or F⎜ p1 × ⎟
⎝ gH H VH r ⎠
⎛ V D m ⎞
or F⎜ ⎟
⎝ gH H VH r ⎠
V ⎛D m ⎞
or f ⎜
gH ⎝ H VH r ⎟⎠
⎛D m ⎞
or V gH f ⎜
⎝ H rVH ⎟⎠
⎛D m ⎞
2 gH fn ⎜
⎝ H rVH ⎟⎠

The drag force D on a certain object in a certain flow is a function of the coefficient
of viscosity m, the flow speed n and the body dimension L (for geometrical similar
objectives), then D is proportion to
2 2
(a) L × m × v (b) μ ⋅V
L2
(c) m2V2L2 (d) μ⋅ L (IAS 2001)

V
D is function of m n and L
2SWLRQDLVFRUUHFW
If the number of fundamental dimensions is equal to m, then the repeating variables
shall be equal to
(a) m and none of the repeating variables shall represent the dependent variable
(b) m + 1 and one of the repeating variables shall represent the dependent
(c) m + 1 and none of the repeating variables shall represent the dependent variable
(d) m and one of the repeated variables shall represent the dependent variable
(GATE 2002, IES 1998, 1999)
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
The dimensionless group formed by wavelength O, density of fluid r, acceleration due
to gravity (g) and surface tension s,
σ σ
(a) (b)
λ 2 gρ λg 2 ρ
σ⋅ g σ
(c) (d) (IES 2000)
λ 2ρ λ ⋅ g ⋅σ
salbgcrd 0LT
MT ±aLbLT±cML±d MLT
Ma+dLb+c±dT±a±c MLT
\ a + d RUa ±d7DNHa d ±
b + c±d RUb + c RUb + c ±
±a±c RU±C ±DQGb ±
\ salbgcrd s × l± × g–1 × r–1
σ

λ ⋅ g ⋅σ
2SWLRQDLVFRUUHFW
Match List-I (Fluid parameters) with List-II (Basic dimensions) and select the correct
answer
List-I List-II
(a) Dynamic viscosity 1. M/T2
(b) Chezy’s roughness coefficient 2. M/LT2
(c) Bulk modulus of elasticity 3. M/LT
(d) Surface tension 4. L/T
Code: A B C D
(a) 3 2 4 1
(b) 1 4 ? 3
(c) 3 4 2 1
(d) 1 2 4 3 (IES 2002)
OSWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
In M-L-T system, what is the dimension of sp speed for a rotodynamic pump?
1 1
(a) L–3/4 T 3/2 (b) M 2 L4 T – 5/ 2
(c) L3/4 T–3/2 (b) L3/4 T3/2 (IES 2006)

n Q T ± L T
N =
H L

− −1 −
L
×T
Lu T±
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
A dimensionless group formed with the variables r (density), Z (angular velocity), m
(dynamic viscosity) and D (characteristic diameter) is
ρωμ ρ⋅ω⋅ D
(a) (b)
D μ
(c) rZmD2 (d) r◊Z◊m◊D (IES 1995)
Let F ρa ⋅ D b ⋅μ c ⋅ω = M L T
or ML±a ◊Lb ◊ML–1T –1c ◊T –1 MLT

On solving a b DQGc ±
ρ⋅ω⋅ D
\ F
μ
OSWLRQELVFRUUHFW
:KLFKRIWKHIROORZLQJLVQRWDGLPHQVLRQOHVVJURXS"
ΔP gH
(a) (b)
ρN 2 D 2 N 2 D2
ρ⋅ wD 2 ΔP
(c) (d) (IES 1992)
μ ρV 3
OSWLRQGLVFRUUHFW
Which is the correct dimensionless group formed with the variable r (density), N
(rotational speed), d (diameter) and p (coefficient of viscosity)?
(a) ρNd 2 (b) ρ⋅ N ⋅ d

π π
Nd Nd 2
(c) (d) (IES 2009)
ρ⋅π ρ⋅π
OSWLRQDLVFRUUHFW
In a steady flow through a nozzle, the flow velocity on the nozzle axis is given by
V
= μ o ⎛⎜ 1 + 3 x ⎞⎟ i , where x is distance along the axis of the nozzle from its inlet plane
I ⎝ L⎠
and L is the length of the nozzle. The time required for a fluid particle on the axis to
travel from the inlet to the exit plane of the nozzle is
L 1
(a) (b) log e 4
μo 3μ o
L L
(c) (d) (GATE 2007)
4μ o 2.5 μ o
dx μ ⎛1 + x ⎞
o ⎜ ⎟
dt ⎝ L⎠
dx
or mo dt
x
1+
L
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHJHW
L dx t
∫
x
∫ μ o dt

L+
L
L
L⎡ x ⎤
or mo × t ⎢log e ⎛⎜1 + ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
L
× ORJ e

L
or t ORJ e
μ o
OSWLRQELVFRUUHFW
7KH5H\QROGVQXPEHUIRUIORZRIDFHUWDLQIOXLGLQDFLUFXODUWXEHLVVSHFL¿HGDV
What will be the Reynolds number when the tube diameter is increased by 25% and
the fluid viscosity is decreased by 40% keeping the fluid same
(a) 1200 (b) 1800
(c) 3000 (d) 200 (GATE 1997)
ρ ⋅V ⋅ D
Reynolds numEHURe
μ
ρ × V D
or R′e
μ
îî
The square root of the ratio of inertia force to gravity force is called
(a) Reynolds number (b) Froude’s number
(c) Mach’s number (d) Euler’s number
(IAS 2003, GATE 1994)
2SWLRQELVFRUUHFW
Given power P of a pump, the head H and the discharge Q and the sp wt. W of the
liquid, dimensionless analysis would lead to the result that P is proportional to
(a) H1/2 Q2W (b) H1/2 W
(c) HQ1/2W (d) H◊Q◊W (IES 1998)
P μ H a Qb W
MLT ± μ LaLT –1b ML±T ±
μ Lab± ◊ M ◊ T–b±
ab± DQG± ±b±
or a RUb
or P μ HQW
2SWLRQGLVFRUUHFW
Volumetric flow rate Q, acceleration due to gravity g and H form a dimensionless

group, which is given by
g⋅H Q
(a) (b)
Q gH 5
Q Q
(c) (d) (IES 2002)
gH 3
g2 H
F MLT Q ◊ ga ◊ Hb
LT –11 ◊L ◊ T ±a ◊ Lb
0 ◊ La+b±
−1 −
a b

F Qg± H±
Q

gH
2SWLRQELVFRUUHFW
The time period of a simple pendulum depends on its effective length l and the
local acceleration due to gravity g. What is the number of dimensionless parameter
involved?
(a) two (b) one
(c) three (d) zero (IES 2009)
Here n LQFOXGHVLWLPHSHULRGLLOHQJWKDQGLLLg
m LQFOXGHVLOHQJWKDQGLLWLPH
Dimensionless terms or p terms are
n – m ±
2SWLRQELVFRUUHFW
In fluid mechanics, the relevant parameters are volume, flow rate, density, viscosity,
bulk modulus, pressure difference, power consumption, rotational speed and
characteristic dimension. Using Buckingham S theorem, what would be the number
of independent non-dimensional group?
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) None of the above (IES 1993, 2007)
1RRIYDULDEOHn
1RRILQGHSHQGHQWGLPHQVLRQm
No. of pWHUPV n – m ±
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
Consider the following statements:
1. Dimensional analysis is used to determine the number of variables involved in a
certain phenomenon.
2. The group of repeating variables in dimensional analysis should include all the
fundamental units.
3. Buckingham’s p theorem stipulates the number of dimensionless group for a given
phenomenon.
4. The coefficient in Chezy’s equation has no dimension.
Which of these are correct?
(a) 1, 2, 3, and 4 (b) 2, 3, and 4
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 (IES 2003)
2SWLRQGLVFRUUHFW
The variables controlling the motion of a floating vessel through water are drag force
F, the speed V, the length l, the density U, dynamic viscosity m of water and gravitational
constant g. If non-dimensional groups are Reynolds number (Re), Weber’s number
(We), Prandtl’s number (Pr) and Froude’s number (Fr), the expression F is given by
F F
(a) = f (b) = f R e , Pr
ρV 2 l 2 ρV 2 l 2
F F
(c) = f (R e We ) (d) = f (R e , Fr ) (IES 1997)
ρV 2 l 2 ρV 2 l 2
OSWLRQGLVFRUUHFW
(XOHUQXPEHULVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRILQHUWLDIRUFHWR
(a) Viscous force (b) Elastic force
(c) Pressure force (d) Gravity force (IES 1997)
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
:KLFKRQHRIWKHGLPHQVLRQOHVVQXPEHULGHQWL¿HVWKHFRPSUHVVLELOLW\HIIHFWRIDIOXLG"
(a) Euler’s number (b) Froude’s number
(c) Mach’s number (d) Weber’s number (IES 2005)
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
A phenomenon is modeled using n dimensional variables with k primary dimensions.
The number of non-dimensional variable is
(a) k (b) n
(c) n – k (d) n + k (GATE 2012)
2SWLRQFLVFRUUHFW
Chapter 7
SIMILITUDE AND MODEL ANALYSIS
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS
PROTOTYPE SIMILARITY LAW

MODEL MODEL LAW
MODEL TESTING REYNOLDS MODEL LAW
MODEL ANALYSIS FROUDE’S MODEL LAW
HYDRAULIC SIMILITUDE EULER’S MODEL LAW
GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY WEBER’S MODEL LAW
KINEMATIC SIMILARITY MACH’S MODEL LAW
DYNAMIC SIMILARITY DISTORTED MODEL
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The behaviour of the hydraulic structures and machines can be predicted by performing tests on
their models. Since prototypes are costly as compared to the models, any failure of model does
not therefore involve much loss of material and human labour. Geometric similarity implies
similarity of shape between the model and prototype. Kinematic similarity means the similarity
of motion. Dynamic similarity implies that the forces acting on the matching points of the
prototype and its model are equal in magnitude and direction. Model testing is used in design of
(i) aeroplanes, rockets and missiles, (ii) harbours, (iii) ships and submarines, (iv) skyscrapers,
Y WXUELQHV SXPSV DQG FRPSUHVVRUV YL GDPV ZHLUV VSLOOZD\V DQG FDQDOV DQG YLL ÀRRG
control measures.
7.2 MODEL AND PROTOTYPE

What is a model?
A model is small-scale replica of the actual machine or structure.
Similitude and Model Analysis 359
What is a prototype?
The actual structure or machine is called prototype.
Can a model be bigger than its prototype?
It is not necessary that the models should be smaller than the prototypes. However, in most
of cases, models are smaller than prototypes.
What is the model analysis?
Or
:KDWLVWKHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQDPRGHODQGSURWRW\SH" (UPTU 2006-7)
It can be appreciated that when hydraulic structure or machine has been built, it becomes
GL൶FXOWWRPRGLI\LWWRPHHWWKHGHVLUHGUHTXLUHPHQWV,QRUGHUWRSUHGLFWWKHSHUIRUPDQFH
of hydraulic structures or machines before they are built, it is advantageous to make their
models and perform experiments on them to see that the performance is as required. In case
any changes are necessary to modify the performance, it is very convenient to incorporate
LQ WKH PRGHO +HQFH PRGHO PDNLQJ DQG PRGHO DQDO\VLV DQ XVHIXO WHFKQLTXH LQ WKH ÀXLG
machines.
([SODLQH[SHULPHQWDOPRGHOWHVWLQJRUZLQGWXQQHOWHVWLQJ
A prototype of tractor-trailer unit is to be manufactured and there is a need to measure the
drag fore before it is manufactured. A model of smaller size (say 1 : 16 scale) with length
about 0.901 metre which is geometrically similar to the prototype is made and tested in a
ZLQGWXQQHOZLWKPD[LPXPVSHHGRIPVDVVKRZQLQ¿JXUH7KHDLULQZLQGWXQQHOLV
DWWKHVDPHWHPSHUDWXUHDQGSUHVVXUHDVWKHDLUÀRZLQJDURXQGSURWRW\SH%\HQVXULQJDLU
velocity of 70 m/s in testing, it has been ensured that air velocity of 60 kmph or 26.8 m/s
with resultant drag force would be acting on the prototype.
Model Testing in a Wind Tunnel
What are the advantages of model testing?

The advantages of model testing are:
(1) The behaviour and performance of the structures or machines can be predicted by performing
tests on their models. Since prototypes are costly as compared to the models, any failure of
model does not involve much loss of material and human labour.
(2) It is possible to make models of a prototype based on alternative designs which

facilitates selecting most economical, safe and sound design of the prototype.
(3) Safety and reliability of a structure or machine can be ascertained by model testing
before actually constructing or putting into the use of the prototype.
(4) Model testing also helps in identifying the defects in existing structure or machines.
:KLFKDUHWKH¿HOGVZKHUHPRGHOWHVWLQJFDQEHXVHG"
0RGHOWHVWLQJLVXVHGLQWKHIROORZLQJ¿HOGV
(1) Design of aeroplane, rockets and missiles. The models are tested in wind tunnels by
VXEMHFWLQJWKHPWRVLPLODUDLUÀRZ
(2) Design of harbour
(3) Design of ships and submarines by testing their models
(4) Design of skyscrapers by subjecting their models to wind loads
(5) Design of irrigation channels
(6) Design of turbines, pumps and compressors
(7) Design of civil engineering structures such as dams, weirs, spillways, and canals
'HVLJQRIÀRRGFRQWUROPHDVXUHV
7.3 HYDRAULIC SIMILITUDE

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For ascertaining the soundness and performance of the hydraulic structure or machine, it
is most essential that model should represent its prototype completely in all aspects. This
similarity between the prototype and its model is known as hydraulic similitude.
:KDWLVWKHRXWFRPHRIWKHK\GUDXOLFVLPLOLWXGH"
The outcome of hydraulic similitude is that the results of model tests can be successfully
applied to the prototype of the hydraulic structure or machine. Similitude helps us to assume
WKDWWKHÀRZVRIWKHÀXLGDUHPHFKDQLFDOO\VLPLODUIRUERWKSURWRW\SHDQGLWVPRGHO
:KDWDUHWKHGL൵HUHQWVLPLODULWLHVZKLFKVKRXOGH[LVWEHWZHHQPRGHOVDQGSURWRW\SHV"
Or
'LVFXVV JHRPHWULF NLQHPDWLF DQG G\QDPLF VLPLODULWLHV $UH WKHVH VLPLODULWLHV WUXO\
DWWDLQDEOH",IQRWZK\" (UPTU 2005-6)
Models must reproduce the behaviour of the prototype. Hence, it must possess the following
similarities:
(1) Geometric similarity
(2) Kinematic similarity
(3) Dynamic similarity
$PRGHOZKLFKVDWLV¿HVDOOWKHDERYHVLPLODULWLHVZLWKLWVSURWRW\SHLVNQRZQDVFRPSOHWHO\
similar and true model.
In practice, it is not possible to achieve complete similarity in models. It is, therefore,
common to consider only those forces which are predominant in a phenomenon and design
WKHPRGHOVXFKWKDWWKHVDPHIRUFHVLQÀXHQFHWKHÀRZSKHQRPHQRQLQWKHPRGHODOVR7KH
H൵HFWV RI DOO RWKHU IRUFHV ZKLFK DUH LQVLJQL¿FDQW DUH HLWKHU QHJOHFWHG RU FRQVLGHUHG E\ D
correction factor based on experimentation.
7.4 GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY

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Geometric similarity implies similarity of shape between the model and prototype. The
model is an exact replica of the prototype having identical shape but smaller in size. The
model and prototype have same ratio for all corresponding linear dimensions but all included
angles are same.
For geometric similarity,
hp Wp Lp
= = = Ls = length scale
hm Wm Lm
And angle aP = aM = 60° in this case
Similarity leads to:
Ap Lp ¥ Wp
(1) Area scale ratio: As = = = Ls2
Am Lm ¥ Wm
Vp Ls ¥ W p ¥ hp
(2) Volume scale ratio: Vs = = = Ls3
Vm Lm ¥ Wm ¥ hm
7.5 KINEMATIC SIMILARITY

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Kinematic similarity means the similarity of motion. For obtaining similarity of motion,
both the model and its prototype must produce identical time rates of change of motion. In
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the model and at the matching point of prototype must be same in magnitude and direction.
For kinematic similarity, we must have:
Vp
(1) Same velocity ratio, Vs =
Vm
ap
(2) Same acceleration ratio, as =
am
(3) Same direction of velocity
VP
Vm
Prototype Model
7.6 DYNAMIC SIMILARITY

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The dynamic similarity implies that the forces acting on the matching points of the prototype
and its model are equal in magnitude and direction. Dynamic similarity can be said to exist
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particles or corresponding boundary surfaces of the model and prototype are identical. Both
geometric and kinematic similarities are prerequisites for dynamic similarity.
For dynamic similarity:
Fp
(a) Same force ratio, Fs =
Fm
(b) Same direction of forces.

WP
FP
RP Fm Wm
Rm
Prototype Model
Fp Wp Rp
Fs = = =
Fm Wm Pm
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In dynamically similar systems, the magnitude of forces at the corresponding similar points in
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Table 7.1 'LႇHUHQWIRUFHVDFWLQJRQÀXLGHOHPHQW
S. No. Force Cause of Force Force Parameters

1. 9LVFRXVIRUFH 9LVFRVLW\ FV μ m ◊v ◊l
2. 3UHVVXUHIRUFH 3UHVVXUHGLႇHUHQFH FP μ DP ◊l 2
3. *UDYLW\IRUFH *UDYLWDWLRQDODWWUDFWLRQ Fg μ r◊ l 3 ◊ g
&DSLOODU\IRUFHRUVXUIDFH
4. 6XUIDFHWHQVLRQ Fs μ s ◊l
WHQVLRQIRUFH
&RPSUHVVLELOLW\RU
5. (ODVWLFLW\ Fe μ E ◊l 2
HODVWLFIRUFH
6. ,QHUWLDIRUFH $FFHOHUDWLRQ FL μ r◊ l 2 ◊V 2
1. ,QHUWLD )RUFH 7KH LQHUWLD IRUFH DFWLQJ RQ D ÀXLG HOHPHQW LV HTXDO WR WKH PDVV RI WKH
element multiplied by its acceleration
& 3
Fi = m ¥ a = rl ¥ a
V V V2
a= = =
t l /V l
& V2
Fi = (r◊ l 3 ) ¥ = r◊ l 2 ◊V 2
l
Inertia
force
(man-falling Accerlation
backward)
&
9LVFRXV)RUFH ( FV ) 7KHYLVFRXVIRUFHDULVHVIURPVKHDUVWUHVVLQDÀRZRIÀXLG9LVFRXV
force can be written, &
( FV ) = Shear stress ¥ Surface area
The shear stress,
t = viscosity ¥ rate of shear strain
ÊV ˆ
μ m ¥ velocity gradient Á ˜
Ël¯
7KHYLVFRXVIRUFHFDQEHVLPSOL¿HG
V 2
FV μ m◊ ◊l
l
μ m◊V ◊ l
Moving plate
Viscous force (FV) V

Applied force
l
Viscous
fluid
(m)
Stationary plate
&
3UHVVXUH)RUFH ( Fp ) 7KHSUHVVXUHIRUFHDULVHVGXHWRGL൵HUHQFHRISUHVVXUHLQDÀRZ
¿HOG
&
Pressure force FP = DP ¥ area = DP ◊ l 2
Piston (A2)
F1 F2
F1 = P × A
A1 A2 F 2 = P × A 2
A5 = A2 >> A1
Piston (A1) Hence, F2 >> F1
Fluid
&
*UDYLW\)RUFH ( Fg ) 7KHJUDYLW\IRUFHRQDÀXLGHOHPHQWLVLWVZHLJKW
Fg = r (volume) ¥ g
3
μ = r◊l ◊ g
Fruit
falling
(gravity force)
6XUIDFH7HQVLRQ)RUFHFs The surface tension force acts tangentially to a surface.

Fs μ s ◊ 2pr
μ r◊l
T T
(ODVWLF)RUFH Fe (ODVWLFIRUFHDULVHVGXHWRWKHFRPSUHVVLELOLW\RIWKHÀXLGLQWKHFRXUVH

ofÀRZ)RUDJLYHQFRPSUHVVLRQWKHLQFUHDVHLQSUHVVXUHLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHEXONPRGXOXV
of elasticity (E), i.e., DP μ E
Force Fe μ DP ¥ area
μ E ◊ l2
V
V
2
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(1) For the dynamic similarity, the ratio of corresponding forces acting at the matching
points of the model and the prototype must be equal.
(2) The dimensionless numbers should be have same magnitude for the model and prototype.
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Froude’s number, Euler’s number, Weber’s number and Mach’s number same for both
model and prototype.
(3) The models are therefore designed on the basis of the few forces out of all forces such
as inertia force, viscous force, elastic force, pressure force and gravitational force which
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The laws on which models are designed for dynamic similarity are called model laws or
similarity laws. The model laws are: (1) Reynolds model law, (2) Froude’s model law, (3)
Euler’s model law, (4) Weber’s model law, and (5) Mach’s model law.
7.7 REYNOLDS MODEL LAW

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If the model is designed on the basis of Reynolds number then the model is said to be based
on Reynolds model law. Reynolds model law is used whenever inertia and viscous forces
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(Re)prototype = (Re)model
r p Vp Lp rm Vm Lm
=
mp mm
r p Vp Lp
◊ ◊
Pm Vm Lm
=1
mp
mm
rr Vr Lr
\ = 1 r = scale ratio
mr
)LQGWKHYDOXHVRIIROORZLQJE\WKH5H\QROGVPRGHOODZDFFHOHUDWLRQVFDOHUDWLR
IRUFHVFDOHUDWLRDQGGLVFKDUJHVXFKUDWLR
ap
(1) Acceleration scale ratio, ar =
am
Velocity V
But, a = =
Time T
Vp
Tp Vp T V
\ ar = = ◊ m = r
Vm Vm T p Tr
Tm
Vr
=
Tr
Fp
(2) Force scale ratio, Fr =
Fm
mp a p
=
mm am
r p L3p a p
=
rm L3m am
= rr L r 3 ar
Qp
(3) Discharge scale ratio, Qr =
Qm
r p L3p V p
=
rm L3m Vm
= rr Lr3 Vr3
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(2) Flow around the submerged bodies such as aeroplanes and submarines.
7.8 FROUDE’S MODEL LAW

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for the model and the prototype must be equal for dynamic stability. The Froude’s model
law is based on the Froude’s number for establishing similarity between prototype and its model.
(F)protype = (F)model
Vp Vm
=
gL p gLm
Vp
Vm
or =1
Lp
Lm
Vr
or =1
Lr
or Vr = Lr
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GLVFKDUJHVFDOHUDWLRIRUFHVFDOHUDWLRDQGSUHVVXUHVFDOHUDWLR
ap
1. Acceleration scale ratio, ar =
am
ÊV ˆ
ÁË T ˜¯ 1
p Vp
or ar = = ◊ Tp
ÊV ˆ Vm
ÁË T ˜¯ Tm
m
1
= Lr =1
Lr
Lp
Vp Tp 1
As, = = Lr ¥ ,
Vm Lm Tr
Tm
Vp
But, = Lr and
Vm
Hence, Tr = Lr
2. Discharge scale ratio,

3
Qp Ê L3p ˆ Ê Tm ˆ Ê Lp ˆ 1
Qr = = Á ˜ ¥ Á 3 ˜ = Á ˜ ◊
Qm Ë Tp ¯ Ë Lm ¯ Ë Lm ¯ T
Ê pˆ
ÁË T ˜¯
m
1
= Lr3 ¥ = L r5/2
Lr
3. Force scale ratio,
Fp r p L2p V p2
Fr = =
Fm rm L2m Vm2
Generally, r p = rm GHQVLW\RIWKHÀXLG

2 2
ÊL ˆ ÊV ˆ
\ Fr = Á p ˜ ¥ Á p ˜
Ë Lm ¯ Ë Vm ¯
= L r2 ◊ L r
= L r3
4. Pressure scale ratio,
Pp r p V p2
pr = =
Pm rm Vm2
Generally, r p = r m = dHQVLW\RIÀXLG
2
Ê Vp ˆ
\ pr = = Lr
ÁË V ˜¯
m
7.9 EULER’S MODEL LAW

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Euler’s model law is applicable to the models which are designed on the basis of the Euler’s
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stability the Euler’s number of the model and its prototype must be equal.
(E)prototype = (E)model
Vp Vm
=
Pp Pm
rp rm
Generally, rp = rm GHQVLW\RIWKHÀXLG

Vp 1
¥ =1
Vm Pp
Pm
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(1) To avoid water hammer phenomenon
(2) Ascertaining pressure distribution on ship
(3) To avoid cavitation phenomenon

(4) To ascertain pressure forces on aircraft wings and fan blades
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7.10 WEBER’S MODEL LAW

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The models which are based on the Weber’s number, they obey Weber’s model law.
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similarity Weber’s number for the model and its prototype must be equal.
(W)protoype = (W)model
Vp Vm
=
sp sm
r p Lp rm Lm
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Weber’s model law can be applied for:
(1) Study of capillary movement of water in soil
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(3) Study of droplets and very small jet
(4) Study of capillary waves in channels
7.11 MACH’S MODEL LAW

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Mach’s model law is applicable for the models which are based on Mach’s number.
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and its prototype must be equal for dynamic stability.
(M)prototype = (M)model
Vp Vm
= where E = Elastic modulus
Ep Em
rp rm
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The Mach’s model law can be applied for:
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(2) Study of movement of torpedoes underwater
(3) Overcoming the problem of water hammer phenomenon
(4) Study of movement of rockets and missiles
(5) aerodynamic testing.
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numbers are as per Table 7.2
Table 7.2 'LPHQVLRQOHVVQXPEHUV
Dimensionless Symbol Group of 6LJQL¿FDQFH Field of Application
Number Variables
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For geometrical similarity, the ratio of corresponding length in the model and prototype
must be same and included angles between two corresponding sides must be same.
For kinematic similarity, there should be similarity of motion, i.e., the direction of velocity
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(V1 )m (V2 )m (a ) (a )
= and 1 m = 2 m
(V1 ) P (V2 ) P (a1 ) P (a1 ) P
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( Finertia )m (F ) (Fgravity ) m
= viscous m = = Force ratio
( Finertia ) P ( FViscous ) P ( Fgravity ) P
These similarities are not truely attainable for the following reasons:
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1:20 scale, hence complete geometrical similarity cannot be achieved.
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(c) Dynamic similarity is almost impossible as Reynolds number and Froude’s number
cannot be equated simultaneously.
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the same in model and prototype?
If Reynolds number is same, then
rr Vr Lr Vr Lr
= 1 or =1
mr vr
Also Froude’s number is same.
Vr = Lr
Given, Lr = 4
\ Vr = Lr = 4 =2
Vr Lr
Now, =1
vr
2¥4
\ =1
vr
1
\ vr =
8
vp 1
or =
vm 8
vm = 8vp
= 8 ¥ 5 ¥ 10–5 m2/s
= 40 ¥ 10 –5 m2/s
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Since the submarine is fully submerged, hence viscous force is predominant and Reynolds
model rule is applicable.
Given, L r = 20
rr = 1
mr = 1
rr Vr Lr
Now, =1
mr
1 ¥ Vr ¥ 20
=1
1
1
or Vr =
20
Vp 1
or =
Vm 20
or Vm = 20 ¥ Vp
= 20 ¥ 30
= 600 km/h
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Here gravitational force is predominant and we have to apply Froude’s model law.
Vr
= 1 and given L r = 256
Lr
Vr = 256 = 16
Lr
But, = Vr
Tr
Lr 256
\ Tr = = = 16
Vr 16
Tp Tp
\ Tr = = = 16
Tm 5
\ Tp = 5 ¥ 16 = 80 min
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As gravitational force is predominant, Froude’s model law is applicable
Vr = Lr
L r = 16 (given)
\ Vr = 16 = 4
Vp
\ =4
Vm
\ Vp = 4 ¥ Vm = 4 ¥ 1 = 4 m/s
Force acting is gravitational force which is
F = mg = r L3g
Fr = L r3
= 16 3
= 4096
\ Fp = 4096 ¥ 5 N
= 20480 N
Now, Vr = Lr = hr
\ hr = 4
\ hp = 4 ¥ hm
=4¥ 0.09
= 4 ¥ 0.3
= 1.2 m
or hp = 1.44 m = standing wave height
2
Drag force = CD r A V
2
Ê 2 3ˆ 12
Drag force = 5 = CD ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ Á ¥ ˜ ¥
Ë 16 16 ¯ 2
5 ¥ 2 ¥ 16 ¥ 16
\ CD =
103 ¥ 6
= 42.67 ¥ 10 –2
= 0.427
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(a) 250 min (b) 50 min
F PLQ G PLQ ,(6
Tp
Tr = = Lr
Tm
L r = 25 (given)
Tr = 25 = 5
Tp
Tr = =5
Tm
TP = 5 ¥ Tm = 5 ¥ 10 = 50 min
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F PV G PV 173&
Guidance: The wave resistance is a function of Froude’s number. In order to determine
the model speed, Froude model law is used
Vr
=1
Lr
250
Lr = = 25
10
Vr = 25 = 5
Vp
=5
Vm
15
Vm = = 3 m/s
5
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be tested is
D P3/s (b) 2 m3/s
F P3V G P3V &LYLO6HUYLFHV
Here Froude’s model law is applicable
Vr
=1
Lr
Vr = 16 = 4
L3r
Qr =
Tr
Lr 16
L r = 16, Tr = = =4
Vr 4
163
\ Qr = = 1024
4
Qp
= 1024
Qm
2048
\ Qm = = 2 m3/s
1024
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Froude’s model law is to be used.
Vr
=1
Lr
Vr = Lr = 20 = 4.472
Lr 20
Tr = = = 4.472
Vr 4.472
(Lr )3 203
Qr = =
Tr 4.472
= 1.789 ¥ 10 3
Qp
= 1.789 ¥ 10 3
Qm
4
Qm = = 2.2 ¥ 10 –3
1.789 ¥ 103
= .0022 m3/s
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F P G P ,(6
Given, L r = 20
hp
Now, = L r = 20
hm
\ hp = 20 ¥ 0.2 = 4 m
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Fr = r r Vr2 L r2
2 2
10 10
= 1 ¥ ÊÁ ˆ˜ ÊÁ ˆ˜
Ë 5¯ Ë 5¯
4
= 10
5
Fp 104
Fr = =
Fm 52
Fm ¥ 104 50 ¥ 10000
\ Fp = =
25 25
= 20,000 N
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A distorted model is one which has its one or more characteristics not similar to the
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vertical scale ratio is a distorted model. In order to predict the performance of a prototype,
the law of distortion has to be applied to the results obtained from the model test. The
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In case the horizontal scale for non-tidal model be 1: m, then
Lp Bp
= = m (where L = length & B = breath)
Lm Bm
In case the vertical scale is 1: n, then
hp
= n (where h = height)
hm
Generally, the horizontal scale is greater than the vertical scale, i.e., m > n
(1) Velocity ratio: As per Froude’s law
Vp Ê hp ˆ
= Vr = Á ˜ = n
Vm Ë hm ¯
(2) If A is vertical cross section, then
Ê Ap ˆ B p ¥ hp
ÁË A ˜¯ = =m¥n
m vertical Bm ¥ hm
(3) If Q is the discharge, then
Qp V p ¥ Ap
= = n ¥m¥n
Qm Vm ¥ Am
= m n3/2
(4) If T is the timeRIÀRZWKHQ
Lp
Tp Vp Lp Vm
= = ¥
Tm Lm Lm Vp
Vm
m
Tr =
n
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Here, m = 2500 & n = 225
2500 2500
Tr = =
225 15
Tp 500
=
Tm 3
500 ¥ 10
\ Tp = = 1666.67 hours
3
= 69 days 11 hours 40 min

A model of spillway is built to a scale of 1:36. If the model velocity and discharge
are 1.25 m/s and 2.5 m3/s respectively, what are the corresponding values for the
prototype? (Punjab University)
Applying Froude’s model law
Vr = Lr
= 36 = 6
Q r = Vr (L r)2 = 6 ¥ 362
= 7776
Vp
Vr = =6
Vm
\ V p = 6 ¥ 1.25 = 7.50 m/s
Qp
Qr = = 7776
Qm
Q p = 7776 ¥ 2.5 m3/s
= 19440 m3/s
A model of a reservoir is drained in 6 min by operating the sluice gate. How long should
it take to empty the prototype if the scale ratio is 1:256? (Poona University)
Applying Froude’s model law
Vr = Lr
= 256
= 16
Lr 256
Tr = = = 16
Vr 16
Tp
Tr = = 16
Tm
or Tp = 16 ¥ 6 = 96 min
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Vr = Lr = 49 = 7
Vp
= 7, or Vp = 7 ¥ 10 = 70 m/s
Vm
Fr = r r Vr2 L r2 Fr = resistance force scale

= 72 ¥ 492
Now, Fp = 49 ¥ 492 ¥ 3 as Fm = 3 N (given)
= 353 kN
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Vm PV Nm = 750 rpm
Fm = 50 N and Tm 1P
For dynamic similitude,
Nr dr
=1
Vr
d r = 10 (given)
Vp 10
Vr = = =2
Vm 5
N r ¥ 10
=1
2
1
\ Nr =
5
1
Np = ¥ 750 = 150 rpm
5
Now, Fr = Pr Vr2 N r2 where Fr = thrust ratio scale.
2 2
= 1 ¥ 2 ¥ 10
= 400
F p = 400 ¥ 50 = 20 kN where Fp = thrust produced
Tr = Torque ratio = r r N r2 dr5
2
Ê 150 ˆ
=1¥ Á ¥ (10)5
Ë 750 ˜¯
100 ¥ 103
=
25
= 40 kN
Fp ¥ V p 20 ¥ 10 ¥ 60
3URWRW\SHH൶FLHQF\ = =
T ¥ 2 pN /60 40 ¥ 2p ¥ 150
= 31.8%
Fm ¥ Vm 50 ¥ 5 ¥ 60
0RGHOH൶FLHQF\ = =
T ¥ 2 pN 10 ¥ 2p ¥ 750
60
= 31.8%
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When the body is moving fully submerged, the viscous forces are predominant and Reynolds
model law is applicable. If the prototype is moving close the surface, then gravitational
forces are also acting due to wave resistance, thereby drag force also contributes to the
resistance
Using Reynolds model law
rr Vr Lr
=1
mr
Now, L r = 10 and r r = 1 and m r = 1
Vr L r = 1
1
or Vr =
10
Vp 1
=
Vm 10
Now, Vp = 1 Knot
Vm = 10 Vp Knot
= 10 Knot
F r = Drag ratio = rr Vr2 Lr2
1
=1¥ ¥ 100
100
=1
Hence, drag force experienced by the prototype at 1 knot and model at 10 knot is same.
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Apply speed parameter for the model & the prototype.
N r Dr
=1
Vr
Dp
Dr = = 10
Dm
Vp = 30 kMh
30 ¥ 103
= = 8.33 m/s
3600
Vm = 10 m/s
Vp 8.33
Vr = = = 0.833
Vm 10
N r Dr
Now, =1
Vr
Vr
\ Nr =
Dr
0.833
= = 0.0833
10
Np
= 0.0833
Nm
N p = 1200 ¥ 0.0833
= 100 rpm
Tr = Torque ratio = r r N r2 D r5
2
Ê 100 ˆ
=1¥ Á (10)5
Ë 1200 ˜¯
1
Tp = Tm ¥ ¥ 105
144
2.5
= ¥ 100 kNm
144
= 1.736 kNm
2p
Power of wind mill = Tp ¥ w = Tp ¥ NP
60
100 ¥ 2p
= 1736 ¥
60
= 18.2 kW
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Froude model scale is to be applied as gravitational force is predominant
Vr
= 1 or Vr = Lr
Lr
Vr = 16 = 4
Now, Vp = 1 m/s (given)
Vp
\ Vm = = 0.25 m/s
4
h r = Lr = 16
hp 4
hm = = = 0.25 m
16 16
1 V
Frequency ratio = fr = = r
Tr Lr
4 1
fr = =
16 4
1
= fr =
4
fm = 4 ¥ fp
= 4 ¥ 0.1
= 0.4 Hz
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D N: E N:
F N: G N: ,(6
F = r ◊ V 2 ◊ d2
2
F2 r V22 d 2 ÊV ˆ
\ = 2 2
= Á 2˜
F1 r V1 d Ë V1 ¯
2
Ê 50 ˆ
or F2 = 2 Á ˜
Ë 40 ¯
= 3.125 kN
Ê 50 ¥ 103 ˆ
Power = 3.125 ¥ Á ˜ kW
Ë 3600 ¯
= 43.4 kW
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D PLQ E PLQ
F PLQ G PLQ ,(6
tμ h
tr hr
=
tm hm
256
=
1
\ tr = 256 ¥ tm
tr = 16 ¥ 4
= 64 min
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D 01 E 01
F 01 G 01 ,(6
As per Froude’s law for dynamic similarity, we have
Ê V ˆ Ê V ˆ
Á ˜ = Á ˜
Ë gl ¯ m Ë gl ¯ r
Vm lm 1
or = =
Vr lr 60
Now, F = r V2 L2
2 2
Ê Fm ˆ Ê Vm ˆ Ê Lm ˆ
or Á ˜ = Á ˜ Á ˜
Ë Fr ¯ Ë Vr ¯ Ë Lr ¯
2 2
Ê Vr ˆ Ê Lr ˆ
\ Fr = Fm ¥ Á ˜ ÁË L ˜¯
ËV ¯ m m
2
= 0.5 ¥ 9.81 ¥ ( 60 ) ¥ (60)2
= 0.5 ¥ 9.81 ¥ 63 ¥ 103

= 1.06 ¥ 106 N
= 1.06 MN ª 1 MN
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D NPK E NPK
F NPK G NPK ,(6
(Re)model = (Re)prototype
Ê rVd ˆ Ê r ◊V ◊ d ˆ
ÁË m ˜¯ = ÁË m ˜¯
M r
Ê d r ˆ Ê m m ˆ Ê rr ˆ
Vm = Vp Á Á ˜
Ë d M ˜¯ Ë m r ¯ ÁË rM ˜¯
Ê 20 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
= 12 Á ˜ Á ˜
Ë 1 ¯ Ë 2¯
= 120 km/h

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7KHYHORFLW\RIDLUWKDWZLOOJLYHG\QDPLFDOO\VLPLODUFRQGLWLRQLV
D PV E PV
F PV G PV ,(6
Re is to be maintained
r
¥ V ¥ 2d
r ¥ 1.6 ¥ d 750
=
m m
60
= 10 m/s
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WKUXVWRQWKHSURWRW\SHZLOOEH
D 1 E 1
F 1 G 1 ,(6
Fm Pm ◊ L2m ◊Vm2
=
FP PP ◊ L2P ◊VP2
2 2
Ê 1ˆ Ê 5ˆ
= (1) ¥ Á ˜ Á ˜
Ë 10 ¯ Ë 10 ¯
50 1 25 1
= ¥ =
FP 100 100 400
FP = 50 × 400 = 20,000 N
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D NPSK E NPSK
F NPSK G NPSK (IES 2002)
rm ◊Vm ◊ Lm
(Re) m mm Ê r ˆ ÊV ˆ Ê L ˆ Ê m ˆ
= =Á m˜ Á m˜ Á m˜ Á P˜
(Re) P rP ¥ VP ¥ LP Ë rP ¯ Ë VP ¯ Ë LP ¯ Ë m m ¯
mP
ÊV ˆ Ê 1ˆ
1 = (1) Á m ˜ ÁË 20 ˜¯ (2)
Ë 12 ¯
or Vp = 12 ¥ 20 = 120 kmph
2
)RUDPVFDOHPRGHORIK\GUDXOLFWXUELQHWKHVSHFL¿FVSHHGRIWKHPRGHONm is related
to the prototype sp speed Np as
NP
(a) Nm = (b) NM = m NP
m
F Nm = (NP)m (d) Nm = NP ,$6
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A model RIDVKLSLVWREHWHVWHGIRUHVWLPDWLQJWKHZDYHGUDJ,IVSHHGRIVKLSLV
25
PVWKHQVSHed aWZKLFKWKHPRGHOPXVWEHWHVWHGLV
D PV E PV
F PV G PV ,$6,(6
Froude model law: (Fr)m = (Fr)p
Vm VP
or =
g ◊ Lm g ◊ LP
Lm 1
or Vm = V p ¥ =1¥
LP 25
=
1
= 0.2 m/s
5
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D E
F G ,QVX൶FLHQWGDWD ,(6
3
FP ÊL ˆ 3
= Á P ˜ = (100)
FM Ë LM ¯
FP = 10 × 1000 × 103 = 10,000 kN

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D PV E PV
F PV G PV ,(6
Vm VP
= (Froude Model Law)
gLm g ◊ LP
Vm 10
=
100 100
25
Vm = 4
¥ 10 = 2 m/s
100
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D E
F G ,(6
( Re ) m
= Vm ¥ Lm ¥ n P = 1
Ê ˆ Ê ˆ
(i)
( Re ) P ËÁ VP ¯˜ ËÁ LP ¯˜ nm
( Fr )m V Lm
= 1, m = (ii)
( Fr ) P VP LP
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
3/ 2
Ê Lm ˆ nP
= = 0.0894
ÁË L ˜¯ nM
P
Lm
‫׵‬ = 1 : 5 = model scale
LP
Option (d) is correct
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D E
F G ,(6
Prandtl’s number (Pr) remains same
3.5
PP ÊL ˆ
= Á P˜ = (20)3.5
Pm Ë Lm ¯
PP = 0.25 × (20)35 = 8944 hp.

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D PLQ E PLQ
F PLQ G PLQ ,(6
Froude’s number (Fr) remains constant
(Fr)p = (Fr)m
L1/P 2 L1/2
= m
TP Tm
1/ 2
ÊL ˆ
or TP = Tm ¥ Á P ˜ = 4 ¥ 256
ËL ¯m
= 4 × 16 = 64 min
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(a) Reynolds model
rr
(b) FrRXGH¶VPRGHO s r /(rr lr )
F :eEHU¶VPRGHO Pr /(Urlr)
G 0DtFK¶VPRGHO g r ◊ lr
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D PV E PV
F PV G PV
Froude’s number has to be same which means
Vm Lm 1
= =
VP Lp 25
1
or Vm = 10 ¥ = 2 m/s
5
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D E
F G
As per Froude’s model law

Vm Lm
=
VP LP
5 Lm 1
= =
25 Lp 5
or Lm:LP = 1:52
= 1:25
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D PLQ E PLQ
F PLQ G PLQ
The gravitational force is predominant and we have to apply Froude’s model law
Vm Lm 1 1
= = =
Vp LP 225 15
L
Now, =V
T
Lm
Vm Tm L T
‫׵‬ = = m ¥ P
VP LP LP Tm
TP
1 T 1
= ¥ P =
225 Tm 15
1
‫׵‬ Tp = Tm ¥ 225 ¥
15
= 4 × 15 = 60 min
Chapter 8
FLUID KINEMATICS
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

FLUID KINEMATICS UNIFORM & NON-UNIFORM FLOW
STREAMLINE LAMINAR & TURBULENT FLOW
STREAM TUBE CONTINUITY EQUATION
STREAK LINE ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
PATH LINE TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINE THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
ROTATION STREAM FUNCTION
DISTORTION POTENTIAL FUNCTION
VORTICITY LAPLACE EQUATIONS
CIRCULATION FLOW NETS
ROTATION & IRROTATIONAL FLOW FREE VORTEX
STEADY & UNSTEADY FLOW FORCED VORTEX
8.1 INTRODUCTION
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What is fluid kinematics?
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considering any force or energy involved. Kinematics provides: (1) idea about the rate of
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What are the aspects of kinematics of fluid?
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Three aspects of kinematics of fluid
Characteristics
Methods to Determine the of motion and
describe the conditions deformation
motion for fluid motions rates of fluid
of fluids to occur elements
8.2 METHODS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION

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What is fluid motion? What are the methods used to describe fluid motion?
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What is the Langrangian method of describing fluid motion?
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Fluid Kinematics 397
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What is the Eulerian method of describing fluid motion?

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Langrangian Eulerian
1. Observer concentrates on the movement 1. 2EVHUYHUFRQFHQWUDWHVRQYDULRXV¿[HGSRLQW
of single particle particles
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8.3 LINES OF FLOW

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What is a streamline?
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Stream Line Around a Solid Cylinder Stream Lines within a Closed Conduct
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What is a stream tube?
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Stream Tube
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What is a potential line?
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Features Streak lines Path lines
1. Imaginary lines showing 1. Real line showing instan- 1. Real line showing
YDULRXVÀXLGSDUWLFOHV taneous positions of various successive position of one
positions of particles particle.
2. Particle may change 2. May change from instant to 2. Particle may cross its path
VWUHDPOLQHGHSHQGLQJ instant line
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they are always parallel intersect each other each other
4. 1RÀRZDFURVV 4. Flow across streak line is 4. Flow across a path line is
streamline possible possible by other particles.
8.4 TYPES OF DISPLACEMENTS OF FLUID PARTICLES

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Element at Element at Original
original position new position position
D
D C¢ D¢ New
C D¢ position
C C¢
B
A B¢ B¢
B A¢ A
A¢
Translation Translation
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dq - dq
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dq2 C¢ D¢
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Angular Distortion Volume Distortion
8.5 TYPES OF FLUID FLOWS

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Turbulent Flow
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B B
A A
B B
B A A B
A A
B A
Element AB circling Element AB circling

A but not rotating B and rotating
Irrotational Motion Rotational Motion
8.6 ONE-, TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS

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8.7 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

What is the principle of conservation of mass?
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8.8 ROTATION AND VORTICITY

What do you understand from rotation and vorticity of fluid particles?
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8.9 CIRCULATION
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A two-dimensional f l ow is described by the velocity components,
u = 5x 2 and v = – 15 x 2y. The stream function at (1, 2) will be:
(a) 2 m2/s (b) 5 m2/s
2
(c) 10 m /s (d) 20 m2/s (IES 1992)
u = 5x 2
v = – 15x 2y
∂y ∂y
∂y = ◊ dx + ◊ dy
∂x ∂y
= + v dx + u dy
= + 15x 2y dx + 5x2dy
15 x 3
\ y=+ y + 5x 2 y
3
= 10 x3y
(y)1,2 = 10 ¥ 1 ¥ 2
= 20 m2/s
Of the possible irrotation flow functions given below, the incorrect relation is:
(a) y = xy (b) y = A (x 2 – y2)
4 Ê 2ˆ
(c) f = u r cos q – sin q (d) f = Á r - ˜ sin q (IES 1995)
r Ë r¯
∂2 y ∂2 y
Guidance: The Laplace equation of irrotation in y is 2 + = 0 and Laplace equation
∂x ∂y 2
∂2 f ∂2 f 1 ∂f ∂2 f 1 ∂2 f
for continuity in f is + = 0 or + + =0
∂ x2 ∂y 2 r ∂r ∂ r2 r 2 ∂q
For choice (a)
∂y ∂y
=x =y
∂y ∂x
∂2 y ∂2 x
=0 =0
∂ x2 ∂ x2
∂2 x ∂2 y
\ 2 + =0
∂x ∂y 2
HHQFHy = xyUHSUHVHQWVDSRVVLEOHLUURWDWLRQDOÀRZ
FRUFKRLFHE
y = A x ±y
∂y ∂y
= Ax ±Ay
∂x ∂y
∂ y ∂ y
A A
∂ x ∂y
∂ y ∂ y
\ + A±A = 0
∂ x ∂y
HHQFHy = Ax ±yUHSUHVHQWVDSRVVLEOHLUURWDWLRQDOÀRZ
&KRLFHF
u
f = urcos q cos q
r
∂f u
= u cos q± cos q
∂r r
∂ f u
= + 3 cos q
∂ r r
∂f u
± ursin q± sin q
∂q r
∂ f u
± ur cos q± cos q
∂q r
∂f ∂ f ∂ f
/DSODFHHTXDWLRQ + + =0
r ∂r ∂ r r ∂q
Ê v ˆ u Ê u ˆ
LHS = ÁË u cos q - r cos q˜¯ + 3 cos q + ÁË - ur cos q - r cos q˜¯
r r r
Ê ˆ
= v cos q Á - 3 + 3 - - 3 ˜
Ër r r r r ¯
= 0 = RHS
+HQFHfUHSUHVHQWVDSRVVLEOHLUURWDWLRQDOÀRZ
&KRLFHG
Ê ˆ
f = Ár - sin q
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∂f Ê ˆ
= Á + ˜ cos q
∂r Ë r ¯
∂ f
= ± 3 sin q
∂r
r
∂f
= Ê r - ˆ cos q
∂q ÁË r ˜¯
∂ f Ê ˆ
± Á r - sin q
∂q Ë r ˜¯
∂f ∂ f ∂ f
LDSODFHHTXDWLRQ + + =0
r ∂r ∂r r ∂q
Ê ˆ Ê ˆ
LHS = ÁË + r ˜¯ sin q± 3 sin q± r ÁË r - r ˜¯ sin q
r r
Ê ˆ
= sin q Á + 3 - 3 - + 3 ˜
Ër r r r r ¯
=0
+HQFHfUHSUHVHQWVDSRVVLEOHLUURWDWLRQDOÀRZ
7KHYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWVLQDIORZIOXLGLQx- and y-direction are u = xy and v yz
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8378
u = xy v yz
du ∂v
=y z
∂x ∂y
CRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQIRUWZRGLPHQVLRQV
∂u ∂v
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∂x ∂y
yz π 0
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∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w
yz + =0
∂z
dw
or ± z±y
∂z
or w ±z±yz + c
c = constant
$YHORFLW\IXQFWLRQLQDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOIORZLVy xy'HWHUPLQHWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
velocity potential f 8378
y xy
∂y
1RZ u=± ±x
∂y
∂y
v= y
∂x
∂f ∂f
df = ◊ dx + ◊dy
∂x ∂y
± udx±vdy
x dx±y dy
x y
\ f= ± = c

= x±y + c
&KHFN ZKHWKHU WKH IXQFWLRQ y = A x – y UHSUHVHQWV WKH SRVVLEOH LUURWDWLRQDO IORZ
SKHQRPHQRQ 8378
y = Ax±y
∂y
= Ax = v
∂x
∂y
±Ay ±u
∂y
1RZ u Ay
∂u
\ A
∂y
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A
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=0
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Guidance 7KHYHORFLW\LVH[SUHVVHGLQxy and zGLUHFWLRQE\YHFWRUDVV = ui + vj + wk
+HQFHuv and wFDQEHIRXQGRXWIURPWKHYHFWRUHTXDWLRQ
u xyt
uDWDQGt ¥¥ ¥
PV
v = xy + 3t
vDWDQGt ¥ + 3 ¥

v= u + v = +
PV
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
NRZ a= = u◊ +v◊ +
dt ∂x ∂y ∂t
∂V
yi + yj
∂x
∂V
xixyj
∂y
∂V
= 8t ◊ i + 3◊j
∂t
\ a xyt yi + y jxy + 3tx ◊ixy ◊jt◊ i + 3◊ j

NRZSXWx y DQGt
a ij
\ a= +

$IORZLVJLYHQE\
3
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Guidance 7KH YHORFLW\ RI ÀRZ KDV QR WHUP RI WLPH ZKLFK LQGLFDWHV WKDW ÀRZ LV QRQ
GHSHQGHQW RI WLPH LH LW LV VWHDG\ ÀRZ7KH YHORFLW\ LV DOVR QRQGHSHQGHQW RQ WKH ÀRZ
in z direction as w +HQFH LW LV D WZRGLPHQVLRQDO ÀRZ /RFDO DFFHOHUDWLRQ LV WLPH
independent as ∂V LQWKLVFDVHLV]HUR
∂t
V x3 ◊i ±xy◊ j
3XW x DQG y
\ V ¥ 3 ◊ i± ◊ ◊ ◊ j
i± ◊ j
\ V= +
= +
PV
∂V ∂V ∂V
a =u +v +
∂x ∂ y ∂t
∂V
u x3 and x ◊ i±xy ◊j
∂x
∂V
v ±x y and ±x ◊ j
∂y
∂V
=KHQFH local acceleration = 0
∂t
\ a x3xi±x yj±xy±x ◊ j
xi±xy±xy j
xixyj
3XW x y
a i±j
a= +
= ¥ + ¥ PV

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distribution u x $W HQWUDQFH u = V DQG DW H[LW u V )LQG WKH H[SUHVVLRQ
IRU DFFHOHUDWLRQ ,I QR]]OH KDV OHQJWK PP DQG YHORFLW\ V PV FDOFXODWH
DFFHOHUDWLRQDWWKHHQWUDQFHDQGH[LW
y
x
x=0
Vo 3Vo
7KHYHORFLW\uZLOOYDU\OLQHDUO\DVXQGHU
V0 - V0
u = V0 + 3 ¥x
l
Ê x ˆ
= V0 Á + ˜
Ë l ¯
∂u ∂u
a =u +
∂x ∂t
Ê ◊ x ˆ
= V0 ÁË + ˜ ¥ V0 ¥
l ¯ l
V0 Ê x ˆ
= ÁË + l ˜¯
l
¥
ax =0 = PV

¥
ax = ¥ PV

:DWHULVIORZLQJWKURXJKDSLSHRIPGLDPHWHUZLWKDYHUDJHYHORFLW\RIPV:KDW
LVLWVGLVFKDUJH",IWKHIORZWDNHVSODFHLQWKHVHFWLRQKDYLQJGLDPHWHUPZKDWZLOO
be the velocity?
Q = A V
= p d ¥ V

p ¥
= ¥

= p P3V
A V = A V
p d p d
¥ V = ¥ V

¥ ¥ V

\ V = PV

A pipe AB EUDQFKHV LQWR WZR SLSHV C and D DV VKRZQ LQ WKH ¿JXUH7KH SLSH KDV D
GLDPHWHURIFPDWAFPDWBFPDWC FPDWD'HWHUPLQHWKHGLVFKDUJH
at A if the velocity at ALVPV$OVRGHWHUPLQHWKHYHORFLWLHVDWB and D if velocity at
CLVPV
C
dc = 0.5 m
Vc = 4 m/s
A B
da = 1.2 m db = 0.9 m
Va = 2 m/s D
dc = 0.2 m
p d a
QA = ¥ Va

p ¥
= ¥ P3V

1RZ Aa Va = Ab Vb

= PV
p ¥
Vb =

Q B = Q c + Q d QB = QA
Ac Vc + Ad Vd
p ¥ p ¥
= ¥ ¥ Vd

Vd
\ Vd PV
A stream function is give by:
y x yt y
Find the velocity vector and its value at position vector r ij±kZKHQt VHF
y x yt y
∂y
± v = 8xy
∂x
∂y
= + u x ty
∂y
V = ui + vj
>x ty] i±xyj
1RZSXWx y z ±DQGt = 3
V - >@i±j
i±j
V= +
= +
PV
,IIRUDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOSRWHQWLDOIORZWKHYHORFLW\LVJLYHQE\f = x y±'HWHUPLQH
the velocity and stream function at point P $0,(
f = x y±
∂f
u=± ± y± ±y
∂x
∂f
v=± ±x
∂y
\ V = ui + vj
±y i±xj
Put x y

V ± i±j
\ V= 9 + 8 PV
y = f xy
∂y ∂y
dy = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
= vdx±udy
±xdx±±y dy
-x y
\ y= ±y +

± x + y±y
Put x y
y ±±

6NHWFK WKH VWUHDPOLQH UHSUHVHQWHG E\ y = x + y $OVR ¿QG RXW WKH YHORFLW\ DQG
GLUHFWLRQRISRLQW $0,(
y = x + y
∂y
u ± ±y
∂y
∂y
v= x
∂x
V = ui + vj±yixj
V ±¥ij
± ij
\ V= + = PV
v
tan q = =
u
q ZLWKxD[LV
y = x + y = r
If r «VRRQ
then y = r «DQGVRRQ
5
4 y=4
3 y=9
2
y = 25
1 2 3 4 5
Streamlines
Determine the circulation GDURXQGDUHFWDQJOHGH¿QHGE\x y x DQGy =

IRUWKHYHORFLW\RIIOXLGu xy and v ±y.
C (1, 4) y=4
y
B (5, 4)
x=1 x=5
A (5, 1)
D (1, 1) y=1
O
x
6SHFL¿HG5HFWDQJOH
&LUFXODWLRQLVDOLQHLQWHJUDORIYHORFLW\DURXQGDFORVHGFXUYH
G= Ú
FXUYH
u ds = Ú ABCD
u dx + vdy
= Ú ABCD
x + 3y dx±ydy
= Ú AB
±y dy + Ú Bc
x + 3y dx + ÚCD
±y dy + Ú DA
x + 3y dx

= Ú

±ydy + Ú
±x dx + Ú ±y dy + Ú

x± dx

Ê x ˆ Ê x ˆ
= Á + x˜ + Á + 3 x˜
Ë ¯ Ë ¯
±±±±
± ±
Another method
∂v ∂u
W YRUWLFLW\ w = ±
∂x ∂y
± ±
$UHD ¥
Circulation G = W ¥ A
±¥ ±
$WZRGLPHQVLRQDOLQFRPSUHVVLEOHÀRZLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVLVJLYHQE\
Vr r sin q cos q and Vq ± r sin q
)LQGZKHWKHUWKHVHFRPSRQHQWVUHSUHVHQWDSRVVLEOHIORZ
Guidance7KHYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWVPXVWVDWLVI\WKHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ,QSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV
WKHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQLV
∂Vq ∂Vr V
+ + r =0
r ∂q ∂r r
Vr r sin q cos q
∂Vr = sin q cos q

∂r
Vq ±r sin q
∂Vq
±r ¥VLQq cos q
∂q
/+6RIFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQLV
r VLQ q FRV q
±r ¥VLQ FRVq VLn q cos q =
r r
VLQq cos q ±
= 0 = RHS
+HQFHWKHÀRZLVDSRVVLEOHÀRZ
,QDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOIORZWKHWDQJHQWLDOFRPSRQHQWRIWKHYHORFLW\LV
Asin q
Vq = – ZKHUHA = constant
r
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Guidance 8VHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQWR¿QGUDGLDOYHORFLW\
∂Vq ∂Vr V
+ + r =0
r ∂q ∂r r
∂Vq ∂
or + rVr
∂q ∂r
NoZ Vq = ± A sin q
r
∂Vq A cos q
±
∂q r
∂rVr A cos q
\ =
∂r r
A cos q
rVr = ±
r
A cos q
\ Vr =
r
)&
1RZ V = Vq + Vr
\ V= Vq + Vr
A sin q A cos q
= +
r r
A
=
r
$IOXLGIORZLVJLYHQE\
Ê aˆ Ê aˆ
Vq = Á 1 + ˜ sin q, Vr = Á 1 - ˜ cos q
Ë r ¯ Ë r ¯
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Guidance 8VHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRVKRZWKHÀRZLVSRVVLEOH)RU
URWDWLRQDOÀRZYRUWLFLW\ZLOOEH]HUR
Ê aˆ
Vr = Á - ˜ cos q
Ë r ¯
Ê aˆ
r Vr = Á r - cos q
Ë r ˜¯
∂ Ê aˆ
rVr Á + ˜ cos q
∂r Ë r ¯
Ê aˆ
Vq ± Á + ˜ sin q
Ë r ¯
∂Vq Ê aˆ
± Á + ˜ cos q
∂q Ë r ¯
\&RQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQLV
∂Vq ∂rVr
+ =0
∂q ∂r
Ê aˆ Ê aˆ
/+6 ± Á + ˜ cos q + Á + ˜ cos q
Ë r ¯ Ë r ¯
= 0 = RHS
+HQFHÀRZLVSRVVLEOH
∂ ∂V
1RZ W= rVq± r
∂r ∂q
Ê aˆ
Vq ± Á + ˜ sin q
Ë r ¯
Ê aˆ
rVq ± Á r + ˜ sin q
Ë r¯
∂ Ê aˆ
rVq ± ÁË - ˜¯ sin q
∂r r
Ê aˆ
Vr = Á - ˜ cos q
Ë r ¯
∂Vr ± Ê - a ˆ sin q
ÁË r ˜¯
∂q
∂ ∂V
1RZ W= r Vq± r
∂r ∂q
Ê aˆ Ê aˆ
± Á - ˜ sin q + Á - ˜ sin q
Ë r ¯ Ë r ¯
=0
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Df = y + x – y Ef = ur cos q + u cos q
r
Ê a
ˆ q
Ff = u Á r + ˜ cos q +
Ë r ¯ p
Case
f = y + x ±y
∂f
x
∂x
∂ f
∂ x
∂f
±y
∂y
∂ f
±
∂y
∂ f ∂ f
+ ±
∂ x ∂y
+HQFH/DSODFHHTXDWLRQLVVDWLV¿HGDQGWKHÀRZLVSRVVLEOH
∂f ∂y
u=+ =+ x
∂x ∂y
∂f ∂y
v=+ ± ±y
∂y ∂x
∂y ∂y
\ dy = ◊ dx + ◊dy
∂x ∂y
± ±y dxx dy
y ± xxyxy
± xxy xy± x
Case

f FRVq + FRVq
r
∂f ∂ f ∂ f
&RQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ + + =0
r ∂r ∂ r r ∂ r
∂f u
FRVq± cos q
∂r r
∂ f = + u cos q
∂ r r3
∂f u
± ur sin q± sin q
∂q r
∂ f ± ur cos q± u cos q
∂q r
Ê u ˆ u Ê u ˆ
L+6RIFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLon = ÁË u cos q - r cos q˜¯ + 3 cos q + ÁË - ur cos q - cos q˜¯
r r r r
È ˘
= u cos q Í - 3 + 3 - - 3 ˙
Îr r r r r ˚
= 0 = RHS
+HQFHÀRZLVSRVVLEOHDQGLVLUURWDWLRQDO
∂f ∂y u
ur = = = u cos q± cos q
∂r r ∂q r
∂f ∂y Ê u ˆ
uq = = = Á - ur sin q - sin q˜
r ∂q ∂r r Ë r ¯
dy = ur ◊r◊dq + uq dr
Ê u ˆ Ê ˆ
dy = Á ur cos q - cos q˜ dq±u sin q Á + 3 ˜ ◊ dr
Ë r ¯ Ë r ¯
2QLQWHJUDWLRQZHJHW
Ê ˆ Ê ˆ
y = u sin q Á r - ˜ ± u sin q Á r - ˜
Ë r ¯ Ë r ¯
Ê ˆ
= u sin q Á r - - r + ˜
Ë r r ¯
u Ê ˆ
= ± VLQ q Á -
r Ë r ˜¯
Case
Ê a ˆ q
f = u Á r + ˜ cos q +
Ë r ¯ p
∂f Ê a ˆ
= u Á - ˜ cos q
∂r Ë r ¯
∂ f
± a u cos q

∂ r r3
∂f Ê a ˆ sin q +
±u r +
∂q ÁË r ˜¯ p
∂ f Ê a ˆ

±u Á r + ˜ cos q
∂q Ë r ¯
∂f ∂ f ∂ f
CRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ + + =0
r ∂r ∂ r r ∂q
È Ê a ˆ ˘ a u Ê a ˆ
LHS = Íu Á - ˜ FRV q ˙ ± 3 u cos q± Á r + ˜ cos q
r ÎÍ Ë r ¯ ˙˚ r r Ë r ¯
È a a a ˘
= u cos q Í - 3 - 3 - - 3 ˙
Îr r r r r ˚
=0
∂f ∂y -u Ê a ˆ
uq = = = ÁË r + ˜ sin q +
r ∂q ∂r r r ¯ pr
∂f ∂y Ê a ˆ
ur = = = u Á - ˜ cos q
∂r r ∂q Ë r ¯
∂y ∂y
dy = dr + dq
∂r ∂q
u Ê a ˆ
dr + ur Ê - a ˆ cos q x dq

± ÁË r + ˜ sin q x dr +
r ¯ pr ÁË r ˜¯
Ê a ˆ Ê a ˆ
±u sin q Á + ˜ dr + dr + u cos q Á r - ˜ dq
Ë r ¯ pr Ë r ¯
On integration, we get
Ê a2 ˆ log r Ê a2 ˆ
y = – u sin q Á r - 2 ˜ + + u sin q Á r - 2 ˜
Ë r ¯ 2p Ë r ¯
Ê a2 a2 ˆ log r
= – u sin q Á r - +r- ˜ +
Ë r r ¯ 2p
Ê a2 ˆ log r
= 2 u sin q Á - r˜ +
Ë r ¯ 2p
)RUJLYHQf = 4(x2 – y2 ¿QGy (UPTU 2006-7)

∂f ∂y
u= = 8x =
∂x ∂y
∂f - ∂y
v= = – 8y =
∂y ∂x
- ∂y ∂y
dy = ◊dx + ◊dy
∂x ∂y
= 8y dx + 8x dy
y = 8xy + 8xy
= 16xy
$VWUHDPIXQFWLRQLVJLYHQE\
y = 3 x2y + (3 + t) y2
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LVPLQzGLUHFWLRQ
A y
z
2m x
O
B
O 3m
Prism: 3 m thick
Prism: 3 m thick
y = 3x2y + (3+ t) y2
At point A, x = 0, y = 2, t = 5
yA = 3 ¥ 0 ¥¥
At point Bx y t
yB = 3 ¥ 9 ¥¥ 0 = 0
At point Ox y t
yO = 0
)ORZUDWH y±y¥ thickness
\ )ORZIURPAO yA±y0¥ 3
±¥ 3
P3V
)ORZIURPBO yB±y0
=0
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±¥ 3

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WKHFORVHGFXUYHGH¿QHGE\x y x y
∂v ∂u
W= ±
∂x ∂y
u y±x
∂u

∂y
v = 8y±x
∂v
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Codes: A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 2
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The streamlines and the lines of constant velocity potential in an inviscid irrotational
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Which of the statements given above are correct?
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du dv
ZULWWHQLQWKHIROORZLQJform r ◊ + r◊ = ZKHUHu and v are velocities in the x
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F
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in the x–y plane?
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∂V
(c) ‫׏‬2 × Vr = 1 (d) |Vr × ‫ × |׏‬Vr = (IES 1993)
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∂f ∂f
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If f = 2x + 2y, we have
∂ x + y ∂ x + y
LHS = +
∂x ∂x
= 0 + 0 = 0 = RHS
Now, f = cos (x – y)
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r
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∂u ∂v
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Chapter 9
FLUID DYNAMICS-I
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

CONTROL VOLUME EXTERNAL CYLINDRICAL MOUTHPIECE
REYNOLD TRANSPORT THEORY CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT MOUTHPIECE
NAVIER-STOKES EQUATION BORDA’S MOUTHPIECE
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FREE JET LIQUID
HYDRAULIC COEFFICIENTS WEIRS
FREE FLOW ORIFICE RECTANGULAR NOTCH
SUBMERGED ORIFICE TRIANGULAR NOTCH
PARTIALLY-SUBMERGED ORIFICE TRAPEZOIDAL NOTCH
VENA CONTRACTA END CONTRACTIONS
PITOT TUBE VELOCITY OF APPROACH
9.1 INTRODUCTION
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9.2 FORCES AND ENERGIES IN FLUID FLOW

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9.3 CONCEPT OF CONTROL VOLUME

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9.5 NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

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r ∂x dt r Î ∂x ∂y ∂z ˚
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r ∂y dt r Î ∂x ∂y ∂z ˚
∂P dw m È ∂ w ∂ w ∂ w ˘
Bz – = – Í + + ˙
r ∂z dt r Î ∂x ∂y ∂z ˚
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9.6 EULER’S EQUATIONS

Derive Euler’s equation of motion along a streamline for an ideal fluid stating clearly
the assumptions. (AMIE 1984) (UPTU 2007-8)
Or
State the assumptions made in Bernoulli’s equation. (UPTU 2004-5)
In Euler’s equation of motion, forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into consideration.
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i.e., along streamline, and (7) velocity is uniform over the cross section.
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9.7 BERNOULLI’S EQUATIONS

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p V
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p V p V
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9.8 PITOT TUBE

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Static head = H
h Dynamic head = h
Stagnation head = H + h
H+h
Flow H
1
2
Pitot Tube
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p V p V
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g
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2 2
V V
Dynamic head, h =
2g = h 2g
P V
2 P
Static head, H =
+ rg
rg 2g P
H= Stagnation head = H + h
rg
Pitot Tube with Piezometer
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h Dynamic head = h
Flow
Connected Pitot Tube & Piezometer

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Measuring
liquid, Sml
x
SG = S
Sml
Dynamic head = x –1
Sm
Flow
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GL൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHULVVKRZQEHORZ
Sm
x
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Sml
Sml
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Sm
Flow
Opening
Pitot Tube
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Opening in
outer tube
Outer tube
Air (low pressure)
flow
Inner tube
(high pressure)
Pitot Static Tube
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Cv =
7KHRUHWLFDOYHORFLW\RIWKHMHW
V
=
gh
7KHYDOXHRICvYDULHVIURPWR
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WKH DUHD RI WKH RUL¿FH 6LQFH WKH MHW NHHSV RQ FRQYHUJLQJ DIWHU SDVVLQJ RUL¿FH XS WR YHQD
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Area of jet at vena contracta

Cc =
Area of the orifice
a
=
A
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Q Ê V ˆ Ê aˆ
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Cd = Cv ◊Cc
The value of CdYDULHVIURPWR
9.10 VENA CONTRACTA

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WKH GLDPHWHU RI WKH RUL¿FH DQG WKLV VHFWLRQ LV FDOOHG YHQD FRQWUDFWD $W WKLV VHFWLRQ WKH
VWUHDPOLQHVDUHVWUDLJKWDQGSDUDOOHOWRHDFKRWKHUEHVLGHVEHLQJSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHSODQH
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V ¥ ¥

¥
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h
C Vena contracta
1
Jet of liquid
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Orifice
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C
Measuring
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constant head
h
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WR ÀRZ RXW IURP WKH ZDWHU WDQN WKURXJK DQ RUL¿FH DQG WKH ÀRZHG RXW LV FROOHFWHG LQ D
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9ROXPHFROOHFWHGLQPHDVXULQJWDQN
Q=
WLPH
A¥h
=
t
where A = area of cross section of measuring tank and h = height of water collected in it.
Theoretical discharge, Qth DUHDRIRUL¿ce ¥ 2gH
Q
Hence, Cd =
a¥ 2 gH
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In case C-C VHFWLRQ UHSUHVHQWV WKH YHQD FRQWUDFWD RI WKH MHW IURP WKH RUL¿FH XQGHU VWDWLF
head H in the water tank, the horizontal distance travelled by the jet in time t,
x = Vt
where, V = horizontal velocity at vena contracta
x
\ t=
V
The gravity is trying to move the jet downwards. The initial velocity of the jet at vena
contracta (C-C section) downwards is zero (Vy = 0 t = 0). Hence, vertical distance travelled
by the jet is:
1
y = Vy t + gt 2 Vy = 0 at t = 0
2
1 2
\ y= gt
2
x
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V
1 x2
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gx2
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Vactual
\ &RH൶FLHQWRIYHOocity =
Vth
gx2
2y
Cv =
2 gh
x
=
2 yH
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p V p V
+ + z = + + z
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V
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RU dQ = Cd ¥ b ¥ dh ¥ gh
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Q= Ú
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= Cd b g [H – H]

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p V p V
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rg
p - p V
z + H + h = + + z
rg g
V
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g
V
RU =h
g
RU V gh

RU V = gh
Qth $UHDRIRUL¿FH¥9HORFLW\
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Q = Cd b ¥ d gh
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Q = Cd ◊b g H – H

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Q = Cd ◊b◊H – H gH
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= C ◊b g H – HCd ◊bH – H gh
d
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H1 T
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Jet Jet
Time to Empty a Tank
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QdT = A ¥ dh
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V= gh
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dQ = Cd ¥DUHD¥YHORFLW\
= Cd ¥ a ¥ gh
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dQ◊dT = Cd ¥ a ¥ gh dT
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RU ± A dh = Cd ¥ a ¥ gh ◊ dT
-A
RU dT = ◊h±dh
a ◊ Cd g
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from the pipe.
(AMIE 2000)
1
10
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rg rg rg
V22
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2g
or V2 = 2 g ¥ 10
= 14 m/s
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Chapter 10
FLUID DYNAMICS-II
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMICS RADIAL FLOW
MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE ROTARY FLOW
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM FORCED VORTEX
LINEAR MOMENTUM FREE VORTEX
ANGULAR MOMENTUM ROTATION OF SPRINKLER
VANES VENTURIMETER
FLOW EXERTED BY JET ORIFICE METER
FORCES ON BENDS FLOW NOZZLE
RECTILINEAR FLOW ROTO METER
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The fundamental principle of dynamics is Newton’s second law of motion. It states that time rate
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change of momentum takes place in the direction of force. This is called impulse momentum
principle which is very useful in addition to the continuity and the energy principles. The impulse
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10.2 MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE

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The fundamental principle of dynamics is Newton’s second law of motion. The second
law states that the time rate of change of momentum contained in a volume is proportional
to the applied force and this change of momentum takes place in the direction of force.
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same direction.
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d
or F= mvZKHUHm PDVVv = velocity and T = time
dT
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The impulse momentum principle states that the force FDFWLQJRQDÀXLGPDVVm in short
Ê d ˆ
interval of time dT is equal to the change of momentum Á mv˜ in the direction of force.
Ë dT ¯
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states WKDWWKHQHWIRUFHDFWLQJRQDÀXLGPDVVLVHTXDOWRWKHFKDQJHLQWKHPRPHQWXPRI
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Force = change of momentum
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Fluid Dynamics-II 581
10.3 FORCE ON VANE

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Curved
vanes
Vane
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vanes
Flow
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Nozzel Vane
Water jet
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momentum of the water.
Mass of water striking the vane
= m = r ◊a◊v
ZKHUHr = density
a = area of jet and
v = velocity of jet
The velocity of water is reduced to zero from velocity v after striking the vane.
\ Force on the vane = rate of change of momentum of water on vane surface
= m ¥ dv
rAv v±
F = rav
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Vane
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F = m ¥ vsin q = mass ¥ normal velocity

= ra v sin q
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v = velocity of jet
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Fx = F sin q
= rav sin q
and Fy = F cos q
= ravsin q cos q
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Â Mhinged ± F ¥ – W ¥ sin q = 0

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W = weight of the plate
F
or sin q =
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Â MELQJHG =± F ¥ L+p¥L=0

or p= F

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Plate
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velocity of VLQWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHMHW+HQFHUHODWLYHYHORFLW\RIWKHMHWZLWKUHVSHFW
to the moving plate is V – V. The velocity of the water of the jet is zero after it strikes.
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or F = mass ¥ change of velocity
= r ¥ a ¥V – V ◊V – V
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or F = r ◊ a ◊ V – V
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= r ◊a◊ V – V ¥ V
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KE = mV

= ◊ r ◊ a ◊ V◊V

= r aV

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r ◊ a ◊ V - V ◊ V
=

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V - V ◊ V
or h=
V
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= =0
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or V ◊V
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y Fy = F cos q
x Fx = F sin q
q
Jet on Moving Inclined Plate
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V – V
Force = F = m V – VVLQq
= r ◊a◊V – Vsin q
Force along xGLUHFWLRQFx = Fsin q

\ Fx = r ◊ a ◊ V – Vsin q
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Fy = r ◊a◊ V – V sin q cos q
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W = Fx◊ displacement
= r ◊ a◊ V – V sin q ◊ V
= r ◊a ◊V V – V sin q
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Jet with
dia = 40 cm
q
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V = 1.5 m/s
800 N
pd p ¥
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1
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1
F
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or q
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60
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=
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or ¥ ±

or d= ¥ ¥ -
p
= 8 ¥± m
= .08 m
= 80 mm
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pd p ¥
Area of jeWa = = ¥ ± m

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F = r ◊ a ◊v
¥ ¥¥ ± ¥
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F = r ◊a◊vsin

=¥

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p ¥
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F = r ◊a◊vsin

¥ ¥ ¥¥– ¥ v ¥

¥ ¥
or v = ¥

v PV
1RZ 'LVFKDUJHQ = a ◊v
¥ ± ¥
PV
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200
V
Nozzle
100
P
pd p ¥
Area of the jet = = ¥ ± ¥ m

F = r ◊a◊v
¥ ¥¥± ¥
1
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Â m hinged ± F ¥P ¥
F ¥
or P=

¥
=

1
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p ¥
The area of the jeta = ¥ ± m

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Force = F = r◊ a◊v
or F ¥ ◊ ¥ ± ¥
1
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F = r ◊a ◊ V – V
¥ ¥¥ ± ¥
1
10.4 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM

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Axis of rotation
O V2
r2
Vr
2 Vq
r 2
r1 Vr 2
V
Vr
1 V1 Vq
A
Vq
1
1
Consider a particle ALVPRYLQJRQDFXUYHGSDWKZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHD[LVRIURWDWLRQSDVVLQJ

through point ODVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH7KHYHORFLW\VRIWKHSDUWLFOHFDQEHUHVROYHGLQWR
WZR FRPSRQHQWV YL] Vr is normal velocity acting along the radius r and towards the
centre of rotation O DQG Vq is tangential velocity acting normal to the radius r. The
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$QJXODUPRPHQWXPDWSRLQW PRPHQWRIWKHPRPHQWXP
= r mVq1
$QJXODUPRPHQWXPDWSRLQW r m◊ Vq
Change of angular momentum = m rVq – r Vq
If the change of angular momentum takes place in time t

Rate of change of angular momentum = m r Vq – rVq
t
1RZWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHPRPHQWXPLVHTXDOWRWRUTXHT

T= m r Vq – rVq
t
m
%XW = rgQ PDVVRIÀXLGÀRZLQJSHUXQLWWLPH
t
\ T = rgQr Vq – r Vq
The toque T LV WKH WRTXH H[HUWHG E\ VRPH H[WHUQDO DJHQF\ RQ WKH ÀXLG DV WKH DQJXODU
PRPHQWXP LV LQFUHDVLQJ ,Q FHQWULIXJDO SXPS WKH WRUTXH LV H[HUWHG RQ WKH ÀXLG E\ WKH
FHQWULIXJDO SXPS ZKHQ LW PDNHV WKH ZDWHU WR PRYH RQ WKH FXUYHG SDWK 6LPLODUO\ D
FRPSUHVVRUH[HUWVWRUTXHRQWKHDLUDQGDSURSHOOHUH[HUWVWRUTXHRQWKHDLU,QFDVHWKHÀXLG
LVPDGHWRPRYHRQDFLUFXODUSDWKWKHQr = r = rDQGWRUTXH
T = rgQ r Vq – Vq
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WKHFXUYHGVXUIDFH)RUH[DPSOHDWXUELQHLQZKLFKWRUTXHLVH[WUDFWHGIURPWKHÀXLGKDYLQJ
higher inlet angular momentum.
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T = rg ◊Q ◊r Vq – Vq
is called the equation of moment of momentum or angular momentum.
10.5 VORTEX MOTION

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5HFWLOLQHDUÀRZ 5HFWLOLQHDUÀRZLVRQHGLPHQVLRQDOÀRZLQZKLFKVWUHDPOLQHVDUHSDUDOOHO
5DGLDOÀRZ 5DGLDOÀRZLVWKHÀRZLQZKLFKWKHÀXLGÀRZLVLQUDGLDOGLUHFWLRQLQVXFK
a way that pressure and velocity at any point change with respect to distance of that point
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ÀRZPD\WDNHSODFHUDGLDOO\LQZDUGRUUDGLDOO\RXWZDUGIURPWKHFHQWUH7KHÀRZLVWZR
dimensional and streamlines are not parallel.
Flow
Flow
Flow Inwardly (as in Pump) Flow Outwardly (as in Turbine)
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PDVVURWDWHVDERXWDQD[LV7KHURWDWLQJÀRZFDQEHIUHHYRUWH[DQGIRUFHGYRUWH[
,QIUHHYRUWH[WKHÀXLGPDVVURWDWHVZLWKRXWH[HUWLQJDQ\H[WHUQDOWRUTXHZU FRQVWDQW
z Original level
Forced Vortex
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ÀXLGPDVV7KHFRPPRQH[DPSOHRIIUHHYRUWH[DUHZKLUOSRROÀRZLQFHQWULIXJDO
FDVLQJ DIWHU HPHUJLQJ IURP SURSHOOHU DQG ÀRZ LQ WXUELQH FDVLQJ EHIRUH HQWHULQJ WKH
JXLGHYDQHV,QIRUFHGYRUWH[WKHÀXLGPDVVLVPDGHWRURWDWHE\PHDQVRIVRPHH[WHUQDO
DJHQF\)RUH[DPSOHVSLQQLQJWKHYHVVHOFRQWDLQLQJOLTXLGDERXWDYHUWLFDOD[LV
Z U
The centrifugalKHDG z = ◊ zLVDOVRFDOOHGGHSWKRISDUDEROD
g
([SODLQIUHHYRUWH[IORZ
,QIUHHYHUWH[ÀRZZHKDYH
D )ORZSDUWLFOHVPRYLQJLQFLUFOHVDERXWDSRLQW
E 7DQJHQWLDOYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWVqH[LVWVZKLOHUDGLDOYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWLV]HURLH
Vr = 0 and VqH[LVWV
F 7DQJHQWLDOYHORFLW\YDULHVUDGLXVr so that same circulation is maintained.
G $OO VWUHDPOLQHV DUH FRQFHQWULF FLUFOHV DERXW D JLYHQ SRLQW ZKHUH WKH YHORFLW\ DORQJ
HDFK VWUHDPOLQH LV LQYHUVHO\ SURSRUWLRQDO WR WKH GLVWDQFH IURP WKH FHQWUH7KH ÀRZ LV
QHFHVVDULO\LUURWDWLRQDO9HORFLW\FRPSRQHQWVDUH
y3 C
y1 =
r1
y2
C
y2 =
y1 r2
C
y3 =
r3
r1
r2
r3
Circulation constant
D 7DQJHQWLDOYHOocity Vq =
r
G 2p
= ZKHUHG = circulation
r
c
=
r
E 5DGLDOYHORFLW\Vr = 0
G
F 6WUHDP funFWLRQY = - log e r + c1
p
([SODLQIRUFHGYRUWH[IORZ
Flows where streamlines are concentric circles and tangential velocity is directly proportional
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GHVFULEHGLQDSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPDV
Vq = ω ◊ r
and Vr = 0
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∂Vq 1 ∂Vr Vq
W = - +
∂r r ∂q r
= w – 0 + w w
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YRUWLFLW\w.
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È P2 P ˘ w2 2
H – H = Í - 1˙+ r2 - r12
Î rg r g ˚ 2 g
w2 2
But H – H = r2 - r12 DQGZHFDQZULWHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHDV
g
P2 - P1 w2 2
= r2 - r12
r
$ RSHQ FLUFXODU WDQN RI GLDPHWHU FP DQG FP ORQJ FRQWDLQV ZDWHU XS WR D
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60 cm
p N ¥ p ¥
Z= = UDGV

Z U
1RZ z=
g
¥
=
¥
P
10.6 FORCE EXERTED ON A BEND

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KRUL]RQWDOSODQHDQGEHQGLVLQYHUWLFDOSODQH
2U
6WDWHWKHPRPHQWXPHTXDWLRQ+RZLVLWXVHGLQGHWHUPLQLQJWKHIRUFHH[HUWHGE\WKH
IORZLQJOLTXLGRQDSLSHEHQG 8378
P2A2 sin q
2 P2 A 2
P2A2 cos q
1 V2 cos q V2
Fy
2
V2 sin q
V1 q
P1 A 1
Fx
Forces on Bend (In Horizontal Plane)
Case&RQVLGHUDÀRZLQDEHQGZKLFKLVLQKRUL]RQWDOSODQH6HOHFWVHFWLRQDQG
DWWKHLQOHWDQGRXWOHWRIWKHEHQGVLQFHÀRZLVWDNLQJSODFHLQx-ySODQHQHWIRUFH
acting in each x and yGLUHFWLRQLVWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIPRPHQWXPRIWKHÀXLGLQx and y
GLUHFWLRQUHVSHFWLYHO\E\WKHIRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHEHQGZLOOEHLQRSSRVLWHGLUHFWLRQWRIRUFHV
H[HUWHGE\WKHÀXLG7KHIRUFHVH[HUWHGE\WKHÀXLGDUH
3UHVVXUHIRUFH P◊A
)RUFHRIÀXLGRQWKHEHQG F
:HLJKWRIÀXLGÀRZLQJ WWREHFRQVLGHUHGLQEHQGLQYHUWLFDOSODQH
Applying momentum equation in xGLUHFWLRQZHJHW
P A – PA cos q + Fx = rQ v cos q – v
or Fx = rQ vcos q – vP Acos q – PA
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Fy = rQ v sin qPAsin q
\ Resultant forFHF = Fx + F y
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Fy
q = tan±
Fx
Case)RUFHVRQEHQGZKLFKKDVLQOHWLQKRUL]RQWDOSODQHDQGRXWOHWLQYHUWLFDOSODQH1HW
force in xGLUHFWLRQ ZLOO UHPDLQ VDPH EXW WKH QHW IRUFH LQ y-direction will change as the
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2
P2A2
Fy
1
V2
2
P1A1 V1 q
Fx
1 W
Fx = rQvcos q – vP A cos q – P A

Fy = rQvsin qP A sin q + W
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DQGWKHEHQGGHIOHFWVWKHIORZWKURXJK7KHJDXJHSUHVVXUHDWLQOHWLVN3D
)LQGWKHPDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQRIWKHIRUFHRQWKHEHQGZKHQWKHUHLVQRIORZ
DQGIORZLVPV
p d p ¥
A = area at inlet = = P

p d p ¥
A = area at outlet = = P

Case :KHQ QR ÀRZ LV WDNLQJ SODFH WKHQ WKH QHW IRUFH LQ x-direction is the change of
momentum in x-direction.
P A – PAcos q + Fx = rQv cos q – v
+HUH q = 0 and P = P = P
\ Fx = P A cos q – P A
= P A cos q – A
¥ FRV±
¥±
±¥ ¥
± N1
6LPLODUO\ZH¿QGRXWFy.
Fy = P A sin q + rq vcos q
%XW q=0

\ Fy ¥ ¥ 0.¥

N1
R= Fx + F y = - +
= + + N1

q = tan± or q

m
Case:KHQÀRZRI LVWDNLQJSODFHZHFDQDSSO\WKHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ
s
q = a v = a v
0.8
\ v = PV

0.8
and v = PV

Apply Bernoulli’VHTXDWLRQDWVHFWLRQDQG
2
P2
A2
1
V1
P1
60° 2
A1
V1
p v p v
+ = +
rg g rg g
¥ p

+ = +
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
p

¥
or p ¥¥
N1P
Now net force in xGLUHFWLRQLV
P A – PA + Fx = rq v cos q – v
or Fx ±¥ ¥¥ ¥¥
¥¥FRV±
±¥¥
Fx ± N1
Now net force in yGLUHFWLRQLV
Fy – P Asin q = rQv sin q
Fy ¥ ¥ VLQ¥ ¥ 0.8 ¥VLQ
¥¥
N1
R= Fx + F y
= - +
= +

Fy
q = tan±
Fx

= tan–

$ PP GLDPHWHU SLSH FDUULHV ZDWHU XQGHU D KHDG RI P ZLWK D YHORFLW\ RI
PV,IWKHD[LVRIWKHSLSHWXUQVWKURXJK¿QGWKHPDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQRIWKH
UHVXOWDQWIRUFHDWWKHEHQG 8378
2
V2
2
H1 45°
V1
p ¥
A = A = P

1RZ A V = AV
6LQFH A = AKHQFHV = V PV
$SSO\LQJ%HUQRXOOL¶VHTXDWLRQEHWZHHQDQG
p v p v
+ + z = + + z
rg g rg g
p p
1RZ z = z = H = Hv = v
rg r g
+HQFH H = H

p = p ¥ rg ¥¥ ¥
N1P
1RZ
P A = PA cos q + Fx = rQvcos q – v
¥±¥¥FRVFx
¥¥¥ FRV±
¥ ±FRVFx
¥ FRV±
\ Fx ± ±
Fx ± N1
6LPLODUO\
\ Fy – P A sin q = r◊Qvsin q
or Fy ¥¥VLQ¥VLQ¥

\ R= Fx + F y
= +
= +
N1

q = tan±

$SLSHKDVGLDPHWHURIPPDQGULJKWDQJOHEHQGLQDKRUL]RQWDOSODQH,IPV
ZDWHULVIORZLQJ¿QGIRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHEHQG7KHSUHVVXUHDWWKHLQOHWDQGRXWOHW
DUHDQGN1PUHVSHFWLYHO\
P2, A2, V2
2 2
P1
A1
V1
1
Right Hand Bend (in Horizontal Plane)
p
Area A = A = A = ¥ P

&RQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ A V = A V = Q
Q Q
or V = = PV
A
V = V PV
Applying momentum equation in x-direction
P A + Fx = rQv
or Fx ¥ ¥¥±¥¥
± N1
Applying momentum equation in y-direction
Fy – P A = rQv
or Fy ¥ ¥¥q ¥ ¥
Fy N1
R= f x + f y
= + ◊
N1
Angle of resultant from horizontal
fy
q = tan± = tan±
fx
q ∞
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PV)LQGWKHPDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQRIWKHUHVXOWDQWRIIRUFHV7KHSUHVVXUHLQ
SLSHLVN1P
2
P2, A2, V2
2 Fy
1
135°
P1
A1
Fx
V1
1
A Bend in Horizontal Plane
p ¥
A = A = A = P

&RQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ A V = AV = Q

or V = V =

PV
1RZ P = P N1P
P A + Fx + P Acos q = rQ± vcos q – v
or Fx ¥ ¥± FRV
± ¥ ¥±¥ ¥FRV
or Fx ± ±
± N1
Applying momentum equation in y-direction

– P A sin q + Fy = rQ –v sin q
or Fy = r ◊Q◊v VLQP AVLQ
¥ ¥¥VLQ¥¥VLQ

N1
R= Fx + F y
= +
= +
N1

q = tan±

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KDVGLDPHWHURIPDWWKHRXWOHW,ILQOHWYHORFLW\DQGJDXJHSUHVVXUHDWLQOHWRIWKH
UHGXFHULVPVDQGN1P¿QGWKHUHVXOWDQWWKUXVWLQWKHUHGXFHU7DNHIULFWLRQV
ORVVLQUHGXFHUDWPRIZDWHU
1
2
P1
P2, A2, V2
A1
V1
2
1
Reducer
p d p ¥ 0.8
A = = P

p d p ¥
A = = P

Continuity equation = A V = A V
RU ¥ ¥ v
¥
or V =

PV
Q = A V ¥ PV
$SSO\LQJ%HUQRXOOL¶VHTXDWLRQEHWZHHQVHFWLRQ
p v p v
+ + z = + + z + hloss
rg g rg g
z = z
¥ p

+ = +
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
p
or
±±
¥ ¥

or p N1
Applying momentum equation in x direction
P A – P A + Fx = rQv – v
or Fx = rQ v – vP A – PA
Fx ¥ ¥¥±¥
¥±¥ ¥
¥¥±¥
± N1
10.7 TORQUE ACTING ON A SPRINKLER

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HTXDWLRQ
r1 r2
1 A 2
V1 V2
Sprinkler
&RQVLGHUDVSULQNOHUZLWKQR]]OHDWDQGDQGKLQJHGDWSRLQWA.
0RPHQWXPDWSRLQW PDVV¥ velocity
= rQ ¥ v
0RPHQWRIPRPHQWXPDWSRLQW r ◊Q◊v ¥ r
0RPHQWXPRISRLQW r ¥ Q ¥ v
0RPHQWRIPRPHQWXPDWSRLQW r ◊ Q◊v ¥ r
Rate of change of moment of momentum = rQ vr – v r
$FFRUGLQJWRWKHPRPHQWRIPRPHQWXPHTXDWLRQWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIPRPHQWRIPRPHQWXP
LVHTXDOWRWKHWRUTXHT
T = rQ v r – vr
$VSULQNOHUKDVWZRQR]]OHVHDFKORFDWHGDWPIURPWKHFHQWUHZKLFKLVKLQJHG7KH
GLDPHWHURIQR]]OHVLVPDQGGLVFKDUJHLV¥ ±PV)LQGWKHVSHHGRIURWDWLRQ
LIWKHUHLVQRIULFWLRQORVV$OVR¿QGWRUTXHWRKROGWKHVSULQNOHUVWDWLRQDU\
d2 = 0.01 m
V2
0.3 m 0.3 m
d1 = 0.01 m
V1
Sprinkler
pd p ¥
A = A = A = = ¥± m

Q ¥ -
v = v = =
A ¥ ¥ -
PV
v = v = ZU

or Z= UDGV

p N
Z=

¥
or N= USP
p
7RUTXH T = rQvr – vr

%XW v = – v
\ T ¥ ¥¥± ¥¥
1P
$Q XQV\PPHWULFDO VSULQNOHU KDV HTXDO IORZ WKURXJK HDFK QR]]OH ZLWK YHORFLW\ RI
PV)LQGWKHVSHHGRIURWDWLRQLQUSP
0.5 1m
1 w 2
8 m/s 8 m/s
Since r > r
+HQFHZU > ZU. Sprinkler will rotate anticlockwise.
v = 8 + ZU Z
v = 8 – ZU = 8 – Z
As per moment of momentum equation
T = rQ v r – vr
$VQRH[WHUQDOWRUTXHLVDSSOLHGT = 0
\ v r = v r
±Z¥ Z¥
or 8 – Z Z
RU Z

Z= UDGV

p N
1RZ Z=

¥
or N= USP
p
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ZDWHUDWWKHUDWHRIPVYHORFLW\'HWHUPLQHWKHWRUTXHUHTXLUHGWRKROGWKHURWDWLQJ
DUPVWDWLRQDU\$OVRGHWHUPLQHWKHFRQVWDQWVSHHGRIURWDWLRQRIWKHDUPLILWLVIUHHWR
URWDWH
10 m/s
w
wr2
wr1 20 cm 25 cm
10 m/s
pd p ¥ ¥ -

A= = ¥± m

Q = AV ¥± ¥ ¥ ± mV

T = rQvr – vr
¥ ¥¥± ¥¥
¥±
¥¥±
1P
If Zis the angular velocity of the sprinkler.
Since r > rWKHVSULQNOHUZLOOURWDWHFORFNZLVHDVPRPHQWRIPRPHQWXPRIVHFWLRQLV
more
vDEVROXWH Z
vDEVROXWH Z
1RZT DVQRH[WHUQDOWRUTXHLVDSSOLHG
T = rQ rvDEVROXWH – rvDEVROXWH
\ r vDEsolute = rvDEVROXWH
Z Z

Z Z
Z

Z= UDGV

p N
Z=

¥
N= USP
p
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LQWKH¿JXUH7KHQR]]OHVKDYHGLDPHWHURIFPDQGVSHHGRIURWDWLRQLVUSP)LQG
WKHIORZRXWRIWKHVSULQNOHULIWKHUHLVQRIULFWLRQORVV
V2
60
60
1m 1m
V1
p ¥
Area of nozzle =

¥± m
Now velocity component v VLQDQGv VLQKDYHPRPHQWRIPRPHQWXPZUWKLQJHG
point of sprinkler
v VLQ¥ r = vVLQ¥ r = ZU
%XW r = r = r P
p N
Z=

¥ p ¥
=

UDGs
¥
\ v = v =
VLQ
PV
Q for each nozzle = A ¥ V = A V
¥¥±
¥± mV
QIRUERWKQR]]OHV ¥± mV
$YHUWLFDOO\XSZDUGMHWRIZDWHUFPLQGLDPHWHULVVXLQJIURPDQR]]OHDWYHORFLW\RI
PVVWULNHVQRUPDOWRDIODWFLUFXODUSODWHRIPDVVNJDQGGLDPHWHUFPDQGVXSSRUWV
LW)LQGWKHYHUWLFDOGLVWDQFHDERYHWKHQR]]OHZKHUHWKHSODWHLVKHOGLQHTXLOLEULXP
Plate
Jet
Nozzle
)RUFHH[HUWHGE\WKHMHW rAV
pd p ¥
A= = ¥± m

1RZSODWHLVLQHTXLOLEULXP
F = mg
or ra v = mg
¥
or v =
¥ ¥ ¥ -

or v PV
Initial velocity of jet u PV
v = u ±gh
±¥¥ h
-
or h=
¥
P
7ZRWDQNVADQGBRQIULFWLRQOHVVZKHHOVDUHSODFHGDVVKRZQAMHWHPHUJLQJIURP
WDQN A VWULNHV WKH EODGH RQ WDQN B )LQG WKH IRUFHV UHTXLUHG WR KROG WKH WDQNV
VWDWLRQDU\:LOOWKHIRUFHVUHTXLUHGZLOOEHGL൵HUHQWLIHLWKHURQHRUERWKRIWKHPDUH
DOORZHGWRUHFHGHDWPV"
Consider control volume of tank A and jet is emerging from it with force FA. Then
FA = rva
pd
¥ ¥ ( gH ) ¥

p ¥
¥¥¥

1
Jet diameter = 2 cm
2m A
FA
FB
Consider control volume of tank BWKHQIURFHDFWLQJRQLWGXHWRMHWLVMHWLVGHÀHFWHGEDFN

FB = – rvB ¥ a – r vB ¥ a z
± rvB ¥ a
1RZ vA = vB = ¥
p ¥
± ¥ ¥¥¥

TB ±1
The force FB is opposite to FA. If tank ALVPRYHGWROHIWRUULJKWWKHIRUFHFA remains the
VDPHLHUHDFWLRQRIWKHMHW 1+RZHYHULIWDQNBLVPRYHGWRULJKWYHORFLW\vB

LVUHGXFHGE\PVDQGFBEHFRPHV ¥ ¥ ¥ p ¥ 1,IWDQN

is moved WRWKHOHIWWKHYHORFLW\vBLVLQFUHDVHGE\PVDQGFBEHFRPHV

¥ ¥ ¥ p ¥ 1

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Chapter 11
LAMINAR FLOW
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

LAMINAR FLOW FLOW IN POROUS MATERIAL
TURBULENT FLOW DARCY’S EQUATION
FLOW IN HORIZONTAL PIPES FLUIDIZATION
FLOW IN PARALLEL PLATES JOURNAL BEARING
AVERAGE VELOCITY FOOT STOP BEARING
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HEAD LOSS DASHPOT
FRICTION FACTOR FALLING SPHERE METHOD
FLOW IN INCLINED PIPES CAPILLARY METHOD
CORRECTION FACTOR FOR ROTATING CYLINDER
KINETIC ENERGY METHOD
CORRECTION FACTOR FOR FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL
MOMENTUM
11.1 INTRODUCTION
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11.4 REYNOLDS NUMBER

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∂x
du r ∂p
\ =
dr m ∂x
∂p
Rr Ú du = m∂ x Ú rdr
∂p r
RU u= +C C FRQVWDQW
m ∂x
:KHQr = Ru DWÀXLGLVVWDWLRQDU\DWERXQGDU\
∂p
\ C=– ¥ R
m ∂x
Ê - ∂p ˆ
\ u= r – R
m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
∂p
KHUH mDQGRDUHFRQVWDQWV+HQFHYHORFLW\DWDQ\VHFWLRQLQSLSHYDULHVZLWKWKHVTXDUH
∂x
RIUDGLXVr:KHQr WKHYHORFLW\LVPD[LPXPDQGZKHQr = RWKHYHORFLW\LV]HUR
7KHYHORFLW\YDULHVSDUDEROLFIURP]HURDWWKHERXQGDU\VXUIDFHWRWKHPD[LPXPDWFHQWUH
RIWKHSLSH7KHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQDWDQ\VHFWLRQLVDVVKRZQEHORZ
r=R
r=0
Velocity Distribution
11.6 AVERAGE VELOCITY

'HULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU DYHUDJH YHORFLW\ IRU D IORZ WKURXJK SLSH )LQG WKH UDWLR RI
PD[LPXPYHORFLW\WRDYHUDJHYHORFLW\
Or
)RUDVWHDG\ODPLQDUIORZWKURXJKDFLUFXODUSLSHSURYHWKDWYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQDFURVV
WKHVHFWLRQLVSDUDEROLFDQGWKHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\LVKDOIRIWKHPD[LPXPYHORFLW\
(UPTU 2006-07)
r + dr
&RQVLGHU WKH ÀRZ WKURXJK D FLUFXODU ÀXLG ULQJ HOHPHQW RI UDGLXV r DQG WKLFNQHVV dr7KH
GLVFKDUJH WKURXJK WKLV ULQJ HOHPHQW LV HTXDO WR WKH YHORFLW\ RI WKH ÀRZ PXOWLSOLHG E\ WKH
FURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDRIWKHULQJHOHPHQW
dQ = u ¥prdr
∂p
%XW u=– R – r
m ∂x
∂p
\ dQ = – R – r ¥prdr
m ∂x
Laminar Flow 643
R
p ∂ p
RU Q=– Ú R – rrdr
m ∂x
R
p ∂p È r r ˘
=– ◊ ÍR - ˙
m ∂x Î ˚
p ∂p
=– ◊ R
8m ∂x
,QFDVHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\ u WKHQ
∂p
◊R -p
Q ∂x
u = =
$UHDRISLSH 8m ¥ p ¥ R
Ê - ∂p ˆ
= R
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
7KHDERYHLVWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUDYHUDJHYHORFLW\RIWKHÀRZWKURXJKDSLSH
7KHYHORFLW\RIÀRZDWDQ\FURVVVHFWLRQLVJLYHQE\
Ê - ∂p ˆ
u= R – r
m ËÁ ∂x ¯˜
7KHPD[LPXPYHORFLW\RIÀRZLVDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHSLSHLHr
Ê - ∂p ˆ
uPD[ = R
m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
7KHUDWLRRIPD[LPXPYHORFLW\DQGDYHUDJHYHORFLW\RIWKHÀRZLV
Ê ∂p ˆ
- R
uPD[ m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
=
u Ê ∂p ˆ
- R
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯

+HQFHWKHPD[LPXPYHORFLW\RIWKHÀRZLVWZRWLPHVWKHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\RIWKHÀRZLQ
DSLSH
11.7 HAGEN POISEUILLE FORMULA

Derive an expression for drop of pressure for a given length of pipe when the fluid is
flowing through a pipe.
Or
Derive Hagen Poiseuille formula.
1 2
Flow P1 P2
x1 L
x2
&RQVLGHUDÀRZWKURXJKDSLSHWKHOHQJWKRISLSHLVLEHWZHHQVHFWLRQDQGVHFWLRQDV
VKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
7KHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\RIÀRZWKURXJKDSLSHLVJLYHQE\
Ê - ∂p ˆ
u = R
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
∂p 8u m
or – =
∂x R
1RZLQWHJUDWLQJIRUVHFWLRQWRVHFWLRQ
8u m x
– Ú ∂p = Ú ∂x
R x
8u m
or p – p = (x – x)
R
8u m D
= ◊L EXW R =
R
u m
p – p = ◊L
D
hf /RVVRISUHVVXUHKHDG
p - p
=
rg
Laminar Flow 645
p - p u m
\ hf = = ◊L
rg r g D
7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQLVNQRZQDV+DJHQ3RLVHXLOOHIRUPXOD
What is the power required to overcome the viscous resistance to make the fluid flow
through length L and discharge Q?
3RZHUUHTXLUHG :HLJKWRIWKHÀXLGÀRZLQJSHUVHFRQG¥KHDGORVV
= m ¥ g ¥ hf
u m L
= Q◊r ¥ g ¥
r g D
u m L
= Q
D
11.8 FRICTION FACTOR

What is friction factor ( f)?
,Q WKH SLSH ÀRZ WKH ORVV RI HQHUJ\ RU IULFWLRQ KHDG ORVV WDNHV SODFH EHWZHHQ DQ\ WZR
VHFWLRQVRIWKHSLSH$UDWLRQDOH[SUHVVLRQIRUIULFWLRQORVVKHDGFDQGHULYHGE\GH¿QLQJD
GLPHQVLRQOHVVFRH൶FLHQWf NQRZQDVIULFWLRQIDFWRU)ULFWLRQIDFWRULV
8t
f = ZKHUH t VKHDUVWUHVVDWSLSHZDOODQGVLVDYHUDJHYHORFLW\
rV
What is Darcy’s equation?

'DUF\¶VHTXDWLRQLVIULFWLRQORVVLQSLSHÀRZ7KHIULFWLRQKHDGLVJLYHQLQWHUPVRIIULFWLRQ
IDFWRU f DVXQGHU
f LV
hf = ZKHUH L OHQJWKV DYHUDJHYHORFLW\DQGD GLDPHWHU
gD
f 'DUF\FRH൶FLHQWDQGf IULFWLRQDOIDFWRU f

'HULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU FRH൶FLHQW RI IULFWLRQ LQ YLVFRXV IORZ LQ WHUPV RI 5H\QROGV
QXPEHU
Head loss in viscous flows by Hagen Poiseuille formula is:
u m L
hf =
r g D
/RVVRIKHDGGXHWRIULFWLRQE\'DUF\¶VHTXDWLRQ
f LV
hf =
gD
,QFDVHRISLSHÀRZV = u LHYHORFLW\LVDOZD\VDYHUDJHYHORFLW\LQSLSHÀRZ
m u L f Lu
=
rg D gD
m
RU f=
ru D

ru D
=
m
rvD
%XW 5H\QROGV QXPEHU = Re =
m

\ f=
Re
11.9 FLOW IN PARALLEL PLATES

Derive an expression for local velocity of viscous flow between two stationary flat
SODWHV6WDWHVWKHDVVXPSWLRQVPDGH 8378
7KHDVVXPSWLRQVPDGHDUH
)ORZLVWZRGLPHQVLRQDOVWHDG\ODPLQDUÀRZ
)OXLGLV1HZWRQLDQ
7KHUHLVQRVOLSRIÀXLGSDUWLFOHVDWWKHVROLGERXQGDU\
∂t .
t+ dy
∂y
x
∂P .
P+ dx
∂x
t dy P dy
dx y dx
t
x1 L
x2
Viscous Flow through Two Stationary Parallel Plates
&RQVLGHUWZRVWDWLRQDU\SDUDOOHOSODWHVNHSWDWDGLVWDQFHtDSDUWDQGDYLVFRXVÀRZLVWDNLQJ
SODFH DV VKRZQ LQ WKH ¿JXUH 7DNH D VPDOO ÀXLG HOHPHQW RI WKLFNQHVV dy OHQJWK dx DQG
ZLGWKXQLW\DWDGLVWDQFHyIURPWKHERWWRPSODWH,IZHGUDZDIUHHERG\GLDJUDPRIWKLV
∂p
ÀXLG HOHPHQW WKHQ IRUFHV DFWLQJ DUH SUHVVXUH IRUFHV p DQG p + ◊dx DFWLQJ DORQJ x
∂x
GiUHFWLRQDWERWKHQGIDFHVWKHVKHDULQJIRUFHVUHVLVWLQJÀRZDWORZHUDQGXSSHUVXUIDFH
Laminar Flow 647
Ê ∂t ˆ
RIWKHHOHPHQW6KHDUVWUHVVLVtDWORZHUIDFHDQGVKHDUVWUHVVLV Á t + ˜ DWXSSHUIDFH
Ë ∂y ¯
FRUSUDFWLFDOSXUSRVHLWLVDVVXPHGWKDWJUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFHLV]HURIRUKRUL]RQWDOÀRZDQG
∂p
,QHTXLOLEULXPFRQGLWLRQQHWIRUFHDFWLQJRQWKHÀXLGHOHPHQWLV]HUR
∂y
Ê ∂p ˆ
pdy ¥– Á p + ◊ dx˜ dy ¥±t dx ¥
Ë ∂x ¯
Ê ∂t ˆ
+ Át + ◊ d y˜ dx ¥
Ë ∂y ¯
∂p ∂t
=
∂x ∂y
7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQVKRZVWKDWSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWLQxGLUHFWLRQLVHTXDOWRWKHUDWHRIFKDQJH
RIVKHDUVWUHVVLQyGLUHFWLRQ
2QLQWHJUDWLRQ
dp
Ú dt =
dx
dyÚ
dp
t= ◊y + c ZKHUH c FRQVWDQW
dx
1RZDVSHU1HZWRQ¶VODZRIYLVFRVLW\ZHKDYH
du dp
t=m = y + c
dy dx
dp c
RU du = y dy + dy
m dx m
dp c
RU Ú du = m dx Ú ydy +
m Ú dy
d p y c
RU u= ◊ + y + c
m dx m
$VWKHUHLVVOLSDWVROLGERXQGDULHVWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDUH
y u KHQFHc
Ê d pˆ
DQG y = tu KHQFH c =± Á
Ë dx ˜¯
dp
\ u= ◊ y – ty
m dx
6LQFHt◊y > yZHFDQZULWH
Ê - d pˆ
u= ÁË dx ˜¯ t◊y – y
m
7KH DERYH HTXDWLRQ LV D HTXDWLRQ RI SDUDEROD +HQFH ORFDO YHORFLW\ YDULHV LQ SDUDEROLF
PDQQHUZKHQDYLVFRXVÀRZWDNHVSODFHEHWZHHQWZRSDUDOOHODQGVWDWLRQDU\SODWHV
Local Velocity Distribution
Draw the shear stress distribution for the viscous flow through two parallel and
VWDWLRQDU\SODWHV
7KHORFDOYHORFLW\
Ê - d pˆ
u= ty – y
m ÁË dx ˜¯
2QGL൵HUHQWLDWLQJZUWy
du Ê - d pˆ
= t±y
dy m ÁË dx ˜¯
du
%XW t=m
dy
Ê -d pˆ
\ t= t±\
ÁË dx ˜¯
t
t ZKHQ y =

t PD[LPXP ZKHQ y RUy = t
Laminar Flow 649
7KHGLVWULEXWLRQRIVKHDUVWUHVVLVDVVKRZQEHORZ
Shear Stress Distribution
)LQGWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUDYHUDJHYHORFLW\IRUWKHYLVFRXVIORZEHWZHHQWZRSDUDOOHODQG
VWDWLRQDU\SODWHV)LQGWKHUDWLRRIPD[LPXPYHORFLW\RIWKHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\
7KHORFDOYHORFLW\DWGLVWDQFHyLVJLYHQE\
Ê - d pˆ
u= t◊y – y
m ÁË dx ˜¯
'LVFKDUJHWKURXJKDVPDOOHOHPHQWRIKHLJKWdy
dQ = u ¥ dy ¥
Ê - d pˆ
= t◊y – ydy
m ÁË dx ˜¯
1RZWRWDOGLVFKDUJHQLVE\LQWHJUDWLQJ
Ê - d pˆ t
\ Q=
m ÁË dx ˜¯ Ú

ty – ydy
t
Ê - d p ˆ È ty y ˘
= Í - ˙
m ÁË dx ˜¯ Î ˚
Ê - d p ˆ È t t ˘
= Í - ˙
m ÁË dx ˜¯ Î ˚
Ê - d pˆ
= t
m ÁË dx ˜¯
1RZDYHUDJHYHORFLW\ u
Ê -d pˆ
t
Q ÁË dx ˜¯
u = =
A m t ¥
Ê -d pˆ
u = t
m ÁË dx ˜¯
t
7R¿QGPD[LPXPYHORFLW\ZKLFKLVDWWKHHTXDOGLVWDQFHIURPERWKWKHSODWHSXWy =

Ê -d pˆ
u= t◊y – y
m ÁË dx ˜¯
Ê -d pˆ Ê t t ˆ
uPD[ =
m ÁË dx ˜¯ Át ◊ - ˜
Ë ¯
Ê -d pˆ
= t
8 m ÁË dx ˜¯
1RZWKHUDWLRRIuPD[WR u LV
Ê -d pˆ
t
uPD[ 8 m ÁË dx ˜¯
=
u Ê -d pˆ
t
m ÁË dx ˜¯

=

Derive an expression for drop of pressure head of a viscous flow through two parallel
and stationary plates for a length of L
Flow
t
P2
P1
x1 L
x2
Ê - d pˆ
7KHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\ u IRUDSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQW Á YLVFRVLW\RIÀXLGDQGGLVWDQFH
Ë dx ˜¯
t EHWZHHQWKHSODWHVLVJLYHQE\
Laminar Flow 651
u = Ê - ∂p ˆ
◊t
m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
∂p u m
RU ± =
∂x t
u m
RU ±∂p = ◊ ∂x
t
1RZLQWHJUDWLQJWKHHTXDWLRQIURPxWRxZHJHW
u m x
Ú
- ∂p =
t Ú x
∂x
u m
p – p x – x
t
m u ◊ L
RU p – p =
t
7KHKHDGORVVGXULQJÀRZLV
p - p m u L
= hf =
rg rgt
Note: 7KH KHDG ORVV LQFUHDVHV ZLWK YHORFLW\ DQG OHQJWK RI ÀRZ EXW GHFUHDVHV ZLWK
LQFUHDVLQJGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHSODWHV
Derive an expression of local velocity for viscous flow between parallel plates when one
SODWHLV¿[HGDQGWKHRWKHULVPRYLQJ:KDWLVWKHQDPHJLYHQWRWKLVNLQGRIIORZ"
Moving plate ∂t .
t+ dy
∂y
dx ∂P .
P+ dx
t dy P ∂x
y t
7KLVW\SHRIÀRZLVFDOOHG&RXHWWHÀRZ,QFDVHZHFRQVLGHUWKHHTXLOLEULXPRIWKHÀXLG
HOHPHQWZHJHW
Ê ∂p ˆ Ê ∂t ˆ
p◊dy◊± Á p + dx dy◊ – t ◊dx◊ ÁË t + ∂ y d y˜¯ dx◊
Ë ∂x ˜¯
∂p ∂t
=
∂x ∂y
∂p
RU Ú ∂t = Ú ∂x
◊ dy
Ê ∂p ˆ
RU t = Á ˜ y + c
Ë ∂x ¯
du
%XW t=m
dy
Ê ∂p ˆ
\ du = y dy + c ∂y
m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
,QWHJUDWLQJWKHHTXDWLRQZHJHW
Ê ∂p ˆ
Ú ∂u = m ÁË ∂x ˜¯ Ú y dy + Ú dy
Ê ∂ p ˆ y
u= + c y + c L
m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
$SSO\LQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVWR¿QGcDQGc
y u KHQFHc
v Ê ∂p ˆ t
y = tu = v KHQFHc = – Á ˜
t m Ë ∂x ¯
3XWWLQJWKHYDOXHRIC & CLQHTQL
Ê ∂ p ˆ y Ê v ∂p t ˆ
u= Á ˜ + Á - ◊ y
m Ë ∂x ¯ Ë t m ∂x ˜¯
Ê - ∂p ˆ v
= Á ˜ [ty – y] + ◊y
m Ë ∂x ¯ t
∂p ∂p
7KHHTXDWLRQVKRZVWKDWORFDOYHORFLW\GHSHQGVRQ DQGYHORFLW\vRIWKHSODWH
∂x ∂x
FaQEHQHJDWLYHRUSRVLWLYH,QFDVHLWLV]HURWKHQ
v
u= ◊y
t
7KH HTXDWLRQ VKRZV WKDW YHORFLW\ u FKDQJHV WR ]HUR IURP VWDWLRQDU\ SODWH WR PD[LPXP
∂p
YHORFLW\vOLQHDUO\ZKLFKLVWKHYHORFLW\RIWKHPRYLQJSODWH,QFDVH πWKHQWKHORFDO
∂x
YHORFLW\ZLOOYDU\SDUDEROLFDOO\
Laminar Flow 653
)LQGWKHVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQLQ&RXHWWHIORZ
,Q&RXHWWHÀRZWKHORFDOYHORFLW\vLVJLYHQE\
Ê - ∂p ˆ v
u= ty – y ◊y
m ÁË ∂x ˜¯ t
V V
V V
Velocity distribution Velocity distribution

31
13
31
13
∂P ∂P
π0 =0
∂x ∂x
'L൵HUHQWLDWLQJWKHHTXDWLRQZHJHW
∂u Ê - ∂p ˆ v
= Á ˜ t±y
∂y m Ë ∂x ¯ t
∂u
%XWVKHDUVWUHVV t=m
∂y
Ê ∂p ˆ mv
RU t= ÁË - ∂x ˜¯ t±y t

6KHDUVWUHVVDWVWDWLRQDU\SODWHLVt FDQEHIRXQGRXWE\SXWWLQJy
mv Ê - ∂p ˆ t
t = + Á ◊
t Ë ∂x ˜¯
6KHDUVWUHVVDWPRYLQJSODWHFDQEHIRXQGRXWE\SXWWLQJy = t
mv Ê - ∂p ˆ Ê t ˆ
tm = + Á ˜ ÁË - t ˜¯
t Ë ∂x ¯
mv Ê ∂p ˆ t
= + Á ˜◊
t Ë ∂x ¯
t
6KHDUVWUHVVDWy = LHFHQWUHRIWZRSODWHV

mv
tc =
t
$SRLQWZKHUHVKHDUVWUHVVLV]HURLV
t Ê - ∂p ˆ Ê t ˆ
O=m + Á ˜ Á - y˜
Ë ∂x ¯ Ë ¯
t v
RU y= –m ¥
t Ê - ∂p ˆ
ÁË ∂x ˜¯
7KHVKHDUVWUHVVGLVWULEXWLRQLVDVVKRZQEHORZ
V
y = t/2
t 1
y = + mv ×
F I
∂P
H K
31
13
2 Shear Stress Distribution

∂x
$ IOXLG RI YLVFRVLW\ 1VP2 DQG 6* LV IORZLQJ WKURXJK D FLUFXODU SLSH RI
GLDPHWHU PP7KH PD[LPXP VKHDU VWUHVV DW WKH SLSH ZDOO LV JLYHQ DV 1P2
)LQGLSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQWLLDYHUDJHYHORFLW\DQGLLL5H\QROGVQXPEHURIWKHIORZ
(UPTU 2005-6)
Ê - ∂p ˆ r
Guidance: )RUÀRZWKURXJKSLSHVKHDUVWUHVVt = Á +HQFHIRUPD[LPXPVKHDU
Ë ∂x ˜¯
Ê - ∂p ˆ
VWUHVVDWSLSHZDOOLVZKHQr = R$YHUDJHYHORFLW\iV u = ¥ R
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
Ê - ∂p ˆ R
t PD[ = Á
Ë ∂x ˜¯
- ∂ p ¥
Ê ˆ

ÁË ∂x ˜¯
- ∂p ¥
\ = = 8 ¥1P
∂x
Laminar Flow 655
$YHUDJHYHORFLW\ u
Ê - ∂p ˆ
u = R
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯

= ¥ 8 ¥ ¥
¥
=PV
u ◊r◊ D
5H\QROGVQXPEHU =
m
¥ ¥ ¥

=

Show that for viscous flow through a circular pipe mean velocity of flow occurs at a
UDGLDOGLVWDQFHRIR from the centre of pipe where R is the radius of pipe
7KHORFDOYHORFLW\
Ê - ∂p ˆ
u= R – r L
m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
DQGDYHUDJHYHORFLW\
Ê - ∂p ˆ
u = R LL
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
(TXDWLQJHTQVLDQGLL
Ê - ∂p ˆ Ê - ∂p ˆ
Á ˜ R – r R
m Ë ∂x ¯ 8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
RU R±r = R
RU R r

RU r= R

R
$ OXEULFDWLQJ RLO RI YLVFRVLW\ 1VP2 DQG 6* LV SXPSHG WKURXJK D PP
GLDPHWHUSLSH,IWKHSUHVVXUHGURSSHUPHWUHRISLSHLVN1P2¿QGWKHIORZ
Ê - ∂p ˆ
$YHUDJHYHORFLW\ u = p
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯

RU u = ¥¥
¥
u PV
'LVFKDUJHQ = u ¥ A

¥ p ¥

PV
2LOKDYLQJ6*LVSXPSHGWKURXJKDPPGLDPHWHUSLSH7KHGLVFKDUJHLV
mPLQDQGSUHVVXUHGURSLVN3DIRUPOHQJWKRISLSH)LQGYLVFRVLW\
Q
$YHUDJHYHORFLW\ u =
A
0.9 ¥ 4
RU u =
6 ¥ p ¥ (0.20) 2
PV
7KHSUHVVXUHGURSLQDSLSHIRUOHQJWKL
u m L
p – p =
D
m ¥ ¥
¥ =

¥ ¥

RU m=
¥ ¥
1VP
$ SUHVVXUH GURS RI 1P2 WDNHV SODFH LQ D FLUFXODU SLSH RI OHQJWK P 7KH
5H\QROGVQXPEHURIWKLVIORZLV)LQGGURSLQSUHVVXUHLQFDVHIORZLVPDGHGRXEOH
ZLWKRXWFKDQJLQJOLTXLGSURSHUWLHV
6LQFH5H\QROGVQXPEHUWKHÀRZLVODPLQDU
u m L
p – p =
D
:KHQÀRZLVPDGHGRXEOHLH
Q¢ Q
Laminar Flow 657
ZHKDYH A u ¢ ◊A u
RU u ¢ u
u ¢ ¥ m ¥ L
\ p¢ – p¢ =
D
=¥ u ¥ m ¥ L
D
¥
N1P
A viscous flow of oil is taking place in a pipe of 12 cm diameter with discharge of
¥ 10± mV:KDWSRZHUSHUNLORPHWUHLVUHTXLUHGWRPDLQWDLQWKHIORZLI6*RI
WKHIOXLGLVDQGYLVFRVLW\LV1VP2?
Q ¥ - ¥
u = =
A p ¥
PV
3UHVVXUHGURS
p - p u m L
= hf =
rg r gD
¥ ¥ ¥

RU hf =
¥ ¥ ¥
PRIRLO
3RZHU rg◊Qhf
¥ ¥¥¥± ¥
ZDWWV
$PPGLDPHWHUSLSHNPORQJLVXVHGIRUWUDQVSRUWLQJRLOIURPDWDQNHULQVHD
WRVKRUHDWIORZRIPV)LQGWKHSRZHUUHTXLUHGWRPDLQWDLQWKHIORZ$VVXPHm
1PV 6* IRUWKHRLO
)ORZ u ¥$UHD

Q = u ¥ pd

¥
u = PV
p ¥
1RZWRFKHFN5H\QROGVQXPEHU
ru d
Re =
m
¥ ¥ ¥

=

6LQFHReKHQFHÀRZLVODPLQDU
u m L
1RZ p – p =
D
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
=

¥1P
3RZHUORVV p – p¥ Q
¥¥
ZDWWV
N:
$QRLOKDVYLVFRVLW\RI1PVDQG6*RIIORZVWKURXJKDKRUL]RQWDOSLSHRI
FPGLDPHWHUZLWKDSUHVVXUHGURSRIN1P2SHUPHWUHOHQJWKRISLSH)LQGUDWH
RIIORZVKHDUVWUHVVDWSLSHZDOOGUDJIRUPOHQJWKRISLSHDQGSRZHU
WRPDLQWDLQIORZLQPSLSHOHQJWK
-dp -dp
= = 6 ¥1P
dL dx
p Ê - ∂p ˆ
1RZ Q= R
8 m ÁË ∂x ˜¯
p
= ¥¥
¥
PV
∂p r
1RZVKHDUVWUHVV t=– ◊
∂x
∂p R
DWZDOOt PD[ = – ◊
∂x
Laminar Flow 659

= 6 ¥ ¥

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11.10 KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR

The velocity distribution for viscous flow in a circular pipe of radius R is given by:
2
u
± ÊÁ r ˆ˜
umax Ë R¯
Where u is the local velocity at radius r and umaxLVWKHPD[LPXPYHORFLW\DWWKHFHQWUH

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Or
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LVHTXDOWR 8378
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FDOFXODWHGRQWKHEDVLVRIDYHUDJHYHORFLW\
Local velocity (u) r
r + dr
R
Viscous Flow through Pipe

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u =
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Ë R ¯
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Ë R ¯
u =
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Laminar Flow 661
R u
=
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=
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= >R±RR±R]
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= ¥ ¥

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2
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20
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P1 = 600 kN/m
20 f
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hrgDWULJKWVLGHRIWKHSUHVVXUHGURSHTXDWLRQ
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ru D ¥ ¥
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Since ReÀRZLVODPLQDU
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=
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11.11 FLOW IN INCLINED PIPE

A liquid of viscosity 0.07 poise and RD of 0.86 flows through an inclined pipe of 20 m
diameter. A discharge of 0.013 m3/min is to be maintained through the pipe in such
a way that pressure along the length is constant. Find the required inclination of the
pipe.
w
Flo
L sin q
Z1
Z2
q
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ZRUGVhf = (z1 – z2) = LVLQq
32 u m L
+HDGORVV hf =
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Q
u =
A
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=
p
60 ¥ ¥ (0.02)2
4
PV
32 ¥ 0.69 ¥ 0.07 ¥ L
\ hf =
(0.02) 2 ¥ .86 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
6LQFHSUHVVXUHLVFRQVWDQWKHQFH
hf = LVLQq
32 ¥ 0.69 ¥ 0.07 ¥ L
RU LVLQq =
4 ¥ 10- 4 ¥ 0.86 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
RU VLQq = 0.45
RU q = 27.2
A tank has 4 cm diameter and 100 cm long pipe attached at its bottom. The tank has
oil of SG = 0.9 and viscosity = 0.15 Ns/m2. Find flow through pipe when the height of
oil in tank is 0.6 m above the pipe.
0.6 m
1m
Dia = 4 cm
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= v ªz – z P
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A laminar flow is taking place between two parallel and stationary plates 100 mm
DSDUW0D[LPXPYHORFLW\RIWKHIORZLVPV¿QGIORZSHUPHWUHZLGWKVKHDU
VWUHVVDWWKHSODWHVWKHSUHVVXUHGURSIRUIORZRIPYHORFLW\JUDGLHQWEHWZHHQ
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1VP2
t = 100 mm
Ê - ∂p ˆ
Guidance: 7KHORFDOYHORFLW\RIWKHÀRZLVJLYHQE\u = ty – yDYHUDJH
m ÁË ∂ x ˜¯
Ê - ∂p ˆ u mL
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\ u = PV

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= ¥¥

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1
4m
Leakage Through Tank

Laminar Flow 669
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v = 1.2 m/s
L = 12 mm
Stationary
L = 100 m
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11.12 FLOW IN INCLINED PLATES

Laminar flow of a fluid (m 1P2DQG6* LVPDLQWDLQHGLQSDUDOOHOSODWHV
RIH[WHQVLYHZLGWK7KHSODWHVDUHLQFOLQHGDWWRWKHKRUL]RQWDODQGDUHNHSWPP
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/s
Moving plate 1.5 m
1 V=
250 kN/m2
2 mm
10
z=
L
1m
30 kN/m2
z1
45°
z2
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L
\
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+ + z = + + z + hL
rg g rg g
6LQFHSLSHKDVFRQVWDQWGLDPHWHUKHQFHV = V
P - P
\ HL = + z – z
rg
- ¥
=
¥ ¥
= 14.44 + 1 = 15.44 m
- ∂P H ¥ r¥ g
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∂x 2
- ∂P 15.44 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81

=
∂x 2
= 128.5 ¥ 103 N/m3

The velocity distribution,
V 1 Ê - ∂P ˆ 2
u= y+ Á ˜ (ty – y )
t 2 m Ë ∂x ¯
- 1.5 1
= y+ (128.5 ¥ 103)(0.01 y – y2)
0.01 2 ¥ 0.8
= –150 y + 80.3 ¥ 103(0.01y – y2)
∂u
The condition for maximuPYHORFLW\RIWKHÀRZLVZKHQ = 0, hence
∂y
∂u
= –150 + 80.3 ¥ 103(0.01 – 2y) = 0
∂y
150
or 0.01 – 2y = = 1.86 ¥ 10–3
80.3 ¥ 103
= 0.00186
or 2y = 0.01 – 0.00186
= 8.14 ¥ 10–3
or y = 4.07 ¥ 10–3 m
Put y = 4.07 ¥ 10–3 in velocity equation to get maximum velocity.
umax = – 150 ¥ 4.07 ¥ 10–3 + 80.3 ¥ 103 [0.01 ¥ 4.07 ¥ 10–3 – (4.07 ¥ 10–3)2]
= – 0.610 + 3.268 – 1.330
= 1.327 m/s
Shear stress distribution is:
Ê - ∂P ˆ Ê t ˆ
t = mV + Á ˜¯ Á - y˜
t Ë ∂ x Ë 2 ¯
1.5 Ê 0.01 ˆ
= 0.8 ¥ + (128.5 ¥ 103) Á - y˜
0.01 Ë 2 ¯
Laminar Flow 673
= –120 + 642.5 – 128.5 ¥ 103 ¥ y
= 522.5 – 128.5 ¥ 103 ¥ y
Shear stress at upper plate can be found out by putting y = 0.01
t upper = 522.5 – 128.5 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.01
= 522.5 – 128.5
= –762.2 N/m2
11.13 DARCY’S EQUATION

Derive the expression for Darcy’s equation for laminar flow through a porous material.
Darcy proved by experiments that the velocity of a fluid through a porous material
varies linearly with the loss of head (hf ) and the flow is therefore laminar/viscous. Since
32 u mL
the loss of head through a pipe is given by hf = and through parallel plates
rg D2
12 u mL
by hf = , hence a general expression for laminar flow is:
D2 ◊ rg
k ¢u m L
hf = where k ¢ = Constant
rg D2
Now porous material has a number of small pores say n of diameter d p hence, we can write:
D = n ◊dp
Hence, we say that the head loss,
k ¢u m L
hf =
r g ◊ n 2 d P2
r g n 2 d P2 Ê h f ˆ
or u = Á ˜
k ¢m Ë L ¯
hf
Now, = hydraulic gradient = i
L
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11.14 OIL BEARINGS

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UHVLVWDQFH
Bearing
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Thickness of oil film Lubricating oil

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Journal Bearing
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p N
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= ◊

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u
dF = m◊ ¥pr ◊dr
t
p DN
= m◊ ¥pr ◊dr
t
m◊ p rN ◊ pr ◊ dr
=
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m p Nr dr
= ◊
t
m
dT = dF◊r = p Nr dr
¥ t
R m
\ T= Ú t
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m R
= p N
t
m
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t
m
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t
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p N
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11.15 DASHPOT
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Piston
Oil
Cylinder
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If WLVORDGRQWKHSLVWRQWKHQGL൵HUHQFHRISUHVVXUHEHWZHHQWZRHQGVRIWKHSLVWRQ
W 4W
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=
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4
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12 u mL
dp = ZKHUH t WKLFNQHVVRIJDp and u DYHUDJHYHORFLW\
t2
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t2
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pd 2
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4
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4
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oil of the cylinder If additional load of 1.2 N is applied, the piston falls through 50
mm in 40 seconds. The diameter of piston is 50 mm and its length is 100 mm. The gap
thickness is 1 mm. Find viscosity of the oil.
W W + 1.2
=
V V1
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V= ¥±PV

5 ¥ -
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=
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What are the various methods of measuring viscosity?
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Sphere
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for constant
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test h of diameter ‘d ’
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L
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the loss of head of the liquid.
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Q=
time
Q
u = DYHUDJHYHORFLW\
area of capillary
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4
The head loss,
32u mL 32 ¥ 4Q ¥ m ¥ L
h= =
2
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or m=
128 ◊ Q ◊ L
Viscosity can be determined from the above equation.

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Dial to
measure deflection
of torsional spring Torsional spring
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cylinder of
radius R1
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of liquid radius R2
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(a) In linear proportion to the cross-sectional area
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on
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Option (c) is correct
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(a) Linear law (b) Parabolic law
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centre line velocity of 1.5 m/s?
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(b) The pressure gradient remains constant in the downstream direction
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can conclude that the
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(b) Head loss is proportional to the square of the average flow velocity
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of which one of the following pair of forces?
(a) Pressure and inertial forces
(b) Gravity and inertial forces
(c) Viscous and inertial forces
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(c) Will be same in both the pipes
(d) In the two pipes cannot be compared on the basis of data given (IES 2000)

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Chapter 12
TURBULENT FLOW
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

CRITICAL VELOCITY SMOOTH BOUNDARY
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY ROUGH BOUNDARY
MAGNITUDE OF TURBULENCE ROUGHNESS REYNOLDS NUMBER
INTENSITY OF TURBULENCE FRICTION FACTOR
SCALE OF TURBULENCE DARCY’S EQUATION
EDDY VISCOSITY HEAD LOSS
TURBULENCE SHEAR STRESS RELATIVE ROUGHNESS
MIXING LENGTH CONCEPT EQUIVALENT SAND GRAIN ROUGHNESS
SIMILARITY CONCEPT POWER LAW
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPE LAMINAR SUBLAYER
MAXIMUM VELOCITY OF FLOW MOODY’S DIAGRAM
AVERAGE VELOCITY OF FLOW HOTWIRE ANEMOMETER
SHEAR VELOCITY LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER
12.1 INTRODUCTION
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12.2 TURBULENT FLOW

What is turbulent flow? Compare velocity distribution in laminar and turbulent flows
in a pipe.
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Turbulent
Flow Laminar
Velocity Distribution in Laminar and Turbulent Flow
What is dominant in laminar flow?

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What is critical velocity?
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Describe the mechanism of a transition from laminar to turbulent?
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Turbulent Flow 703
Describe the mechanism of formation of vortices.
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What is the result of turbulence? Is it desirable to promote turbulence in the flow?
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Compare the energy dissipation of laminar and turbulent flow.
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12.3 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

Explain (1) instantaneous velocity, (2) magnitude of turbulence, (3) intensity of
turbulence, and (4) scale of turbulence.
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ut
ut u
Time (t)
Variation of Velocity at a Point
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12.4 EDDY VISCOSITY

What do you understand from the eddy viscosity? What is total shear stress in a
turbulent flow?
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12.5 TURBULENCE SHEAR STRESS

What is the Reynolds expression for turbulence shear stress?
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What is von Karman similarity concept? What is the limitation of Prandtl’s concept
and Karman concept?
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Turbulent Flow 719
±ORJ k ORJ ±ORJ k
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k = PP ,I NLQHPDWLF YLVFRVLW\ LV ¥ 10–4 m2V ¿QG ZKHWKHU SLSH EHKDYHV DV
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VXUIDFHRISLSHZLOOEHKDYHLQFDVHWKHZDOOVWUHVVLV1P2 and kinematic viscosity is
0.01 state.
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12.10 AVERAGE VELOCITY

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velocity.
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circular ring R
R r r + dr
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dQ p rdr¥ u
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u Êu r ˆ
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u
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Turbulent Flow 721
Ê R - r ˆ
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'HULYHDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQYHORFLW\DWDQ\SRLQWDQGDYHUDJHYHORFLW\
for the turbulent flow in pipe.
CaseSmooth pipe
9HORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQLV
u Ê u ry ˆ
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u Ë m ¯
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centre of the pipeline.
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LVJLYHQE\
u-u y
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Derive an expression for head loss in pipe due to friction.
Or
Derive Darcy’s equation for friction loss in pipe flow.
1
P1
L
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2
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Turbulent Flow 723
p A – p A – t p DLwFRVq
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(TXLYDOHQWVDQGJUDLQURXJKQHVVIRUFRPPHUFLDOSLSHVLVGH¿QHGDVWKHVL]HRIVDQGJUDLQV
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FRQGXFWLQJDVHULHVRIH[SHULPHQWVXVLQJGL൵HUHQWJUDLQVL]HFRDWLQJVRQDSLSHWLOOWKHYDOXH
RIIULFWLRQIDFWRURIJUDLQFRDWHGSLSHDQGFRPPHUFLDOSLSHLVVDPH
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12.13 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER

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element Electrical
body connection
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Write a short note on laser doppler anemometer.
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Turbulent Flow 727
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in flow
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flow in smooth pipe?
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Pitot tube is moved from a point 1 cm from the wall to a point 2 cm from the wall.
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k
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Find the distance from the wall of the pipe at which the local velocity is equal to the
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0.9 centistoke. Find (1) is the flow turbulent or laminar?, and (2) what is the head loss
in friction?
Turbulent Flow 729
64
For laminar flow, f =
Re
1 R
For turbulent flow, ORJ10 + 1.74 (UPSC : Civil Services)
f k
uD ¥
Re = =
v ¥ -
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friction factor(fDQGSLSHURXJKQHVVk).
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the maximum velocity, the stress at the pipe surface and the shear velocity. Assume
kinematic viscosity of water as one centistoke. Find also the thickness of laminar
sublayer. (Allahabad University)
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R
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f k

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A smooth pipe carries 7 litres of water per second at 20oC (v = 1 ¥ 10–6 m2/s) with a
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(Allahabad University)
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and kinematic viscosity = 1.5 ¥ 10–5 m2/s.
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Turbulent Flow 735
Now head loss h f,
f u 2L 0.0227 ¥ 0.9432 ¥ 1 ¥ 103

hf = =
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= 3.425 m
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Dp
hf =
v
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= 1.1 ¥ 9.81 ¥ 3.425
= 36.96 kN/m2
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p = r ◊g◊Q◊h f
= 1.1 ¥ 9.81 ¥ 0.0667 ¥ 3.425
= 2.465 kW
For turbulent flow in circular pipe of radius R, friction factor, f = 0.02. Find the local
velocity at a radial distance of 0.25 R from the axis of pipe. If mean velocity is 0.3 m/s,
what is the velocity at the centre of the pipe.
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1 Ê Rˆ
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0.6 mV ,I WKH DYHUDJH KHLJKW RI URXJKQHVV LV PP ¿QG WKH SRZHU UHTXLUHG WR
maintain the flow. 8378

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Turbulent Flow 737
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The head loss in a pipe of diameter dFDUU\LQJRLODWIORZUDWHd over a distance l is h.
7KHSLSHLVUHSODFHGE\DQRWKHUZLWKKDOIWKHGLDPHWHUDOORWKHUWKLQJVUHPDLQLQJWKH
same. The head loss in the case will be
(a) 0.5 h (b) 2.0 h
F K G K (Civil Services)
f u L
+HDGORVVh f =
D ◊ ◊ g
Q = A u = A u RUd u G u
d d
1RZ d = \ u = u u
d
f u L f u L
hf = = hf
D D ◊ ◊ g
¥ g

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increase in Darcy-Weisbach friction factor fLV²²²
(a) 21 (b) 45
(c) 66 (d) 77 (*$7(1994)
f Lu
FriFWLRQORVV
D◊◊ g
Q
u =
A
f LQ
hf =
g ◊ DA
h f ◊ g ◊ D ◊ A
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h f ¥ g ¥ D ¥ A
1RZ f =
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h ¥ g¥D¥ A
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f
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f
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*LYHQWKDWk = aFRH൶FLHQW u = mean velocity f = friction factor and D = diameter, if
k u
KHDGORVVLQDEHQGLVJLYHQE\hL = , then the equivalent leQJWKRIWKHSLSHLV
2g
kD kf
(a) (b)
f D
f Df
(c) (d) (IES 1994)
kD k
ku
+HDGORVV hL = L
g
f Lu
$OVR hL = LL
D ◊ g
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ku f Lu
=
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Turbulent Flow 739
If a single pipeline of length L and diameter D is to be replaced by three pipes of the
same material, same length and equal diameter d(d < D) to convey the same discharge
under the same head loss, then d and D are related as:
D D
(a) d = (b) d =
31/5 35/ 3
D D
(c) d = (d) d = (GATE 1997)
32/5 23/ 2
2
Ê Qˆ
fÁ ˜ L
fu L2 Ë A¯ f Q2 L
hL = = = 2 5
D ◊ 2g D ◊ 2g p D ◊ 2g
= k ◊ L if other variables do not change

D5
L L1 L2 L3
\ 5 = 5 + 5 + L 1= L 2 = L 3
D D1 D2 D35
D1 = D2 = D3 = d
L L L 3L
= 5
+ 5 + 5 = 5
d d d d
D
\ d=
(3)1/5

At the same mean velocity, the ratio of the loss per unit length for a sewer pipe flowing
half full would be:
(a) 2 (b) 1.63
(c) 1 (d) 0.61 (GATE 1998)
f u 2L
Head loss = hL =
D ◊ 2g
hL f u2
or =
L D ◊ 2g
Now, u = constant, D = constant
Hence, hL = constant
L
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(a) 26 (b) 12
(c) 60 (d) 100 (Civil Services 1994)
f u L
hL =
D ◊ g
f Q ◊ L
=
A ◊ D ◊ g
h L ¥ Q L
hL = kQ L

Q L kQ ◊ L
hL = k ÊÁ ˆ˜ ◊
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= kQ L ÍÈ + ˙˘
Î ˚

= ◊k Q L

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Q = Q

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E $GGLWLRQDOQRUPDOVWUHVVHVGXHWRIOXFWXDWLQJYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWVLQDWXUEXOHQW
flow
Turbulent Flow 741
(c) Additional shear stresses due to fluctuating velocity components in a turbulent
flow
(d) Additional normal and shear stresses due to fluctuating velocity components in
IORZ¿HOG ,(6
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(a) Viscous stress is zero at the wall
(b) Viscous stress is of the same order of magnitude as the Reynolds stress
(c) The Reynolds stress is zero at the wall
G 9LVFRXVVWUHVVLVPXFKVPDOOHUWKDQ5H\QROGVVWUHVV ,(6
2SWLRQGLVFRUUHFW
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(a) Viscous property of the fluid
(b) The fluid
(c) Fluctuation of velocity in the direction of flow
(d) Fluctuation of velocity in the direction of flow as well as transverse to it
,(6
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7KHSUHVVXUHGURSLQDPPGLDPHWHUKRUL]RQWDOSLSHLVN3DRYHUDOHQJWKRI
m. The shear stress at the pipe wall is
D N3D E N3D
F N3D G N3D ,(6
6KHDUIRUFHLVHTXDOWRSUHVVXUHGURS
pD 2
߬o × (ʌDL) = P1 - P2 ¥
4
P1 - P2 ¥ D
or ߬o =
4L
¥ 3 ¥ ¥ - 3

=
4 ¥ 10
= 125 Pa = 0.125 kPa

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As the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is induced, a cross flow past a circular
F\OLQGHUWKHYDOXHRIWKHGUDJFRH൶FLHQWGURSV
(a) True (b) False
(c) May be true or false (d) None (GATE 1994)
7KHWRWDOVKHDUVWUHVVLQWXUEXOHQWÀRZLV
du du
߬ = ߬laminar൅߬turbulence = m ◊ +h
dy dy
,QDWXUEXOHQWIORZ u , n and w DUHWLPHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWV7KHIOXFWXDWLQJ
components are u ¢, v ¢ and Z ¢UHVSHFWLYHO\7KHWXUEXOHQFHLVVDLGWREHLVRWURSLFLI

(a) u = v = Z (b) u + u¢ = u + n¢ = w + w¢¢
(c) (u ) 2 = ( n)2 = (w ) 2 G 1RQHRIWKHDERYHSUHYDLOV ,(6
,VRWURSLFWXUEXOHQFHKDVSURSHUWLHVZKLFKDUHQRQGHSHQGHQWRQGLUHFWLRQ
2 2 2
It has (u ¢ ) = (v ¢ ) = (w ) DQG (ui¢ ◊ u ¢j ) = 0
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Where we consider the momentum exchange between two adjacent layers in a turbulent
flow, can it be postulated that if at an instant there is an increase u ¢ in the x-direction,
it will be followed by a change in v ¢ in the y-direction?
(a) Yes, in such a manner than u ¢ v ¢ = non-zero and positive
(b) Yes, in such a manner that u ¢ v ¢ = 0
(c) Yes, in such a manner that u ¢ v ¢ = non-zero and negative
(d) No, as u¢ and v¢DUHQRWGHSHQGHQWRQHDFKRWKHU ,(6
∂u ¢ - ∂v ¢
The relation = LH FRQVHUYDWLRQ RI EXON PRPHQWXP LV GHULYHG RQ SRVWXODWLRQ
dx dy
that if at any instant there is an increase in u¢ in xGLUHFWLRQWKHQLWZLOOEHIROORZHGby an
increase in v¢ in the negative yGLUHFWLRQ7KLV PHDQVWKDW the term u ¢ v ¢ LV QRQ]HUR DQG
negative.
Turbulent Flow 743
du¢ dv ¢
,I + = 0 IRUWXUEXOHQWIORZWKHQLWVLJQL¿HVWKDW
dx dy
(a) Bulk momentum transport is conveyed.

(b) u ¢v ¢ is non-zero and positive
(c) Turbulence is a isotropie
(d) None of the above is true (IES 1996)
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The losses are more in
(a) Laminar flow (b) Transient flow
(c) Turbulent flow (d) Critical flow
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(a) Smooth and streamline flow (b) Laminar flow
(c) Steady flow (d) Turbulent flow
H +LJKO\WXUEXOHQWIORZ
2SWLRQDLVFRUUHFW
For pipes, turbulent flow occurs when Reynolds number is
(a) Less than 2000 (b) Between 2000 to 4000
(c) More than 4000 (d) Less than 4000
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particles
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7
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(a) 2.0 (b) 1.5
F G ,(6

p Ê r ˆ
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= uPD[ <

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d
In a turbulent flow, l LVWKH3UDQGWO¶VPL[LQJOHQJWKDQG u LVWKHJUDGLHQWRIDYHUDJH
dy
YHORFLW\LQWKHGLUHFWLRQQRUPDOWRIORZ7KH¿QDOH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHWXUEXOHQWYHORFLW\
expression for the turbulent velocity VtLVJLYHQE\
Èd u ˘ Èd u ˘
(a) Vt = l Í ˙ (b) Vt = l 2 Í ˙
Î dy ˚ Î dy ˚
2 2
Èd u ˘ Èd u ˘
(c) Vt = l 2 Í ˙ (d) Vt = l Í ˙ (IES 1994, 1997)
Î dy ˚ Î dy ˚
2SWLRQELVFRUUHFW
7KHXQLYHUVDOYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQIRUWXUEXOHQWIORZLQDFKDQQHOLVJLYHQE\u* is
u*
the friction velocity and h is JLYHn by y ◊ where v is kinematic viscosity and y is the
v
distance from wall).
u u
(a) = ORJ e h + (b) = ORJ e h +
u* u*
u d
(c) = ORJ e h + (d) = ORJ e h + (IES 1991)
umax u
2SWLRQDLVFRUUHFW
,QDIXOO\WXUEXOHQWIORZWKURXJKDURXJKSLSHWKHIULFWLRQIDFWRUf is (Re = Reynolds
x
number and s LVUHODWLYHURXJKQHVV
D
x
(a) A function of Re (b) A function of Re and
D
xs x
(c) A function of (d) Independent of Re and ,(6
D D
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Turbulent Flow 745
:KLOHZDWHUSDVVHVWKURXJKDJLYHQSLSHDWPHDQYHORFLW\VWKHIORZLVIRXQGWRFKDQJH
IURPODPLQDUWRWXUEXOHQW,IDQRWKHUIOXLGRI6*DQGFRH൶FLHQWRIYLVFRVLW\
WKDWRIZDWHULVSDVVHGWKURXJKWKHVDPHSLSHWKHWUDQVLWLRQRIIORZIURPODPLQDUWR
turbulent is expected if the flow velocity is
(a) 2V (b) V
V V
(c) (d) ,$6
2 4
rw ¥ Vw ¥ Dw rw V f D f
ReZDWHU = =
mw m w
RU Vw ή Vf

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D /LQHDUO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRYHORFLW\JUDGLHQW
E 3URSRUWLRQDOWRWKHVTXDUHRIWKHYHORFLW\JUDGLHQW
(c) Dependent on the mean velocity of flow
G 'XHWRWKHH[FKDQJHRIHQHUJ\EHWZHHQWKHPROHFXOHV ,$6
f ◊r◊V
to =

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(a) parabolic (b) linear
F ORJDULWKPLF G K\SHUEROLF
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(a) Viscous forces predominate
(b) Inertial forces are unimportant and viscous forces control
(c) Inertial forces control and viscous forces are unimportant
(d) None of these
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Laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid ceases to exist when Reynolds number is
(a) 2100 (b) 4000
F G
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Chapter 13
BOUNDARY LAYER ANALYSIS
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER MOMENTUM THICKNESS
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ENERGY THICKNESS
LAMINAR SUBLAYER SHEAR FACTOR
BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS COEFFICIENT OF DRAG
FLAT PLATE AND BOUNDARY LAYER AVERAGE COEFFICIENT OF DRAG
INTERNAL MOMENTUM EQUATION SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS CONTROL OF SEPARATION
13.1 INTRODUCTION
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13.2 CONCEPT OF BOUNDARY LAYER

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Boundary Layer Analysis 747
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Boundary layer: π0
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U
U
u = 0.099 U
U
d = thickness of
boundary layer
u
u
d¢
5 5 d¢ = laminar
Leading Re = 3.5 ¥ 10 Re = 5 ¥ 10
edge sublayer
Growth of Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
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OD\HU
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7KH ÀRZ LQ ODPLQDU ERXQGDU\ OD\HU FRQVLVWV RI RQH ÀXLG OD\HU PRYLQJ RYHU DGMDFHQW
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YHORFLW\H[LVWLQJRXWVLGHWKHOD\HU
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,W VWDUWV DIWHU ODPLQDU DQG WUDQVLWLRQ ERXQGDU\ OD\HUV IURP WKH OHDGLQJ HGJH ZKHQ WKH
5H\QROGVQXPEHULV¥
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7KH WKLFNQHVV RI WKH WXUEXOHQW ERXQGDU\ OD\HU LV PRUH WKDQ WKH WKLFNQHVV RI OD\HU LQ
ODPLQDUDQGWUDQVLWLRQERXQGDU\OD\HU
7KHYHORFLW\LQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUYDULHVIURP]HURWRWKHPDLQVWUHDPYHORFLW\RXWVLGH
RIWKHOD\HU
7KHGLVWULEXWLRQRIYHORFLW\YDULHVORJDULWKPLFDOO\
7KHYHORFLW\DQGSUHVVXUHDWDJLYHQSRLQWDUHQRWFRQVWDQWZLWKWLPH
+RZLVWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVIRXQGLQODPLQDUIORZ"
7KHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVDWSRLQWµx¶LQODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HULV
d 5 r◊ u ◊ x
= ZKHUH Rex =
x Re x m
+RZLVWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLQWXUEXOHQWIORZIRXQGRXW"
7KHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVDWSRLQWµx¶LQWXUEXOHQWÀRZLV
d r◊ u ◊ x
= 1/ 7
ZKHUH Rex =
x Re x m
13.3 LAMINAR SUBLAYER

:KDWLVODPLQDUVXEOD\HU"+RZLVWKHFRQFHSWRIODPLQDUVXEOD\HUXVHIXO"
8378
,QDWXUEXOHQWERXQGDU\OD\HUWKHUHLVDUHJLRQYHU\FORVHWRWKHERXQGDU\LQZKLFKWKHÀRZ
remains laminar. This region is known as laminar sublayer. The velocity distribution in the
laminar sublayer is parabolic whereas outside this sublayer in the turbulent boundary layer,
the velocity distribution follow the logarithmic law or the one-seventh power law.
If the laminar sublayer thickness is d ¢, then at y = d ¢ both turbulent velocity distribution
curve and laminar velocity distribution curve meet. The value of d¢ is give by:
11.6v t0
d¢ = where, u0 =
u0 r
where, v = kinematic viscosity
u0 = shear velocity
t0 = wall shear stress
r GHQVLW\RIÀXLG
7KH FRQFHSW RI ODPLQDU VXEOD\HU LV XVHIXO LQ GH¿QLQJ WKH QDWXUH RI ERXQGDULHV IURP
hydrodynamic point of view. If the laminar sublayer thickness d¢ is higher than the height K
of the roughness or protrusions, the turbulent eddies cannot penetrate the laminar sublayer.
Hence, the boundary acts as smooth boundary. If thickness of laminar sublayer is less than
the height of roughness K, then the laminar sublayer is completely destroyed and wakes
are formed behind each roughness element, resulting in considerable loss of energy. The
ERXQGDU\LVWKHUHIRUHFODVVL¿HGDVURXJKVXUIDFH,QVPRRWKERXQGDU\WKHUHVLVWDQFHWRÀRZ
in pipe depends on the radius (R) while in rough boundary, the resistance depends upon the
ratio of K/R.
13.4 BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS

'H¿QHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVV:KDWLVPHDQWE\GLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVV"+RZGRHV
WKHGLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVVKHOSLQGH¿QLQJERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVPRUHSUHFLVHO\
2U
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ERXQGDU\OD\HUIORZ
8378
2U
:KDWLVODPLQDUVXEOD\HUWKLFNQHVV"'HULYHDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUGLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVV
8378
2U
'H¿QHSK\VLFDOO\DQGPDWKHPDWLFDOO\WKHFRQFHSWRIGLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVVPRPHQWXP
WKLFNQHVVDQGHQHUJ\WKLFNQHVVRIDERXQGDU\OD\HUDQGVWDWHWKHLUUHODWLYHRUGHUVRI
WKHVHWKLFNQHVVHV 8378
Boundary Layer Thickness. The velocity distribution on a boundary surface varies from
zero to the free stream velocity (U). The boundary layer thickness (d) is the perpendicular
distance (y) from the boundary surface where the velocity approaches the local free stream
YHORFLW\UDV\PSWRWLFDOO\LHZKHQy Æ du Æ U)RUSUDFWLFDOSXUSRVHVWKHERXQGDU\

OD\HUWKLFNQHVVdLVGH¿QHGDVWKHSHUSHQGLFXODUGLVWDQFHyIURPWKHSODWHZKHUHORFDO
YHORFLW\ u 8 $V WKLV LV DQ DUELWUDU\ ZD\ WR GH¿QH D ERXQGDU\ OD\HU WKLFNQHVV
DOWHUQDWLYH ZD\ LV XVHG WR FRQYH\ WKH ERXQGDU\ OD\HU WKLFNQHVV VXFK DV GLVSODFHPHQW
WKLFNQHVV
U
u = 0.99 U
u Laminar
u
d Turbulent
u
Boundary Thickness (d)
Displacement Thickness 7KH DOWHUQDWLYH ZD\ RI FRQYH\LQJ ERXQGDU\ OD\HU WKLFNQHVV LV
WKHGLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVVd *,WLVWKHGLVWDQFHSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHERXQGDU\VXUIDFHWR
ZKLFKWKHERXQGDU\VXUIDFHKDVWREHGLVSODFHGRXWZDUGWRFRPSHQVDWHIRUUHGXFWLRQLQWKH
GLVFKDUJHGXHWRWKHIRUPDWLRQRIERXQGDU\OD\HU7KHGLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVVLVJLYHQE\
d Ê uˆ
d* = Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ dy

U U
dy U
d u
y d*
Boundary Layer Thickness Displacement Thickness
7KHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQLQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HULVDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH&RQVLGHUHOHPHQWDU\
VWULSDWGLVWDQFHyIURPWKHERXQGDU\ZLWKWKLFNQHVVDVdy/HWuEHWKHYHORFLW\DWGLVWDQFH
yIURPWKHERXQGDU\1RZPDVVRIWKHÀXLGÀRZLQJSHUVHFRQGWKURXJKWKLVVWULSV
dmb = r ◊u◊dA
= r◊u ◊b◊dy ZKHUH b ZLGWKRIWKHERXQGDU\
,QFDVHWKHERXQGDU\OD\HULVQRWH[LVWLQJWKHQPDVVRIÀXLGÀRZLQJWKURXJKWKLVDUHDdA
SHUVHFRQG
dmf = r ◊U◊dA
= r ◊U◊b◊dy
+HQFHUHGXFWLRQLQPDVVRIÀXLGÀRZSHUVHFRQGGXHWRH[LVWHQFHRIERXQGDU\OD\HUIURP
DUHDdA
dmr = dmf – dmb
= rU ◊b◊dy – r ◊u◊b◊dy
= r ◊b◊U – u ◊ dy
1RZWRWDOUHGXFWLRQRIPDVVRIÀXLGÀRZSHUVHFRQGIURPWRWDODUHDRIERXQGDU\OD\HULV
d
dmr = Mr = r ◊ bU – udy
Ú Ú

L
1RZFRQVLGHUWKHSODWHLVGLVSODFHGE\GLVWDQFHd*VRWKDWWRUHGXFHWKHÀRZRIWKHÀXLG
PRYLQJDWFRQVWDQWIUHHVWUHDPYHORFLW\UIRUDGLVWDQFHRId*7KHQUHGXFWLRQRIÀXLGÀRZ
SHUVHFRQGLV
Mr = r ◊U◊d *◊ b LL
(TXDWLQJHTQVLDQGLLZHJHW
d
r ◊U◊b◊d * = Ú rb ◊U – udy

d U -u
RU d* = Ú dy
U
d Ê uˆ
= Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ dy

Momentum thicknessq,WLVWKHGLVWDQFHPHDVXUHGSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHERXQGDU\VXUIDFH

WRZKLFKWKHERXQGDU\KDVWREHGLVSODFHGIRUWKHUHGXFWLRQLQWKHPRPHQWXPRIWKHÀRZLQJ
ÀXLGDVLWLVUHGXFHGE\WKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHERXQGDU\OD\HU
&RQVLGHUDVWULSRIDUHDdA = b ◊dy DWGLVWDQFHyIURPWKHERXQGDU\VXUIDFHLQWKHERXQGDU\
OD\HUZKHUHORFDOYHORFLW\LVu0RPHQWXPRIÀXLGÀRZLQJWKURXJKWKLVVWULSLQWKHERXQGDU\
OD\HU
0DVV
0RPHQWXPSHUVHFRQGZKHQERXQGDU\OD\HULVH[LVWLQJ ¥ORFDOYHORFLW\
6HFRQG
r ◊u◊dA¥ u
= ru ◊b◊dy ZKHUH b ZLGWK
0RPHQWXPSHUVHFRQGZKHQERXQGDU\OD\HULVQRWH[LVWLQJ r ◊ub ◊dy ◊U
/RVVRIPRPHQWXPRIÀXLGSDVVLQJWKURXJKVWULSRIDUHDdA = r ◊b◊uU – udy
d
7RWDOORVVRIPRPHQWXPGXHWRERXQGDU\OD\HU Ú r ◊bu U – u dy L

u
y
Loss of Momentum in Boundary Layer
,QFDVHqLVWKHGLVWDQFHWRZKLFKERXQGDU\VXUIDFHLVWREHGLVSODFHGLQIUHHVWUHDPKDYLQJ
YHORFLW\UWRUHGXFHWKHPRPHQWXPHTXDOWRWKHORVVGXHWRERXQGDU\OD\HU
7RWDOORVVRIPRPHQWXPE\GLVSODFHPHQWq = r ◊ b ◊ q◊ U LL
d
r ◊ b ◊ q◊ U = Ú r ◊ b ◊ uU – udy

d u U - u d y
q= Ú U
d u Ê uˆ
= Ú Á - ˜ dy
U Ë U¯
:KDWLVVKDSHIDFWRU"
7KH VKDSH IDFWRU LV WKH UDWLR RI GLVSODFHPHQW WKLFNQHVV WR WKH PRPHQWXP GLVSODFHPHQW
+HQFHVKDSHIDFWRU
'LVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVV
H=
0RPHQWXPGLVSODFHPHQW
d*
=
q
dÊ uˆ
ÚÁ - ˜ dy
Ë U¯
= d u Ê uˆ
Ú Á - ˜ dy
U Ë U¯
:KDWLVHQHUJ\WKLFNQHVVdq
2U
6KRZWKDWWKHHQHUJ\WKLFNQHVVIRUERXQGDU\OD\HUIORZLVJLYHQE\
d u Ê u ˆ
dQ = Ú - dy 8378
U ÁË U ˜¯
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GLVSODFHG WR FRPSHQVDWH IRU WKH UHGXFWLRQ RI NLQHWLF HQHUJ\ RI WKH ÀRZLQJ ÀXLG GXH WR
H[LVWHQFH RI WKH ERXQGDU\ OD\HU &RQVLGHU D VWULS RI ÀXLG LQ ERXQGDU\ OD\HU DW GLVWDQFH y
DQGWKLFNQHVVdyZLWKYHORFLW\u
.LQHWLFHQHUJ\RIWKHÀXLGLQVWULSLQSUHVHQFHRIERXQGDU\OD\HU

= r ◊u◊b◊dy u

.
LQHWLFHQHUJ\RIWKHÀXLGVWULSLQWKHDEVHQFHRIERXQGDU\OD\HU

= r ◊u◊b◊dy)U

\ /RVVRINLQHWLFHQHUJ\LQWKHVWULSLQERXQGDr\OD\HU

= r ◊u◊b◊U – u dy

7
RWDOORVVRINLQHWLFHQHUJ\LQERXQGDU\OD\HU
d
= r ◊b uU – u dy L
Ú

/
RVVRINLQHWLFHQHUJ\WKURXJKHQHUJ\WKLFNQHVVdqLQIUHHVWUHDP

= r ◊b◊dq U LL

d
r◊ b◊d q ◊ U = r ◊y◊b◊ u◊U – u dy
Ú
d u Ê u ˆ
\ dq = - ˜ dy
Ú
Á
U Ë U ¯
)LQG WKH GLVSODFHPHQW WKLFNQHVV WKH PRPHQWXP GLVSODFHPHQW DQG HQHUJ\ WKLFNQHVV
u y
IRU WKH YHORFLW\ GLVWULEXWLRQ LQ WKH ERXQGDU\ OD\HU JLYHQ E\ = ZKHUH u LV WKH
U d
YHORFLW\DWDGLVWDQFHyIURPWKHSODWHDQGu = UDW y = dZKHUHd ERXQGDU\OD\HU
WKLFNQHVV$OVRFDOFXODWHWKHYDOXHRId */q 8378
9HORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQLV
u y
=
U d
Displacement thickness (d *)
d Ê uˆ
d* = Ú ÁË1 - U ˜¯ dy
0
d Ê yˆ
= Ú ÁË1 - d ˜¯ dy
0
d
Ê y2 ˆ
= Áy-
Ë 2d ˜¯ 0
2
=d– y
2d
1
= d
2
Momentum thickness (q)
d u Ê uˆ
q= Ú ÁË1 - U ˜¯ dy
0 U
=
d y Ê y ˆ dy
Ú
0 d ÁË1 - d ˜¯
1 d Ê y2 ˆ
= y dy
d Ú
0
Á
Ë
-
d ˜¯
2 d
1 Èy y3 ˘
= Í - ˙
d Î 2 3d ˚0
1 Èd 2 d 3 ˘
= Í - ˙
d Î 2 3d ˚
1
= 2
[3d 3 – 2d 3]
6.d
1
= ¥ d3
6.d 2
d
=
6
Energy thicknessdq
d u Ê u ˆ
dq = Á U ˜ dy
Ú U Ë
-
¯
d y Ê y ˆ
= Ú Á - dy
d Ë d ˜¯
d Ê y ˆ
= y dy
d Ú

Á
Ë
-
d ˜¯
d
È y y ˘
= -
d Î d ˙˚
Í

Èd d ˘
= Í - ˙
d Î d ˚

= >d – d ]
d ◊ ◊d

= ◊d
d d
d
=

Shape factord */q
d
d* 6
= =
q d
6

13.5 VON KARMAN MOMENTUM EQUATION

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SODWHGHWHUPLQHGE\YRQ.DUPDQPRPHQWXPHTXDWLRQ"
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¿JXUH&RQVLGHUDVPDOOOHQJWKdxRISODWHDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPWKHOHDGLQJHGJHRIWKHSODWH
1RZVKHDUVWUHVVQHDUWKHSODWHLVJLYHQE\1HZWRQ¶VODZRIYLVFRVLW\
du
t = m
dy
B C
U
dy
d dy
y y
t0 D
A
x dx
Momentum Equation for Boundary Layer
7KHVKHDUIRUFHRUGUDJIRUFHDFWLQJRQdxOHQJWKRIWKHSODWHRSSRVLWHWRÀRZGLUHFWLRQLV
dFD 6KHDUVWUHVV¥$UHD
= t ¥ dx ¥ b ZKHUHb ZLGWK
7KLVGUDJIRUFHdFDKDVWREHHTXDOWRWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIPRPHQWXPIRUWKHÀRZRIÀXLG
RQSODWHIRUGLVWDQFHdx&RQVLGHUDVPDOOFRQWUROYROXPHABCD ERXQGHGE\WKHERXQGDU\
VXUIDFHDQGERXQGDU\OD\HUDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH0DVVUDWHRIÀRZHQWHULQJWKHFRQWURO
YROXPHWKURXJKVLGHAB
d
m = Ú r ¥ u ¥ b ¥ dy L

0DVVUDWHRIÀRZOHDYLQJWKHFRQWUROYROXPHWKURXJKVLGHCD
∂
m PDVVWKURXJKAB + PDVVWKURXJKAB dx
∂x
d ∂ È d ˘
= Ú r ◊ u◊b◊dy + Ú r ub d y ˙ dx LL
∂ x ÍÎ ˚
0DVVUDWHRIÀRZHQWHULQJWKHFULWLFDOYROXPHWKURXJKVLGHBC
m = m – m
∂ È d ˘
= Ú r ub d y ˙ dx LLL
∂ x ÍÎ ˚
0RPHQWXPRIÀRZHQWHULQJWKURXJKVLGHAB
d
= Ú r ub dy) u

d
= Ú ru b ◊dy LY

0RPHQWXPRIÀRZOHDYLQJWKURXJKVLGHCD
d ∂ È d ˘
= Ú ru b◊dy + Ú r u b d y ˙ dx
∂ x ÍÎ ˚
0RPHQWXPRIÀRZHQWHULQJWKURXJKVLGHBCZKLFKLVHQWHULQJXQLIRUPYHORFLW\u
∂ È d ˘
= Ú r ◊ u ◊ U ◊ b ◊ d y ˙ dx ◊u
∂ x ÍÎ ˚
∂ È d ˘
= r ◊ u ◊ U ◊ b ◊ d y ˙ dx
∂ x ÍÎ Ú ˚
5DWHRIFKDQJHRIPRPHQWXPRIFRQWUROYROXPHABCD,
PRPHQWXPRIÀRZWKURXJKCD±PRPHQWXPRIÀRZWKURXJKAB ±PRPHQWXP
RIÀRZWKURXJKBC
d ∂ È d ˘
= Ú
r ◊u ◊b◊dy +
∂ x ÍÎ Ú

r ◊ u ◊ b ◊ d y ˙ dx
˚
d ∂ È d
– rub ◊dy – ˘
Ú Ú r ◊ u ◊ U ◊ b ◊ d y ˙ dx
∂ x ÍÎ ˚
∂ È d ˘
= ÍÎ r ◊ b ◊ Ú u - u ◊ U d y ˙ dx
∂x ˚
∂ È d ˘
= r ◊b Ú u - u ◊ U d y ˙ dxDVrDQGbDUHFRQVWDQW
∂ x ÍÎ ˚
'XULQJHTXLOLEULXPWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIPRPHQWXPLVHTXDOWRWKHVKHDUIRUFHH[HUWHGE\
WKHERXQGDU\VXUIDFHRQWKHFRQWUROYROXPH
d
∂ È ˘
–t ◊ dx ◊b = r◊b Ú u - u ◊ U d y ˙ dx
∂ x ÍÎ ˚
∂ È d u Ê uˆ ˘
t = rU ÁË - U ˜¯ d y ˙
∂ x ÍÎ Ú U ˚
d u Ê uˆ
%XWWKHPRPHQWXPWKLFNQHVVq = Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ dy
U
∂q
\ t = r ◊U
∂x
t ∂q
RU
=
rU ∂x
7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQLVNQRZQDVYRQ.DUPDQPRPHQWXPHTXDWLRQIRUERXQGDU\OD\HUÀRZ
Thickness of laminar boundary layer3UDQGWODVVXPHGWKHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQLQDODPLQDU
ERXQGDU\OD\HUDV
u y y
= –
U d d
du
$Q\DVVXPHGYHORFLW\PXVWVDWLVI\WKHFRQGLWLRQVy u DQG ¿QLWHYDOXH
dy
du
anGy = du = UDQG 6XEVWLWXWLQJWKLVLQWRPRPHQWXPHTXDWLRQ
dv
d È d u Ê uˆ ˘
t = rU Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ d y ˙
dx ÍÎ U ˚
= rU ∂ È d Ê y yˆ Ê y y ˆ ˘ dy
Í
∂x Í
Î
Ú
Á d - d ˜ ¥ Á - d + d ˜ ˙
Ë ¯ Ë ¯ ˙˚
dd
= rU
dx
Ê du ˆ
%XW t = m Á ˜
Ë dy¯ y
È ∂ È Ê y y ˆ ˘˘
= mÍ ÍU Á - ˜˙
˙
ÍÎ d y ÎÍ Ë d d ¯ ˙˚ ˙˚
y=
U
= m
d
(TXDWLQJERWKWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQV
dd U
t rU = m
dx d
m dx
RU d dd
rU
1RZLQWHJUDWLQJWKHHTXDWLRQZHJHW
d v◊x
+C
U
Now, d=0 at x = 0, \C=0
d 4.65
=
x Ux
v
Ux
But, = R e = Reynolds number
v
d 4.65
\ =
x Re
4.65 x
or d=
Re
It can be seen that the thickness of the boundary layer increases with the distance x from
the leading edge of the boundary layer. However, thickness of the boundary layer decreases
on increasing the free stream velocity.
Shear stress
3 U
t0 = m
2 d
3 U
= m 4.65 x
2
Re
1.5 m Ux
= ¥U¥
4.65 x v
m r U 3 0.322 r U 2
= 0.322 =
x Re
2
= Cf r U
2
0.644
where, Cf = DQG LW LV NQRZQ DV ORFDO GUDJ FRH൶FLHQW ,W LV GH¿QHG DV WKH UDWLR RI
Rex
Ê1 ˆ
shear stress (t 0) to the dynamic pressure head Á r U 2 ˜ ,WLVDOVRFDOOHGFRH൶FLHQWRIVkin
Ë2 ¯
friction.
Drag Force FD.
Total frictional drag force FD on one side of the boundary surface of length L and unit width,
L
FD = t ¥¥ dx
Ú
L rU L
= Ú Cf dx = Ú ¥ rU 2 dx
Re x
r U
= ◊ ◊L
ReL
r UL
ZKHUHR eL = 7KHGUDJIRUFHLVJHQHUDOO\H[SUHVVHGDV
m

FD = C D r U ¥ A

ZKHUH CD LV WKH PHDQ GUDJ FRH൶FLHQW A DUHD RI WKH ERXQGDU\ VXUIDFH H[SRVHG WR WKH
ÀRZ

CD = DVA = L
ReL
+HQFHPHDQRUDYHUDJHGUDJFRH൶FLHQWLVWKHUDWLRRIWRWDOGUDJIRUFHWRWKHSURGXFWRIWKH
Ê ˆ
G\QDPLFSUHVVXUHKHDG Á r U ˜ DQGH[SRVHGDUHDARIWKHERXQGDU\VXUIDFHWRWKHÀRZ
Ë ¯
FD
CD =

rU A

Note:7KHODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HULVVWDEOHXSWRR e ¥7KHERXQGDU\OD\HUFKDQJHV
WRWXUEXOHQWDWRe ¥7KHYDOXHVRIt CfDQGCDFKDQJHZKHQZHDVVXPHRWKHUW\SH
RIYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQDVJLYHQEHORZ
&RHႈFLHQWRI
Velocity distribution
d Cf CD
1. u y y 5.48 0.73 1.46

= 2◊ –
U d d
u 3
y
2. = 3◊ – 1◊y 4.56 0.644 1.288
U 2 d 2 d3
u y 2y3 y4
3. =2 – 3 + 4 5.48 0.686 1.372
U d d d
4. Blasius’s Results 4.91 0.644 1.328
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DYHUDJHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJIRUWXUEXOHQWERXQGDU\
Velocity distribution 7KH ORFDO YHORFLW\ GLVWULEXWLRQ LQ WKH WXUEXOHQW ERXQGDU\ OD\HU LV
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n
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U Ëd¯
,QWXUEXOHQWERXQGDU\OD\HULQZKLFK5H\QROGVQXPEHUYDULHVIURP¥WR¥7YDOXH
RInLVWDNHQDVDQGWKHUHODWLRQLVNQRZQDVRQHVHYHQWKSRZHUODZ

u y
= ÊÁ ˆ˜
U Ëd¯
Shear stress
,QWXUEXOHQWERXQGDU\OD\HU%ODVLXV¶VUHODWLRQIRUVKHDUIRUFHIRUÀDWERXQGDU\VXUIDFHLV
JLYHQDVXQGHU

È m ˘
t rU Í ˙
Î rd U ˚
Boundary layer thicknessd
x
d=
Re x
/RFDOFRH৽FLHQWGUDJCf

Cf =
Re x
Average CRH৽FLHQWRIGUDJCD

CD = IRUWRWDOWXUEXOHQWOD\HU
ReL

Rr CD =
– IRUSDUWO\ODPLQDUDQGSDUWO\WXUEXOHQWERXQGDU\OD\HU
ReL ReL
&RPSDUHWKHSDUDPHWHUHVRIODPLQDUDQGWXUEXOHQWERXQGDU\OD\HUIORZ
7KHSDUDPHWHUVDUHFRPSDUHGDVSHU7DEOH
Table 13.1 Parameters of laminar and turbulent boundary
Parameter Laminar Turbulent
d 5 d 0.16
= =
Boundary layer thickness x Re x x (Re x )1/7
d * 1.72 d* 0.02
Displacement thickness = =
x Re x x (Re x )1/7
q 0.664 q 0.016
= =
Momentum thickness x Re x x (Re x )1/7
d* d*
Shape factor H= = 2.59 H= = 1.25
q q
0.664 0.027
/RFDOVNLQIULFWLRQFRHႈFLHQW cf = cf =
Re x (Re x )1/7
1
mrua 0.0135 ◊m 7 ◊r6 / 7 ua13 / 7
Wall shear stress tw = 0.332 u x tw =
x x 1/7
'UDJFRHႈFLHQW
1.328 0.031
Ê 2 ◊ to ˆ cd = cd = (Re x )1/7
Re x
Á cd = r◊ u 2 ˜
Ë a¯
13.6 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER

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Reverse 3
flow Separation stream line
Separation of Boundary Layer
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u Ê yˆ y
Á ˜ – ÊÁ ˆ˜
U Ëd¯ Ëd¯
Displacement thicknessd *
d Ê uˆ
d* = ÁË - U ˜¯ dy
Ú

È
=
d Ê yˆ Ê yˆ ˘
Ú Í - Á ˜ + Á ˜ ˙ dy
ÍÎ Ëd¯ Ëd¯ ˙
˚
d
È y y ˘
= Íy - ◊ + ◊ ˙
Î d d ˚
d d
=d–
d d
Ê ˆ
= d Á - + ˜
Ë ¯
d
=

Momentum thicknessq
d u Ê uˆ
q= Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ dy
U
d È y y ˘ È y y ˘
= Í - ˙ Í - + ˙ dy
Ú
Î d d ˚Î d d ˚
d È y y y y y y ˘
= Ú Í - + - + - ˙ dy

Îd d d d d d ˚
d È y y y y ˘
= Ú Í - + - ˙ dy
Îd d d d ˚
d
È y y y y ˘
= Í ◊ - ◊ + ◊ - ◊ ˙
Îd d d d ˚

=d– ◊d + d – ◊d

= d È - + - ˘
Í ˙
Î ˚

= ◊d

Energy thicknessdq
d u Ê u ˆ
da = Ú Á U ˜ dy
-
U Ë ¯
d Ê y y ˆ È Ê y y ˆ ˘
= Á d - d˜
Í - - ˜ ˙ dy
Ú Ë ¯ Í ÁË d
Î
d ¯ ˙
˚
d Ê y y ˆ È y y y ˘
= Á d - d ˜ Í - d - d + d ˙ dy
Ú Ë ¯ Î ˚
d È y y y y y y y y ˘
= Ú Í - - + - + + - ˙ dy
Îd d d d d d d d ˚
d
d Ê y y y y y y ˆ
=
Ú Ád ◊ - d ◊ - d ◊ + d ◊ - d ◊ + d ◊ ˜
Ë ¯

=d– ◊ d – ◊d + ◊d – d + d
7
È - - + - + ˘
= dÍ ˙
Î ˚

= d

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u y Ê yˆ
= –
U d ÁË d ˜¯
)LQGWKHGLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVVd *
d Ê uˆ
d* = Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ dy

d È Ê y y ˆ˘
= Ú Í - ÁË ◊ - ˙ dy
Î d d ˜¯ ˚
d Ê y y ˆ
= - ◊ - dy
Ú
Á
Ë d d ˜¯
d
È y y ˘
= Íy - ◊ + ◊ ˙
Î d ˚
È ˘
= Íd - d + d˙
Î d ˚
È - + ˘
= dÍ ˙
Î ˚

= ◊d

u y y
7KHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQLQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HULVJLYHQE\ = ◊ + ◊ )LQG
U d d
*
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RIPRPHQWXPWKLFNQHVVqWRERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVd
d Ê uˆ
d* = Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ dy

d È Ê y y ˆ ˘
= Ú Í - Á ◊ - ˜˙
dy
ÍÎ Ë d d ¯ ˙˚
d Ê y y ˆ
= - + dy
Ú

Á
Ë d d ˜¯
d
È y y ˘
= Íy - ◊ + ◊ ˙
Î d d ˚

=d– ◊d + d
6
- + ˘
= d ÈÍ ˙˚
Î

d* = ◊d

d* =
d
d Èu Ê u ˆ˘
0RPHQWXPWKLFNQHVVq = Ú Í ÁË - U ˜¯ ˙ dy
ÎU ˚
d Ê y y ˆ È Ê y y ˆ ˘
RU q= Ú Á ◊ d - d ˜ Í - Á ◊ - ˜˙
dy
Ë ¯ ÍÎ Ë d d ¯ ˙˚
d Ê y y ˆ Ê y y ˆ
- ◊ -
= Ú
◊ -
Á d d ˜
Ë ¯
Á
Ë d d ˜¯ dy
d Ê y y y y y y ˆ
= Ú Á d d d d d d ˜ dy
◊ - ◊ + - + -
Ë ¯
d Ê y y y y ˆ
= Á d - ◊ d + d - d ˜ dy
Ú Ë ¯
d
È y y y y ˘
= Í ◊ -
◊ +
◊ - ◊ ˙
Î d d d ˚
Ê ˆ
=dÁ - + -
Ë ˜¯
Ê - + - ˆ
= d ÁË ˜¯

= d◊

q
\ =
d
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u = a + by + cy
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u DWy
u = UDWy = d
du
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a \ a
1RZ u = UDWy = d
U = bd + cd L
du
1RZ DWy = d
dy
du
\ = bcy
dy
Ê du ˆ
1RZ ÁË d y ˜¯
y =d
RU bcd LL

8VLQJHTQVLDQGLL
U ±cd + cd = – cd
U
RU c=–
d
-U
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d
U
=
d
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u U Á ˜ – U ÊÁ ˆ˜
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u Ê yˆ
= Á ˜
U Ë d¯
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Displacement thicknessd *
d Ê uˆ
d* = Ú ÁË - U ˜¯ dy

d È Ê y ˆ ˘
= Ú Í - Á ˜ ˙ dy
ÎÍ Ë d ¯ ˚˙
d
È y ˘
= Íy - ˙
Í ¥ d ˙
Î 7 ˚
È 7˘
= d Í -
Î ˙˚
d
=

Momentum thickness
d u Ê uˆ
q= - ˜ dy
Ú
U Á
Ë U¯
d Ê yˆ
È Ê y ˆ ˘
= Ú ÁË d ˜¯ Í - Á ˜ ˙ dy
ÎÍ Ë d ¯ ˚˙
d Ê y y ˆ
= -
Á d d ˜ dy
Ú
Ë ¯
d
È y y ˘
◊
= Í -
Íd ˙
d ◊ ˙
Î 7 7 ˚
7 7
= d ÍÈ - ˙˘
Î ˚
7
= ◊d

Energy thickness
d u Ê u ˆ
dq = Ú Á U ˜ dy
-
U Ë ¯
d y Ê y ˆ
= Ú Á - dy
d Ë d ˜¯
d Ê y y ˆ
= -
Á d d ˜ dy
Ú
Ë ¯
d
È y y ˘
= Í - ˙
Í d ◊ d ◊ ˙
Î 7 7 ˚
È7 7 ˘
= d◊ Í - ˙
Î ˚
- ˘
= d◊7 ÈÍ ˙
Î ˚
7
= ◊d

Shape factor
d*
VKDSHIDFWRUH =
q
d
=
7
◊d

=
7
Energy loss
7 7
dq = ◊d = ¥¥±

(QHUJ\ORVVSHUXQLWZLGWK rdq UU

= ¥¥¥ ¥¥

1PV
([DPLQHWKHIROORZLQJYHORFLW\SUR¿OHVWR¿QGLIWKHIORZLVDWWDFKHGRUGHWDFKHG

y y
D u – ÊÁ ˆ˜
U d Ë d¯

y y
E u ± + ÊÁ ˆ˜ ÊÁ y ˆ˜
U Ë d¯ Ë d¯

u Ê yˆ
y
F Á ˜ + Ê y ˆ ± ÊÁ ˆ˜
U Ë d¯ ÁË d ˜¯ Ë d¯
CaseD
u y y
= –
U d d
Ê y y ˆ
RU u = U Á - ˜
Ë d d ¯
du Ê yˆ
RU = UÁ - ˜
dy Ëd d¯
Ê du ˆ U
RU ÁË d y ˜¯ = ÆSRVLWLYHYDOXH
y d
+HQFHÀRZZLOOUHPDLQDWWDFKHG
Case E
È - y Ê yˆ
Ê yˆ ˘
u=UÍ +Á ˜ +Á ˜ ˙
Ë d¯ Ë d¯ ˙
ÎÍ d ˚
du È - y y ˘
\ =UÍ + + ˙
dy Îd d d ˚
Ê du ˆ - U
1RZ ÁË d y ˜¯ = ÆQHJDWLYHYDOXH
y
d
7KHÀRZLVVHSDUDWHG
Case F
È Ê yˆ Ê yˆ
Ê yˆ ˘
u = U Í Á ˜ + Á ˜ - Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë d ¯ Ë d¯ Ë d¯ ˙
˚
du È y y y ˘
\ =UÍ + - ˙
dy Îd d d ˚
Ê du ˆ
\ ÁË d y ˜¯
y
+HQFHÀRZLVDERXWWREHGHWDFKHG
$VVXPHWKDWWKHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQLQWKHODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HUZLWK]HURSUHVVXUH
JUDGLHQWFDQEHJLYHQDV
u Ê p yˆ
VLQ Á ◊ ˜
U Ë d¯
)LQGGUDJFRH൶FLHQWLQWHUPVRI5H\QROGVQXPEHU
7KHPRPHQWXPLQWHJUDOHTXDWLRQZLWK]HURSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQW
dq
t = rU
dx
+HUH q PRPHQWXPWKLFNQHVV
=
d u Ê uˆ
Ú ÁË - ˜¯ dy
U U
Ê p yˆ
VLn Á ◊ ˜ Ê - VLQ p ◊ y ˆ dy
d
=
Ú Ë d ¯ ÁË d¯
˜
d p y d Ê p yˆ
= Ú VLn ◊ dy –
Ú VLQ Á ◊ ˜
d Ë d¯
d
È p y˘
Í FRV ◊ d ˙ d Ê p y ˆ dy
= Í ˙ –
Í p ˙ Ú
ÁË - FRV
d ¯
˜
Î d ˚
d
È p ˘
d Í VLQ y ˙
=+ –
p Íy - p ˙
Í ˙
Î ˚
d d
= –
p
Ê - pˆ
q=dÁ
Ë p ˜¯
dq Ê 4 - pˆ dd
\ = Á ◊
dx Ë 2p ˜¯ dx
Ê du ˆ È Ê p yˆ p ˘
t0 = m Á ˜ = m ÍU cos Á ¥
Ë dy¯ y =0 Î Ë 2 d ˜¯ 2 d ˙˚ y = 0
U ◊p
= m◊
2d
dq U ◊p
t0 = r U 2 = m◊
dx 2d
dq m p
or = ◊
dx rU 2d
(4 - p) d d mp
or ◊ =
2p dx 2 ◊ rU ◊ d
p2 m
or d dd = ◊ dx
(4 - p) rU
d2 p2 m
or = ◊ ◊x
2 4 - p rU
or d= 2p 2 ◊ m x
(4 - p) rU
L
Drag force FD = Ú0
t 0 ¥ dx
L m Up
= Ú dx
0 2d
m U (4 - p ) rU L
FD = p¥ x –1/2 dx
2 ◊ 2p 2
m Ú 0
mU (4 - p) ◊ r ◊ U L+1/2
= ¥
2 m◊ 2 1/2
(4 - p) ◊ r ◊ U 5/2 ◊ m2 ◊ L
=
2m

- p
= ◊ rU L ¥ rU L

m
¥ r U L
'UDJIRUFHERWKViGHVRIWKHVXUIDFHFD =
Re
'UDJ)RUFH
'UDJFRH൶FLHQW CD =
rU L

Rr CD =
Re
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DQGWKHGUDJIRUWKHSODWHRIVL]HPORQJDQGPZLGH*LYHQr NJPm =
¥±1VP
r¥U ¥ L
Re =
m
¥ ¥
=
¥ 6
¥6 ¥
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CD =
Re

=
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= ¥¥ ¥¥¥

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Guidance. Check that boundary layer is laminar in case R e £ 3 ¥ 105. Then for the velocity
distribution, the value of d, Cf the CD can be read from table (Question : 13)
rU L 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 30 ¥ 10-2 ¥ 1
ReL = =
m 0.01
= 3 ¥ 105
Hence, the plate has laminar boundary layer throughout its length. From table, we get
following
5.48 x 5.48 ¥ 1
d= =
Re 3 ¥ 105
= 1 ¥ 10–2 = 1 cm
rU 2 0.73
t 0 = Cf = Cf =
2 Re
0.73 1 ¥ 103 ¥ (0.3) 2 0.73 ¥ 0.9 ¥ 102

= ¥ =
ReL 2 547.7 ¥ 2
= 5.997 ¥ 10 –2 N/m2
= 0.05997 N/m2
2 1.46
FD = CD ¥ rU ¥ A where CD =
2 Re
1.46 ¥ 1 ¥ 103 ¥ (.3) 2 ¥ 1 ¥ 1

=
547.7 ¥ 2
= 0.1199 N
A thin plate 1 m long and 1 m wide with velocity of 0.3 m/s is moved through water.
)LQGWKHUHVLVWDQFHR൵HUHGE\WKHSODWHr = 1 ¥ 103 and m = 0.001).
Guidance.,ISODWHKDVODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HUZHFDQXVH%ODVLXV¶VUHVXOWVIRU¿QGLQJCD.
rU L 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.3 ¥ 1
R eL = =
m 0.01
= 3 ¥ 105
We can assume boundary layer to be laminar.
1.328
From Blasius’s results, CD =
Re

RU CD =
¥±
¥

'UDJIRUFHERWKVLGHVFD =¥ CD ¥ rU ¥ A

¥¥± ¥ ¥ ¥¥ ¥¥

1
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x
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t = Cf ¥

0.664
Cf =
ReL
0.664
=
3.33 ¥ 102
0.664 0.9 ¥ 103 ¥ 52

\ t0 = 2 ¥
3.33 ¥ 10 2
= 22.43 N/m2
A smooth plate 3 m wide and 5 m long moves through air at a relative velocity of 2 m/s
parallel to its length. Find the drag force on one side of the plate (1) assuming laminar
conditions, (2) assuming turbulent conditions over the entire plate. Take for air.
r = 1.20 kg/m3 and v = 1.5 ¥ 10–5 m2/s.
r¥U ¥ L 22 ¥ 5
R eL = =
m 1.5 ¥ 10-5
= 13.33 ¥ 105
Case 1. Considering laminar boundary layer and using Blasius results, we have
1.328 1.328
CD = =
ReL 3.33 ¥ 10+5
= 0.115 ¥10 –2
Drag force of one side
1
FD = CD ¥ rU 2 ¥ A
2
0.115 ¥ 10-2 ¥ 1.2 ¥ 22 ¥ 5 ¥ 3

=
2
= 4.14 ¥ 10–2 = 0.0414 N
Case 2. Considering turbulent boundary layer
0.074 0.074
CD = 1/5 =
( ReL ) (13.33 ¥ 105 )1/5
0.074
= = 0.0048
1.54 ¥ 10
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FD = CD rUA

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be expressed respectively as
3
V 3 y 1 Ê yˆ 4.64 x
= ¥ - Á ˜ and d =
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density of 1.23 kg/m3, then wall shear stress at x = 1 m is
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(a) The layer in which thickness of energy is maximum
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(c) The distance measured perpendicular by which the free stream is displaced on
account of formation of boundary layer
(d) The layer which represents reduction in momentum caused by the boundary layer
(IAS 2007)
The displacement thickness at a section for an air stream (U = 1.2 kg/m3) moving with
a velocity of 10 m/s over flat plate is 0.5 mm. What is the loss mass rate of flow of air
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(a) 6 × 10–3 (b) 6 × 10–5
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= r × d × V × width
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1000
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1/ 9
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t1 and t2 at the two sections which lie at distance x1 = 30 cm and x2 = 90 cm from the
leading edge of the plate?
t1 t1 1
(a) =3 (b) =
t2 t2 3
t1 t1
(c) = (3.0)1/ 2 (d) = (3)1/ 3 (IAS 2014)
t2 t2
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30 90
t1 90
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t2 30
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Chapter 14
FLOW THROUGH PIPES AND
COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

MAJOR & MINOR ENERGY LOSSES EQUIVALENT PIPE
SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT PARALLEL PIPES
SUDDEN CONTRACTION NETWORKING
FRICTION FACTOR SYPHON
DARCY’S EQUATION INLET AND OUTLET LEG
CHENZY’S EQUATION POWER TRANSMITTED
FLOW IN BEND EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION
PIPE FITTINGS WATER HAMMER
TOTAL ENERGY LINE SURGE TANK
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT LINE BRANCHED PIPE
COMPOUND PIPE EMPTYING A TANK BY PIPE
14.1 INTRODUCTION
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14.2 MAJOR AND MINOR ENERGY LOSSES

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Why does loss of head take place in pipelines?
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14.3 FRICTION HEAD LOSS

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14.6 SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT AND HEAD LOSS

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14.7 SUDDEN CONTRACTION AND ENERGY LOSS

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14.8 BEND AND ENERGY LOSS

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Vena contracta
1 at section 2–2
Pressure 1 Velocity
variation 2 variation
at 1–1 at 1–1
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14.9 TOTAL ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADIENT LINE

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0LQRUORVVHVVXFKDVOLQHHQWUDQFHDQGH[LWKHDGORVVHVDUHQHJOLJLEOHDVFRPSDUHGWRIULFWLRQ
ORVVLQDORQJSLSHOLQH
f LU
hf =
d ◊ g
Now apply Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2, and horizontal line through point
1 is taken as datum line.
P1 V2 P V2
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z2 + hf
rg 2g rg 2g
5¥ r ¥ g 2¥ r¥ g
Z1 = 0, Z2 = –5, P1 = 5 + , P2 =
rg r¥ g
and V1 = V2 = U
u2 f Lu 2
5+5+0=2+ –5+
2g d ◊ 2g
u2 f Lu 2
+ = 13
2g d ◊ 2g
0.02 ¥ 500 ¥ u 2
0.05 u2 + = 13
0.05 ¥ 2 ¥ 9.81
0.05 u2 + 10.19 ¥ u2 = 13
10.24 u2 = 13
or u2 = 1.269
or u= 1.126 m/s
p ¥ (0.05) 2
Q=A¥u= ¥ 1.26 = 2.21 ¥ 10 –3 m3/s
4
B
u2
2g
A
Air 5 TEL
HGL
Datum
1 u2
3
2g
2
2
TEL & HGL
Ê U2ˆ
TEL starts from point B Á 5 + 5 + and HGL starts from A(5 + 5) from datum line.
Ë 2 g ˜¯
14.10 EQUIVALENT PIPE

:KDWLVHTXLYDOHQWSLSH" 83788378
Or
'LVFXVV GHULYHWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWK 8378
$FRPSRXQGSLSHFRQVLVWVRIVHYHUDOSLSHVRIGL൵HUHQWOHQJWKVDQGGLDPHWHUV7KHVHVHYHUDO
SLSHVRIGL൵HUHQWOHQJWKVDQGGLDPHWHUVFDQEHUHSODFHGE\DSLSHRIXQLIRUPGLDPHWHUDQG
RQHOHQJWK+HQFHHTXLYDOHQWSLSHLVDVLQJOHSLSHRIXQLIRUPGLDPHWHUZKRVHGLVFKDUJH
DQGORVVRIKHDGDUHVDPHDVWKDWRIWKHFRPSRXQGSLSH7KHFRQGLWLRQIRUDQHTXLYDOHQW
SLSHRIDFRPSRXQGSLSHLV
D +HDGORVVLVVDPH
hfHTY = hf + hf + hf
f LQ f LQ f LQ f LQ

RU = + +
¥ d ¥ d ¥ d ¥ d
E 'LVFKDUJHLVVDPHLHQLVVDPHIRUDOOOHQJWKV
F L = L + L + L
:KDWLV'XSXLW¶VHTXDWLRQIRUWKHHTXLYDOHQWSLSHRIDFRPSRXQGSLSH"
7KHFRPSRXQGSLSHLVJHQHUDOO\PDGHRIVHYHUDOSLSHVRIVDPHPDWHULDODQGVPRRWKQHVV
,QFDVHIULFWLRQIDFWRUVf = f = f = fWKHQZHKDYH
hf HTY = hf + hf + hf
f LQ f LQ f LQ f LQ

= + +
¥ d ¥ d ¥ d ¥ d
1RZDSSO\f = f = f = fWKHQZHJHW
L L L L
= + +
d
d d d
7KHDERYHHTXDWLRQLVFDOOHG'XSXLW¶VHTXDWLRQ
14.11 PARALLEL PIPES

:KDWDUHGLVFKDUJHDQGKHDGLQSLSHVLQSDUDOOHO"
Q1
Q Q
Q2
Pipes in Parallel
If a pipeline divides into two or more pipes for some distance and these pipes again join
together at some distance at downstream, then these pipes are said to be in parallel. In
order to increase the discharge, pipes are connected in parallel. The parallel pipes follow
the following conditions:
(1) discharge in main pipe is equal to sum of discharges in each parallel pipes.
Q = Q1 + Q2
(2) loss of head in each parallel pipe is same.
hf 1 = hf 2
f1 L1Q12 f 2 L2 Q22
or =
12.1 ¥ d15 12.1 ◊ d 25
At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm diameter, the

hydraulic gradient rises by 10 mm. Calculate the rate of flow.
(Punjab University, AMIE)
The rise of hydraulic gradient,
ÊP ˆ Ê P ˆ
= Á 2 + Z 2 ˜ – Á 1 + Z1 ˜ = 0.01 m
Ë rg ¯ Ë rg ¯
Now apply Bernoulli’s equation

P1 V2 P V2
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + he
rg 2g rg 2g
(V1 - V2 )2
where, he = head loss due to sudden enlargement =
2g
V12 V2 ÊP ˆ Ê P ˆ
– 2 – he = Á 2 + Z 2 ˜ – Á 1 + Z1 ˜ = 0.01
2g 2g Ë rg ¯ Ë rg ¯
V12 - V22 2
or – (V1 - V2 ) = 0.01 (i)
2g 2g
But, A1 V1 = A2 V2
A2
or V1 = V2
A1
2
ÊD ˆ
= Á 2 ˜ V2
Ë D1 ¯

Ê ˆ
= Á V
Ë ˜¯
= 4 V
3XWWLQJWKHYDOXHRIVLQHTQL
V - V - V

RU
g
RU V
g
¥
RU V =
8
RU V PV
p
1RZ Q = AV = ¥ ¥
4
¥ ±PV
,QDSLSHGLDPHWHUPPDQGOHQJWKPZDWHULVIORZLQJDWDYHORFLW\RIPV
)LQG WKH KHDG ORVV GXH WR IULFWLRQ E\ XVLQJ 'DUF\¶V HTXDWLRQ DQG &KHQ]\¶V
IRUPXODLQZKLFKC = 55. Take v ¥ –4.
'DUF\¶VHTXDWLRQ
f LV
hf =
d ◊ g
Vd
1RZ 5H\QROGVQXPEHUR e =
v
¥
=
¥ -4
¥ > 4000

1RZ f= ¥±
Re
¥ - ¥ ¥

\ hf =
¥ ¥
P
&KHQ]\¶VIRUPXOD
V = c mi
*LYHQ c
$UHD pd d
m= = =
SHULPHWHU 4 ¥ pd 4

=
4
¥ ¥ i

RU i=
¥

hf = i ¥ L
¥
P
,QDPPGLDPHWHUSLSHOLQHDQRLORI6*LVIORZLQJDWWKHUDWHRIPV$
VXGGHQH[SDQVLRQWDNHVSODFHLQWKHVHFRQGSLSHOLQHRIVXFKDGLDPHWHUWKDWPD[LPXP
SUHVVXUHULVHLVREWDLQHG)LQGLORVVRIHQHUJ\LQVXGGHQH[SDQVLRQDQGLLGL൵HUHQWLDO
JDXJHOHQJWKLQGLFDWHGE\DQRLOPHUFXU\PDQRPHWHUFRQQHFWHGEHWZHHQWZRSLSHV
(UPSC)

Q P V
Q
\ V = =
A p
¥
4
PV
%\%HUQRXOOL¶VHTXDWLRQ
P V P V
+ + Z = + + Z + he
rg g rg g
È ˘
\ P – P = DP = rg Í V - V - h ˙
e
Î g g ˚

$V Z = Z DQGhe = V - V
g
È V V V - V ˘
RU DP = rg Í - - ˙
Î g g g ˚
È

V
Ê Ê V ˆ ˆ ˘
RU DP = rg V Ê ˆ
Í - - Á - ˜ ˙
Í Á ˜ Á ˜ ˙
g Î Ë V ¯ Ë Ë V ¯ ¯ ˚
1RZ AV = AV

V
= D
Ê ˆ
RU
V ÁË D ˜¯

È
Ê D ˆ
Ê Ê D ˆ ˆ ˘
\ DP = rV Í -
- Á - Á ˜ ˜ ˙
Í ÁË D ˜¯ ÁË Ë D ¯ ˜¯ ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
È Ê D ˆ
Ê D ˆ ˘
= rV Í
- Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ ÁË D ˜¯ Ë D ¯ ˙˚
∂DP
)RUPD[SUHVVXUHULVH =0
Ê D ˆ
∂Á ˜
Ë D ¯
D
\ =
D
RU D = D = ¥
P

Q
\ V = = p
A ¥
4
PV DQG V ¥ V PV
1RZORVVRIKHDG

= [
V - V - ]
he =
g ¥
PRIRLO
P - P V - V
1RZ = – he
rg g
-
= ±
g
±

,IhLVUHDGLQJRIPDQRPHWHUWKHQ
P - P ÈS ˘
= h Í +J - ˙
rg Î 6RLO ˚
È ˘
h Í - ˙ h
Î ˚

RU h=

P
PP
7ZR VLPLODU SLSHV RI WKH VDPH GLDPHWHU RI OHQJWKV l and l2 are placed in parallel.
&DOFXODWHWKHHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKRIVLQJOHSLSHRIVDPHGLDPHWHU:KDWVKRXOGEHWKH
HTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKLIWKHWZRSLSHVDUHHTXDOLQOHQJWK"
1
q1 q
q
q2
2
'LVFKDUJH Q = Q + Q
DQG hf = hf = hf KHDGORVVUHPDLQVVDPH
f LQ f LQ
\ =
¥ d ¥ d
1RZ d = d
Q L
\ =
Q L
,IWKHHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKRIWKHSLSHOLQH Le
f Leq 2
\ hf =
12.1 ◊ d 5
Now, Le Q 2 = L1Q12 = L2Q 22
L1
Q = Q1 + Q2 = Q1 + Q1
L2
Q
\ Q1 =
L1
1+
L2
Q1 Le
But, =
Q L1
Le = 1
There,
L1 L1
1+
L2
L1
or Le = 2
Ê L1 ˆ
Á1 + L2 ˜¯
Ë
when L1 = L2 = L
L
Le =
(2) 2
= 0.25 L
The pipes of the same material and of equal lengths are used for connecting an
overhead tank which supplies 85 ¥ 10 –3 m3/s of water. If diameter of pipes are 30 and
FPUHVSHFWLYHO\¿QGWKHUDWLRRIKHDGORVVHVLISLSHVDUHFRQQHFWHGLQVHULHVDQGDUH
parallel. Neglect minor losses.
Series. Length of each pipe line = L and Q remains same
f ¥ L ¥ Q2
hf =
12 ¥ d 5
f ¥ L ¥ (85 ¥ 10-3 ) 2 f ¥ L ¥ (85 ¥ 10-3 ) 2

hf = +
12 ¥ (0.3)5 12 ¥ (0.15)5
fL
=

fL
¥

Parallel
Q = Q + Q
f L Q f L Q
hl = ◊ = ◊
d d

f L Q fL Q
◊
= ◊

\ Q Q
%XW ¥ ± = Q + Q
RU QQ ¥ ±
¥ -
RU Q = ¥ ±PV

DQG Q ¥¥ ±
¥±PV
fL ¥ -
\ hf = hf = hf = ×

fL
= ◊

5DWLRRIVHULHVWRSDUDOOHOKHDGORVV
fL
¥
=
fL
¥

$ VXGGHQ HQODUJHPHQW RI ZDWHU PDLQV LV IURP WR FP GLDPHWHU 7KH K\GUDXOLF
JUDGLHQWULVHVE\FP(VWLPDWHWKHUDWHRIIORZLQWKHSLSHOLQH 8378
ÊP ˆ Ê P ˆ
+\GUDXOLFJUDGLHQW Á + Z ˜ – Á + Z ˜
Ë rg ¯ Ë rg ¯
¥ ±P
1RZXVLQJFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQDWHQODUJHPHQWZHJHW
A V = AV
p p
¥ V = ¥V
4 4
RU V = 4V
V - V V - V V
he = = =
g g g
1RZDVSHU%HUQRXOOL¶VHTXDWLRQZHKDYH
P V P
+ + Z = + V + Z + he
rg g rg g
Ê P ˆ Ê P ˆ V V
+ Z – = – – he
ÁË r g ˜
¯ ÁË r g + Z ˜¯ g g
±
V - V V
¥ = –
g g
V
=
g
g ¥
RU V =

'LVFKDUJHQ = AV
p
= ¥ ¥
4
¥ ±PV
:KDWZDWHUOHYHOHVKRXOGEHPDLQWDLQHGLQWKHZDWHUWDQNVRWKDWWKHGLVFKDUJHRI
0.5 ¥ ±PVFDQEHREWDLQHGIURPWKHSLSHDWWDFKHGDWWKHVLGHRIWKHWDQNRIOHQJWK
PDQGGLDPHWHUPP$VVXPHf = 0.02
H
d = 25 mm f
L = 25 m
Q ¥ ±
Q = AV $UHD¥9HORFLW\
¥ -
\ V= PV

p¥
4
f Lq V
H = hL KHDGORVV
¥ d g
¥ ¥ ¥ - ¥

= +
¥ ¥

P
:DWHUOHYHOWREHPDLQWDLQHG
H P
:DWHU OHYHO LQ D UHVHUYRLU LV P DERYH WKH RXWOHW :DWHU LV GLVFKDUJHG WKURXJK D
FRPSRXQGSLSHFRQVLVWLQJRIPORQJSLSHVHJPHQWRIPGLDPHWHUDQGPVHJPHQW
RI PP GLDPHWHU %RWK VHJPHQWV DUH KRUL]RQWDO DQG f YDOXHV DUH DQG
UHVSHFWLYHO\)LQGGLVFKDUJHDQGGLVFKDUJHZKHQPLQRUORVVHVDUHQHJOHFWHG
10 m
L1 = 30 m
L2 = 15 m
$VSHUFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQZHKDYH
AV = A V
4 ¥ p d
V = ¥ V
4 ¥ p d

Ê ˆ
V = Á V
Ë ˜¯
RU V V
H = hL + hL
0DMRUORVVLVIULFWLRQORVVLQERWKSLSHV
f ¥ L V f ¥ L V
hf = +
◊ g ◊ d ◊ g ◊ d
¥ ¥ V ¥ ¥ V

= +
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
= VV
V
0LQRUORVV KHDGORVVDWHQWUDQFHKHDGORVVGXHWRVXGGHQH[SDQVLRQ
V V - V
+
g g
V V - V
= +
g g
+
= V
g
V
7RWDOKHDGORVV KHDGDYDLODEOHLQZDWHUWDQN
7RWDOKHDGORVV PDMRUORVVPLQRUORVV
V V
V

RU V =

\ V = PV
\ 'LVFKDUJHQ = AV
p
= ¥ ¥
4
¥±PV
,QFDVHPLQRUORVVHVDUHQHJOHFWHGWKHQ
+HDGDYDLODEOH KHDGORVVGXHWRIULFWLRQRQO\
V
RU V PV
1RZ GLVFKDUJHQ = AV
p
= ¥ ¥
4
¥ ± PV
:DWHU LQ D WDQN LV PDLQWDLQHG DW FRQVWDQW KHDG RI P :DWHU LV GLVFKDUJHG
WKURXJK D KRUL]RQWDO SLSH P ORQJ DQG PP LQ GLDPHWHU 7KHUH LV D YDOYH DW
WKH HQG RI WKH SLSH WR FRQWURO WKH GLVFKDUJH :KHQ YDOYH LV KDOI RSHQ GLVFKDUJH LV
¥±PV)LQGWKHYDOXHRIORVVFRHIILFLHQWRIWKHYDOYHLIf = 0.026.
4m Dia = 100 mm f
L = 100 m
Q ¥ - ¥
V= = PV
A p ¥
7RWDOKHDGORVV PDMRUORVVHVPLQRUORVVHV
/RVVGXHWRIULFWLRQORVVDWHQWUDQFHORVVDWYDOYH
7RWDOKHDGDYDLODEOHDWWDQN WRWDOKHDGORVVLQSLSHOLQH
f ¥ L ¥V Ê V Vˆ
4= + Á +k ZKHUHK ORVVFRH൶FLHQWRIYDOYH
◊ g ◊d Ë g g ˜¯
¥ ¥ Ê ¥ k ˆ

= + Á +
¥ ¥ Ë ¥ ¥ ˜¯
K
K
RU K
:DWHUIORZVWKURXJKDSLSHRIPPLQGLDPHWHUZLWKGLVFKDUJHHTXDOWR¥ ±
PV7KH SLSHOLQH FRQVLVWV RI VWUDLJKW OHQJWK RI P RQH YDOYH K RQH HOERZ
(K = 2) and one T outlet (K :KDWLVWKHHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKRIWKHSLSHOLQH")LQG
also total loss of head if f = 0.02.
Q ¥±PV
AV = Q ZKHUH A DUHDV YHORFLW\
¥ - ¥
RU V= PV
p ¥
f LV
0DMRUORVV IULFWLRQORVV hf =
gd
¥ ¥
RU hf = P
¥ ¥
0LQRUORVVHV ORVVHVGXHWR¿WWLQJV
V
hm = K + K + K
g
+ + ¥
=
¥
P
7RWDOORVVRIKHDG hf + hm

P
1RZHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKIRUPLQRUORVVHV
Kd
le =
f
+ +
=

P
7RWDOHTXLYDOHQWOHQJWKRIWKHSLSHOLQH
LHTY = L + le

P
)LQGWKHGLDPHWHURIDXQLIRUPSLSHWRUHSODFHDFRPSRXQGSLSHKDYLQJWKUHHVHJPHQWV
RIPPDQGPRIFPFPDQGFPGLDPHWHUVUHVSHFWLYHO\7RWDO
OHQJWKRISLSHLVVDPHDVWKDWRIFRPSRXQGSLSHOLQH
L + L + L L L L
= + +
d d d d
+ + = +

+

d

d

Ê ˆ
RU d= Á
Ë ˜¯
P
)RUWKHGLVWULEXWLRQPDLQVRIDWRZQZDWHUVXSSO\DFPPDLQLVUHTXLUHG$VSLSHV
DERYHFPGLDPHWHUDUHQRWDYDLODEOHLWLVGHFLGHGWROD\WZRSDUDOOHOPDLQVRIVDPH
GLDPHWHU)LQGWKHGLDPHWHURIWKHSDUDOOHOPDLQV 3XQMDE8QLYHUVLW\
f ¥ L ¥ Q
hf =
¥ d
1RZ Q = Q + Q QDVQ = Q
Q
RU Q =

Ê Qˆ
f ¥¥ Á ˜
f ¥ ¥ Q Ë ¯
\ =
¥ d ¥ d

RU d = ¥ d
4

= ¥
4

RU d =
=

FP
+HQFHQHDUHVWVWDQGDUGGLDPHWHULVFP7ZRFPGLDPHWHUSLSHVDUHWREHODLG
$VSHFLDOSLSHRIGLDPHWHUd carrying discharge QDWXSVWUHDPLVDUUDQJHGWRGLVFKDUJH
qSHUXQLWOHQJWKXQLIRUPO\DORQJLWVOHQJWK'HULYHDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUKHDGORVVRYHUD
length L and head loss for entire length.
q q q q q
Q
d
x dx
7KHUHLVIDOORIGLVFKDUJHµq¶SHUXQLWOHQJWK,IQLVWKHLQLWLDOÀRZLQWKHSLSHWKHQUHPDLQLQJ
GLVFKDUJHDIWHUaGLVWDQFHx
Qx = Q – q ◊x
6XSSRVHWKLVGLVFKDUJHUHPDLQVIRUGLVWDQFHdxWKHQKHDGORVVLQWKLVVPDOOOHQJWK
f ⋅ dx ⋅ Q − q x
dh f =
d
%\LQWHJUDWLQJZHFDQ¿QGKHDGORVVIRUFRPSOHWHOHQJWKL
L f
Ú dhf = Ú 0 d
Q – qx dx
L
f È x q x ˘
hf = ÍQ ◊ x - ◊ q ◊Q + ˙
¥ d Î ˚0
f Q L È q L q ˘
= Í + - L˙
◊ d Î Q Q ˚
7KHÀRZNHHSVRQGLVFKDUJLQJqSHUXQLWOHQJWKWLOOLWEHFRPHV]HURDIWHUOHQJWKL PLQ
q
Q = q ¥ lPLQRU =
Q LPLQ
f LPLQ ¥ Q Ê ˆ
hf = ÁË + - ˜¯
◊ d
f ¥ Q
=
◊ d ◊ q
14.12 PIPE NETWORKING

:KDWLVSLSHQHWZRUNLQJ":KDWDUHWKHFRQGLWLRQVWREHVDWLV¿HGE\WKHSLSHQHWZRUN"
C D
H
E
B
G
A F
Networking
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QHWZRUN 1HWZRUNLQJ LV D FRPPRQ PHWKRG LQ ZDWHU GLVWULEXWLRQ V\VWHP DGRSWHG E\ WKH
PXQLFLSDOLWLHVRIWKHFLWLHV
,QQHWZRUNLQJRISLSHVIROORZLQJFRQGLWLRQVDUHDOZD\VVDWLV¿HG
Continuity equation. $WHDFKMXQFWLRQRISLSHVWRWDOLQÀRZLVHTXDOWRRXWÀRZDVSHU
WKHSULQFLSOHRIFRQWLQXLW\
Energy equation. 7KHORVVRIKHDGGXHWRÀRZLQHDFKORRSLQFORFNZLVHGLUHFWLRQPXVW
EHHTXDOWRWKHORVVRIKHDGGXHWRÀRZLQDQWLFORFNZLVHGLUHFWLRQ,QWKH¿JXUHWKHKHDG
ORVVLQWKHFORFNZLVHÀRZIURPAWREPXVWEHHTXDOWRWKHKHDGORVVLQDQWLFORFNZLVH
IURPAFE,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHDOJHEUDLFVXPRIKHDGORVVHVLQDQ\FORVHGFLUFXLWZLWKLQ
WKHQHWZRUNPXVWEH]HUR
Darcy’s equation. 7KH KHDG ORVV LQ HDFK SLSH RI WKH QHWZRUN IRU VLPSOLFLW\ FDQ EH
fL
H[SUHVVHG DV hf = r Q ZKHUH r = 7KH ÀRZ LQ HDFK SLSH PXVW VDWLVI\ WKH
¥ d
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7KHSLSHQHWZRUNSUREOHPVDUHGL൶FXOWWRVROYHDQDO\WLFDOO\+HQFHWKHPHWKRGRIVXFFHVVLYH
DSSUR[LPDWLRQLVXVHGZKLFKLVFRPPRQO\NQRZQDV+DUG\FURVVPHWKRG)ROORZLQJVWHSV
DUHXVHGLQWKLVPHWKRG
D WULDO GLVWULEXWLRQ RI ÀRZ LV PDGH IRU WKH QHWZRUN LQ VXFK D ZD\ WKDW WKH FRQWLQXLW\
HTXDWLRQLVDOZD\VVDWLV¿HGDWHDFKMXQFWLRQRUQRGH
KHDGORVVZLWKWULDOGLVWULEXWLRQRIÀRZIRUHDFKSLSHLQQHWZRUNLVIRXQGRXW+HDGORVV
fL
LQHDFKSLSHLVhf = kQ ZKHUHk =
◊ d
DSSO\WKHFRQGLWLRQDQGVHHZKHWKHUWKHVXPRIKHDGORVVHVLQHDFKORRSLV]HURLH
Â h f = Â kQ
,QFDVHVXPRIKHDGORVVHVLQDORRSLVQRW]HURFKDQJHWKHYDOXHRIWKHÀRZVRWKDW
WKHVXPRIKHDGORVVRIÀRZPD\EHFRPH]HUR
Â KQ
1HZÀRZLVQ = Q0 + DQDQGÂhf = ÂKQ0 + DQ = 0DQGDQ =
Â KQ
7KHDERYHSURFHGXUHKDVWREHUHSHDWHGWLOOZHJHWÂhf
)LQG WKH GLVFKDUJH LQ HDFK SLSH RI WKH QHWZRUN DV VKRZQ LQ WKH ¿JXUH7KH YDOXH RI
kIRUHDFKSLSHLVDOVRVKRZQ7KHGLVFKDUJHIURPWKHQRGHVLVDOVRVKRZQQA = –20
¥±, QD ¥ ±, Qc = – 40 ¥ ± and QB = 45 ¥±PV
20 A k=7 D
15
k=8
k=6 k=6
k=4
45 40
B C
Guidance.+DUG\FURVVPHWKRGLVWREHXVHG7DNHORRSABCDQWLFORFNZLVHDQGCDAORRS
FORFNZLVH$VVXPHÀRZLQHDFKSLSHRIWKHORRS)LQGhf = KQ IRUHDFKSLSH7KHYDOXH
RI hf LV SRVLWLYH LQ WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI DVVXPHG ÀRZ DQG QHJDWLYH LQ RSSRVLWH GLUHFWLRQ7KH
YDOXHRIÂhfRIWKHORRSLVZRUNHGRXW,QFDVHÂhfLV]HURWKHDVVXPHGYDOXHVRIÀRZLQ
Â KQ
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DVVXPHGÀRZLQHDFKSLSHLVDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
A 10 D
20 15
5
15 5
45 40
B 30 C
First trial
Loop ABC Loop CDA
Pipe K Q hf = KQ2 2KQ Pipe K Q hf = KQ2 2KQ
AB 6 15 –1350 180 CD 6 5 150 60
BC 4 30 3600 240 DA 7 10 700 140
CA 8 5 –200 80 AC 7 5 200 80
Â = 2050 Â = 500 Â = 750 Â = 280
- 2050 750
DQ = = –4 DQ = – ª –3
500 280
Second Trial
7KHFRUUHFWHGÀRZLHQ ± DQLQHDFKSLSHRIWKHQHWZRUNLVDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH
A 10 – 3 = 7 D
20 15
6
15 + 4 = 19 5+3=8
45 40
B 30 – 4 = 26 C
Loop ABC Loop CDA

Pipe K Q KQ2 2KQ Pipe K Q KQ2 2KQ
AB 6 19 –2166 238 CD 6 8 –384 96
BC 4 25 2704 208 DA 7 7 343 98
CA 8 6 –288 96 AC 8 6 286 96
Â = 250 Â = 532 Â = –1247 Â = 290
250 - 247
DQ = = – 0.5 DQ = = –1
532 290
Third Trial. 7KHFRUUHFWHGÀRZLHQ ± DQLQHDFKSLSHRIWKHQHWZRUNLVVKRZQLQWKH

¿JXUHEHORZ
A 7+1=8 D
20 15
6 – 0.5
19 + 0.5 = 5.5 8+1=9
= 19.5
45 40
B 26 – 0.5 = 25.5 C
Loop ABC Loop CDA

Pipe K Q KQ2 2KQ Pipe K Q KQ2 2KQ
AB 6 19.5 –2281.5 254 CD 6 9 –486 108
BC 4 25.5 2601 204 DA 7 8 202 84
CA 8 55 –242 88 AC 8 5.5 242 88
Â = 77.5 Â = 526 Â= 8 Â = 280
- 72.5 -8
DQ = = – 0.15 DQ = = – 0.03
526 280
7KH¿QDOÀRZLQHDFKSLSHLQWKHQHWZRUN
A 5.97 D
20 15
5.35
19.65 9.03
45 40
B 25.35 C
14.13 SYPHON
:KDWLVDV\SKRQ":KHUHLVLWXVHG"([SODLQLWVDFWLRQ'HULYHDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKH
length of its inlet leg. 8378
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¿JXUH7KHZDWHUZLOOÀRZIURPKLJKZDWHUOHYHOVXUIDFHVXUIDFHAWRWKHORZHUZDWHUOHYHO
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DWSRLQWCLQSLSHLVOHVVWKDQDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHDVLWOLHVDWDOHYHOZKLFKLVDERYHWKH
IUHHVXUIDFHRIWKHZDWHUDWSRLQWA6LQFHDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHLVHTXDOWRPRIZDWHU
WKHSUHVVXUHDWCFDQEHWKHRUHWLFDOO\UHGXFHGWR±PRIZDWHUEXWLWLVOLPLWHGWR±
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SLSHIURPVXPPLWCWRUHVHUYRLUB
Summit
C
A
TEL
HGL
Obstruction like hill
Syphon
6\SKRQFDQEHXVHGIRU
7RWDNHZDWHUIURPRQHUHVHUYRLUWRDQRWKHUUHVHUYRLUORFDWHGDWORZHUOHYHOEXWZKHQ
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EHORZ
Syphon
Low ground
Channel Flow
Drawing Out Water from a Channel
7RGUDZRXWZDWHUIURPDWDQNKDYLQJQRRXWOHWDVVKRZQEHORZ
Flow
Drawing Out Water from a Tank
7RFRQQHFWWZRRSHQFDQDOVE\LQYHUWHGV\SKRQDVVKRZQEHORZ
HGL
Obstacle like
Syphon big ditch
Inverted Syphon Connecting Two Channels
Principle of working
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PA V P V
+ A + ZA = B + B + ZBORVVHV
r◊ g g r◊ g g
PA P
$V = B DQG VA = VBZHKDYH
r◊g r◊ g
ZA – ZB ORVVHV
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V f LV V
+ +
g g ◊ d g
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PA V P V
+ A + ZA = C + C + ZCORVVHV
r◊ g g r◊ g g
PA VA VC = V
PC Ê V f LACV ˆ
\ ZC – ZA = – – VC – Á +
rg g Ë g ◊ g ◊ d ˜¯
= – hC
PC V Ê f LAC ˆ
= hC + +
rg g ÁË d ˜¯
Inlet leg and outlet leg
$SSO\%HUQRXOOL¶VHTXDWLRQEHWZHHQSRLQWVA DQGC
PA V P
+ A + ZA = C + VC + ZC + hf
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PA = Pa DWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH
PC DEVROXWH]HURSUHVVXUH
VA = 0
VC = V LQOHWYHORFLW\WRV\SKRQ
f l V
hf = ZKHUHl LQOHWOHQJWK
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+ 0 + ZA = 0 + + ZC +
rg g ◊ g ◊d
gd È Pa ˘
RU V = - ( Z C - Z A )˙ L
f ◊ l ÍÎ rg ˚
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PC V P V
+ C + ZC = B + B + ZB + h f
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f ◊ V L
PC VB VC = VPB = Pa DWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHDQGhf =
g ◊ d
V P f V L
0+ + ZC = a + 0 + ZB +
g rg ◊ g ◊d
◊ g ◊d È Pa ˘
RU V =
f ◊ L Í Z C - Z B - r g ˙ LL
Î ˚
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V ≥ V
È Pa ˘
Í r g - ZC - Z A ˙
L Î ˚
RU £
L È P a ˘
Í Z C - Z B - r g ˙
Î ˚
7KHGL൵HUHQFHLQWKHZDWHUVXUIDFHOHYHOVRIWZRUHVHUYRLUVZKLFKDUHFRQQHFWHGE\D
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f GHWHUPLQHWKHGLVFKDUJHZKHQWKHV\SKRQLVUXQQLQJIXOO,IWKHYHUWH[RIWKH
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length of the inlet leg for the pipe to run full. Neglect all losses other than that of
friction. 3RRQD8QLYHUVLW\
C
A 5m
H=8m
B
V V
H = + fL ◊ ZKHUH H = 8
g d g
gH
RU V= fl
+
d
2 ¥ 9.81 ¥ 8
=
0.02 ¥ 500
1.5 +
0.3
= 1.945 m/s
p
Discharge, Q = A◊V = ◊ (0.3)2 ¥ 1.945
4
= 0.1374 m3/s
Inlet leg
Pa
- (ZC - Z A)
L1 g
£
L2 P
(ZC - Z B ) - a
r◊g
Pa
But, = atmospheric pressure head
r◊ g
= 10.3 m
L1 10.3 - 5
\ £
L2 (5 + 8) - 10.3
L1 5.3
£
L2 2.7
But, L2 = L – L1
L1 5.3
\ £
L - L1 2.7
L - L1 2.7
or ≥
L1 5.3
L
or £ 0.51 + 1
L1
600
or L1 ≥
1.51
or L1 £ 39.7 m
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=
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=
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ORVVGXHWRIULFWLRQWKHQWKHKHDGDYDLODEOHDWWKHRXWOHWRISLSHLVH – hf QHJOHFWLQJPLQRU
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f LV
hf =
g ◊ d
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pd
W = r ◊g◊ ¥V
4
+HQFHSRZHUWUDQVPLWWHGDWRXWOHWRIWKHSLSHOLQH
Ê p ˆ Ê f LV ˆ
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Ë 4 ¯ Ë gd ˜¯
(৽FLHQF\(൶FLHQF\LVWKHUDWLRRISRZHUDYDLODEOHDWWKHRXWOHWRIWKHSLSHOLQHWRWKHSRZHU
VXSSOLHGDWWKHLQOHWRIWKHSLSHOLQH
:HLJKWRIZDWHU ◊ H - h f
h=
:HLJKWRIZDWHU ◊ H
H - hf
=
H
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(UPTU 2004-5)
Ê 2 ˆ Ê 2ˆ
Power transmitted, P = Á rg ¥ p d ◊ V ˜ H - f LV
Ë 4 ¯ ÁË 2 gd ˜¯
Since power transmitted depends on the velocity, the maximum power transmitted will be
dP
when =0
dV
dP d È rg p d 4 Ê f LV 3 ˆ ˘
= Í ÁË HV - ˙ =0
dV dV ÍÎ 4 2 ◊ g ◊ d ˜¯ ˙˚
3 f LV 2
or H– =0
2◊ g ◊d
3 f LV 2
or H=
2 gd
= 3 hf
Hence, for maximum power transmitted, the friction loss (hf) is one-third of the head
available.
H - hf
Now, h=
H
For maximum power transmitted,
H
hf =
3
H
H-
\ 0D[LPXPH൶FLHQF\ h max = 3
H
2
= = 66.67 %
3
The pressure at the inlet of pipe is 7 ¥ 103 kN/m2 and pressure drop is 700 kN/m2. The
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RIWKHSLSHDQGH൶FLHQF\RIWUDQVPLVVLRQ7DNHf = 0.024 (UPSC)
700 ¥ 103 700 ¥ 103

hf = = = 71.35 m
r¥ g 1 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81
7000 ¥ 103 7000 ¥ 103

H= = = 713.5 m
r¥ g 103 ¥ 9.81
H - hf -
h= =
H
RU
3RZHUWUDQVPLWWHG rgQH – hf
¥ ¥¥ Q±
¥
RU Q=
¥ ¥
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f LQ
hf =
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14.15 WATER HAMMER

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Or
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Or
What is a surge tank?
Or
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Or
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Magnitude of pressure rise. ,Q D VORZ FORVLQJ RI WKH YDOYH WKH ZKROH PDVV RI ÀXLG LQ
SLSHOLQHLVGHFHOHUDWHGDQGLQHUWLDSUHVVXUH
r A ¥ L d u
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r r
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Surge tank
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Surge tank
Penstock
Turbine
Surge Tank
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= PV
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A
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dV L dV
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dt g dt
dP
h= ¥ ¥ ¥
rg
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14.16 TIME TO EMPTY A TANK

'HULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU WLPH WR HPSW\ D WDQN IURP OHYHO H to H2 through a pipe
discharging in open.
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7KHSLSHGLVFKDUJHVIUHHLQRSHQ$VVXPHADQGaDUHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDVRIWDQNDQGSLSH
UHVSHFWLYHO\&RQVLGHUZDWHUOD\HUDWDKHLJKWhDQGOHYHOIDOOVE\dhLQWLPHdT
–A◊dh = a ◊V ◊dT L
dh
H1
h
H2
l
Datum
line
Time of Emptying a Tank
$OVRWRWDOKHDGh
V Ê f lˆ
h= ÁË + ˜¯
g d
gh
RU V= f ◊l
+
d
6XEVWLWXWLQJWKHYDOXHRIVLQHTQL
gh
–A ◊dh = a ◊dT
fl
+
d
f ◊l
+
A d ¥ h– dh
RU dT = –
a g
f ◊l
+
A d H
RU T=– g Ú h± dh
a H
f ◊l
+
A d H – H
=
a g
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H2ZKHQIORZLVPDGHWKURXJKDSLSHEHWZHHQWKHWZRUHVHUYRLUV
dh
A1
h
A1
dh ¥
A2
l A2
Two Reservoirs having Flow through a Pipe
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A
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A
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A
dH = dh – dH ◊ A

dh
RU dH = A
+

NRZ ±AdH = aV◊dT
gh
RU V=
f ◊L
+
d
gh
– A dH = a ◊ dT
f ◊L
+
d
f ◊L
+
A d ◊ dH
RU dT = –
a gh
fl
A 1.5 +
dT = – 1 d ◊ h -1/2 dh
a 2g Ê A1 ˆ
ÁË1 + A ˜¯
2
f ◊l
1.5 +
A1 A2 d H2
T= Ú h–1/2 dh
a ( A1 + A2 ) 2g H1
fl
2 A1 A2 1.5 +
= d ◊ (H 1/2 – H 1/2)
1 2
a ( A1 + A2 ) 2g
where, H1 LQLWLDOGL൵HUHQFHRIOHYHOVEHWZHHQWZRUHVHUYRLUV

H2 GL൵HUHQFHRIOHYHOVDIWHUWLPHT.
A reservoir 930 m2LV¿OOHGZLWKZDWHUWRDGHSWKRIP$FPGLDPHWHUKRUL]RQWDO
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f ◊l
1.5 +
2A d
T= (H11/2 – H21/2)
a 2g
0.03 ¥ 450
2 ¥ 930 1.5 +
= 0.15 (151/2 – 121/2)
p 2 ¥ 9.81
¥ (0.15) 2
4
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l1 = 1200 m l2 = 600 m
d1 = 30 cm
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QA = 60 litres/s
40 m D
38 m
l3 = 800 m
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(UPTU 2005-6)
l = 1170 m
d = 30 cm
l = 2340
72 m
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Pipe Label 1 Velocity Area

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Chapter 15
IDEAL FLUID FLOW
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

IDEAL FLUID FLOW STREAM FUNCTION
UNIFORM FLOW EQUIPOTENTIAL FUNCTION
SOURCE FLOW SOURCE STRENGTH
SINK FLOW HALF BODY PROFILE
VORTEX FLOW DIVIDING STREAM LINE
DOUBLET FLOW MAGNUS EFFECT
SUPERPOSITION OF FLOWS TORNADO
15.1 INTRODUCTION
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15.2 IDEAL FLUID FLOW

What is an ideal fluid flow? Which fluids may be considered ideal fluids?
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15.3 UNIFORM FLOW

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Uniform Flow (u = U)
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u=0= =
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y
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Stream Lines and Equipotential Lines in
Uniform Flow (u = U)
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q
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15.4 SOURCE FLOW

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q k
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15.5 SINK FLOW

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15.6 VORTEX FLOW

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15.7 DOUBLET FLOW

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15.8 SUPERPOSITION OF FLOW

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uniform flow?
y
U
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Source and Sink Pair in Uniform Flow
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flow?
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+ =
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Flow Around a Cylinder
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Vortex and Sink Flows
15.9 PLOTTING STREAMLINES

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= DVq PV r P
p ¥

= PV
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P ur P ur
+ = +
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+ = +
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q
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The correct answer is
D E
F G
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An ideal flow of any fluid must satisfy
D 3DVFDO¶VODZ E 1HZWRQ¶VODZRIYLVFRVLW\
F %HUQRXOOL¶VWKHRUHP G &RQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ
2SWLRQGLVFRUUHFW
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F &RPELQHXQLIRUPIORZDQGYRUWH[
G &RPELQHGRXEOHWDQGYRUWH[
2SWLRQDLVFRUUHFW
Simulation of flow over a cylinder can be obtained by
D &RPELQLQJXQLIRUPIORZDQGVRXUFHVLQNIORZ
E &RPELQLQJXQLIRUPIORZDQGGRXEOHWIORZ
F &RPELQLQJXQLIRUPIORZDQGYRUWH[
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2SWLRQELVFRUUHFW
Chapter 16
FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES
KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

SUBMERGED BODIES STREAMLINED BODY
DRAG BLUFF BODY
LIFT STOKES’ LAW
DRAG COEFFICIENT MAGNUS EFFECT
LIFT COEFFICIENT KUTTA JOUKOWSKY EQUATION
SKIN FRICTION DRAG KARMAM VORTEX TRAIL
PRESSURE DRAG AEROFOIL
WAVE DRAG CHORD
INDUCED DRAG ANGLE OF ATTACK
COMPRESSIBILITY DRAG SPAN
16.1 INTRODUCTION
7KHUHVLVWDQFHGXHWRDERG\PRYLQJWKURXJKDODUJHPDVVRIVWDWLRQDU\ÀXLGRUUHVLVWDQFHGXHWR
DÀXLGÀRZLQJDURXQGDVWDWLRQDU\VXEPHUJHGERG\KDVJUHDWWHFKQLFDOLPSRUWDQFHLQWKH¿HOGRI
K\GURG\QDPLFVDQGDHURG\QDPLFV$HURSODQHVDQGDXWRPRELOHVDUHERGLHVZKLFKPRYHLQDOPRVW
VWDWLRQDU\DLU6LPLODUO\VXEPDULQHVDQGVKLSVDUHERGLHVZKLFKPRYHLQDOPRVWVWDWLRQDU\ZDWHU
+RZHYHUEXLOGLQJVDQGFKLPQH\VDUHVWDWLRQDU\ERGLHVZKLFKDUHVXEMHFWHGWRZLQG7KHIRUFH
H[HUWHGRQWKHERG\RUÀXLGUHVXOWVIURPWKHUHODWLYHPRWLRQEHWZHHQWKHLPPHUVHGERG\DQGLWV
VXUURXQGLQJÀXLG7KHIRUFHH[HUWHGE\WKHÀXLGRQWKHPRYLQJERG\FDQEHPDGHWRLQFOLQHWR
WKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQ+HQFHWKLVIRUFHKDVDFRPSRQHQWLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQDVZHOODV
DQRWKHUFRPSRQHQWSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQ7KHFRPSRQHQWRIWKHIRUFHLQWKH
GLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQLVFDOOHGWKHGUDJIRUFHDQGWKHFRPSRQHQWSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHGLUHFWLRQRI
motion is called lift force.
16.2 SUBMERGED BODIES

What happens when bodies move through static fluid or when static bodies are
subjected to fluid flow?
Flow Past Submerged Bodies 911
$HURSODQHV DQG DXWRPRELOHV DUH ERGLHV ZKLFK PRYH LQ DOPRVW VWDWLRQDU\ DLU 6LPLODUO\
VXEPDULQHVDQGVKLSVDUHERGLHVZKLFKPRYHLQDOPRVWVWDWLRQDU\ZDWHU+RZHYHUEXLOGLQJV
DQGFKLPQH\VDUHVWDWLRQDU\ERGLHVZKLFKDUHVXEMHFWHGWRZLQGPRYLQJÀXLGV7KHUHDUH
LQVWDQFHV ZKHQ ERWK ÀXLG DQG ERG\ DUH PRYLQJ ,Q DOO FDVHV WKHUH LV D UHODWLYH YHORFLW\
EHWZHHQWKHERG\DQGWKHÀXLG)URPWKHDQDO\VLVSRLQWRIYLHZLWLVDOZD\VFRQVLGHUHGWKDW
ERG\LVDWUHVWDQGWKHÀXLGLVPRYLQJZLWKWKHUHODWLYHYHORFLW\7KHERG\R൵HUVUHVLVWDQFHWR
WKHÀXLGÀRZZKLFKLVHTXDOLQPDJQLWXGHEXWRSSRVLWHWRWKHGLUHFWLRQWRWKHIRUFHH[HUWHG
E\WKHÀXLGRQWKHERG\
16.3 DRAG AND LIFT FORCE

'H¿QHGUDJIRUFHDQGOLIWIRUFHDFWLQJRQDERG\VXEPHUJHGLQIORZLQJIOXLG
:KHQ D ERG\ LV SODFHG LQ WKH XQLIRUP ÀRZ DV VKRZQ LQ ¿JXUH EHORZ WKHQ WKHUH DUH WZR
IRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHERG\YL]SUHVVXUHIRUFHDFWLQJQRUPDOWRWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\
DQGVKHDUIRUFHDFWLQJDORQJWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\7KHSUHVVXUHIRUFHDQGVKHDUIRUFH
FDQEHFRPELQHGWRJLYHWRWDOIRUFHH[HUWHGE\WKHÀXLGRQWKHERG\ZKLFKFDQEHUHVROYHG
LQWKHGLUHFWLRQSDUDOOHOWRWKHPRWLRQRIWKHÀXLGDQGSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKH
PRWLRQRIWKHÀXLG
Pressure Left
force Total force exerted
(FL) by fluid (F)
90°
Uniform
flow q
(U)
q Drag (FD)
Shear
force
Drag. 7KHFRPSRQHQWRIWKHWRWDOIRUFHLQWKHGLUHFWLRQSDUDOOHOWRWKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQ
LVFDOOHGGUDJ'UDJDOZD\VRSSRVHVWKHUHODWLYHPRWLRQEHWZHHQWKHERG\DQGWKHÀXLG

Drag = FD = CD ¥ rUA

= F cos q
ZKHUH CD GUDJ FRH൶FLHQW U YHORFLW\ RI XQLIRUP ÀRZ A SURMHFWHG DUHD RI ERG\
SHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀRZDQGr GHQVLW\RIÀXLG
Lift 7KHFRPSRQHQWRIWKHWRWDOIRUFHLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQRIWKHÀXLGLVNQRZVDV
lift. As the name suggests, this force tries to lift the body

Lift = FL = CL ¥ rU A = F sin q

ZKHUHCL OLIWFRH൶FLHQW
16.4 FRICTION PRESSURE AND SHEAR DRAG

'HULYHH[SUHVVLRQIRUIULFWLRQGUDJSUHVVXUHGUDJWRWDOGUDJDQGOLIW
Or
'L൵HUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQSUHVVXUHGUDJDQGVKHDUGUDJ 8378
FL
P. dA
P. dA. cos q
P. dA
U dA
to
q P. dA. sin q
FD to dA sin q
to dA
q
to dA cos q
&RQVLGHU D ERG\ LV KHOG VWDWLRQDU\ LQ WKH XQLIRUP ÀXLG ÀRZ KDYLQJ YHORFLW\ RI U ,I ZH
consider a small area dARQWKHVXUIDFHWKHQIRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKLVDUHDDUHSUHVVXUHIRUFH
P◊dA DFWLQJ LQ WKH GLUHFWLRQ SHUSHQGLFXODU WR WKH VXUIDFH DQG VKHDU IRUFH t ◊dA acting
along the surface.
Friction Drag. 7KLV LV DOVR FDOOHG VNLQ GUDJ )ULFWLRQ GUDJ LV WKH VXP RI FRPSRQHQWV RI
VKHDUIRUFHVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀXLGÀRZDFWLQJRQWKHFRPSOHWHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\
FDF = Ú A
t ◊dA ◊cos q
Pressure Drag. 7KHVXPRIFRPSRQHQWVRISUHVVXUHIRUFHVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHÀXLGÀRZ
IRUWKHFRPSOHWHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\LVFDOOHGSUHVVXUHGUDJ,WLVDOVRFDOOHGIRUPGUDJ
FDP = Ú A
P◊dA ◊sin q
Total Drag. 7KHVXPRIIULFWLRQGUDJDQGSUHVVXUHGUDJRQDERG\LVFDOOHGWRWDOGUDJ

FD = FDF + FDP
Lift. 7KHOLIWRQDERG\SODFHGLQÀXLGÀRZLVJLYHQE\WKHVXPPDWLRQRIWKHFRPSRQHQWV
RISUHVVXUHIRUFHVDQGVKHDUIRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHERG\LQWKHGLUHFWLRQSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKH
ÀXLGÀRZ
FL = Ú A
P ◊dA ◊cos q + Ú t ◊ dA◊sin q
+RZGRHVV\PPHWU\RIWKHERG\D൵HFWGUDJDQGOLIW"
:KHQDERG\KDVDQD[LVRIV\PPHWU\DQGIUHHVWHDPDSSURDFKHVWKHERG\DORQJWKLVD[LV
WKHIRUFHWKDWDFWVRQWKHERG\LVZKROO\GUDJIRUFHDFWLQJDORQJWKHVWUHDP
Total Force, F = FD + FL
While FD = F cos q & FL = F sin q
When q = 0, FL = 0 and F = FD
7KH SURGXFWLRQ RI OLIW UHTXLUHV DV\PPHWU\ RI ÀRZ DERXW WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI WKH IUHH VWUHDP
+HQFH ZKHQ q π WKHQ ERWK GUDJ FD = F cos q DQG OLIW FL = F sin q DUH SURGXFHG
under all circumstances. It is clear from the above.
,WLVSRVVLEOHWRFUHDWHGUDJZLWKRXWOLIWE\NHHSLQJq = 0.
,W LV LPSRVVLEOH WR FUHDWH OLIW ZLWKRXW GUDJ ,I q π 0, both F cos q and F sin q have
GH¿QLWHYDOXHV
Lift (L) Total

force (F)
Drag
q Drag (D)
q
Drag only (q = 0) Lift & drag (q π 0)
$SODWHNHSWLQWKHÀRZSHUSHQGLFXODUWRGLUHFWLRQRIÀRZZLOOKDYHGUDJRQO\DVVKRZQLQ
WKH¿JXUH7RWDOIRUFHDFWLQJRQDQDHURSODQHLVFZKLFKKDVFRPSRQHQWVDORQJDQGQRUPDO
WRWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\ZKLFKDUHGUDJD and lift LUHVSHFWLYHO\
16.5 COEFFICIENT OF DRAG AND LIFT

'H¿QHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJDQGFRH൶FLHQWRIOLIW2QZKDWIDFWRUVZLOOWKHVHFRH൶FLHQWV
GHSHQG" 8378
7KHFRH൶FLHQWVDUHGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRVRIFRUUHVSRQGLQJIRUFHVWRG\QDPLFIRUFHVRQWKH
SURMHFWHGDUHDV
7KHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJCDLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIGUDJWRG\QDPLFIRUFHRQWKHSURMHFWHG
area.
FD
CD =

rU A

ZKHUH FD = drag, U = free stream velocity, and
A SURMHFWHGDUHD
7KHFRH൶FLHQWRIOLIWCLLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIOLIWWRWKHG\QDPLFIRUFHRQWKHSURMHFWHG
area.
FL
CL =

rU A

7KHUDWLRRIFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJWRWKHFRH൶FLHQWRIOLIWLVVDPHDVWKDWRIWKHUDWLRRIWKHOLIW
to the drag.
CD FL
=
CL FD
7KHFRH൶FLHQWVDUHIXQFWLRQVRI5H\QROGVQXPEHUDQGFKDUDFWHULVWLFDUHDRIWKHERG\A
)LQGWKHSURMHFWHGDUHDVRIFLUFXODUF\OLQGHUVSKHUHDHURIRLODQGIODW
SODWH
Case &LUFXODUF\OLQGHUZLWKGLDPHWHUd and length l.
U d
3URMHFWHGDUHD d ◊l
Case6SKHUHZLWKGLDPHWHUd
pd
3URMHFWed area =
4
Case 3. Aerofoil of chord c VSDQs
Spa
n=
U S
c
3URMHFWHGDUHD s ¥ c
Case 4. Plate having length lDQGZLGWKb
b b
U l l
3URMHFWHGDUH l ¥ b
([SODLQWKHGL൵HUHQWUHJLRQVRIDIOXLGIORZSDVWDERG\&ODVVLI\GUDJRQWKHEDVLVRI
GL൵HUHQWRULJLQV
a b c d
Flow Past a Bridge Pier: Different Regions of Fluid Flow
&RQVLGHUZDWHUÀRZLQJSDVWDEULGJHSLHUDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH7KHÀRZFDQEHGLYLGHG
LQWRIRXUUHJLRQVWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHÀRZ
Region ‘a¶7KHUHLVGLYHUJHQFHRIVWUHDPOLQHVZKLFKOHDGVWRGHFUHDVHLQYHORFLW\RI
WKHÀRZ2FFXUUHQFHRIDVWDJQDWLRQSRLQWXSVWUHDPRIWKHERG\ZKLFKGLYLGHVWKHÀRZ
LQWRWZRVWUHDPV
Region ‘b¶%RXQGDU\ODPLQDUÀRZFRQVLVWLQJRIODPLQDUDQGWXUEXOHQWÀRZLVWDNLQJ
SODFH
Region ‘c¶7KHUHLVDVHSDUDWLRQRIERXQGDU\OD\HUGXHWRSRVLWLYHSUHVVXUHJUDGLHQW
resulting in surface discontinuity and formation of vortices.
Region ‘d¶7KHUHLVVKHGGLQJRIYRUWLFHVWRFRQVWLWXWHWKHZDNH
'UDJFDQEHFODVVL¿HGRQWKHEDVLVRIGL൵HUHQWRULJLQVDVGHVFULEHGEHORZ
Skin friction drag. This drag results from the formation of the boundary layer and
VKHDUVWUHVVHVDWWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\LQWKHÀXLGÀRZLQWKHUHJLRQµb’.
Form drag )RUPDWLRQ RI HGGLHV DQG ZDNH LQ WKH UHJLRQ d UHVXOWV LQWR UHVLVWDQFH
ZKLFKLVFDOOHGIRUPGUDJ7KHPDJQLWXGHRIIRUPGUDJPD\IDUH[FHHGWKHVNLQIULFWLRQ
GUDJDQGLWGHSHQGVRQWKHIRUPRUVKDSHRIWKHERG\
3. Wave drag. :KHQ D ERG\ LV SDUWO\ VXEPHUJHG LQ D OLTXLG WKH ÀRZ LQGXFHV WKH
IRUPDWLRQRIJUDYLWDWLRQDOZDYHVUHVXOWLQJLQWRZDYHGUDJ:KHQDVXEPHUJHGERG\
WUDYHOV DW WUDQVRQLF RU VXSHUVRQLF VSHHGV WKH FRPSUHVVLELOLW\ H൵HFW DOVR JLYHV ULVH WR
ZDYHGUDJ
4. Induced drag. 7KLVLVWKHGUDJUHVXOWLQJGXHWRWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOQDWXUHRIÀXLGÀRZ
DQG¿QLWHVL]HRIWKHERG\,WLVPDLQO\LQGXFHGE\WKHLQGXFHGFRPSRQHQWRIYHORFLW\
DQGYRUWLFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQDORQJWKHVSDQRIWKHERG\,WLVOLIWGHSHQGHQW
5. Compressibility drag. ,WDULVHVGXHWRFKDQJHVLQGHQVLWLHVDVWKHÀRZSURFHHGV
6. Gravitational wave drag. ,W LV H[SHULHQFHG E\ D ERG\ ZKHQ LW LV WRZHG LQ D IUHH
VXUIDFHÀRZRUZKHQDERG\LVSODFHGDWLQWHUIDFHRIDLUDQGOLTXLG,QVXFKVLWXDWLRQV
WKHJUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFHVDOPRVWKDYHVDPHPDJQLWXGHDVLQHUWLDIRUFHVUHVXOWLQJLQÀRZ
SDWWHUQFRQVLGHUDEO\LQÀXHQFHGE\WKHIRUPDWLRQRIJUDYLWDWLRQDOZDYHV
'L൵HUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQVWUHDPOLQHERG\DQGEOX൵ERG\ 8378
Streamline body %OXႇERG\

1. Its surface coincides with the streamlines 1. Its surface does not coincide with the
RIWKHÀRZ VWUHDPOLQHVRIWKHÀRZ
2. 7KHÀRZGRHVQRWVHSDUDWHXQWLOQHDU 2. $ YHU\ ZLGH ZDNH LV GHYHORSHG RQ WKH
trailing edge of the body. Hence, wake down-stream of the bluff body. The
formation zone at trailing edge is very SUHVVXUHDWGRZQVWUHDPIDOOVUHVXOWLQJLQ
small. ODUJH SUHVVXUH GLႇHUHQFH IURP XSVWUHDP
to downstream.
3. 3.
Wake Wake
Aerofoil: stream line body (small wake)
Circular disc : (large wake)

4. 6PDOOSUHVVXUHGUDJUHVXOWVDQGGUDJ 4. 3UHVVXUHGUDJLVODUJHDVFRPSDUHG
is mainly due to friction only. to friction drag.
5. $HURSODQHVVXEPDULQHVDQGVSDFHVKLS 5. Tall buildings, chimneys and advertising
are streamline bodies. ERDUGVDUHEOXႇERGLHV
16.6 STOKES’ LAW CONCERNING SKIN AND PRESSURE DRAG

([SODLQ6WRNHV¶ODZFRQFHUQLQJVNLQDQGSUHVVXUHGUDJIRUFHVIRUDVSKHUHPRYLQJLQ
IOXLG:KDWLVWKHYDOXHRIFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJDFFRUGLQJWRWKH6WRNHV¶ODZ"
8378
:KHQ WKH YHORFLW\ RI ÀRZ LV YHU\ VPDOO 5H\QROGV QXPEHU OHVV WKDQ WKHQ YLVFRXV
IRUFHVDUHPRUHSUHGRPLQDQWWKDQLQHUWLDIRUFHV6WRNHVDQDO\VHGWKHÀRZDURXQGDVSKHUH
DQGJDYHDUHODWLRQIRUGUDJDFWLQJRQWKHVSKHUHZKLOHLWLVPRYLQJZLWKFRQVWDQWYHORFLW\
WHUPLQDOYHORFLW\LQWKHÀXLG7KHWRWDOGUDJ
FD = 3pmDU
ZKHUHm = viscosity, D GLDPHWHURIVSKHUHDQGU = terminal velocity.
Stokes’ Law: 6WRNHVIXUWKHUGLYLGHGWKHWRWDOGUDJLQWZRSDUWVGHFLGLQJWZRWKLUGVGUDJ
LVFRQWULEXWHGE\VNLQIULFWLRQDQGRQHWKLUGE\SUHVVXUH7KLVGLYLVLRQRIWKHWRWDOGUDJLV
NQRZQDV6WRNHV¶ODZ+HQFHDFFRUGLQJWR6WRNHV¶ODZZHKDYH

6NLQIULFWLRQGUDJ FDF = FD p mDU
3

3UHVVXUHGUDJFDP = FD = pmDU
3
&RH৽FLHQWRIGUDJCD
$VSHU6WRNHV¶ODZWRWDOGUDJ
FD = 3pmDU L
$VSHUGH¿QLWLRQRIFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJCD, the total drag,

FD = CD ¥ rU ¥ A LL

pd
= CD ¥ rU ¥
4
(TXDWLQJHTQVLDQGLL
p
3pmDU = CD ¥ rU ¥ ◊ D
4
m
\ CD =
r ◊U ◊ D

=
Re
:KDW DUH WKH YDOXHV RI FRH൶FLHQW RI GUDJ IRU VSKHUH LQ WKH IOXLG IORZ ZLWK KLJKHU
5H\QROGVQXPEHUV"
Reynolds numbers between 0.2 and 5
7KH6WRNHV¶ODZZDVLPSURYHGRYHURFHDQE\LQFUHDVLQJLQHUWLDIRUFHVLQWKHÀXLGÀRZV
ZKLFKKDYH5H\QROGVQXPEHUVEHWZHHQDQG
È 3 ˘
CD = Í + R ˙
Re Î e˚
£ Re £

CD = 0.4
3. £ Re £
CD = 0.5
Re > 4
4.
CD
:KDWLVWHUPLQDOYHORFLW\"
:KHQDERG\IDOOVIURPUHVWLQWRDÀXLGWKHERG\VWDUWVDFFHOHUDWLQJLQWKHÀXLGGXHWRWKH
gravitational force. The drag on the body increases as its velocity increases. At one stage,
WKHVXPRIGUDJDQGEXR\DQWIRUFHDFWLQJXSZDUGVRQWKHERG\EHFRPHVHTXDOWRWKHZHLJKW
RIWKHERG\DFWLQJGRZQZDUGVDQGWKHQHWIRUFHDFWLQJRQWKHERG\EHFRPHV]HUR7KHERG\
LQ WKLV FRQGLWLRQ GRHV QRW DFFHOHUDWH DQ\ PRUH ZKLOH PRYLQJ GRZQ LQ WKH ÀXLG ,W VWDUWV
PRYLQJGRZQZLWKDFRQVWDQWYHORFLW\ZKLFKLVFDOOHGWHUPLQDOYHORFLW\
:KDWDUHWKHYDOXHVRIFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJIRUDORQJF\OLQGHUSODFHGLQIOXLGIORZZLWK
YDU\LQJ5H\QROGVQXPEHU"
7KHÀRZDURXQGDORQJF\OLQGHULVVLPLODUWRWKHÀRZDURXQGDVSKHUH7KHSORWRICD versus
R e IRU WKH F\OLQGHU ORRNV VRPHZKDW VLPLODU WR WKDW IRU D VSKHUH H[FHSW IRU WKH QXPHULFDO
values. The value of CDLV
Reynolds number 7KHGUDJIRUFHLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRYHORFLW\RIÀRZLQVXFKÀRZV
KHQFHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJLVLQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQWR5H\QROGVQXPEHU

FD μ u and CD μ
Re
< R e < 7KHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJGHFUHDVHVZLWKLQFUHDVLQJ5H\QROGVQXPEHUCD

reaches to a minimum value of 0.95 at Re
< R e < 3 ¥ 47KHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJLQFUHDVHVDQGLWDWWDLQVWKHPD[LPXPYDOXH
RIDWRe = 3 ¥4.
¥ 4 < R e < 3 ¥ 105.7KHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJGHFUHDVHVDQGLWEHFRPHVHTXDOWR
at Re = 3 ¥5.
¥ 5 < R e < 3 ¥ 6. CD increases and it attains the value of 0.7.
7KHFKDQJHRIWKHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJCDZLWKLQFUHDVLQJ5H\QROGVQXPEHULVGXHWR
ÀRZVHSDUDWLRQDQGHGGLHVIRUPDWLRQ
Vortex
S1
S2
Re < 1 2 < Re Re > 90

No separation Vortex shed off
Separation at S1 & S2
16.7 CIRCULATION IN FREE VORTEX

'H¿QHFLUFXODWLRQ+RZLVLWGHWHUPLQHG"2QZKDWIDFWRUVZLOOLWGHSHQG":KDWLVWKH
YDOXHRIFLUFXODWLRQLQIUHHYRUWH["
&LUFXODWLRQLVGH¿QHGDVOLQHLQWHJUDORIYHORFLW\DURXQGDFORVHGSDWK
&RQVLGHUDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOVWHDG\ÀXLGÀRZZLWKYHORFLW\uPDNLQJDQJOHq to an element dL
DVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH7KHu cos qLVWKHYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWWDQJHQWLDOO\WRWKHHOHPHQW
dL. The circulation around the closed curve around the element dL,
dl
q
G= ³ U cos q dL
The circulation depends on (1) tangential velocity or vorticity, and (2) contour area in x and
y plane.
r
G
uq =
2pr
Circulation for a Free Vortex
,QFDVHRIIUHHYRUWH[ÀRZZHKDYHuq ¥ r = constant. Hence, the circulation,
G= ³ U ◊ dL
q
= Uq ¥ 2p r = 2p (Uq ¥ r)
or G = Constant
G
and uq =
2p r
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enclosed path and also circulation is constant.
16.8 MAGNUS EFFECT

6WDWHPDJQXVH൵HFW
Or
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XQLIRUPIORZDQGDFLUFXODWRU\IORZ
0DJQXVKDGVKRZQWKDWLIDFLUFXODUF\OLQGHULVSODFHGLQDXQLIRUPÀRZDQGLWLVURWDWHG
then a lift force or a transverse force is produced on the cylinder. The reason for this is
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SUHVHQFHRIRQO\XQLIRUPÀRZUHVXOWLQJLQDQDV\PPHWULFDOÀRZ SDWWHUQRQWKHF\OLQGHU
7KH YHORFLW\ DQG SUHVVXUH GLVWULEXWLRQ RQ WKH F\OLQGHU EHFRPH DV\PPHWULFDO DW WKH XSSHU
DQGWKHORZHUVLGHRIWKHF\OLQGHUDVVKRZQ2QWRSVLGHVWUHDPOLQHVDUHFORVHULQGLFDWLQJ
KLJKHUYHORFLWLHVDQGKHQFHORZHUSUHVVXUH2QWKHORZHUVLGHWKHVWUHDPOLQHVDUHIXUWKHU
DSDUWLQGLFDWLQJORZHUYHORFLWLHVDQGKLJKHUSUHVVXUH7KHF\OLQGHUH[SHULHQFHVDQXSZDUG
IRUFHRUOLIW,WLVSRVVLEOHWRREWDLQOLIWIRUFHZKHQZHVLPSOLI\WKHDQDO\VLVE\DVVXPLQJ
WKHÀXLGÀRZDVLGHDOÀXLGÀRZ:HZLOOJHWWKHVDPHÀRZSDWWHUQZKHQDF\OLQGHULVNHSW
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WKHF\OLQGHULQWKHXQLIRUPÀRZ
FL
US
U
+ = q
S2
S1
Uniform Flow Circulator Fow Magnus Effect (Lift Generation)
Magnus Effect
The velocity at the surface of the cylinder,
G
us U sin q +
pR
$WVWDJQDWLRQSRLQWus = 0
G
Hence, U sin q = –
pR
G
or sin q =
4 pU R
qFDQWDNHYDOXH LQEHWZHHQWR
In case q WKHQ
G
VLQ ± ±
4 pU R
or G = 4pUR
'HULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU OLIW IRUFH DFWLQJ RQ WKH URWDWLQJ F\OLQGHU SODFHG LQ XQLIRUP
flowing fluid?
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VXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU$SSO\%HUQRXOOL¶VHTXDWLRQDWWZRSRLQWVRQHDWWKHVXUIDFHRIWKH
PS R
q
dq
q
F\OLQGHUDQGRWKHURQHDWYHU\ODUJHGLVWDQFHDZD\IURPWKHF\OLQGHUPs and UsDUHSUHVVXUH

DQGYHORFLW\DWVXUIDFHZKLFKP and UDUHSUHVVXUHDQGYHORFLW\DWIDUGLVWDQFHSRLQW
Ps U P U
+ s + ZS = + +Z
rg g rg g
Z = ZsDVÀRZLVWDNLQJSODFHLQDSODQH
Ps P
= + [U – US]
rg rg g
G
But, Us U sin q + = velocity at surface of the cylinder
pR

Ps P È Ê G ˆ ˘
or = + ÍU - Á U VLQ q + ˙
rg rg g ÍÎ Ë pR ˜¯ ˙˚
P È G 4sin q G ˘
= + ÍU - 4U sin q - - ˙
rg g Î 4p R pR ˚
rU È G 4sin q G ˘
Ps = P + Í - VLQ q - - ˙
Î 4p R U pU R ˚
7KHOLIWDFWLQJRQWKHHOHPHQWDODUHDZKHQPsLVWKHSUHVVXUHDFWLQJRQWKHVXUIDFH
p
FL = – Ú Ps ¥ sin q ¥ dA
0
p
=– Ú PS ¥ sin q ¥ R ◊dq ◊L as dA = R ◊dq ◊L
0
p È rU Ê G 4sin q G ˆ ˘
= Ú ÍP + Á - VLQ q - - ˙ R ◊L◊sin q dq
0 ÍÎ Ë 4 pU R pU R ˜¯ ˙˚
p p rU
=– Ú Psin q ◊RLdq – sin q ◊ R◊L◊dq
0 Ú
0 g
p rU p r U G
+ usin3 q RLdq ◊ + Ú RL sin q dq
Ú 0 g 0 p U R

p rU 4sin q ◊ G
+ Ú 0
◊
pU R
◊R◊L ◊dq
p p
But Ú sin q dq = sin3 qdq = 0
0 Ú
0
p rgU sin q
\ FL = R◊L◊ ◊ ◊G◊dq
Ú0 pg UR
p
L rU G Ê q sin q ˆ
= -
p ÁË ˜¯ 0
L ◊ r ◊UG
= ¥p
p
= L ◊r◊UG
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16.9 KARMAN VORTEX TRAIL

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:KHQDF\OLQGHULVVXEMHFWHGWRDXQLIRUPÀRZDWORZ5H\QROGVQXPEHUR eWKHÀRZ
GRHV QRW VHSDUDWH IURP WKH F\OLQGHU$ERYH Re VHSDUDWLRQ DQG HGG\ IRUPDWLRQ VWDUWV
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SRLQWV RI VHSDUDWLRQ7KH YRUWLFHV URWDWH LQ RSSRVLWH GLUHFWLRQV DQG WKH\ HORQJDWH WR VXFK
DQH[WHQWWKDWWKH\EHFRPHXQVWDEOHWKHUHE\EUHDNLQJR൵IURPWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGHU
7KLVSURFHVVRIIRUPDWLRQRIYRUWLFHVDQGWKHLUVKHGGLQJDZD\IURPWKHF\OLQGHUFRQWLQXHV
+HQFHWKHUHDUHWZRURZVRIYRUWLFHVVHSDUDWLQJIURPWKHF\OLQGHUDUHIRUPHGZKLFKVWDUW
PRYLQJGRZQVWUHDPZLWKVPDOOYHORFLW\7KHVHWUDLOVRIYRUWLFHVDUHFRPPRQO\NQRZQDV
“Karman vortex trails”.
Separation Starts at Re > 2
l
Karman Vortex Trails
'XULQJVWDEOHFRQGLWLRQVRIVKHGGLQJYRUWLFHV.DUPDQIRXQGWKDW
a

l
9RUWH[WUDLOPRYHVGRZQZDUGZLWKDYHORFLW\RIutZKLFKLV
0.355 G
ut = ZKHUHG is the circulation around the vortex.
a
WKHIUHTXHQF\RIYRUWH[VKHGGLQJ
U Ê ˆ
f ÁË - ˜ ZKHUHD = diameter of cylinder
D Re ¯
fD Ê ˆ
or Á - ˜
U Ë Re ¯
fD
LVNQRZQDV6WURXKDOQXPEHU$V5H\QROGVQXPEHUYDULHVIURPWR4, Strouhal
U
nuPEHUYDULHVIURPWRIRUDF\OLQGHU
16.10 AEROFOIL
What is an aerofoil? What is its purpose?
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WRWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀRZLVDOVRDFWLQJQHDUO\SHUSHQGLFXODUWRÀRZ$ODUJHOLIWLVREWDLQHG
from an aerofoil.
Lift
Resulting force
Drag
Force on an Aerofoil
([SODLQFKRUGOLQHDQGFKRUGDQJOHRIDWWDFN FKDPEHU SUR¿OH FHQWUH

OLQHDVSHFWUDWLRIRUDQDHURIRLODQGVWDOO
Mean camber line

Leading edge Upper camber
line
Chord
Flow
Angle of
attack (a) Trailing edge
an
Sp
Lower camber line
Line and Chord
Chord line and chord : &KRUG OLQH LV DQ LPDJLQDU\ OLQH ZKLFK FDQ EH GUDZQ IURP
leading edge to the trailing edge of a cross section of an aerofoil. The length of the line
is called chord of the aerofoil.
Angle of Attack. 7KH DFXWH DQJOH EHWZHHQ WKH FKRUG OLQH RI WKH DHURIRLO DQG WKH
GLUHFWLRQRIWKHÀRZ
Camber. Camber is the curvature of the aerofoil from the leading edge to trailing edge.
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IURPOHDGLQJHGJHWRH[LWDWWKHWUDLOLQJHGJHLVFDOOHGDSUR¿OHFHQWUHOLQH
Aspect Ratio. ,WLVWKHUDWLRRIVSDQRIWKHDHURIRLOlWRWKHOHQJWKRIPHDQFKRUGc
VSDQ l
AsSHFWUatio = =
mean chord c
Stall. :KHQ WKH DQJOH RI DWWDFN RI DQ DHURIRLO LV JUHDWHU WKDQ WKH DQJOH RI DWWDFN
IRU PD[LPXP OLIW WKH DHURIRLO LV VDLG WR EH RSHUDWLQJ LQ WKH VWDOO FRQGLWLRQ$W VWDOO
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FRH൶FLHQWLQFUHDVHVFRQVLGHUDEO\
'UDZDQGH[SODLQWKHIORZDURXQGDQDHURIRLOZKHQVXEMHFWHGWRXQLIRUPIORZ
FLUFXODWRU\IORZDQGFRPELQDWLRQRIXQLIRUPDQGFLUFXODWRU\IORZV6WDWHKRZ
WKHVWDJQDWLRQSRLQWVYDU\
S1
S2
Aerofoil in Uniform Flow
Aerofoil in Circulatory Flow
S1
S2
Aerofoil in Combined Uniform and Vortex Flow
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XQGHU LUURWDWLRQDO ÀRZ FRQGLWLRQV S LV WKH VWDJQDWLRQ SRLQW IRUPHG DW WKH OHDGLQJ HGJH
of the aeirofoil and S LV WKH VWDJQDWLRQ SRLQW IRUPHG DW WKH XSSHU VXUIDFH RI WKH DHURIRLO
EHIRUHWKHWUDLOLQJHGJH7KHÀRZRQWKHXSSHUVXUIDFHRIWKHDHURIRLOLVXQVWDEOHQHDUWKH
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JUDGLHQW FRQGLWLRQV ZKLFK HQFRXUDJH WKH VHSDUDWLRQ RI WKH ÀRZ IURP WKH VXUIDFH RI WKH
aerofoil. Hence, stagnation S WDNHV SODFH EHIRUH WKH WUDLOLQJ HGJH ZKLFK PRYHV WR WKH
trailing HGJHDVWKHYHORFLW\RIÀRZLQFUHDVHV2QIXUWKHULQFUHDVHRIYHORFLW\LWJLYHVULVH
WR WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI YRUWLFHV 7KH YRUWLFHV FUHDWH FLUFXODWLRQ DURXQG WKH DHURIRLO DQG ÀRZ
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LVDV\PPHWULFDODERXWWKHFHQWUDOD[LVDQGDHURIRLOLVQRZVXEMHFWHGWRDOLIWIRUFH
16.11 AEROPLANE IN EQUILIBRIUM

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YHORFLW\DQGSURSXOVLRQSRZHU
Lift
Propulsion
Drag
or thrust
Weight
Equilibrium of aeroplane
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E\WKHOLIWSURYLGHGE\WKHÀRZRIDLURQLWVZLQJVKDYLQJWKHVKDSHRIDQDHURIRLO:KHQ
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OLIWIRUFHVDUHHTXDOWRWKHZHLJKWRIWKHDHURSODQHDQGGUDJIRUFHPXVWEHRYHUFRPHE\WKH
WKUXVWRUSURSXOVLRQSURYLGHGE\WKHHQJLQHMHWHQJLQHRIWKHDHURSODQH
1
Lift = CL ¥ rU 2 ¥ A
2
%XWGXULQJHTXLOLEULXPZHLJKW /LIW
1
\ W = CL ¥ rU 2 ¥ A
2
\ Velocity of plane = Velocity of air = u
ÊW ˆ 2
U= ÁË ˜¯
A r ◊ CL
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P = FD ¥ A
3
= CD ¥ rU ¥ A
2
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Stall point
CL
CD CL CD
Angle of attack (a)
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aerofoil.
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drag and lift if CD DQGCL
$UHDRISODWH¥ 3 = 6 m

FD = CD ¥ rU ¥ A

FD = 0.04 ¥ ¥¥3 ¥ ¥ 6

= 0.04 ¥ 75 ¥3
N1

FL = C L ¥ ¥ rU ¥ A

¥ ¥¥3 ¥ 5 ¥ 6

N1
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A ¥ P
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= 0.9 ¥ ¥¥ ¥ 4

1

FD = CD ¥ rU ¥ A

¥ ¥¥ ¥ 4

1
F= FL + FD = +
= ¥ 4 + ¥ 4

1
FL
tan q = =
FD
= 4.5
or q
3RZHUH[HUWHGE\DLU
P = FD ¥ U
¥
N:
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in case CDLVUHGXFHGWR$VVXPHDLUGHQVLW\ NJP
Case
¥ 3
U NPSK =PV
3600

FD = CD ¥ rU ¥ A

= 0.4 ¥ ¥¥ ¥

1
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3RZHU FD ¥ U
¥
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Case
CD = 0.3
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P = FD ¥ U

3¥3 = CD ¥ rU ¥ A ¥ U

¥ 3 ¥
or U3 =

¥ ¥ ¥

¥3
or U PV
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Diameter = 2 m
FD
800 N
p ¥ d
3URMHFWHGDUHDRISDUachute =
4
p ¥
A= P
4
FD 1
FD = CD ¥ ¥ r ¥ U ¥ A

¥ ¥¥ U ¥

¥
or U =
¥ ¥

or U PV
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p ¥ d p ¥ 3
3URMHFWHGDUHDA = = = 7.065 m
4 4

FD = CD ¥ rU ¥ A

= 0.5 ¥ ¥¥ ¥ 7.065

1
FD :HLJKWRIPDQ:HLJKWRISDUDFKXWH
\ :HLJKWRIPDQ ±
1
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Here FD = W

FD = CD ¥ r ¥ U ¥ A

¥ ¥¥ ¥ A

¥
or A=
¥ ¥
P
p ¥ d
NRZ
4
¥
or d = P
p
d = 3.57 m
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q
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3
Weight, W = pd ¥ r
6

= ¥ p ¥3 ¥ 3 ¥3
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1

FD = CD ¥ ¥ rU ¥ A

p p
A= ¥ d = ¥
4 4
¥–3 m

\ FD = 0.5 ¥ ¥¥ ¥¥–3

1
$SSO\LQJ/DPL¶VWKHRUHP
T FD W
= =
sin 90 VLQ - q VLQ + q

T= =
sin q cos q

or tan q =

q

and T= 1
sin 67.79
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15°
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45°
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¥ 3
A = P, U = PV
3600
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FRV 1
FL = T sin 45 + W
VLQ
1
FD
CD = =

rU A ¥ ¥ ¥

FL
CL = =

rU A ¥ ¥ ¥

= 0.466
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= 4.33 N
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=5¥ + 0.5

=3N
FL 3
\ = = 0.69
FD 4.33
FL
FD
30°
T = 25 N
W=6N
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NJP 8378

A = 0.7 ¥ 0.7 = 0.49 m
¥ 3
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3600
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FD
45°
T = 25 N
W=6N
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FD = TFRV FRV
1
FL = T sin 45 + W

1
FD
1RZ CD =

rU A

=

¥ ¥ ¥

FL
CL =

rU A

=

¥ ¥ ¥

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)RUÀDWSODWH CD = 0.7 and CL

\ FD = CD ¥ rU ◊A

= 0.7 ¥ ¥¥ ¥¥

¥3N1

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¥ ¥¥¥

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F= FD + FL
= ¥ + ¥
¥3N1
3RZHUUHTXLUHG F ¥ U
¥6 ¥
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FLUFXODWLRQOLIWIRUFHSHUXQLWOHQJWKDQGSRVLWLRQRIVWDJQDWLRQSRLQW
pDN
uq =
60
p ¥ ¥
= PV
60
Circulation
G p Ruq
¥ p ¥¥
PV
Lift
FL = L◊r◊U ¥ G
¥¥3 ¥¥
= 47.3 ¥6 N
$WVWDJQDWLRQSRLQWZHKDYH
uq
VLQq + =0
U

or sin q = –
¥
± ± VLQ
or q VLQDQGVLQ±
DQG
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A = 30 m
360
U= ¥3 PV
3600
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¥3 = CL ¥ ¥ rU ¥ A

¥ 3 ¥
or CL =
¥ ¥

For CL IURPFODUNyZLQJGLDJUDP
CD ª 0.05

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= 0.05 ¥ ¥¥4 ¥ 30

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¥ 3
=
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$VVXPHGHQVLW\RIDLU NJP and CD
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r When pressure drag over a body is large as compared to the friction drag, then the shape
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larger resistance to motion.
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in the increase in pressure and development of adverse pressure gradient leading to
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overcome the resistance is
D N: E N:
F N: G N: ,(6
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rV
= CD ¥ ¥ A ¥ V = const ¥ V 3

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Z
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3
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mg ¥ ¥
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IRUFHH[SHULHQFHGE\WKHF\OLQGHULV
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D E
m m
N1 N1
F G ,(6
m m
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0.400
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= 10.05 m2/s
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= 1000 × L ∙ 4 ∙ 10.05
FL N1
or =
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Codes A B C D
(a) 2 3 1 4
(b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 3 2 1 4 (IES 2001)
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WHUPLQDOYHORFLW\V varies with diameter D of the sphere as
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E V μ D for all diameters
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G V μ D for large D and V μ D for small D ,(6
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List-I List-II
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E )ORZRYHUDKDOI5DQNLQHERG\RYDO 'RXEOHWXQLIRUPIORZ
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G )ORZRYHUD5DQNLQH 'RXEOHWIUHHYHUWH[XQLIRUPIORZ
Codes A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 2
(b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 1 3 4 2
(d) 2 3 4 1 (IES 2001, IAS 2003)
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3
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VSHFLDOO\DWODUJHDQJOHVRIDWWDFN
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RQVKRUWUXQ
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lift decreases and drag increases
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INDEX
A Bulk modulus of elasticity 42

Acceleration on inclined plane 307 Buoyancy 233
Acceleration vector 425 applications of 236
Adhesion 45 Buoyant force 233
Aerofoil 923
C
Aeroplane in equilibrium 926
&DSLOODU\IDOO
Aerostatic law 79, 82
&DSLOODU\ULVH
$൷X[
Capillary tube method 684
Angular momentum 590
Cavitation 44
Anicut 548
Centre of buoyancy 235
Aquaduct 548
&HQWUHRISUHVVXUH
Archimedes’ principle 234
&KHQ]\¶VIRUPXOD
Atmospheric pressure 83
&LUFXODWLRQ
$YHUDJHFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJ
&RH൶FLHQWRIFRPSUHVVLELOLW\
Average velocity 642, 720
&RH൶FLHQWRIFRQWUDFWLRQ
$[LDOGHSWKRIZDWHU
&RH൶FLHQWRIGLVFKDUJH
B &RH൶FLHQWRIGUDJ
Backwater curve 548 &RH൶FLHQWRIOLIW
Bend, forces on 594 &RH൶FLHQWRIYHORFLW\
Bernoulli’s equation 490, 492, 637 Cohesion 45
%LQJKDPSODVWLFV &RPSUHVVLELOLW\
%OX൵ERG\ &RPSUHVVLEOHÀRZ
Boundary layer Conservation of mass, principle of 406
concept of 746 Continuity equation in three-dimensional Cartesian
growth of 749 coordinates 407
separation of 764 &RQWLQXLW\RIÀRZHTXDWLRQRI
%RXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVV &RQWLQXXP
Bourdon tube gauge 85 Control volume, concept of 487
Broad crested weir 528 Convergent divergent mouthpiece 506
Buckingham’s theorem 338 Convergent mouthpiece 506
950 Index
&RXHWWHÀRZ Evaporation 43
&ULWLFDOYHORFLW\ ([SHULPHQWDOPRGHOWHVWLQJ
&\OLQGULFDOH[WHUQDOPRXWKSLHFH
F
D Falling sphere viscometer 683
D’Alembert’s principle 302 Filament line 400
'DPVWDELOLW\RI Floatation 235
Darcy’s equation 645, 673 principle of 236
for friction loss 722 Floating, stability of 237
Dashpot 680 Flow in
'L൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHUV inclined pipe 663
'LODWDQWÀXLG LQFOLQHGSODWHV
Dimensional analysis 332 )ORZQHW
by Rayleigh’s method 337, 339 uses and limitations of 424
methods of 337 )ORZQR]]OH
Dimensional homogeneity 335 Flow of electricity 423
applications of 336 )ORZRIÀXLGV
'LPHQVLRQOHVVQXPEHUV Flow
Dimensions 332 power transmitted by 850
'LVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVV superposition of 903
Distorted model 377 )OXLGG\QDPLFV
'RXEOHWÀRZ )OXLGÀRZ
'UDJIRUFH )OXLGNLQHPDWLFV
Drowned weir 529 Fluid kinetics 6
Dynamic equilibrium 300 Fluid mechanics 5
applications of 6
'\QDPLFVLPLODULW\
LPSRUWDQFHRI
Dynamic viscosity 24
Fluid motion 396
Dynamics, fundamental principle of 579
Eulerian method of 397
E Langrangian method of 396
Eddy viscosity 706 Fluid particles
Elastic force 365 displacements of 400
Electrical analogy method 424 LUURWDWLRQDOÀRZV
End contraction 527 YRUWLFLW\RI
Energy gradient 822 )OXLGVWDWLF
Energy thickness 754 Fluidization 674
Equation of continuity 406 Fluids 4, 5
(TXDWLRQRIVWUHDPOLQH behaviour of 23
Equivalent pipe 826 characteristics of 4
Equivalent sand grain roughness 725 physical properties 62
Euler’s equation of motion 490 SURSHUWLHVRI
Euler’s model law 369 W\SHVRI
Euler’s number 336, 344 YLVFRVLW\RI
Index 951
FRUFHGYRUWH[ÀRZ Inertia force 363
)UHHOLTXLGMHW Instantaneous velocity 704
)UHHYRUWH[ÀRZ Inverted U-tube manometer 90
)UHHYRUWH[FLUFXODWLRQLQ
J
)ULFWLRQIDFWRU
-HWWUDMHFWRU\
)ULFWLRQKHDGORVV
Journal bearing 674
Froude’s model law 367
Froude’s number 343 K
Fundamental dimensions 334 Karman similarity concept 709
)XQGDPHQWDOHTXDWLRQRIÀRZ .DUPDQYRUWH[WUDLO
Kinematic eddy viscosity 706
G
.LQHPDWLFVLPLODULW\
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Kinematic viscosity 24
*HRPHWULFVLPLODULW\
Kinematics 486
Gravity force 365
Kinetic energy 486
H Kinetic energy correction factor 659
Hagen poiseuille formula 644
L
+DUG\FURVVPHWKRG
Laminar boundary, characteristics of 749
Horizontal acceleration 303
/DPLQDUÀRZ
+RUL]RQWDOSLSHVÀRZLQ
Laminar sublayer 750
+RUL]RQWDOWUDQVODWLRQDODFFHOHUDWLRQ /DPLQDUVXEOD\HUWKLFNQHVV
Hot wire anemometer 726 Laminar, parameters of 764
+\GUDXOLFFRH¿FLHQWV /DSODFHHTXDWLRQ
Hydraulic gradient line 822 IRUWKHYHORFLW\SRWHQWLDO
+\GUDXOLFUDGLXV Laser doppler anemometer 726
Hydraulic similitude 360 /LIWIRUFH
Hydraulics 6 Linear momentum 589
+\GURG\QDPLFDOO\URXJKERXQGDU\ /LQHVRIÀRZ
+\GURG\QDPLFDOO\VPRRWKERXQGDU\ /LTXLGV
Hydrometer 237 /RFDOFRH൶FLHQWRIGUDJ
+\GURVWDWLFODZ Lock gate 204
+\GURVWDWLFSDUDGR[
M
I Mach’s model law 370
,GHDOÀXLGÀRZ Mach’s number 344
,GHDOÀXLGV 0DJQXVH൵HFW
,GHDOSODVWLFÀXLGV Major energy loss 809
,PDJLQDU\IUHHVXUIDFH Manometers 84, 87
,PPHUVHGERGLHVVWDELOLW\FRQGLWLRQIRU Manometery 84
Inclined single column micrometer 89 Masonry dam 205
IncompressibleÀRZV Matter, states of 2
952 Index
Mechanical gauges 85 3LH]RPHWULFVXUIDFH

Mercury barometer 84 Pipe 809
Metacentre 240 3LSHQHWZRUNLQJ
Metacentric height 240 Pipeline 809
Micromanometer 92 Pitot static 495
Micrometers 88 Pitot tube 493
Minor energy loss 809 3ODVWLFÀXLGV
0L[LQJOHQJWKFRQFHSW Pneumatics 6
Model 358 Poise 24
Model analysis 359 Potential energy 486
Moment of momentum 589 Potential function 420
Momentum equation, applications of 580 Potential line 400
Momentum principle 579 Prandtl’s concept 709
Momentum thickness 753 3UDQGWO¶VYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQ
Moody’s diagram 725 3UHVVXUHGLDJUDP
Mouthpiece 505, 507 3UHVVXUHGUDJ
Pressure energy 487
N
Pressure force 364
Navier-Stokes equations 489
Pressure measuring devices 85
Neutral equilibrium 239
Pressure on
1HZWRQ¶VHTXDWLRQRIYLVFRVLW\
LQFOLQHGVXUIDFH
1HZWRQ¶VODZRIYLVFRVLW\
SODQHVXUIDFH
1HZWRQLDQÀXLGV
Pressure tube 86
1RQ1HZWRQLDQÀXLGV
Primary quantities 334
1RQXQLIRUPÀRZ
Prototype 359
Notch 520
3VHXGRSODVWLFÀXLGV
O
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Oil bearings 674
Radial acceleration 309
2QHGLPHQVLRQDOÀRZ
5DGLDOÀRZ
2SHQVSLOOZD\
Raised weirs 548
2UL¿FH
5DWHRIÀRZ
2UL¿FHPHWHU
5HDOÀXLGV
2UL¿FHW\SHYLVFRPHWHU
5HFWLOLQHDUÀRZ
Overhead water tanks 205
Repeating variables 338
P 5H\QROGVH[SHULPHQW
3DUDOOHOSODWHVÀRZLQ Reynolds model law 366
Pascal’s law 80 Reynolds number 336, 342, 638
Path line 398 Reynolds transport theorem 488
S theorem 339 5RWDU\PRWLRQ
Piezometer 86 Rotating cylinder method 685
Index 953
Rotation Streamline 398
FRQGLWLRQVIRU 6WUHDPOLQHERG\
VWUHDPIXQFWLRQIRU Submerged body, equilibrium for 238
YRUWLFLW\RI Submerged weir 529
Rotational acceleration 302 Surface tension 46
5RWDWLRQDOÀRZ cause of 47
5RWRPHWHU Surface tension force 365
5RXJKERXQGDU\ Surge tank 852
Running free Borda mouthpiece 507 Syphon 844
Running full Borda mouthpiece 507 6\SKRQVSLOOZD\
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Secondary dimensions 334 7KL[RWURSKLFSODVWLF
Sensitive manometers 88 7KUHHGLPHQVLRQDOÀRZ
Shape factor 754 Total energy line 822
6KHDUGUDJ 7RWDOSUHVVXUH
6KHDUWKLFNHQLQJÀXLGV 7UDQVODWLRQDODFFHOHUDWLRQ
Short tube 505
Trapezoidal weir 528
Short tube mouthpiece 506
Triangular notch 526
Similarity laws 366
7XUEXOHQFHVKHDUVWUHVV5H\QROGVH[SUHVVLRQIRU
6LPSOHPDQRPHWHU
Turbulent boundary, parameters of 764
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Two piezometer tubes method 89
6PRRWKERXQGDU\
7ZRGLPHQVLRQDOÀRZ
Solid 5
6RXUFHÀRZ U
6SLOORXW 8QLIRUPÀRZ
6SLOOZD\ Unstable equilibrium 239
Sprinkler, torque acting on 603 8QVWHDG\ÀRZ
Stability condition for 8WXEHGL൵HUHQWLDOPDQRPHWHU
equilibrium of 240 U-tube manometer 87
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rolling of 244 V
Stable equilibrium 238 9DQH
Static body 300 Vapour pressure 44
6WHDG\ÀRZ 9HORFLW\SRWHQWLDO
6WRNHV¶ODZ Velocity vector 425
6WUHDPIXQFWLRQ Vena contracta 497
PDWKHPDWLFDOFRQFHSWRI 9HQWXULPHWHU
SURSHUWLHVRI Vertical acceleration 305
Stream tube 399 Vertical single column micrometer 89
954 Index
Viscosity W
determination of 57 Water hammer 852
H൵HFWVRIWHPSHUDWXUHDQGSUHVVXUHRQ Weber’s model law 370
measurement of 682 Weber’s number 336, 343
9LVFRXVÀRZWKHRU\ Weir 520
Viscous force 364 applications of 548
Von Karman momentum equation 757 Wind tunnel testing 359
9RUWH[ÀRZ
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Vortices, formation of 703
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
TM
Third Edition
Written for the second-year engineering students of undergraduate level, this well-set-up textbook
explains the fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. Written in the question-answer form, the book is precise
Fluid Mechanics
and easy to understand.
The book presents an exhaustive coverage of the theory, definitions, formulae and examples which
are well supported by diagrams (wherever necessary) and problems in order to make the underlying
Fundamentals of
principles more comprehensive.
In the present third edition, the book has been thoroughly revised and enlarged. Modification to
every chapter has been carried out on the basis of the suggestions received and new developments in
this area. Additional typical problems based on the examination papers of various technical universities Fluid Mechanics
Fundamentals of
have been included with solutions for easy understanding by the students.
Objective questions of competitive examinations of GATE, IES and IAS have also been included
with solutions and explanations at the end of each chapter. Third Edition
G.S. Sawhney has served as Professor and Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GNIT
Greater Noida. Earlier, he was at Lord Krishna College of Engineering, Ghaziabad in the same
capacity. Prior to joining teaching, he had served for 28 years in the Corps of Engineers and for
10 years in industry.
? Biomedical Electronics and Instrumentation
G.S. Sawhney
? Fluid Machinery Made Easy
? Fundamentals of Computer Aided Manufacturing
? Fundamentals of Biomedical Engineering Made Easy
? Heat and Mass Transfer
? Manufacturing Science (Volume-I, II)
? Materials Science and Engineering
? Mechanical Experiments and Workshop Practice
? Project Management Made Easy
G.S. Sawhney
978-93-90455-20-1
Distributed by:
9 789390 455201 TM

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TM

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Third Edition

Published by I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.

©Copyright 2020 I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110002.

Printed at: Rekha Printers

Preface to the Third Edition ............................................................................................................ v

 +\GURVWDWLF)RUFHV 

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 'LPHQVLRQDO$QDO\VLV 

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 )OXLG.LQHPDWLFV 

 )OXLG'\QDPLFV, 

9.4 Reynolds Transport Theory 488

14.8 Bend and Energy Loss 821

 ,GHDO)OXLG)ORZ 

 )ORZ3DVW6XEPHUJHG%RGLHV 

KEYWORDS AND TOPICS

1.2 STATES OF MATTER

Definite Volume Definite Volume No Volume, No Shape

Solid, Liquid & Gas

)RUH[DPSOHDVROLGWZLVWVZKHQDWRUTXH T) is applied by shear angle f, which disappears

1.4 APPLICATIONS OF FLUID MECHANICS

Underground water supply line

Water Supply Installation and Distribution

Disc & washer

Disc & washer

Pin at the centre of

Orifice Metering Venturi Metering

6. In designing an airplane. As an airplane is a mechanically driven machine and is heavier

Part of wing Grains with chaff

Artificial Blood Oxygenation

1.5 TYPES OF FLUIDS

1.6 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Specific weight of the liquid

1.7 NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids

tan q3 > tan q2 > tan q1

where uPD[ PD[YHORFLW\DQGh ¿OPWKLFNQHVV,IYLVFRVLW\ 1VPWKHQ¿QG 

Ideal or non-viscous fluid

Behaviour of Ideal Fluids

7KHNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\LQ&*6V\VWHPLVVWRNH –4 mV 6WRNHLVDUHODWLYHODUJHXQLW

Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity

Ns 104 stokes = 1 m2/s

m ¥ 0.05 ¥–61VP

¥ 0.5 1P

Shear force = Weight of piston

 ¥  ¥  ¥ -

Guidance :KHQSODWHLVSXOOHGGUDJIRUFHVF & FZLOOEHH[HUWHGDWXSSHUDQGlower

Weight of liquid displaced (w) = volume of the plate ¥ SG of liquid

Power required = force required ¥ velocity

t = 0.4 N (due to flow)

Velocity profit of the fluid

= 0.9 ¥ ¥

 A circular disc haviQJUDGLXVRLVNHSWDWVPDOOKHLJKWDERYHD¿[HGVXUIDFHE\DOD\HU

Guidance 9LVFRXVWRUTXHT = pmwD can be calculated. Power is equal T ¥ w

7DNHDVODQWKHLJKWds between a radius r and rdr

Patm > Pvapour Pvapour > Patm Bubbles

Pfluid < Pvapour Pvapour > Pfluid

Bubble Vapour Fluid

+\GURVWDWLF)RUFHV

%XR\DQF\DQG)ORDWDWLRQ

)OXLG0DVVHV6XEMHFWHGWR$FFHOHUDWLRQ

'LPHQVLRQDO$QDO\VLV

6LPLOLWXGHDQG0RGHO$QDO\VLV

)OXLG.LQHPDWLFV

)OXLG'\QDPLFV,

,GHDO)OXLG)ORZ

)ORZ3DVW6XEPHUJHG%RGLHV

)RUH[DPSOHDVROLGWZLVWVZKHQDWRUTXHT) is applied by shear angle f, which disappears

where uPD[ PD[YHORFLW\DQGh ¿OPWKLFNQHVV,IYLVFRVLW\ 1VPWKHQ¿QG

7KHNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\LQ&*6V\VWHPLVVWRNH –4 mV6WRNHLVDUHODWLYHODUJHXQLW

m ¥ 0.05 ¥–61VP

¥ 0.5 1P

¥ ¥ ¥ -

Guidance :KHQSODWHLVSXOOHGGUDJIRUFHVF & FZLOOEHH[HUWHGDWXSSHUDQGlower

Weight of liquid displaced (w) = volume of the plate ¥ SG of liquid

= 0.9 ¥ ¥

A circular disc haviQJUDGLXVRLVNHSWDWVPDOOKHLJKWDERYHD¿[HGVXUIDFHE\DOD\HU

Guidance 9LVFRXVWRUTXHT = pmwD can be calculated. Power is equal T ¥ w

7DNHDVODQWKHLJKWds between a radius r and rdr

Cause of Surface Tension:5DLQGURSVDQGVRDSEXEEOHVH[LVWLQSHUIHFWO\VSKHULFDOVKDSH

,WFDQEHVHHQWKDWWKHUHDUHWZRIUHHVXUIDFHVRIWKH¿OPIURQWDQGEDFN/HWWKHZLUHCD

If DA WKHQ s = W

([SODLQIORDWDWLRQRIQHHGOHRQZDWHUELJJHUEXEEOHVFDQEHIRUPHGIURPVRDS

For mercury, q

DA 6 ¥ 4pr – 4pR

0.08 ¥ ¥ -

s water = 1P

&RGHV $ % & '

On plotting the relationship is a curve below n +HQFHÀXLGLVDGLODWDQW

'L൵HUHQWLDWH EHWZHHQ DEVROXWH SUHVVXUH JDXJH SUHVVXUH DQG YDFXXP

P1 3UHVVXUHRIWRSRIKLOO= h ¥ r+J ¥ g

P2 3UHVVXUHDWERWWRPRIKLOO h ¥ r+J ¥ g

P = ¥ r+J ¥ g + h ¥ r ¥ g + PDLU

¥ ¥ ¥

¥ ¥ ¥ g + h ¥ ¥ ¥ g = + h ¥

¥ + + h ¥ ¥ = ¥ + h ¥ ¥ ¥

¥ 2 + + h = ¥ ¥ K

PA - PB = ¥ ¥ - -

= ¥

'HWHUPLQHWKHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHPA±PBZKHQWKHUHDGLQJRIPDQRPHWHULVDVVKRZQ

PA + ¥ ¥ ¥ g P1 + ¥ ¥ ¥ g

P1 + ¥ ¥ ¥ g P2 + ¥ ¥ ¥ g

= ¥ + PDWP + = ¥ + PDWP +

= ¥ + PDWP P = PDWP + ¥

¥ 10 = h ¥¥ 10 ¥

\ PA - PB = ¥ + ¥ + ¥ - ¥

PA + (h1 + h) ¥ 1 ¥ 10 ¥ g = P1 PB + h1 ¥ ¥ ¥ g + h ¥ ¥ ¥ g = P1

PA + (h1 + h) ¥ 1 ¥ 10 ¥ g = PB + h ¥ ¥ ¥ g + h1 ¥ ¥ ¥ g

= ¥ ¥ ¥

&RPSXWHWKHSUHVVXUHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQA & BLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZ

PA + h ¥ ¥ ¥ g - ¥ ¥ ¥ g

PA - PB = ¥ ¥ ¥ g - ¥ ¥ ¥ g

= ¥ - ¥

PM = P1 + Y ¥ ¥ ¥ g P = PDWP + Z ¥ ¥ ¥ g