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i
Chapter 1

Introduction
to Critical
Thinking
After reading this chapter, students should be
able to do the following:

1. Define critical thinking.


2. Discover assumptions and biases.


3. Practice problem solving and decision-

making.


4. Evaluate information.
Thinking about thought Where do you want to go?

Think about how you answered the preceding questions. Be

Where are you now?
honest with yourself. On a scale of 1 to 10, how would you rate
Assess your present knowledge and attitudes by deciding yes, your level of thinking skills at this time?
unsure, or no for the following statements:
Poor thinking skills Excellent thinking skills

1. I am a good problem solver. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. I am considered creative by my friends.

Assignment 1a
3. I have good judgment.
Use this scrolling text box to choose the three most
4. I find it easy to make decisions quickly. important areas in which you think you can improve. 



5. My decisions usually turn out to be good decisions. Next, submit your answers to Activity 1 in Canvas under
Reading Assignment 1.

6. I like to think things through before speaking.

7. I am not shy about asking questions when I don’t understand • Applying information
something. • Analyzing information

8. I enjoy good discussions and arguments. • Thinking critically

• Asking questions about information

9. I regularly practice an art form (music, acting, painting, etc.)
• Evaluating information
10. I enjoy hearing other people’s points of view, even when I
• Coming up with new ideas
disagree with them.
• Solving problems
11. I usually question information presented as fact on the
• Making decisions
Internet or television.
• Identifying weaknesses in ideas
3
How to get there

Here is what we will work on in this chapter:

• Understanding what makes thinking in college different from

thinking in high school

• Learning how to think

• Knowing the types of thinking

• Recognizing why all types of thinking are important

• Understanding what critical thinking is

• Recognizing and avoiding logical fallacies and faulty

assumptions

• Establishing critical thinking habits

• Researching and thinking critically

• Understanding what creative thinking is

• Developing creative thinking habits

• Solving problems

• Making decisions

• Brainstorming

4
It is all in your head Types of thinking
Remember all the thinking you did in high school? Most of it was 1. Understand that there are different types of thinking.
recalling facts or information you had previously committed to
memory. Perhaps in some courses you were asked to support a 2. Identify how each type of thinking contributes to learning.
statement or hypothesis using content from your textbook or
So, what are the various types of thinking skills, and what kind
class. Your thinking in high school was very structured and tied
things are we doing when we apply them? In the 1950s, Benjamin
closely to reflecting what was taught in class.
Bloom developed a classification of thinking skills that is still
In college, you are expected to think for yourself; to access and helpful today; it is known as Bloom’s taxonomy.
evaluate new approaches and ideas; to contribute to your
He lists six types of thinking skills, ranked in order of complexity:
knowledge base; and to develop or create new, fresh ideas. You
will be required to develop and use a variety of thinking skills— • knowledge,
higher-order thinking skills—which you seldom used in high
• comprehension,
school.
• application,
In college, your instructors’ roles will be not only to supply a base
of new information and ideas, as good instructors will challenge • analysis,
you to stretch your skills and knowledge base through critical and
creative thinking. Much of their teaching involves the questions • synthesis, and
they ask, not the directions they give. Your success in college
• evaluation.
education—and in life beyond college—is directly linked to
becoming a better and more complete thinker. Becoming a better 

and more complete thinker requires mastering some skills and The table on the following page (Types of Thinking Skills), outlines
consistent practice. each skill and what is involved in that type of thinking, as updated
by Lorin Anderson and David Krothwohl.L. W. Anderson and
David R. Krathwohl, eds., A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching,
and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
5
Objectives (Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 2001). Note: Tap on the All of these thinking skills are important for college work and life in
table to expand it to full-page view. the real world. You’ve likely had a great deal of experience with
the lower-level thinking skills (yellow section). The midlevel skills
are skills you will get a lot of practice with in college, and you may
be well on your way to mastering them already. The higher-level
thinking skills (red section) are the most demanding, and you will
need to invest focused effort to develop them.

Exercise: thought inventory

Think about the adjacent table. Are you using all six thinking
skills? Reflect on your work in the past and identify specific
examples where you used each of the thinking skills. Write notes
about the skills that are second nature to you and those you
would like to develop further.

Skill set

Remembering and recalling

Understanding

Applying

Analyzing

Evaluating

Creating

6
Next, look at the lists of things you actually did in each case that Throughout this book, there are tips that will help you develop
has demonstrated the particular skill set. Notice that there are your thinking skills. This chapter will focus on critical thinking
certain verbs that apply to each skill set. When you see those (evaluating) and creative thinking. They deserve specific focus
verbs as a prompt in an assignment or an exam, you will know because they are likely to be the skills you have least practice
what kind of thinking the instructor expects from you. The with. These are the skills most helpful for success in college and
following table (Thinking Verbs) lists some of the most common in “real life.” Creative thinking will help you come up with possible
verbs associated with each thinking skill. solutions for problems and new ideas. Critical thinking will help
you decide which of those ideas have most merit and deserve to
be implemented.



Key takeaways


• We use different types of thinking skills to address different

requirements, and these skills are classified in Bloom’s
taxonomy.


• You have been using many thinking skills since childhood.


• Two very important thinking skills you will need to develop for
success in college and in life are critical (or evaluative) thinking
and creative thinking.

7
It is critical
 and use that abundance of data is the reason critical thinking has
become so important today.
Americans have access to:
Critical thinking is the ability to discover the value of an idea, a set
• 1 million new books each year of beliefs, a claim, or an argument. It requires you to use logic and
• 5,500 magazines reasoning to evaluate evidence or information to make a decision
• 10,500 radio stations or reach a conclusion. Critical thinking is:

• 65,000 iPhone apps
• 1,000,000,000,000 web pages • a foundation for effective communication,


• the principal skill used in effective decision making,
Tap on the following thumbnail to watch the YouTube video, Did
• at the core of creating new knowledge, and
You Know 4.0.
• a way to uncover bias and prejudices.


Critical thinking is a part of everyday life, too. Decisions you make
can have a lasting impact on your life, and these decisions benefit
from critical thinking. Did you ever decide to quit smoking or to
lose weight? Were you successful? How did you decide to attend
the college you are in? Was that the right choice for you? In any
of these cases, could you have made a better decision if you had
better or more information?

The critical thinking process




The critical thinking process is really nothing more than asking the
In today’s environment, it is not so critical to “know” a great deal
right questions to understand a problem or issue and then
of information. The list above indicates how much information we
gathering the data you need to complete the decision or take
can easily access. In fact, the abundance of information might be
sides on an issue.

the greater challenge. Your success will depend on what you can
do with the information, not just on what you know. How we filter
8
What is the problem or issue I am considering really about?
 viewpoints to a particular issue—and the validity of each can

 change depending on circumstances. A position that is popular or
Understanding this is key to successful critical thinking. What is politically correct today may not have been a year ago, and there
the objective? A position? A decision? Are you deciding what is no guarantee it will be right in the future. Likewise, a solution to
candidate in an election will do a better overall job, or are you a personal problem that was successful for your roommate may
looking to strengthen the political support for a particular cause? not apply to you. Remember also that sometimes the best option
Are you really against a recommendation from your dad, or are might be a combination of the options you identify initially.
you using the issue to establish your independence?
Do you understand the terms related to the issue? Are you in What do I know about each option? 

agreement with the proponent’s definitions? For example, if you 

are evaluating a quotation on the health-care system for use in a First, make sure you have all the information about each option.
paper, your objective might be to decide to use the quotation or Do you have all the information to support each of your likely
not, but before you can make that decision you need to options? What is still missing? Where can you get the information
understand what the writer is really saying. If a term like “family” you need? Keep an open mind and don’t dismiss supporting
is used, for example, does it mean direct relations or extended information on any position before you evaluate it carefully.
family?
 

How good is my information? 

What are my options? 
 


 Now it’s time to evaluate the quality of the support of each option
What are choices that are available to you (if you are making a or point of view. Evaluate the strengths and the weaknesses of
decision), or what are the “sides” (in the case of a position) you each piece of supporting evidence. Are all the relevant facts
might choose to agree with? What are their differences? What are presented? Are some facts presented in misleading ways? Are
the likely consequences of each option? In making a decision, it enough examples presented to support the premise? Consider
might be helpful to ask yourself, “What is the worst thing that the source of the supporting information. Who is the expert
might happen in each scenario?” Examining different points of presenting the facts? That “expert” may have a vested interest in
view is very important; there may be dozens of alternative the position. Consider that bias, more for understanding the point

9
of view than for rejecting it. Consider your own opinions Fallacy: false cause
(especially when working with emotional issues); are your 

emotional ties to a point of view getting in your way of clear A false cause entails drawing improper conclusions through
thinking (your own biases)? If you really like a particular car sequencing. If A comes before B, then A causes B. An example is
model, are you giving the financial implications of buying that car “I studied biology last term, and this term I’m taking organic
a fair consideration? Are there any errors or fallacies in your chem, which is very confusing. Biology makes chemistry
logic? confusing.” This can be avoided when making causal statements,
if you are sure you can explain the process through which A
Fallacies are defects in logic that weaken arguments. You should causes B beyond their mere sequence.
learn to identify them in your own thinking so you can strengthen
your positions, as well as in the arguments of others when Fallacy: personalizations
evaluating their strength.
Also known by their Latin names (ad hominem, or “against the
Fallacies & how to avoid them man,” and tu quoque, or “you too”), personalizations entail
inserting personalities inappropriately into an argument (e.g.,
Fallacy: generalizations common in political arguments). An example is against the man: “I
won’t support Senator Smith’s education bill. He’s had a mistress
Generalizations entail making assumptions about a whole group and marital problems.” This can be avoided in your own thinking
of people based on an inadequate sample. Examples include: by focusing on the merits and supporting data of an argument,
“Engineering students are nerds,” and “My economics class is not on the personality or behavior of the people making the
boring, and my friend says her economic class is boring, too— arguments.
therefore all economics classes are boring.” This can be avoided
in your own thinking by considering what kind of sample you are Fallacy: everyone does it
using. Is it large enough to support the conclusions? You may 

want to increase your sample size or draw a more modest Also known by its Latin name (ad populum, or “against many”),
conclusion by using the word “some” or “many.” the everyone does it fallacy is justifying an issue based solely on
the number of people involved. An example is you too: A parent 

10

 

explains the evidence of the risks of binge drinking. The child by acknowledging that quoting authorities is a valuable tool to
rejects the arguments, saying, “When you were my age, you build an argument; make sure the authorities you quote are truly
drank too.” Another example would be “It’s healthy to drink only subject matter experts on the issue you are discussing.
soda; millions of American kids do.” This can be avoided in your
own thinking by understanding that the popular position is not Fallacy: weak analogy
always the right one. Be wary of arguments that rely exclusively
on one set of numbers. Weak analogy is using irrelevant similarities in two objects to draw

 a conclusion. An example is how cars and motorcycles are both
Fallacy: appealing to authority driven at high speeds on the highway. “Car drivers are not
required to wear helmets, so motorcycle riders should not have to
Appealing to authority is using an endorsement from someone as either.” You can draw an analogy between just about any two
a primary reason for supporting a point of view. An example is objects or ideas. Weak analogy can be avoided in your own
“We should oppose higher taxes; Curt Schilling does.” Pitcher thinking by using analogies that you are sure have identified the
Curt Schilling may be a credible authority on baseball, but is he properties relevant to the argument you are making and see if
an authority on taxes? This can be avoided in your own thinking 
 both share those properties. (In the example, the motorcycle does

11
not provide protection to the rider, but the car does. Equating the financial and emotional needs? What are the pros and cons of
two vehicles based on traveling speed is not relevant to the each option? Are you open to the points of view of others who
argument.) may be involved?

Fallacy: false dichotomy Reading, listening, note-taking, and studying

A false dichotomy is setting up a situation in which it looks like What are the core messages of the instructor or author? Why are
there are only two possible options. If one option is discredited, they important? How do these messages relate to one another or
the other must be accepted. The classic example here is differ?
“America, love it or leave it.”
Research papers
This can be avoided by examining your own thinking. Are there 

really only two options? Look for the third option. If you were What evidence do you need to support your thesis? What
asked to develop a compromise between the two positions, what sources are available for that evidence? Are they reliable
would it look like? What would its strengths and weaknesses be? sources? Are there any fallacies in your argument?


You will need to use critical thinking throughout your college Essay questions on exams 

years and beyond. Here are some common critical thinking 

situations and the kinds of questions you should ask to apply What is the professor really asking you to do? What do you know
critical thinking. about the question? What is your personal belief about the

 question? What are the beliefs or biases of the professor or
Personal choices quoted authors? What are the arguments against your point of
view? What are the most important pieces of evidence you
Examples include “What should I major in?” and “Should I buy a should offer to support your answer?
new car?” What do you know about each of your options? What
is the quality of that information? Where can you get more
(reliable) information? How do those options relate to your
12
Tips for critical thinking
 • Create a table on which you list your main points, then for each
one, list the evidence you have to support it. This method will
help you visually identify where you have weak evidence and
Consider all points of view; seriously consider more than two
what points actually lack evidence.
(look for grey areas).

• Be willing to admit that you lack information to support a point
of view or make a decision. Ask questions or do some focused
• Keep an open mind.
research to get what you still need.
• Answer three questions about your supporting data:
• Make sure that your assumptions and points of view are


supported by facts, not opinions.
1. Is it enough support?
• Learn what types of fallacies you use habitually, and then be on
2. Is it the right support?
the lookout for them. Writers will often rely on certain types of
3. Is it credible?

arguments as a matter of habit. Review some of your old papers
to identify which fallacies you need to avoid.
• Look for evidence that contradicts your point of view. Pretend
• Question your characterizations of others. Are those authorities
to disagree with the position you are supporting. What parts of
truly competent in the area you are considering? Are you
your argument are weak? Do you have the supporting facts to
attacking the opponents of your point of view rather than
overcome that evidence?
attacking their arguments?
• Create a set of criteria you will use to evaluate the strength of
• Be careful of broad generalizations. Claims that use absolute
information you want to use to support your argument. Ask
words like “all,” “none,” “always,” “never,” “no one,” and
questions like these:

“everyone” require much more proof than claims that use words
like “most,” “some,” “often,” “rarely,” “sometimes,” and so on.
1. What is the source of this information?
2. Is the author well respected in the field?
3. When was this information developed? Is that important? Where did that come from?

Why?
4. Does the author or publisher have an agenda for publishing the One of the most consistent uses for critical thinking in your work
information? How does that agenda affect the credibility of the is in considering the value of research material and deciding how
information?
 to use it. The Internet gives you access to an almost unlimited
13
amount of data, and you must choose what to use carefully.
Following are some guidelines.
 Key takeaways


1. Look at the URL, the Web address. It can give you important
• Critical thinking is evaluating the strength of your arguments,
information about the reliability and intentions of the site. Start
data, and information.
with the page publisher. Have you heard of this source before?
• Three questions to ask about the support for an argument or
If so, would you consider it a reliable source for the kind of
position:

material you are about to read? Now consider the domain type


in the URL, which follows the period after the publisher: “.com”
1. Is it enough support?

and “.biz” are used by commercial enterprises, “.org” is
2. Is it the right support?

normally used by nonprofit organizations, and “.edu” is
3. Is it credible?

reserved for educational institutions. None of these is
necessarily bad or good, but they may give you a sense behind
• Weaknesses in arguments are most commonly logical fallacies.
the motivation for publishing this material. Are you dealing with
Recognizing them will help evaluate the strength of an argument
a company or the Web site of an individual—and how might
effectively.
that affect the quality of the information on that site?
2. What can you learn from poking around with navigation tabs or
Searching for “Aha!”
buttons, and what do they tell you about the objective of the
Web site? Look for a tab labeled “About Us” or “Biography.”
Generating new ideas, fostering innovation, and developing
3. Consider what others are saying about the site. Does the
processes or plans to implement them are something that cannot
author offer references, reviews, or quotations about the
be easily farmed out, and these are strengths you can develop.
material? What do they say? Check the blogosphere to see
Businesses want problem solvers, not just doers. Developing your
what other people think of the author or Web site.
creative thinking skills will position you for lifelong success in
4. Trust your own impressions about the material. Is the
whatever career you choose.

information consistent with what you already know?
5. Ask yourself why the Web site was written. (To inform? To
Creative thinking is the ability to look at things from a new
provide data or facts? To sell something? To promote a cause?
perspective, to come up with fresh solutions to problems. It is a
To parody?)
14
deliberate process that allows you to think in ways that improve Tips for creative thinking

the likelihood of generating new ideas or thoughts. Let us start by
killing a couple of myths:
• Feed your curiosity. Read. Read books, newspapers,
magazines, blogs—anything at any time. When surfing the Web,
• Creativity is an inherited skill. Creativity is not something follow links just to see where they will take you. Go to the
people are born with but is a skill that is developed over time theatre or movies. Attend lectures. Creative people make a
with consistent practice. It can be argued that people you think habit of gathering information, because they never know when
were “born” creative because their parents were creative, too, they might put it to good use. 

are creative simply because they have been practicing creative 

thinking since childhood, stimulated by their parents’ questions Creativity is often as much about rearranging known ideas as it
and discussions.
 is about creating a completely new concept. The more “known
ideas” you have been exposed to, the more options you’ll have
• Creativity is free-form thinking. While you may want to free for combining them into new concepts.

yourself from all preconceived notions, there is a recognizable
structure to creative thinking. Rules and requirements do not • Develop your flexibility by looking for a second right answer.
limit creative thinking—they provide the scaffolding on which Throughout school we have been conditioned to come up with
truly creative solutions can be built. Free-form thinking often the right answer; the reality is that there is often more than one
lacks direction or an objective; creative thinking is aimed at “right” answer. Examine all the possibilities. 

producing a defined outcome or solution. 

To test this, examine all of the items illustrated on the following
Creative thinking involves coming up with new or original ideas; it page. Note which is different from all the others. What do you
is the process of seeing the same things others see but seeing find?
them differently. You use skills such as examining associations
and relationships, flexibility, elaboration, modification, imagery,
and metaphorical thinking. In the process, you will stimulate your
curiosity, come up with new approaches to things, and have fun!

15
 ideas. The value of an idea can only be determined by comparing
it with another. Multiple ideas will also help you generate new
approaches by combining elements from a variety of “right”
answers. In fact, the greatest danger to creative thinking is to
have only one idea. Always ask yourself, “What’s the other right
answer?”

• Combine old ideas in new ways. When King C. Gillette

registered his patent for the safety razor, he built on the idea of
disposable bottle caps, but his venture didn’t become profitable
until he toyed with a watch spring and came up with the idea of
how to manufacture inexpensive (therefore disposable) blades.
Bottle caps and watch springs are far from men’s grooming
materials, but Gillette’s genius was in combining those existing
but unlikely ideas. Train yourself to think “out of the box.” Ask
yourself questions like, “What is the most ridiculous solution I
can come up with for this problem?” or “If I were transported by
a time machine back to the 1930s, how would I solve this
If you chose C, you’re right; you can’t eat a board. Maybe you problem?” You may enjoy watching competitive design,
chose D; that’s right, too—clams are the only animal on the chart. cooking, or fashion shows (Top Chef, Chopped, Project
B is right, as it’s the only item you can make oil from, and A can Runway, etc.); they are great examples of combining old ideas
also be right; it’s the only red item.
 to make new, functional ones.


Each option can be right depending on your point of view. Life is • Think metaphorically. Metaphors are useful to describe
full of multiple answers, and if we go along with only the first most complex ideas; they are also useful in making problems more
obvious answer, we are in danger of losing the context for our familiar and in stimulating possible solutions. For example, if

16
 you were a partner in a company about to take on outside Key takeaways

investors, you might use the pie metaphor to clarify your
options (a smaller slice of a bigger pie versus a larger slice of a
smaller pie). If an organization you are a part of is lacking • Creative thinking is a requirement for success.

direction, you may search for a “steady hand at the tiller,” • Creative thinking is a deliberate process that can be learned
and practiced.
communicating quickly that you want a consistent, non-
reactionary, calm leader. Based on that ship-steering metaphor, • Creative thinking involves, but is not limited to, curiosity,
flexibility, looking for the second right answer, combining things
it will be easier to see which of your potential leaders you might
in new ways, thinking metaphorically, and questioning the way
want to support. Your ability to work comfortably with
things are.
metaphors takes practice. When faced with a problem, take
time to think about metaphors to describe it, and the desired
solution. Observe how metaphors are used throughout Checkpoint exercises

communication and think about why those metaphors are
effective. Have you ever noticed that the financial business uses
Feed your curiosity. List five things you will do in the next month
water-based metaphors (cash flow, frozen assets, liquidity) and
that you have never done before (go to the ballet, visit a local
that meteorologists use war terms (fronts, wind force, storm
museum, try Moroccan food, or watch a foreign movie). Expand
surge)? What kinds of metaphors are used in your area of
your comfort “envelope.” Put them on your calendar.

study?


1. ______________________________________________________
• Ask. A creative thinker always questions the way things are: 2. ______________________________________________________
Why are we doing things this way? What were the objectives of 3. ______________________________________________________
this process and the assumptions made when we developed 4. ______________________________________________________
the process? Are they still valid? What if we changed certain 5. ______________________________________________________
aspects? What if our circumstances changed? Would we need
to change the process? How? Get in the habit of asking
questions—lots of questions.
Note: Assignment 1b is on the following page.

17
 Assignment 1b & 1c and deciding what to do, follow the same basic steps.




Use this scrolling text box and think of as many uses for • Define the problem. Use your analytical skills. What is the real
the following common items as possible. Can you name issue? Why is it a problem? What are the root causes? What
more than five? kinds of outcomes or actions do you expect to generate to
1. Peanut butter (PBJ counts as one regardless of the solve the problem? What are some of the key characteristics
flavor of jelly) that will make a good choice: Timing? Resources? Availability of
2. Paper clips                      tools and materials? For more complex problems, it helps to
actually write out the problem and the answers to these
Next, practice this metaphor for life. In the movie Forrest
Gump, Forrest states, “Life is like a box of chocolates; questions. Can you clarify your understanding of the problem
you never know what you’re gonna get.” Write your own by using metaphors to illustrate the issue?

metaphor for life.

Then, submit your common items lists and your metaphor • Narrow the problem. Many problems are made up of a series
for life from in Canvas under Reading Assignment 1. of smaller problems, each requiring its own solution. Can you
break the problem into different facets? What aspects of the
current issue are “noise” that should not be considered in the
problem solution? (Use critical thinking to separate facts from
opinion in this step.)


Problem solving & decision-making

• Generate possible solutions. List all your options. Use your
creative thinking skills in this phase. Did you come up with the
Much of your college and professional life will be spent solving
second “right” answer, and the third or the fourth? Can any of
problems; some will be complex, such as deciding on a career,
these answers be combined into a stronger solution? What past
and require time and effort to come up with a solution. Others will
or existing solutions can be adapted or combined to solve this
be small, such as deciding what to eat for lunch, and will allow
problem?
you to make a quick decision based entirely on your own
experience. But, in either case, when coming up with the solution
18
Group think: effective brainstorming
 Decisions, decisions

Brainstorming is a process of generating ideas for solutions in a You will be called on to make many decisions in your life. Some
group. This method is very effective because ideas from one will be personal, like what to major in, or whether or not to get
person will trigger additional ideas from another. The following married. Other times you will be making decisions on behalf of
guidelines make for an effective brainstorming session:
 others at work or for a volunteer organization. Occasionally you
will be asked for your opinion or experience for decisions others
• Decide who should moderate the session. That person may are making. To be effective in all of these circumstances, it is
participate, but his main role is to keep the discussion flowing. helpful to understand some principles about decision making.
• Define the problem to be discussed and the time you will allow 

to consider it. First, define who is responsible for solving the problem or making
• Write all ideas down on a board or flip chart for all participants the decision. In an organization, this may be someone above or
to see. below you on the organization chart but is usually the person who
• Encourage everyone to speak. will be responsible for implementing the solution. Deciding on an
• Do not allow criticism of ideas. All ideas are good during a academic major should be your decision, because you will have
brainstorm. Suspend disbelief until after the session. Remember to follow the course of study. Deciding on the boundaries of a
a wildly impossible idea may trigger a creative and feasible sales territory would most likely be the sales manager who
solution to a problem. supervises the territories, because he or she will be responsible
• Choose the best solution. Use your critical thinking skills to for producing the results with the combined territories. Once you
select the most likely choices. List the pros and cons for each define who is responsible for making the decision, everyone else
of your selections. How do these lists compare with the will fall into one of two roles: giving input, or in rare cases,
requirements you identified when you defined the problem? If approving the decision.

you still can’t decide between options, you may want to seek
further input from your brainstorming team. Understanding the role of input is very important for good
decisions. Input is sought or given due to experience or expertise,
but it is up to the decision maker to weigh the input and decide

19
whether and how to use it. Input should be fact based, or if as well (the professor needs to approve the theme of the team
offering an opinion, it should be clearly stated as such. Finally, project, for example). Approval decisions are usually based on
once input is given, the person giving the input must support the availability of resources, legality, history, or policy.
other’s decision, whether or not the input is actually used.
Consider a team working on a project for a science course. The Key takeaways

team assigns you the responsibility of analyzing and presenting a
large set of complex data. Others on the team will set up the
• Effective problem solving involves critical and creative thinking.
experiment to demonstrate the hypothesis, prepare the class
• The four steps to effective problem solving are the following:

presentation, and write the paper summarizing the results. As you


face the data, you go to the team to seek input about the level of
1. Define the problem

detail on the data you should consider for your analysis. The
2. Narrow the problem

person doing the experiment setup thinks you should be very
3. Generate solutions

detailed, because then it will be easy to compare experiment
4. Choose the solution

results with the data. However, the person preparing the class
presentation wants only high-level data to be considered because
• Brainstorming is a good method for generating creative
that will make for a clearer presentation. If there is not a clear
solutions.
understanding of the decision-making process, each of you may
• Understanding the difference between the roles of deciding and
think the decision is yours to make because it influences the
providing input makes for better decisions.
output of your work; there will be conflict and frustration on the


team. If the decision maker is clearly defined upfront, however,
Chapter review

and the input is thoughtfully given and considered, a good
decision can be made (perhaps a creative compromise?) and the
team can get behind the decision and work together to complete • Your ability to think critically and creatively is a key to your
success in college and in life. You should develop and practice
the project.
these skills.


Finally, there is the approval role in decisions. This is very

common in business decisions but often occurs in college work
20
• Bloom’s taxonomy provides a framework to describe the many
kinds of thinking we need to do. Up to this point, you probably
have practiced most of the lower-level thinking skills but have
not had much experience with the higher-level skills (critical
thinking and creative thinking).
 FEEDBACK

• Critical thinking involves evaluating the strength of ideas or

concepts by asking questions about them. Critical thinking will
also allow you to identify and weed out logical fallacies that
weaken the value of an idea.


• Creative thinking is the process of generating new ideas,



concepts, or solutions. This often involves adapting existing Tap on the thumbnail above to leave
ideas or combining them in new ways to create a new solution.
 feedback for your professor.

• Problem solving is effectively achieved by applying both critical

thinking and creative thinking to generate viable solutions and
decisions.

This chapter has been reproduced in

compliance with the licensing for
Saylor.org’s College Success.

21
Chapter 2

Writing

After reading this chapter, students should be

able to do the following:

1. Define academic writing.


2. Demonstrate writing as a process.


3. Distinguish between revision and editing.


4. Interpret how to integrate research in writing.

Where are you now? From the following list, choose the three areas you see as most
important to your improvement as a writer:
Assess your present writing knowledge and attitudes.
• Using time effectively

• Using sources effectively and appropriately

• Understanding instructors’ expectations

• Citing sources in the proper form

• Being productive with brainstorming and other prewriting

activities

• Sharing my work in drafts and accepting feedback

• Organizing ideas clearly and transitioning between ideas

• Understanding the difference between proofreading and

revision

• Developing ideas fully

Where do you want to go? • Drafting and redrafting in response to criticism

Think about how you answered the questions above. Be honest • Using correct sentence mechanics (grammar, punctuation, etc.)
with yourself. On a scale of 1 to 10, how would you rate your level
• Using Web sites, reference books, and campus resources
of confidence and your attitude about writing?
• Developing an academic “voice”

23
Next, think about the three things you chose: Why did you • Identifying common errors and become a better editor of your
choose them? Have you had certain kinds of writing difficulties in own work
the past? Consider what you hope to learn here.
• Responding to an instructor’s feedback on your work in
progress and on your final paper
Assignment 2a
• Using sources appropriately and avoiding plagiarism
Take the three choices you made from the list on the
previous page. In Canvas, submit your three areas and • Writing an in-class essay, for an online course, and in group
your explanations of why you chose them under 

writing projects
Reading Assignment 2.

The importance of writing



Writing is one of the key skills all successful students must
How to get there
acquire. You might think your main job in a history class is to
Here is what we will work on in this chapter: learn facts about events, so you read the textbook and take notes
on important dates, names, causes, and so on. But, however
• Understanding why writing is vital to your success in college important these details are to the instructor, they do not mean
much if you cannot explain them in writing. Even if you remember
• Learning how writing in college differs from writing in high
school the facts well and believe you understand their meaning
completely, if you cannot express your understanding by
• Understanding how a writing class differs (and doesn’t differ) communicating it—in college that almost always means in writing
from other classes with assigned writing —then as far as others may know, you do not have an
understanding at all. In a way, then, learning history is learning to
• Knowing what instructors in college expect of you as a writer
write about history. Think about it. Great historians do not just
• Knowing what different types of assignments are most common know facts and ideas. Great historians use their writing skills to
in college share their facts and ideas effectively with others.

• Using the writing process to achieve your best work

24
History is just one example. Consider a lab course—a class that well thought-out and organized and to explain ideas fully. In oral
is as much hands-on as any in college. At some point, you will be communication, the listener can ask for clarification, but in written
asked to write a step-by-step report on an experiment you have work, everything must be clear within the writing itself.
run. The quality of your lab work will not show if you cannot
Note: Most college students take a writing course their first year,
describe that work and state your findings well in writing. Even
often in the first term. Even if you are not required to take such a
though many instructors in courses other than English classes
class, it is a good idea for all students to learn more about college
may not comment directly on your writing, their judgment of your
writing. This short chapter cannot cover even a small amount of
understanding will still be mostly based on what you write. This
what you will learn in a full writing course. The goal here is to
means that in all your courses, not just your English courses,
introduce some important writing principles, if you are not yet
instructors expect good writing. Think off your professions and
familiar with them, or to remind you of things you may have
how effective writing will improve your skill set.
already learned in a writing course. As with all advice, always pay
In college courses, writing is how ideas are exchanged from the most attention to what your instructor says—the terms of a
scholars to students and from students back to scholars. While specific assignment may overrule a tip given here!
the grade in some courses may be based mostly on class
participation, oral reports, or multiple-choice exams, writing is by What is different about college writing?
far the single most important form of instruction and assessment.
Academic writingAnalytical or informative nonfiction writing that is
Instructors expect you to learn by writing, and they will grade you
assigned by college instructors. refers to writing produced in a
on the basis of your writing.
college environment. Often this is writing that responds to other
By paying attention to your writing and learning and practicing writing—to the ideas or controversies that you will read about.
basic skills, even those who never thought of themselves as good While this definition sounds simple, academic writing may be very
writers can succeed in college writing. As with other college skills, different from other types of writing you have done in the past.
getting off to a good start is mostly a matter of being motivated Often college students begin to understand what academic
and developing a confident attitude that you can do it. writing really means only after they receive negative feedback on
their work. To become a strong writer in college, you need to
As a form of communication, writing is different from oral
achieve a clear sense of two things:
communication in several ways. Instructors expect writing to be
25
1. The academic environment • respond in detail to student writing. and

2. The kinds of writing you will be creating in that environment • ask questions that cannot be dealt with easily in a fixed form
like a five-paragraph essay.
Differences between high school & college writing
Your transition to college writing could be even more dramatic.
Students who struggle with writing in college often conclude that
The kind of writing you have done in the past may not translate at
their high school teachers were too easy or that their college
all into the kind of writing required in college. For example, you
instructors are too hard. In most cases, neither explanation is fully
may at first struggle with having to write about very different kinds
accurate or fair. A student having difficulty with college writing
of topics, using different approaches. You may have learned only
usually just has not yet made the transition from high school
one kind of writing genreA kind or type of essay; an approach or a
writing to college writing. That should not be surprising, for many
specific form of organization; a compare-and-contrast essay, for
beginning college students do not even know that there is a
example, is a genre often assigned by college instructors. (a kind
transition to be made.
of approach or organization) and now find you need to master
This does not mean that students do not learn a great deal in high other types of writing as well.
school, but it is easy to see why some students think that writing
Your transition to college writing could be even more dramatic.
is important only in English classes. Many students also believe
The kind of writing you have done in the past may not translate at
an academic essay must be five paragraphs long or that “school
all into the kind of writing required in college. For example, you
writing” is usually literary analysis.
may at first struggle with having to write about very different kinds
Think about how college differs from high school. College of topics, using different approaches. You may have learned only
instructors may design their courses in unique ways, and they one kind of writing genreA kind or type of essay; an approach or a
may teach about specialized subjects. For all of these reasons, specific form of organization; a compare-and-contrast essay, for
college instructors are much more likely than high school example, is a genre often assigned by college instructors. (a kind
teachers to: of approach or organization) and now find you need to master
other types of writing as well.
• assign writing;

26
 by
the

What kinds of papers are commonly assigned in college film’s

classes? characters. In a psychology course, you might be asked to

summarize the results of an experiment involving gender roles or
Think about the topic “gender roles”—referring to expectations compare and contrast the findings of two related research
about differences in how men and women act. You might study projects.
gender roles in an anthropology class, a film class, or a
psychology class. The topic itself may overlap from one class to It would be simplistic to say that there are three, or four, or ten, or

another, but you would not write about this subject in the same any number of types of academic writing that have unique

way in these different classes. For example, in an anthropology characteristics, shapes, and styles. Every assignment in every

class, you might be asked to describe how men and women of a course is unique in some ways, so do not think of writing as a

particular culture divide important duties. In a film class, you may fixed form you need to learn. On the other hand, there are certain

be asked to analyze how a scene portrays gender roles enacted writing approaches that do involve different kinds of writing. An

27
approach is the way you go about meeting the writing goals for Sometimes the keywords listed do not actually appear in the
the assignment. The approach is usually signaled by the words written assignment, but they are usually implied by the questions
instructors use in their assignments. given in the assignment. “What,” “why,” and “how” are common
question words that require a certain kind of response. Look back
When you first get a writing assignment, pay attention first to
at the keywords listed and think about which approaches relate to
keywords for how to approach the writing. These will also
“what,” “why,” and “how” questions.
suggest how you may structure and develop your paper. Look for
terms like these in the assignment: • “What” questions usually prompt the writing of summaries,
definitions, classifications, and sometimes compare-and-
• Summarize: To restate in your own words the main point or
contrast essays. For example, “What does Jones see as the
points of another’s work.
main elements of Huey Long’s populist appeal?” or “What

• Define: To describe, explore, or characterize a keyword, idea, happened when you heated the chemical solution?”

or phenomenon.
• “Why” and “how” questions typically prompt analysis,
argument, and synthesis essays. For example, “Why did Huey
• Classify: To group individual items by their shared
Long’s brand of populism gain force so quickly?” or “Why did
characteristics, separate from other groups of items.
the solution respond the way it did to heat?”
• Compare/contrast: To explore significant likenesses and
Successful academic writing starts with recognizing what the
differences between two or more subjects.
instructor is requesting, or what you are required to do. So pay
• Analyze: To break something, a phenomenon, or an idea into its close attention to the assignment. Sometimes the essential
parts and explain how those parts fit or work together. information about an assignment is conveyed through class
discussions, however, be sure to listen for the keywords that will
• Argue: To state a claim and support it with reasons and help you understand what the instructor expects. If you feel the
evidence. assignment does not give you a sense of direction, seek
clarification. Ask questions that will lead to helpful answers. For
• Synthesize: To pull together varied pieces or ideas from two or
example, here is a short and very vague assignment: Discuss the
more sources.

28
perspectives on religion of Rousseau, Bentham, and Marx. Papers • Would it be OK if I classified the ways these philosophers think
should be four to five pages in length. about religion?

Faced with an assignment like this, you could ask about the Never just complain about a vague assignment. It is fine to ask
scope (or focus)A deliberate and purposeful narrowing of questions like these. Such questions will likely engage your
coverage. Writers must define specific limitations to work within instructor in a productive discussion with you.
to narrow the scope or sharpen the focus of their subject. of the
assignment: Key takeaways

• Which of the assigned readings should I concentrate on? • Writing is crucial to college success because it is the single
most important means of evaluation.
• Should I read other works by these authors that have not been
assigned in class? • Writing in college is not limited to the kinds of assignments
commonly required in high school English classes.
• Should I do research to see what scholars think about the way
these philosophers view religion? • Writers in college must pay close attention to the terms of an
assignment.
• Do you want me to pay equal attention to each of the three
philosophers? • If an assignment is not clear, seek clarification from the
instructor.
You can also ask about the approach the instructor would like you
to take. You can use the keywords the instructor may not have Assignment 2b
used in the assignment:
Use this scrolling text box to complete the assignment.
• Should I just summarize the positions of these three thinkers, or First, answer the following two questions:
should I compare and contrast their views? 1. What kind(s) of writing have you practiced most in your
recent past?
• Do you want me to argue a specific point about the way these
2. Explain how the word “what” asks for a different kind of
philosophers approach religion?
paper than the word “why.”

Next, after answering these questions, submit them to

29
How can I become a better writer? prepare your reader for what your paper is about or what you will
argue. (With essays, always consider your reader as an educated
If you approach your writing course merely as another hoop you adult interested in your topic. An essay is not a letter written to
need to jump through, you may miss out on the main message: your instructor.) Compare the following:
writing is vital to your academic success at every step toward
your degree, as well as in most careers. Incorrect: Assignment 2: History 101

What do instructors really want? Correct: Why the New World Was Not “New”

Some instructors may say they have no particular expectations It is obvious which of these two titles begins to prepare your

for student papers. This is partly true. College instructors do not reader for the paper itself. Similarly, do not make your title the

usually have one right answer in mind or one right approach to same as the title of a work you are writing about. Instead, be sure
your title signals an aspect of the work you are focusing on:
take when they assign a paper topic. They expect you to
engage in critical thinking and decide for yourself what you are Incorrect: Catcher in the Rye
saying and how to say it. But in other ways, college instructors do
have expectations, and it is important to understand them. Some Correct: Family Relationships in Catcher in the Rye
expectations involve mastering the material or demonstrating
critical thinking. Other expectations involve specific writing skills.
Most college instructors expect certain characteristics in student Assignment 2c
writing. Here are general principles you should follow when
First, create the title for your paper. For example, The
writing essays or student “papers.” (Some may not be Critical Analysis of John Smith’s Life (insert the name of
appropriate for specific formats such as lab reports.) your paper topic person.)

Next, after creating the title for your paper, submit it to

Title the paper to identify your topic. This may sound obvious,
Canvas under Reading Assignment 2.
but it needs to be said. Some students think of a paper as an
exercise and write something like “Assignment 2: History 101” on
the title page. Such a title gives no idea about how you are
approaching the assignment or your topic. Your title should
30
Address the terms of the assignment. Again, pay particular Build from a thesis or a clearly stated sense of purpose. Many
attention to words in the assignment that signal a preferred college assignments require you to make some form of an
approach. If the instructor asks you to “argue” a point, be sure to argument. To do that, you generally start with a statement that
make a statement that actually expresses your idea about the needs to be supported and build from there. Your thesis is that
topic. Without using first point of view: I. Then follow that statement; it is a guiding assertion for the paper. Be clear in your
statement with your reasons and evidence in support of the own mind of the difference between your topic and your thesis.
statement. Look for any signals that will help you focus or limit The topic is what your paper is about; the thesis is what you
your approach. Since no paper can cover everything about a argue about the topic. Some assignments do not require an
complex topic, what is it that your instructor wants you to cover? explicit argument and thesis, but even then you should make
clear at the beginning your main emphasis, your purpose, or your
Finally, pay attention to the little things. For example, if the
most important idea.
assignment specifies “5 to 6 pages in length,” write a five- to six-
page paper. Do not try to stretch a short paper longer by Develop ideas patiently. You might, like many students, worry
enlarging the font (12 points is standard) or making your margins about boring your reader with too much detail or information. But,
bigger than the normal one inch (or as specified by the instructor). college instructors will not be bored by carefully explained ideas,
If the assignment is due at the beginning of class on Monday, well-selected examples, and relevant details. College instructors,
have it ready then or before. Do not assume you can after all, are professionally devoted to their subjects. If your
negotiate a revised due date. sociology instructor asks you to write about youth crime in rural
areas, you can be sure he or she is interested in that subject.
In your introduction, define your topic, and establish your
approach or sense of purpose. Think of your introduction as an In some respects, how you develop your paper is the most crucial
extension of your title. Instructors (like all readers) appreciate part of the assignment. You will win the day with detailed
feeling oriented by a clear opening. They appreciate knowing that explanations and well-presented evidence—not big
you have a purpose for your topic—that you have a reason for generalizations. For example, anyone can write something broad
writing the paper. If they feel they have just been dropped into the (and bland) like: “The constitutional separation of church and
middle of a paper, they may miss important ideas. They may not state is a good thing for America”—but what do you really mean
make connections you want them to make. by that? Specifically? Are you talking about banning “Christmas

31
trees” from government property—or calling them “holiday trees” Build clear transitions at the beginning of every paragraph to
instead? Are you arguing for eliminating the tax-free status of link from one idea to another. A good paper is more than a list
religious organizations? Are you saying that American laws should of good ideas. It should also show how the ideas fit together. As
never be based on moral values? The more you really dig into you write the first sentence of any paragraph, have a clear sense
your topic—the more time you spend thinking about the specifics of what the prior paragraph was about. Think of the first sentence
of what you really want to argue and developing specific in any paragraph as a kind of bridge for the reader from what
examples and reasons for your argument—the more developed came before.
your paper will be. It will also be much more interesting to your
instructor as the reader. Remember, those grand generalizations Document your sources appropriately. If your paper involves
we all like to make (“America is the land of the free”) actually do research of any kind, indicate clearly the use you make of outside
not mean much at all until we develop the idea in specifics. (Free sources. Include correct in-text citations. Careful research and the
to do what? No laws? No restrictions like speed limits? Freedom thoughtful application of the ideas and evidence of others is part
not to pay any taxes? Free food for all? What do you really mean of what college instructors’ value.
when you say American is the land of the “free”?)
Carefully edit your paper. College instructors require you will
Integrate—do not just “plug in”—quotations, graphs, and take the time to edit and proofread your essay. A misspelled word

illustrations. As you outline or sketch out your material, you will or an incomplete sentence may signal a lack of concern on your

think things like “this quotation can go here” or “I can put that part. It may not seem fair to make a harsh judgment about your

graph there.” Remember that a quotation, graph, or illustration seriousness based on little errors, but in all writing, impressions

does not make a point for you. You make the point first and then count. Since it is often hard to find small errors in our own writing,

use such material to help back it up as evidence. Using a always print out a draft well before you need to turn it in. Ask a

quotation, a graph, or an illustration involves more than simply classmate or a friend to review it and mark any word or sentence

sticking it into the paper. Always lead into such material. Make that seems “off” in any way. Although you should certainly use a

sure the reader understands why you are using it, and how it fits spell-checker, do not assume it can catch everything. A spell-

in at that place in your presentation, and analyze it. checker cannot tell if you have the right word. For example, these
words are commonly misused or mixed up:

32
• there, their, they’re

• its, it’s

• effect, affect

Your spell-checker cannot help with these. You also cannot trust
what a “grammar checker” (like the one built into the Microsoft
Word spell-checker) tells you—computers are still a long way
from being able to fix your writing for you!

The writing process

Writing instructors distinguish between process and product. The

outcome or end result of a writing process; the finished paper you
submit. The expectations described here all involve the “product”
you turn in on the due date. Although you should keep in mind
what your product will look like, writing is more involved with how
you get to that goal. “Process” concerns how you work to
actually write a paper. What do you actually do to get started?
How do you organize your ideas? Why do you make changes
along the way as you write? Thinking of writing as a process is
important because writing is actually a complex activity. Even
professional writers rarely sit down at a keyboard and write out an
article beginning to end without stopping along the way to revise
portions they have drafted, to move ideas around, or to revise
their opening and thesis. Professionals and students alike often
say they only realized what they wanted to say after they started
to write. This is why many instructors see writing as a way to

33
learn. Many writing instructors ask you to submit a draft for • Discuss what you read, see, and hear. Talking with others
review before submitting a final paper. about your ideas is a good way to begin to achieve clarity.
Listening to others helps you understand what points need
How can I make the process work for me?
special attention. Discussion also helps writers realize that their
No single set of steps automatically works best for everyone own ideas are often best presented in relation to the ideas of
when writing a paper, but writers have found a number of steps others.
helpful. Your job is to try out ways that your instructor suggests
• Use e-mail to carry on discussions in writing. An e-mail
and discover what works for you. As you’ll see in the following
exchange with a classmate or your instructor might be the first
list, the process starts before you write a word. Generally there
step toward putting words on a page.
are three stages in the writing process:
• Brainstorm. Jot down your thoughts as they come to mind.
1. Preparing before drafting (thinking, brainstorming, planning,
Just write away, not worrying at first about how those ideas fit
reading, researching, outlining, sketching, etc.)—sometimes
together. (This is often called “free writing.”) Take note of
called “prewriting” (although you are usually still writing
anything that stands out as particularly important to you. Also
something at this stage, even if only jotting notes)
consider how parts of your scattered notes might eventually fit
2. Writing the draft together or how they might end up in a sequence in the paper
you will get to later on.
3. Revising and editing
• Ask and respond in writing to “what,” “why,” and “how”
Because writing is hard, procrastination is easy. Do not let
questions. Good questions prompt productive writing sessions.
yourself put off the task. One good approach is to schedule
Again, “what” questions will lead to descriptions or summaries;
shorter time periods over a series of days—rather than trying to
“why” and “how” questions will lead you to analyses and
sit down for one long period to accomplish a lot. (Even
explanations. Construct your own “what,” “why,” and “how”
professional writers can write only so much at a time.) Try the
questions and then start answering them.
following strategies to get started:

34
• In your notes, respond directly to what others have written of your ideas against what you started out saying you would do.
or said about a topic you are interested in. Most academic Revise as needed and move forward.
writing engages the ideas of others. Academic writing carries on
• Reverse outline your paper. Outlining is usually a beginning
a conversation among people interested in the field. By thinking
point, a road map for the task ahead. But many writers find that
of how your ideas relate to those of others, you can clarify your
outlining what they have already written in a draft helps them
sense of purpose and sometimes even discover a way to write
see more clearly how their ideas fit or do not fit together.
your introduction.
Outlining in this way can reveal trouble spots that are harder to
All of these steps and actions so far are “prewriting” actions. see in a full draft. Once you see those trouble spots, effective
Again, almost no one just sits down and starts writing a paper at revisionA critical reflection of an early draft that leads to
the beginning—at least not a successful paper! These prewriting significant changes. becomes possible.
steps help you get going in the right direction. Once you are
• Do not obsess over detail when writing the draft. Remember,
ready to start drafting your essay, keep moving forward in these
you have time for revising and editing later on. Now is the time
ways:
to test out the plan you have made and see how your ideas
• Write a short statement of intent or outline your paper develop. Then work on grammar and punctuation.
before your first draft. Such a road map can be very useful,
• Read your draft aloud. Hearing your own writing often helps
but do not assume you will always be able to stick with your
you see it more plainly. A gap or an inconsistency in an
first plan. Once you start writing, you may discover a need for
argument that you simply do not see in a silent reading
changes in the substance or order of things in your essay.
becomes evident when you give voice to the text. You may also
• Write down on a card or a separate sheet of paper what you catch mechanical mistakes by reading your paper aloud.
see as your paper’s main point or thesis. As you draft your
What is the difference between revising & editing?
essay, look back at that thesis statement. Are you staying on
track? Or are you discovering that you need to change your
Some students think of a draft as something that they need only
main point or thesis? From time to time, check the development
“correct” after writing. They assume their first effort to do the
assignment resulted in something that needs only surface

35
attention. This is a big mistake. A good writer does not write fast. • Clarifying the thesis or adjustments between the thesis and
Good writers know that the task is complicated enough to supporting points that follow
demand some patience. “Revision” rather than “correction” 

• Cutting material that is unnecessary or irrelevant
suggests seeing again in a new light generated by all the thought
that went into the first draft. Revising a draft usually involves • Adding new points to strengthen or clarify the presentation
significant changes including the following:
Editing and proofreadingA close review of a revised draft that
• Making organizational changes like the reordering of paragraphs leads to stylistic refinements and sentence- or word-level
(do not forget that new transitions will be needed when you corrections. are the last steps following revision. Correcting a
move paragraphs) sentence early on may not be the best use of your time since you
may cut the sentence entirely. Editing and proofreading are

36
focused, late-stage activities for style and correctness. They are Lynn University provides an English Writing Lab available to
important final parts of the writing process, but they should not students through the faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences.
be confused with revision itself. Editing and proofreading a draft Also, available are the services:
involve these steps:
• grammarly.com/edu
• Careful spellchecking. This includes checking the spelling of
• www.tutor.com/lynnu
names.
• lynn.joinknack.com
• Attention to sentence-level issues. Be especially attentive to
sentence boundaries, subject-verb agreement, punctuation, Writing Web sites and writing handbooks. Many writing Web sites
and pronoun referents. You can also attend at this stage to and handbooks can help you along every step of the way,
matters of style. especially in the late stages of your work. You will find lessons on
style as well as information about language conventions and
Note: Remember to get started on a writing assignment early so
“correctness.” For more help, become familiar with a good Web
that you complete the first draft well before the due date, allowing
site for student writers. There are many, but one recommended is
you needed time for genuine revision and careful editing.
the Purdue OWL.

What if I need help with writing?

Plagiarism—and how to avoid it
Writing is hard work. Most colleges provide resources that can
Plagiarism is the unacknowledged use of another writer’s words
help you from the early stages of an assignment through to the
or ideas. is the unacknowledged use of material from a source. At
completion of an essay.
the most obvious level, plagiarism involves using someone else’s
Tutoring services. Most colleges have a tutoring service that words and ideas as if they were your own. Notice that the
focuses primarily on student writing. Look up and visit your definition of plagiarism involves “words and ideas.”
tutoring center early in the term to learn what service is offered.
Words. Copying the words of another is clearly wrong. If you use
another’s words, those words must be in quotation marks, and
you must tell your reader where those words came from. But it is

37
not enough to make a few surface changes in wording. You Ideas. Ideas are also a form of intellectual property. Consider this
cannot just change some words and call the material yours; third version of the previous passage:
close, extended paraphrase is not acceptable. For example,
At one time, religious leaders shaped the way the public thought
compare the two passages that follow. The first comes from
about murder. But in nineteenth-century America, this changed.
Murder Most Foul, a book by Karen Halttunen on changing ideas
Society’s attitudes were influenced more and more by secular
about murder in nineteenth-century America; the second is a
writers.
close paraphrase of the same passage:
This version summarizes the original. That is, it states the main
Fist: The new murder narratives were overwhelmingly secular
idea in compressed form in language that does not come from
works, written by a diverse array of printers, hack writers,
the original. But it could still be seen as plagiarism if the source is
sentimental poets, lawyers, and even murderers themselves, who
not cited. This example probably makes you wonder if you can
were displacing the clergy as the dominant interpreters of the
write anything without citing a source. To help you sort out what
crime.
ideas need to be cited and what not, think about these principles:
Second: The murder stories that were developing were almost
Common knowledge. There is no need to cite common
always secular works that were written by many different sorts of
knowledgeKnowledge that is generally accepted as true and that
people. Printers, hack writers, poets, attorneys, and sometimes
can be found easily in various sources.. Common knowledge
even the criminals themselves were writing murder stories. They
does not mean knowledge everyone has. It means knowledge
were the new interpreters of the crime, replacing religious leaders
that everyone can easily access. For example, most people do
who had held that role before.
not know the date of George Washington’s death, but everyone
It is easy to see that the writer of the second version has closely can easily find that information. If the information or idea can be
followed the ideas and even echoed some words of the original. found in multiple sources and the information or idea remains
This is a serious form of plagiarism. Even if this writer were to constant from source to source, it can be considered common
acknowledge the author with a citation, there would still be a knowledge. Always check with your professor as to what is
problem. To simply cite the source at the end would not excuse accepted as common knowledge.
using so much of the original source.

38
Distinct contributions. One does need to cite ideas that are • The Modern Language Association (MLA) system of citation is
distinct contributionsKnowledge or an idea that may be disputed widely used but is most commonly adopted in humanities
or that is not found in many sources.. A distinct contribution need courses, particularly literature courses.
not be a discovery from the work of one person. It need only be
• The American Psychological Association (APA) system of
an insight that is not commonly expressed (not found in multiple
citation is most common in the social sciences.
sources) and not universally agreed upon.
• The Chicago Manual of Style is widely used but perhaps most
Disputable figures. Always remember that numbers are only as
commonly in history courses.
good as the sources they come from. If you use numbers like
attendance figures, unemployment rates, or demographic profiles Checklists for revision & editing
—or any statistics at all—always cite your source of those
numbers. When you revise...

Everything said previously about using sources applies to all Check the assignment: does your paper do what it’s supposed
forms of sources. Some students mistakenly believe that material to do?
from the Web, for example, need not be cited. Or that an idea
Check the title: does it clearly identify the overall topic or
from an instructor’s lecture is automatically common property.
position?
You must evaluate all sources in the same way and cite them as
necessary. Check the introduction: does it set the stage and establish the
purpose?
Forms of citation
Check each paragraph in the body: does each begin with a
You should generally check with your instructors about their transition from the preceding?
preferred form of citation when you write papers for courses. No
one standard is used in all academic papers. You can learn about Check organization: does it make sense why each topic

the three major forms or styles used in most any college writing precedes or follows another?

handbook and on many Web sites for college writers:

39
 Check development: is each topic fully explained, detailed, • Seek feedback from classmates, tutors, and instructors during
supported, and exemplified? the writing process.

Check the conclusion: does it restate the thesis and pull key • Revision is not the same thing as editing.
ideas together?
• Many resources are available to college writers.
When you edit...
• Words and ideas from sources must be documented in a form
Read the paper aloud, listening for flow and natural word style. recommended by the instructor.

Check for any lapses into slang, colloquialisms, or Other kinds of writing in college classes
nonstandard English phrasing.
Everything about college writing so far in this chapter applies in
Check sentence-level mechanics: grammar and punctuation
most college writing assignments. Some particular situations,
(pay special attention to past writing problems).
however, deserve special attention. These include group writing
When everything seems done, run the spell-checker again and projects and writing in an online course.
do a final proofread.
Group writing projects
Check physical layout and mechanics against instructor’s
College instructors sometimes assign group writing projects. The
expectations: Title page? Font and margins? End notes?
terms of these assignments vary greatly. Sometimes the
instructor specifies roles for each member of the group, but often
Key takeaways
it is part of the group’s tasks to define everyone’s role. Follow
• A writing course is central to all students’ success in many of these guidelines:
their future courses.
• Get off to an early start and meet regularly through the process.
• Writing is a process that involves a number of steps; the
• Sort out your roles as soon as you can. You might divide the
product will not be good if one does not allow time for the
work in sections and then meet to pull those sections together.
process.
But you might also think more in terms of the specific strengths

40
 and interests each of you bring to the project. For example, if Online instruction is becoming more and more common. All the
one group member is an experienced researcher, that person principles discussed in this chapter apply also in online writing—
might gather and annotate materials for the assignment. You and many aspects are even more important in an online course.
might also assign tasks that relate to the stages of the writing In most online courses, almost everything depends on written
process. For example, one person for one meeting might communication. Discussion is written rather than spoken.
construct a series of questions or a list of points to be Questions and clarifications take shape in writing. Feedback on
addressed, to start a discussion about possible directions for assignments is given in writing. To succeed in online writing,
the first draft. Another student might take a first pass at shaping apply the same writing process as fully and thoughtfully as with
the group’s ideas in a rough draft. And so on. Remember that an essay or paper for any course.
whatever you do, you cannot likely keep each person’s work
separate from the work of others. There will be and probably Chapter review
should be significant overlap if you are to eventually pull
• Successful writers in all contexts think of writing as
together a successful project.
- a process,
• Be a good citizen. This is the most important point of all. If you
are assigned a group project, you should want to be an active - a means to learn,
part of the group’s work. Never try to ride on the skills of others
or let others do more than their fair share. Do not let any lack of - a social act.

confidence you may feel as a writer keep you from doing your
• Paying close attention to the terms of the assignment is
share. One of the great things about a group project is that you essential for understanding the writing approach the instructor
can learn from others. Another great thing is that you will learn expects and for shaping the essay.
more about your own strengths that others value.
• Using the writing process maximizes the mental processes
• Complete a draft early so that you can collectively review, involved in thinking and writing. Take the time to explore
revise, and finally edit together. prewriting strategies before drafting an essay in order to
discover your ideas and how best to shape and communicate
Writing in online courses
them.

41
• Avoid the temptation, after writing a draft, to consider the essay principles of effective writing remain consistent. Work to
“done.” Revision is almost always needed, involving more develop your college writing skills at this early stage, and you
significant changes than just quick corrections and editing. will be well served throughout your education and into your
career thereafter.
• Virtually all college writing builds on the ideas of others; this is a
significant part of the educational experience. In your writing, be
sure you always make it clear in your phrasing and use of
citations which ideas are your own or common knowledge and FEEDBACK
which come from other sources.

• College writing extends throughout the curriculum, from your

first writing class through to your last term, including writing in
class on examinations, group projects, and online courses.
Through all this great variety of writing, however, the main



Assignment 2d Tap on the thumbnail above to leave
feedback for your professor.


Use this scrolling text box to answer the following five
questions, then submit them to Canvas under Assignment
2:

This chapter has been reproduced in



1. My worst writing habits have been what? compliance with the licensing for
2. To overcome these bad habits in college, I will take Saylor.org’s College Success.
what steps?

3. Sentence-level mechanics: Generally, what specific

errors (things my past teachers have marked) have you
made in your writing?

4. How can you learn to correct errors like these when

42
proofreading and editing?
43
Chapter 3

Language

After reading this chapter, students should be

able to do the following:

1. Recognize the complexity of language.


2. Identify meanings of language.


3. Explain the functions of language.

4. Differentiate the definitions of language.

The meaning & definition of language It is likely that when this sentence was first written it had never
before been said. And it is not just the precise wording that is
Reasoning involves thinking. Thinking, in turn, involves language, unique. It is unlikely that anyone has ever had the same thought.
for without language we could not express (and probably not In fact, there is no limit to the number of new sentences with new
even have) any thoughts. In order to understand reasoning, meanings that could be created. Conversely, there are often
therefore, it is necessary to pay careful attention to the different ways of saying the same thing. For example: Anne is
relationship between thought and language. The relationship older than everyone else in the room. Everyone else in the room is
seems to be straightforward: thought is expressed in and through younger than Anne.
language. But this claim, while true, is an oversimplification.
In addition, there are often many different sentences that mean
People often fail to say what they mean. Everyone has had the
more or less the same thing. One lexicographer has recorded
experience of having their words misunderstood by others. And
over twenty-two hundred synonyms for the word drunk.
we all use words not merely to express our thoughts, but also to
shape them. Developing our critical thinking skills, therefore, Written and spoken language, although closely connected, are
requires an understanding of the ways in which words can (and nevertheless not identical: spoken language is more flexible (and
can fail to) express our thoughts. hence more complex) than written language, for we can change
the meaning of words and sentences through our gestures, tone
The complexity of language
of voice, and facial expressions.
Language is an extremely complex phenomenon. The number of
Note the different meanings that arise when the bold word is
different words in any language is finite, but these words can be
emphasized in the following sentences:
used to generate an infinite number of different sentences with
different meanings. Many of the ordinary things we say every day You shouldn't steal library books. (But it may be acceptable for
have never been said before by anyone. For example: Professor others to do so.)

Sutherland reminds me of my Uncle Tony; they both have the You shouldn't steal library books. (But I won't be surprised if you
habit of running their fingers through their hair when they are do.)

thinking hard.
You shouldn't steal library books. (But defacing books is
acceptable.)


45
You shouldn't steal library books. (But stealing
books from the bookstore is acceptable.) 

You shouldn't steal library books. (But stealing
magazines from the library is acceptable.)

Understanding spoken language, therefore,

requires much more than knowing the written
language. In fact, the close connection between
written and spoken language that exists in
European languages is sometimes absent in other
languages. Chinese spoken dialects (which are as
different from one another as English and
German) all use the same written language, so
that people who speak different dialects can
communicate through writing even though they
may not understand each other's speech.

Language is always in a state of gradual change,

in ways that are in large part unpredictable even
in principle. A single language can, in a few
centuries, evolve into two languages so different
from one

another that those who speak one will find the

other incomprehensible. Surprisingly, when
languages evolve, they do not evolve into more
complex forms, for the complexity of all natural
languages seems to remain more or less
constant. So-called primitive languages may have
46
somewhat smaller vocabularies than modern languages (although The meaning of language
we need to remember that the Inuit have eleven different words
Usually it is not difficult to explain what a particular word or
for the different kinds of snow), but in other respects they are just
sentence means. But there is much that is puzzling about the
as complex. "Primitive" languages are not really primitive at all.
nature of meaning itself. How do words get their meaning, and
Given this complexity, it is astonishing that we learn almost how do meanings change? Is the meaning that words have
everything we will ever know about language before we are old different from the meaning of sentences? In order to enhance our
enough to go to school. We are all intimately familiar with at least understanding of the nature and complexity of meaning, we will
one language, and we therefore understand what language is, at look briefly at three theories of meaning. The first two are
least in the sense of knowing how to use language. But at a commonsense views that have been held by many people,
deeper level most of us have only the most elementary including many philosophers and linguistic theorists.
understanding of what language is and how it works. Even Unfortunately, both are open to serious objections, and many
linguistic theorists are uncertain about many features of language. philosophers now regard them as untenable. The third theory
They do not know, for example, whether the basic structure of avoids the weakness of the first two.
language (i.e., its underlying grammar) reflects certain
characteristics of the human mind, or is merely conventional in The reference theory of meaning

nature. Nor do they fully understand the relationship between The reference theory of meaning was first expounded by Aristotle
language and thinking: we normally use a language when we in the fourth century BC. According to this view the meaning of a
think, but is language necessary for human thought? And if it is, word consists in what it refers to. The word dog refers to all the
do people who think in different languages think differently? dogs in the world, so it seems plausible to hold that the meaning
When we translate a speech from Russian into English, can we be of dog is all the dogs in the world. After all, if we know what dog
sure that we understand exactly what it meant to the original refers to we obviously know what the word means. Similarly, the
speaker or what it means to a Russian audience? The relationship meaning of tree is every tree in the world, the meaning of
between language and reality is also problematic. Does language automobile is every automobile, the meaning of joke is every joke,
describe the world as it really is, or do we use language to and so on. The meaning of a term thus consists of its reference
impose a structure on our experience, experience that would class, that is, the class of objects to which the word refers. At first
otherwise be chaotic and meaningless? glance, the reference theory is a plausible account of meaning,
47
and its plausibility is enhanced by the fact that pointing to the oldest man in the world. The reference theory of meaning,
reference class is often a good way of explaining the meaning of therefore, has to be rejected.
a word. If you don't know what antimacassar means I can easily
The idea theory of meaning
explain its meaning by pointing to an antimacassar, and
explaining that other antimacassars vary in size and design but The idea theory of meaning was developed by John Locke in the
are essentially the same as this one. seventeenth century. He held that the meaning of a word consists
of the idea or mental image that is associated with the word.
There are, however, serious difficulties with the reference theory.
When we think of the word dog, it seems that we have a mental
At the heart of the theory there seems to be a confusion between
image we associate with the word, and it is plausible to hold that
understanding the meaning of a word, and having knowledge of
the meaning of dog is this image in our minds. This theory seems
what the word refers to. When we understand the meaning of the
to be able to deal with phrases like the oldest man in the world,
word dog, we usually have knowledge of only a small proportion
since it is plausible to suggest that we have a mental image we
of the dogs that exist, and this is puzzling if the meaning of dog is
associate with this phrase. But the idea theory also encounters
the reference class of the term. The fact that even small children
several difficulties. Just as the class of unlesses seems to make
can understand the meaning of dog on the basis of direct
no sense, the mental image of unless also seems to make no
knowledge of only a few dogs cannot be explained by the
sense. But in addition, the image or idea we associate with a
reference theory. The theory encounters even more serious
word like dog turns out on reflection to be very unclear. If we
difficulties, however, when we consider words that have no
attempt to describe our image of a dog, we can only describe a
reference class. What do the following words refer to: unless,
typical dog: one that is black, shorthaired, about eighteen inches
after, yes, unlikely, the, nevertheless, was, if, where? Does it even
high, with a short tail, etc. Of course, we know that many dogs
make sense to suggest that the meaning of unless is the class of
are not black, that some are longhaired, that some are very small
unlesses? In addition, there are certain phrases whose meaning is
and some are very large, and so forth. But we cannot have an
easily understood but whose reference is unknown. For example,
image of a dog which is both black and not black, both
we all understand the meaning of the phrase the oldest man in
longhaired and shorthaired, and both tall and short. It is
the world, even when we don't know to whom it refers. If the
impossible for our image of a dog to include all those
meaning is the reference, then we shouldn't be able to
understand what the phrase means unless we know who is the

48
characteristics that we know dogs have. How, then, can our but sentences. Words have meaning only when they are used in
image be the meaning of the word? sentences: without such a context they have no meaning. When
we ask what some particular word means, we seem to be asking
Another difficulty with the idea theory is that it has the
for the meaning of the word itself, as if it had a meaning apart
consequence that we can never know what another person
from the way it is used in sentences. In fact, the only meaning a
means by certain words. You can never see my mental images
word can have is the meaning it gains from the meanings of the
and I can never see yours. If the mental image is the meaning,
sentences in which the word is typically used.
how can I know what you mean by dog and how can you know
what I mean by dog? One reply to this objection is that we can Notice how the different meanings of a word are expressed by
describe our mental images in words that others can understand, using that word in different sentences:
and in this way we can know what others mean by a word. This
• I gave him a hand with his baggage. (i.e., help) The crowd gave
reply is adequate for some words, but not for all. The mental
him a hand. (i.e., applause) Please hand me the scissors. (i.e.,
images we have for simple properties (for example, properties
give)
such as red, hot, sour, etc.) can never be stated. We simply
cannot describe the meaning of the word red by using other • She is a green lawyer. (i.e., inexperienced)
words. If we could, then someone who has been blind since birth
would know what red means merely by hearing a description of • He is looking green. (i.e., nauseous)
our mental image, which is impossible. Words fail us at this point.
• We had a green Christmas last year. (i.e., without snow)
So the idea theory must also be rejected.
• Don't strike that child. (i.e., hit)
Meaning as use


 • The strike was over wages. (i.e., refusal to work) Strike three!
A new approach to meaning was developed in this century by (i.e., the batter is "out")
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) and John Austin (1911–1960).
But if the meaning of sentences is primary and the meaning of
They recognized that many words do refer to things, and that
words is derivative — if we cannot derive the meaning of a
many words have a mental image or idea associated with them,
sentence from the meanings of the words it contains — how are
but they held that the primary bearers of meaning are not words
we to account for the meaning of sentences? Wittgenstein and

49
Austin held that the meaning of sentences is to be found in their More commonly, however, context affects meaning in less
use. Language is a tool, and just as we don't really know what a dramatic but equally important ways. Usually, there are only a few
hammer is until we know what its use is, so we don't know what possible uses of a sentence in any particular context, and we can
language means until we know what it is being used to do. In make a reasonable judgement of its primary or intended use. It is
order to know what a particular sentence means we need to ask, important, therefore, to understand the various uses or functions
What is this speaker, in this particular context, using this sentence of language.
to do? If someone says Hold it, we cannot know what the
sentence means until we know what the speaker means, and we The main functions of language
cannot know what the speaker means until we know what he or
Whenever we use language we do so for some purpose, and if we
she is using the sentence to do. Did the speaker say Hold it to get
consider these purposes we can see that there are several
someone to stop doing something, or to instruct someone to
different types. Language, in other words, has several functions.
grasp hold of an object? Only when we have answered this
Language is often characterized as a means of communication,
question will we know what the sentence means.
and although this view is correct, it is not very informative. When
It is important to pay attention to the context, for the context we use language, we almost always communicate something to
typically gives us the clues we need to determine what the someone, but usually our purpose is much more specific, and
speaker is using a sentence to do, and thus what the sentence frequently we are not primarily concerned with communicating
means. There are various contextual features we can make use information at all.
of, such as the social setting, the speaker's personal goals, the
Our purpose is usually not merely to communicate, but to
nature and expectations of the audience, and what has just been
communicate for a specific purpose. What we mean often reflects
said by other speakers. Changing the context of a sentence can
these purposes. Consequently, how we interpret, and therefore
sometimes dramatically affect its meaning. For example: The
react to, what others say depends upon what we take their
queen is in a vulnerable position: (a) when said by a spectator at a
purpose to be. It is therefore important to be aware of the main
chess match and (b) when said by a teacher in a lecture on the
purposes for which language is used and how these purposes
role of the monarchy in Britain. The President has been shot and
affect meaning. Each of these purposes reflects a different
died a few minutes ago: (a) when said by a character in a film and
function of language.

(b) when said by a radio announcer in a news broadcast.

50
1. Descriptive

One very important function of language is to describe (i.e., to

convey factual information about) something. Whenever we
describe something — an object, a situation, or a feeling — we
are stating facts, or what we believe to be facts. For example:
This coffee is cold. I don't have any change for the coffee
machine. A cup of coffee would calm my nerves.

Almost every time we use language we convey factual

information, even though this may not be our primary purpose.

2. Evaluative

Often we use language not (or not merely) to describe something

but to make a value judgement about it, that is, to evaluate it. For
example: Ellen is the best student in the class.

This is different from a mere factual description, for it presents a

value judgement about Ellen. There are several different types of
evaluations: aesthetic, moral, economic, technological, and even
scientific. For example:That was the worst movie I've seen in
years. He is an irresponsible person. The best way to get rich is
by investing in real estate. The safest way of disposing of uranium
waste is to bury it in old coal mines. The theory of evolution
provides the best account of the origin of biological species.

51
3. Emotive life with coffee spoons. Again, W.B. Yeats, in "The Lake Isle of
Innisfree," evokes a feeling of peacefulness:
Language is sometimes used to express emotions, and thus has
an emotive function. When you hit your thumb with a hammer, And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping
you probably say something. If you say, My thumb hurts, you are slow.
describing your feelings. If you say, This is a terrible hammer, you
Advertisers frequently use language to evoke certain feelings. For
are evaluating the hammer. But if, like most people, you say,
example: At Speedy you're a Somebody.
Damn! (or worse), you are not describing or evaluating anything
but are simply expressing your feelings or emotions. Almost any And everyone from time to time wants to evoke certain emotions
emotion can be expressed in words. in their audience. We want others to feel pity for someone, to feel
anger at some situation, or to approve of something, and we use
For example: I love you. You are a loathsome creature; go away. I
language for this purpose. Threats are usually intended to evoke
shall die of unrequited love.
fear in the victim. Political speeches are often aimed at making
Thank heavens that's over. voters feel that a government is trustworthy, or untrustworthy.
Sermons often are designed to make us feel ashamed of the
Note that these sentences also convey factual information about
mean things we do.
the speakers' feelings, but in most contexts this function would
be secondary. 5. Persuasive

4. Evocative One of the most widespread uses of language is to persuade

people to accept something or to act in a certain way. For
Language can also used for the purpose of evoking certain
example: You shouldn't take astrology seriously. There is no
emotions in an audience. If we want someone to feel sad about
scientific basis for it. I know you don't like parties, but I hope
something we can try to evoke that emotion through the careful
you'll come anyway. There will be several people there that you
choice of words and images. Poets are especially concerned with
have been wanting to meet. I know you will enjoy yourself once
this function of language. Consider, for example, the line from T.S.
you get
Eliot's ''The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," which beautifully
evokes the feeling of a meaningless life: I have measured out my

52
We try to persuade people to recycle waste, that the These sentences would normally be used to tell someone to do
government's budget is likely to increase unemployment, that the something. They do not describe or evaluate anything, express or
police officer should not give us a speeding ticket, or that lotteries evoke an emotion, seek information, nor, usually, do they attempt
are a waste of money. Every argument is an example of the to persuade us of anything. They simply tell us what to do. The
persuasive use of language. There are two ways language can be directive use of language covers ordering, commanding,
used to persuade. Sometimes our purpose is to persuade by directing, advising, requesting, and similar types of actions.
means of rational arguments, even if we often fail to achieve our
8. Performative
purpose. But often we abandon this restriction and use anything
we think might succeed in persuading our audience. This is the There is a small but interesting class of sentences that are known
case with propaganda and most advertising. as performative utterances, i.e., utterances that are not
descriptions, evaluations, directives, and so on, but are
6. Interrogative
themselves to be regarded as actions. They are actions that
In order to elicit information we usually need to ask for it. Most consist of saying certain words. If a question arises of whether
often this is done by asking a question. For example: What is the someone actually performed such an action, the only relevant
due date for the essay? But asking questions is not the only way evidence would consist of showing that the person uttered
to elicit information. For example: Tell me your age. I won't lend certain words under appropriate circumstances. For example: I
you twenty dollars unless you explain why you need it. find the accused guilty of murder.

Whatever form of words we use, we are not describing, If these words are uttered by Judge Bean at the conclusion of a
evaluating, expressing, or evoking anything, or attempting to trial they constitute the action of finding someone guilty of
persuade, but seeking to gain information. murder. If someone asks for proof that Judge Bean found the
accused guilty of murder it would be sufficient to quote the
7. Directive
judge's words. It would make no sense to suggest that Judge
We sometimes use language to tell others to do something. For Bean might have been mistaken or lying. If he said the words at
example: Go to the principal's office immediately. Take these pills the conclusion of the trial then he did find the accused guilty of
twice a day. murder. On the other hand, if I say, Judge Bean found the
accused guilty of murder, I could not appeal to the fact that I said
53
 When uttered under the appropriate circumstances, each would
Assignment 3a
constitute an action.


Use this scrolling text box to complete the assignment. 9. Recreational
Choose and answer two (2) of the questions from
“SelfTest” and two (2) of the questions from “Questions Finally, we should not overlook the fact that language is often
for Discussion.” Then, submit your answers to the four (4) used to amuse ourselves and others. We tell jokes and stories,
questions to Canvas under Assignment 3.
write novels, invent puns, do crossword puzzles, play guessing
SelfTest games, make up limericks, sing nursery rhymes, and write rude

Using the contextual clues provided, what is the most things on washroom walls. When language is used in any of these
likely primary purpose of the speakers of the following ways it serves a recreational function. People who tell jokes, write
sentences? stories, or sing nursery rhymes usually do so out of simple
1. If you want to succeed in life you need a good enjoyment.
education. (Said by a father to his seventeen-year-old
daughter who has just told him she wants to drop out of Definition
school.)
it as proof that it is true, since I might be mistaken or lying. It is We noted that words often have more than one use or meaning. It

not a performative utterance, but a description: it is true only if it is important to understand that not all the different uses of a word

correctly states or describes a fact. Similarly, if after the trial need have anything in common; for some words there may be a

Judge Bean says, I found the accused guilty of murder, common element, but for many there is not. As long as we know
how to use a word for some particular purpose, we know what
this would not be a performative utterance, for we could not the word means when used in that sense. Indeed, it is often
appeal to the fact that Judge Bean uttered this sentence as proof difficult to enumerate all the different accepted uses of a word.
that it is true, since he might be mistaken or lying. But this is not a problem for the meaning as use theory, for it
denies that words must have a single meaning. Since words
Here are two more examples of performative utterances:
typically have several different uses, it follows that there will be
I now pronounce you husband and wife. I resign, here and now. several different meanings, and as long as we understand a

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particular use (i.e., know how to use the word for that purpose) example, is the concept of an unmarried male, and the reference
we understand the meaning of the word when used in that way. of the term is the class of all bachelors in the universe, not only
those who now exist but those who have existed in the past and
We have seen that the meaning of language depends upon its
may exist in the future. All words must have a sense, although
use and context, and that it is often difficult to say precisely what
some words have no reference. Words with no reference,
a word means if we ignore its use and context. Normally this is
however, are quite rare and, as we saw, pose special difficulties.
not a serious difficulty, for we can usually get by with a rough idea
of what words mean as long as they are being used in ordinary The purposes of definition
contexts. But sometimes this casual approach is inadequate, and
In order to understand how definitions work, we need to be aware
it becomes important to focus on the precise meanings of a word.
of the different purposes for which definitions may be put
When a lawyer explains what constitutes an assault, or a sales
forward. There are three main types.
clerk says the microwave oven has a warranty, or a scientist talks
about energy, we run the risk of misunderstanding if we fail to pay 1. Reportive definitions
careful attention to the precise meanings of their words. These
are the kinds of occasions when definitions are important; without The most common purpose of definitions is to convey the
them we may misunderstand what is being said. Of course, we information needed to use a word correctly. The correct use of a
also need definitions when we come across a word we are word consists of its standard usage — how the word is in fact
unfamiliar with, or when a familiar word is being used in an used by those who make regular use of it. When we want to know
unfamiliar way. In these cases, it is not misunderstanding that we the meaning of a word in its standard usage, we need a reportive
want to avoid, but not understanding at all. definition, i.e., one that reports its standard usage. Dictionaries
always give reportive definitions. Reportive definitions can
To understand how definitions work we need to note the sometimes be troublesome because it may not be clear whether
distinction between the sense of a term (sometimes called its or not a particular use can be regarded as part of the standard
connotation or intension) and its reference (or denotation or usage. For example, fifty years ago the word cohort was
extension). The sense of a word is what we understand when we standardly used only to refer to a group of persons banded
understand its meaning, and the reference is the class of things to together. (This reflected its original meaning in Latin, where it
which the word refers. The sense of the term bachelor, for referred to a military unit roughly akin to a platoon.) Now,

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however, it is usually used to refer to a friend or associate. The Sometimes it is useful to be able to fix a particular meaning for a
sentence Fred arrived with his cohort, if used to mean that Fred word. Someone who is writing a report on land use in Ontario
arrived with his friend, would have been incorrect fifty years ago, would find it necessary to define the categories of land use that
but is now usually accepted as correct. This shift in meaning was are being employed. The report would therefore stipulate how the
probably brought about by people who did not understand the words agricultural, residential, industrial, recreational, and so forth
old usage, and who were therefore using the word incorrectly, but are being used. When we do this we are not attempting to report
the mistake has become so widespread that it is no longer the standard usage, although it would clearly be foolish to depart
regarded as incorrect. Only dedicated linguistic reactionaries radically from it. For many specific purposes, such as doing
continue to regard the new usage as incorrect. Except for cases research or enacting legislation, it makes good sense to stipulate
where a meaning shift has not yet been accepted as standard the precise meaning that is to be attached to key words. As long
usage, however, reportive definitions are usually quite as this stipulated meaning is explicitly stated, there is no risk of
straightforward. misunderstanding, and there is an obvious gain in clarity and
precision.
1. Stipulative definitions

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There is nothing to prevent us from inventing a new word by using The correctness of an essentialist definition cannot be determined
a stipulative definition. For example, we might invent the word merely by an appeal to standard usage, like a reportive definition,
spinge to refer to the deposit that builds up between the bristles nor by an appeal to its usefulness, like a stipulative definition.
on a toothbrush, or the word telerape to refer to obscene Essentialist definitions really need to be understood as
telephone calls. We can also stipulate a new meaning for an old compressed theories; they attempt to express in succinct form a
word: for example, using bubble to refer to a promise made by a theory about the nature of what is being defined. Thus, assessing
politician. There is, however, no guarantee that these new words an essentialist definition involves assessing a theory, and this
or uses will become part of the standard usage. This is likely to goes far beyond questions about the meaning of words.
happen only when there is a need (or a perceived need) for the
These three purposes of definition are important since when we
new term. If enough people think it is important to be able to talk
want to determine whether a definition is acceptable we must first
about a new object or phenomenon or to refer to something in a
decide its purpose. Good stipulative definitions and good
new way, then a new word will usually be forthcoming, and will
essentialist definitions are usually inadequate reportive
soon become part of standard usage. Until this happens,
definitions, and good reportive definitions are usually
however, new words depend for their meaning upon stipulative
unsatisfactory essentialist definitions.
definitions.
Methods of definition
1. Essentialist definitions
There are several different methods that can be used to define
Some words — such as justice, truth, love, religion, freedom,
words. These methods can be used for reportive, stipulative, and
deity, death, law, peace, health, and science — refer to things or
essentialist definitions.
qualities that have considerable importance. When we ask What
is justice? we are not asking for a reportive definition, since such 1. Genus/species
a definition might reflect a widespread misconception about the
essential nature of justice. Nor would we be asking for a The most common method of defining a word is to refer to a class
stipulative definition, since we can invent these for ourselves as (i.e., a genus) of which the term is a member and to specify how it
easily as the next person. We are asking for a definition that is different from other members of the class (i.e., the species). For
reveals the essential nature of justice. example: A seaplane is an airplane that is adapted for landing on
and taking off from a body of water.
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The definition states that a seaplane is a member of the class of is too limited, we will have conveyed only part of the meaning of
airplanes (i.e., it is a type of airplane) that is distinguished from the term.
other airplanes by being adapted for landing on and taking off
Using ostensive definitions for general terms can be problematic.
from a body of water.
If we attempt to define ostensively terms such as fairness or truth,
Most words can be defined using the genus species method. it may be difficult for someone to grasp what the different
Some, however, cannot because they lack a genus of which they examples have in common. For some words it is difficult to point
are a member. A seaplane is a member of the class of airplanes; to or give examples: for example, neutron, space, or history. And
an airplane is a member of the class of machines; a machine is a words that have no reference (for example, very, where, and
member of the class of . . . ? At this point we have to look hard to forever) simply cannot be defined ostensively because there is
find an appropriate class. We might use the class of systems: A nothing to point to.
machine is a system of interacting parts. But then what is the
3. By synonym
appropriate class for systems? At some point, the process of
finding a genus class must end, and at this point we can no Often all that is needed to define a word is to give a synonym. For
longer use the genus species method. example: Effulgent means the same as radiant.

2. Ostensive Obviously, this method only works for words that have more or
less exact synonyms. Words that lack a synonym have to be
Sometimes the meaning of a word can easily be conveyed by
defined using one of the other methods. And, of course, such
giving examples, either verbally or by pointing. If someone wants
definitions will only be helpful for someone who understands the
to know what a bassoon is, it may be sufficient to hold one up
meaning of the synonym.
and say, Here is a bassoon. Or we may point one out by saying,
The bald guy in the third row of the orchestra is playing a
bassoon. Sometimes it is necessary to give several examples in
order to ensure that the meaning is clear. If we try to define 4. Contextual
vehicle ostensively, we will need to point to more than cars: we
Some words can best be defined by using the word in a standard
will also need to point to vans, trucks, busses, tractors,
context and providing a different sentence that does not use the
motorcycles, bicycles, and so on. If the range of examples given
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word but has the same meaning. For example, the concept of A good stipulative definition is one that fixes a precise meaning of
logical strength used in this book can be defined as follows: a term in a way that will be useful for some specific purpose. A
good essentialist definition is one that reflects a true or
This argument has logical strength means the same as The
reasonable theory about the essential nature of the phenomenon
premises of this argument, if true, provide a justification for
to which the term refers. But what is a good reportive definition?
believing that its conclusion is true.
The short answer to this question is that a good reportive
5. Operational definition of a word is one that tells us what others mean when
they use the word and what others will understand us to mean
Sometimes it is important that terms be defined very precisely. In when we use it. In other words, it will accurately describe the
science, for example, it is essential that each concept be defined actual standard usage of the term. There are several ways in
in a way that specifies exactly when it can be applied and when it which a reportive definition can fail to be a good definition
cannot. One way of achieving such precision is to establish a rule
that the term is to be applied only when a specified test or Too broad
operation yields a certain result. For example: A genius is anyone
A definition is too broad when the defining phrase refers to some
who scores over 140 on a standard I. Q. test.
things that are not included in the reference of the term being
Operational definitions are commonly used outside science when defined. The definition A typewriter is a means of writing fails as a
defining terms that are used to distinguish things that form a definition because the defining phrase (a means of writing) refers
continuum, such as the quality of meat, student performance, or not only to typewriters but also to chalk, pens, and pencils,
degree of drunkenness. Thus we have operational definitions for among other things. The definition is too broad because it
such terms as Grade A beef, honours standing, and legal includes more than it should. Here are some other examples of
intoxication. Operational definitions often arise initially as definitions that are too broad:
stipulative definitions, but may become part of the standard
• Soccer is a game played with a ball.
usage.
• A beaver is an amphibious rodent, native to northeastern North
Assessing reportive definitions America.

• A sofa is a piece of furniture designed for sitting.

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If we regard these not as definitions, but as statements, they are Too broad & too narrow
all true. Soccer is, obviously, a game played with a ball. In a
A definition can sometimes be too broad and too narrow at the
sense, therefore, definitions that are too broad do not say
same time. This happens when the defining phrase refers to some
anything that is actually false. It is when such statements are put
things to which the term does not (too broad) and also fails to
forward as definitions that problems may arise.
refer to some things to which the term does (too narrow). For
Too narrow example: A pen is an instrument designed for writing words.

A definition is too narrow when the defining phrase fails to refer to This definition is too broad because it includes pencils and
some things that are included in the reference of the term being typewriters as well as pens, and it is too narrow because it fails to
defined. The definition include pens that are designed for drawing pictures.

“A school is an institution that aims at teaching children how to In order to determine whether a definition is too broad or too
read and write” is a bad definition because the defining phrase narrow, it is necessary to compare the reference of the term being
fails to refer to schools that do not aim at teaching children how defined with the reference of the defining phrase. Two questions
to read and write, such as medical schools and dance schools. It need to be asked: (1) does the reference of the defining phrase
is too narrow; it excludes these other kinds of schools. Here are include things that are not included in the reference of the term
some other examples of definitions that are too narrow: being defined? If it does, then the definition is too broad. And (2)
does the reference of the defining phrase exclude things that are
• A parent is a person's mother or father.
included in the reference of the term? If it does, then the definition
• A farm is a place where crops are grown. is too narrow.

• A bigamist is a man who is married to two women at the same Here are some examples of definitions that are both too broad
time. and too narrow:

As with definitions that are too broad, definitions that are too • Hockey is a game played on ice in Canada.
narrow do not necessarily say anything that is false. A true
• A doctor is a person who treats physical ailments. A professor
statement may be a bad definition.
is a teacher who does research.

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Circular A definition can also be useless when it fails, through the use of
vague, obscure, or metaphorical language, to express clearly the
A circular definition is one that includes the term being defined (or
meaning of the term being defined. Consider the following
its cognate) in the definition. For example: A golf ball is a small
definitions:
spherical object used in the game of golf.
A marathon is a long footrace.
The problem here is obvious: anyone who does not already know
what golf is, is not going to be enlightened by the definition. A grampus is a kind of blowing, spouting, blunt-headed, dolphin-
Circular definitions are therefore usually useless. like cetacean. A fact is anything that rubs the corners off our
prejudices.
When a definition uses a cognate of the term being defined the
circularity may be less obvious. For example: A surgeon is a The first of these definitions uses a vague expression (long) that
person who practises surgery. leaves the meaning of the term somewhat obscure. The second
uses a scientific term (cetacean) that is likely to be unenlightening
This definition is circular because surgeon and surgery are
(to non-biologists, at least). The third is likely to be uninformative
cognates (i.e., they come from the same root.) Circular definitions
because it uses a metaphor (rubs the corners off). In most
involving cognates may not always be useless, however, since a
circumstances these definitions will be unsatisfactory. However, a
person may know the meaning of one and not the other.
definition that uses an obscure technical term may nevertheless
People do not often put forward circular definitions that are as be correct (for example, the second of the above definitions), and
blatant as these examples. But sometimes a pair of definitions, if we want to have a precise understanding of the term we will
neither of which is itself circular, can lead to a kind of circularity have to look for a definition of the obscure term and hope that it
when taken together. If someone defines freedom as the absence is not equally obscure.
of coercion, and then defines coercion as the absence of
freedom, the definitions taken together are circular and therefore
likely to be useless. A warning

Obscure Defining words is an art. It requires good judgement to know what

kind of definition is appropriate in any particular context.

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Compilers of dictionaries attempt to provide definitions that can ignorance. The friend may only need to be told that disinterested
serve in a very broad range of contexts, but even they make no means the same as impartial. The German tourist only needs to
claim to give a full and complete account of the meanings of be informed that street means strasse. The child will be content if
words. They do not, for example, attempt to cover slang, dialect, told that obstetrician means baby doctor. The appropriate kind of
or metaphorical uses. answer is one that meets the needs of the questioner, and this is
usually less than a full reportive definition.
Most of us are not writers of dictionaries, and we only attempt to
provide definitions when a particular need arises. Sometimes we Sometimes, however, we need to define a word because we want
are asked what a word means. A friend asks what the difference to increase or deepen our understanding. This is likely to arise
is between disinterested and uninterested. A German tourist asks with terms that are abstract or stand for a complex object or
what street means. A child asks what obstetrician means. In such phenomenon; we often have a general idea of what they mean
circumstances, there is no need to give a full definition: we need and can point to examples, but find it very difficult to say
only provide enough information to remove the questioner's precisely what they mean.

For most people, the following terms fall into this category:
Assignment 3b energy, classical, crime, psychiatry, nation, pornography, religion,
imagination, evil, illness, cause, and trust. These are important


Use this scrolling text box to complete the assignment. matters, and if we want to increase our understanding of them we
Choose and comment on two (2) of the following from must attempt to ensure that we have a clear understanding of the
“Questions for Discussion.” Then, submit your answers to words. But even here we do not usually want a full reportive
the two (2) questions to Canvas under Assignment 3.
definition.
Questions for Discussion
Often we are interested in only one sense of the word (for
1. A psychological disorder is any personal way of
perceiving or interpreting events which is used repeatedly example, energy as a scientific term), and sometimes we want
in spite of its consistent failure (from G.A. Kelly, only to be able to distinguish between similar things (for example,
Personality Theory and Research [Toronto: John Wiley and between psychiatry and psychology).
Sons, 1970], p. 240).

2. The term suicide is applied to all cases of death

resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative
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act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce his
Clarifying meaning • The worst thing that can happen to a worker in this province is
to fall into the clutches of the Workers' Compensation Board.
The failure to understand the meaning of what others say, and the
failure to understand how others can misunderstand the meaning • The only difference between an amateur and a professional
of what we say, are the seeds of much frustration, resentment, musician is that the amateur performs for personal satisfaction
and discord. In this chapter we examine some of the ways in while the professional performs for money.
which misunderstanding can result from a lack of clarity in the
• Doctors who perform abortions are guilty of first degree murder.
language we use. Our purpose here is to develop the ability to
recognize obscurity in what others say, and to learn how to say We all recognize that the literal interpretation of such statements
clearly what we mean. is unlikely to be what the speaker intended. They are
exaggerations or overstatements. If the speaker is present we
The principle of charity
may want to have a bit of fun by pointing out the absurdity of
Often we are confronted by a choice between two or more what was actually said. Sometimes this is legitimate; for example,
interpretations of what someone has said, and sometimes these when debating in parliament. However, when there is an
interpretations have different degrees of plausibility. If we adopt important issue at stake we should not let our desire to poke fun
the least plausible interpretation it is often easy to show that the at our opponents prevent us from listening to what they are really
statement is false. On the other hand, if we adopt the most trying to say. When our opponents are not present and cannot
plausible interpretation it is usually more difficult to show that the clarify what they have said we ought to be prepared to do so on
statement is false. It is tempting, therefore, when faced with a their behalf. It is up to us to find the fairest interpretation of their
statement we disagree with, to adopt the least plausible words, the one that best represents their presumed intentions.
interpretation of it. After all, if we can get away with foisting an
Thus, in any discussion we have a moral obligation to treat our
implausible view on our opponents it makes it easier to show that
opponents fairly. When they are present we ought to give them
they are wrong (or stupid, irrational, foolish, etc). It is especially
the opportunity to clarify what they have said. When they are not
tempting to do this when the most implausible interpretation is
present, we have a moral obligation to follow the principle of
the literal one. For example:
charity, that is, to adopt the most charitable interpretation of their
words. The most charitable interpretation is the one that makes

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our opponent's views as reasonable, plausible, or defensible as shall often find it necessary to invoke the principle of charity.
possible. According to the principle of charity, whenever two Being charitable to our opponents should eventually become
interpretations are possible we should always adopt the more second nature.
reasonable.
Linguistic ambiguity
Why should we be charitable to our opponents? After all, it might
Ambiguity & vagueness
be argued that if the purpose of engaging in a debate is to win,
the principle of charity will make our task more difficult. But Some sentences are ambiguous. Some sentences are vague. But
winning is not the primary purpose of rational discussion. The ambiguity and vagueness are not the same. An ambiguous
primary purpose should always be to discover the truth and to sentence is one that has two or more different but usually quite
develop views and positions that are as reasonable and precise meanings. A vague sentence is one that lacks a precise
defensible as they can be. It is always possible that our meaning. Ambiguous sentences should be avoided whenever
opponents are right and we are wrong, or that our opponents are there is a risk of misinterpretation — whenever there is a risk that
partly right and our position needs to be amended in some way; the hearer will select the wrong meaning. Vague sentences,
in either case we stand to benefit from discussion. Even if our however, are necessary if we are trying to express a vague
opponents are totally wrong it is a useful test of the strength of thought or feeling. For example: I don't care much for
our own position to be able to show their errors. In any case we Beethoven's early string quartets; That was a noisy party they
owe it to our opponents as persons to interpret their words in the had last night, and it went on until all hours. Lots of people own
most reasonable manner. Anyone who has ever been involved in two television sets; Margaret Laurence's novels have a
a discussion with an opponent who persistently violates the disquieting effect upon the reader.
principle of charity will understand the unfairness of such
treatment and will appreciate the importance of observing the These sentences are vague but they are not ambiguous. In most
principle. contexts there is no need for greater precision about such
matters. If challenged we could easily be a little more precise, but
The principle of charity should be followed not only when we are it would be very difficult (and usually pointless) to attempt to
interpreting single statements, but also when we are interpreting remove the vagueness altogether. There is nothing wrong with
longer passages and even entire books. Throughout this book we

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vagueness when we want to express a vague thought or when The vagueness here arises with the phrase the voters. We need to
there is no need for precision. ask, how many voters? We know that the voters cannot refer to
all the voters, since other parties also received votes. Does it
In contexts in which precision is needed, however, we sometimes
mean most of the voters? This may well be the speaker's intent,
come across sentences that look quite precise, but that turn out
but if so the claim is false since in fact less than half of the votes
to be extremely vague. For example:
cast were for Liberal candidates. The Liberal victory resulted from
• Applicants must hold a diploma in early childhood education or the multiparty system, not from the support of most of the
have equivalent work experience. electorate. This example shows the importance of asking for
quantifiers: Do you mean all, most, or just some? and Do you
The phrase equivalent work experience sounds quite precise, but mean always, usually, or just sometimes?
without further information it is impossible to tell what kinds of
work experience are going to count as equivalent. Does raising In other cases, however, the vagueness arises from the use of
three children of one's own count? What about occasional terms that are inherently vague. The cabinet minister who says,
babysitting over a period of six years? A halftime job as a helper “My officials are monitoring this situation very closely, and I can
in a nursery school for three years? Two years' experience as a promise that we shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that
kindergarten teacher? Potential applicants need a precise the situation is resolved in a way that is fair to all the parties
statement of the minimum qualifications for the position, but the involved,” should be challenged on grounds of vagueness.
sentence fails to provide it. Despite the appearance of having promised to do something
specific, the minister has not really promised to do anything at all.
Those who use vague sentences when precision is needed or What are appropriate measures? They could be anything or
who use vague sentences that look precise, should be nothing. What does fair to all the parties mean? We have no clear
challenged. Sometimes it is quite easy to see precisely what idea. Such phrases are inherently vague, and can mean almost
needs to be challenged. For example: anything. People who use them should be challenged to say more
precisely what they mean.
• The fact that the Liberals won more seats than any other party
in the last federal election shows that the voters want a Liberal It is important to understand that ambiguity and vagueness are
government. properties of sentences and not of the words themselves. This is

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because words typically have more than one meaning, and the that Pavarotti is a big opera star, you will have to guess whether
context in which they are used usually tells us which meaning is big refers to fat or to famous. Sometimes, however, it is the
the intended one. It is the context that makes sentences vague, context that creates the ambiguity. If someone is comparing the
and it is when the context lets us down that sentences become merits of two universities and says, It is quite a good university,
ambiguous. Of course, the ambiguity or vagueness of a sentence the context may not tell us which university is being referred to.
often rests upon the meaning of a word or phrase, but the
Referential ambiguities are usually easy to spot and, once
ambiguity or vagueness arises only at the level of the sentence.
recognized, are easily avoided. This is especially true in
Here are some other sentences that should be challenged on conversation, since we can ask for clarification: Do you mean that
grounds of vagueness, at least in normal contexts: Pavarotti is fat or famous? Or, if we select the wrong meaning, it
will not be long before we discover our mistake: Oh, I thought you
• Essays for this course should be long enough to deal
meant he was famous! There is, however, one type of referential
adequately with the assigned topic.
ambiguity that deserves special mention: that between the
• You should sign our petition to protest against the violation of collective and the distributive use of a term. Most nouns refer to a
our rights by the government. class of individual objects: dog, for example, refers to the class
consisting of all dogs and book refers to the class of all books.
• If you persist in this course of action, all hell is going to break Usually when we use such nouns we do so in order to say
loose. something about each and every member of the class. When we
use a term in this way it is being used distributively. But
Referential ambiguity
sometimes we use terms to say something not about each and
Referential ambiguity arises when a word or phrase could, in the every member of the class but about the class as such. When we
context of a particular sentence, refer to two or more properties use a term in this way it is being used collectively. Consider the
or things. Usually the context tells us which meaning is intended, following:
but when it doesn't we may choose the wrong meaning. If we are
Our university has a large wrestling team.
not sure which reference is intended by the speaker, we will
misunderstand the speaker's meaning if we assign the wrong If we interpret wrestling team distributively, the statement means
(i.e., the unintended) meaning to the word. If someone tells you that the individual members of the team are large. If we interpret
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the term collectively, the statement means that the team has a The grammar makes it unclear whether it was the speech or the
large number of members. Usually the context makes it clear insemination that took place in the House of Lords. This is
whether a term should be interpreted distributively or collectively, because the phrase in the House of Lords could modify either
but sometimes it does not and we can mistakenly assume the insemination or spoke. Here are a few examples:
wrong interpretation.
He promised to pay Patrick and Michael fifty dollars to clear all
It is useful to develop the ability to recognize referential the junk out of the basement and take it to the dump. Ashley
ambiguities even when they are unlikely to cause strode out of the studio with Nikki following her, saying, ''I'll never
misunderstandings, for then we are less likely to assume a wrong give him up."
interpretation inadvertently. Here are some more examples of
Olga decided to quit smoking while driving to Toronto.
sentences containing referential ambiguities:
Jim and I have suffered tremendously; often I wake up in the
• Tom gave Ted's skis to his sister.
morning and wish I were dead and I know Jim does too.
• Harold told me that he would do it next week.
Sometimes we come across sentences that are clearly
• Americans make more telephone calls than Canadians. ambiguous, but where it is hard to determine whether the
ambiguity is referential or grammatical. Consider the sentence Let
• The government has provided constant funding for
me go. If someone grabs your arm in the midst of an argument
postsecondary education over the last three years.
you might say, Let me go, meaning that you want the person to
Grammatical ambiguity let go of your arm. If your spouse says that someone is going to
have to go out to get some milk for breakfast and you say, Let me
Grammatical ambiguity arises when the grammatical structure of go, you are obviously volunteering to go and get some milk.
a sentence allows two interpretations, each of which gives rise to Whether this is a grammatical or referential ambiguity is not
a different meaning. A few years ago a British newspaper important, however, as long as we can recognize that it is
reported that: ambiguous.

Lord Denning spoke against the artificial insemination of women

in the House of Lords.
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Use & mention the only occasion when we want to mention a word and in these
cases we should also use italics or quotation marks to make our
Another type of linguistic ambiguity arises through the failure to
meaning clear. For example: Paddy is Irish.
distinguish between using and mentioning a word or phrase.
Consider the following sentences: As it stands, this sentence means that a particular person, called
Paddy, is an Irishman. But if we put quotation marks around
Tom said I was angry. Tom said, "I was angry."
"Paddy" it would mean that "Paddy" is an Irish name. Here are
Clearly these sentences have different meanings, even though the some more examples of sentences whose meaning would
words are identical. The difference in meaning arises because the change if the word or phrase which is mentioned (as indicated by
phrase I was angry is being used in the first sentence but is only Capitalized Words or quotation marks) were being used instead:
mentioned in the second. Quotation marks or italics are
The Music of the Renaissance is extremely demanding. The word
"itself" is hard to define.
Assignment 3c

 "John Smith" was placed on the ballot.
Use this scrolling text box to complete the assignment.
Choose and comment on two (2) of the following from The Joy of Sex costs $24.95.
“SelfTest” prompts. Then, submit your answers to the two
(2) to Canvas under Assignment 3. The ability to detect linguistic ambiguities is an important skill, for
undetected ambiguities can create misunderstandings that lead
SelfTest
to those frustrating discussions in which everyone seems to be at
1. Billy gave his sisters a box of candy for Christmas. cross purposes. On the other hand, people who delight in finding
2. He's a chicken. linguistic ambiguities that do not in fact mislead anyone may be
amusing for a time but can become extremely annoying. Since
3. Melissa only has one dress.
our interest is in clarifying meaning, we are concerned only with
4. General Loses Battle With Nurses. (A newspaper ambiguities that do or may mislead.
headline)

5. Conversational German is extremely difficult.

commonly used to mark the difference. But direct quotation is not
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Analytic, contradictory & synthetic statements These distinctions are useful in clarifying the meaning of certain
statements whose meaning is imprecise. When a statement
Usually, when we know what a statement means we still do not seems false, we can ask whether it is a false synthetic or a
know whether it is true or false. If I say, I was born on October 22, contradictory statement. When a statement seems true, we can
you understand the meaning of what I have said, but you do not ask whether it is a true synthetic or an analytic statement. For
know whether what I have said is true or false. There are, example, if someone claims that every successful person is
however, certain statements whose truth or falsity is determined wealthy it is useful to know whether they are interpreting the word
by their meaning. Consider the following statements: successful as meaning financially successful. If so, their claim
becomes analytic, for it really means that all wealthy people are
All bachelors are unmarried adult males. Some bachelors are
wealthy. It is usually a waste of time arguing against an analytic
married.
statement. In practice, however, people do not usually approach
Once we understand the meaning of these statements, we know discussions with precise definitions of the key terms. It is when
that the first is true and the second is false. They are true, or they are challenged — for example, when someone says, I know
false, by definition. We do not need to investigate the facts in several very successful poets and artists who are not wealthy —
order to know whether they are true or false. Someone who tries that the temptation arises to define words in a way that makes
to discover their truth or falsity by sending a questionnaire to a their claim analytic. Since analytic statements are true by
group of bachelors asking whether or not they were married definition, such a move seems to ensure victory in the debate.
obviously does not understand the meaning of the statements.
But such victories are usually hollow, for analytic statements are
A statement that is true by definition is called an analytic always in a sense trivial. Obviously, all successful people are
statement. A statement that is false by definition is called a wealthy — if by successful you mean wealthy. But why should
contradictory statement. A statement whose truth or falsity is not anyone think it interesting to claim that all wealthy people are
solely dependent upon the meanings of the words in it is called a wealthy? It is true, but trivially true. The interesting question in
synthetic statement. All statements can be placed in one of these such a debate is whether one should regard financial success as
three categories. the only kind of success, and this cannot be determined merely
by defining words. In practice, people who attempt to win a
debate by making their claim analytic usually shift back and forth

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between analytic and synthetic interpretations in the course of the (3) are true. It is all too easy to assume their truth by regarding
debate. To show that their claim is true they adopt the analytic them as analytic. Premise (2) becomes analytic if it is assumed
interpretation; to show that it is important they adopt the that an efficient allocation of resources is by definition one that is
synthetic interpretation. In this way they convince themselves that produced by market forces. Premise (3) becomes analytic if it is
their claim is both true and important; but the true meaning is interpreted to mean that an economically efficient system is
trivial and the important meaning is unproven and possibly false. economically superior to an economically inefficient system. But if
the premises are interpreted in this way, then the conclusion
Sometimes a claim is made into an analytic one in ways that are
needs to be re interpreted to mean that a system that allocates
indirect, and it may take some perseverance to uncover these
resources efficiently is more efficient than one that does not
moves. Usually, these indirect moves arise from arguments that
allocate resources efficiently. In this way the conclusion itself
are used to defend a claim. The claim that a free enterprise
becomes analytic. It is true, but trivially so, since its truth
system is superior to a socialist system, in its most plausible
depends not on the facts but only on the way the key terms are
interpretation, is a synthetic statement. But suppose the following
defined. The real argument will, of course, resurface as an
argument were put forward to support this claim:
argument about the truth or adequacy of the interpretations of
1. In a free enterprise system market forces determine how premises 2 and 3.
resources are allocated within the society.
Descriptive & evaluative meaning
2. It is more efficient to allocate resources through market forces
The main uses of language include the first two of these — the
than through decisions by government officials.
descriptive and the evaluative — are probably the most common
3. An efficient system is superior to an inefficient system. uses of language, and probably also the most fundamental. As a
result, we find that many words have come to have meanings that
4. Therefore, a free enterprise system is superior to a socialist are both descriptive and evaluative. When someone says that
system. Fritz Kreisler was a renowned violinist, the word renowned has a

This is a logically strong argument, in the sense that if the first double meaning. First, it means that Kreisler was well known as a

three statements are true then the conclusion must also be true. violinist. Second, it means that he was an excellent violinist. The

The danger arises when attempting to show that premises (2) and first meaning is descriptive, since it refers to the fact that Kreisler

70
was well known. If there is a disagreement about this fact it can • He is a dedicated conservative. He is a fanatical conservative.
be settled by looking for historical evidence regarding how widely
• They are freedom fighters. They are terrorists.
known he was during his lifetime. The second meaning, however,
is evaluative; the speaker is giving his or her opinion that Kreisler It is important to be aware of such differences in meaning, since
was an excellent violinist. This opinion is not factual, since if there we can sometimes be led to accept a particular evaluation
is a disagreement over whether Kreisler was an excellent violinist through a failure to distinguish descriptive and evaluative
it cannot be settled by consulting the facts. Someone who thinks meanings. The facts that would show that someone is very self-
that Kreisler was not an excellent violinist would be able to accept confident and the facts that would show that someone is arrogant
the descriptive meaning but would have to reject the evaluative are very similar, and a skilled arguer can easily create the
meaning of our statement. impression that someone who is self-confident is really arrogant
(or vice versa). But the same facts can only be used to justify two
There are many descriptive words and phrases that also have an
statements with different evaluative meanings if the evaluative
evaluative meaning. It is common to find two or more words or
meaning is ignored and they are regarded as purely descriptive
phrases that have more or less the same descriptive meaning but
statements. The evaluative part of the meaning requires a
different evaluative meanings. We have seen that renowned and
separate justification.
well known have the same descriptive meaning, but the former
has a positive evaluative meaning that the latter lacks. The word Necessary & sufficient conditions
notorious has the same descriptive meaning, but has a negative
evaluative meaning. The evaluative meanings of renowned and A special kind of ambiguity can arise when talking about the
notorious convey an evaluation of the person as being good or conditions that have to be met in order for something to occur.
bad, whereas well known conveys nothing about the speaker's Referring to such conditions is common when we are talking
evaluation. Notice the shift in the evaluative meanings in the about the causes (i.e., the causal conditions) of certain events: for
following pairs of sentences while the descriptive meaning example, Under what conditions would a major economic
remains more or less unchanged: depression occur again? It is also common when we are talking
about entitlements or justifications for certain actions: for
• He is very self-confident. He is arrogant. example, What are the conditions for graduating with distinction?
It seems that all we need to do to answer such questions is to list
• She is sexually liberated. She is promiscuous.
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the conditions that, if they existed, would lead to a depression or whether such a person is eligible to vote. In fact the correct
to graduating with distinction. Unfortunately, the relationships interpretation of 1 is 3. By law, every eligible voter must be at
between conditions and what they are conditions for are often a least eighteen years of age — that is, if you are not eighteen
great deal more complex than they seem, and in order to clarify you can't vote — but the law also states that judges, persons
these relationships philosophers and scientists have developed a serving prison sentences, and insane persons are not eligible
distinction between two types of conditions, necessary conditions to vote. This means that not everyone who is eighteen years of
and sufficient conditions. Much confusion and ambiguity can age is eligible to vote, which means that 2 is false. Being at
result when these two types of conditions are not clearly least eighteen years of age is a condition, but it is not the only
distinguished. condition that has to be satisfied for someone to be an eligible
voter. To avoid this ambiguity we should revise 1 to read:
To understand the ambiguity that results when the two types of
conditions are not distinguished, consider the following: 4. Being at least eighteen years of age is a necessary condition
for being eligible to vote in federal elections in Canada.
1. Being at least eighteen years of age is a condition for being
eligible to vote in federal elections in Canada.
 A necessary condition is defined as follows: X is a necessary

 condition for Y if, and only if, when X is false Y must also be false
This could mean either of the following: (or, when X is absent Y cannot occur). In other words, a
necessary condition for Y is something whose falsity or absence
2. Anyone who is at least eighteen years of age is eligible to vote
prevents Y, but whose truth or presence does not guarantee Y.
in federal elections in Canada, or
This yields a simple test for the truth of a necessary condition
3. Anyone who is not at least eighteen years of age is not eligible statement: look for an instance of Y that is not also an X. If we
to vote in federal elections in Canada.
 can find one such case then the statement must be false, since

 we have discovered an instance where X is not a necessary
These sentences have different meanings. We can see the condition for Y. If we cannot find such a case then we should
difference by asking what each says about a particular case, accept the statement.
for example, a twenty-seven-year-old prison inmate. According
A sufficient condition is quite different from a necessary condition.
to 2 such a person is eligible to vote, but 3 says nothing about
Consider the following:
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(1) Holding a B.A. from the University is a condition for being a A sufficient condition is defined as follows: X is a sufficient
member of the University Alumni Association. condition for Y if, and only if, when X is true Y must also be true
(or, when X is present Y must occur). In other words, a sufficient
This is ambiguous between:
condition for Y is something whose truth or presence guarantees
(2) Anyone holding a B.A. from the University is a member of the Y, but whose falsity or absence does not prevent Y. This yields a
University Alumni Association, and simple test for the truth of a sufficient condition statement: look
for an instance of an X that is not also a Y. If we can find one such
(3) Anyone not holding a B.A. from the University is not a member case then the statement must be false, since we have discovered
of the University Alumni Association. an instance where X is not a sufficient condition for Y. If we can
find no such case then we should accept the statement.
Obviously, (2) is the most likely interpretation of (1). Notice the
structural difference from our first example, where (3) was the The essential difference between a necessary and a sufficient
correct condition for some Y is that a necessary condition is something
whose falsity or absence guarantees that Y is false or won't
May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the
occur, and a sufficient condition is something whose truth or
publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable
presence guarantees that Y is true or will occur.
copyright law.
Sometimes, a condition can be both necessary and sufficient at
interpretation. This is because here we are dealing with a
the same time. Consider the following:
sufficient condition. A person who holds a B.A. from the
University does not need to meet any additional conditions in It is a condition for a candidate being declared the winner in an
order to be a member of the University Alumni Association, election for the Ontario legislature that the candidate received
although obviously holding a B.A. is not the only way one can more votes than any other candidate in the election.
become a member of the University Alumni Association. To
remove the ambiguity we need to revise (1) to read: In this example, receiving more votes than any other candidate is
a sufficient condition for being declared the winner (since any one
(4) Holding a B.A. from the University is a sufficient condition for who receives more votes than any other candidate must be
being a member of the University Alumni Association. declared the winner); and it is also a necessary condition (since

73
every candidate who is declared the winner must have received So far, all our examples have dealt with criteria or entitlements.
more votes than any other candidate). Another example of this When dealing with causes, necessary and sufficient conditions
sort is the relationship between Today is Tuesday and Tomorrow work in the same way. When scientists search for a full account of
is Wednesday. Each of these statements is both a necessary and the causes of some phenomenon, they are looking not only for
sufficient condition for the other. the conditions that are individually sufficient, but also for the
conditions that are individually necessary and jointly sufficient.
Now, just to make things more complicated, we need to note
However, if our sole interest is in controlling some phenomenon
what can happen when two or more conditions for the same thing
all we need is a partial account of the causes of that
are joined together. Being at least eighteen years of age is not the
phenomenon. If we want to prevent something from happening
only necessary condition for being eligible to vote in federal
we don't need a full account of its causal conditions, since if we
elections in Canada; we have already noted that one must not be
can eliminate one necessary condition then we can prevent the
a judge, a person serving a prison sentence, or an insane person,
event from occurring. For example, if we want to prevent a
but in addition one must also be a Canadian citizen. We can set
disease from spreading all we need to do is find and eliminate
out these necessary conditions as follows:
one of the necessary conditions for the spread of the disease. On
The necessary conditions for being eligible to vote in federal the other hand, if we want to produce a certain effect, all we need
elections in Canada are: (1) being at least eighteen years of age, to do is to find one (or one set) of its sufficient conditions that we
can bring about. For example, if we want to lose twenty pounds
(2) not being a judge, a person serving a prison sentence, or an we need to find only one way (for example, exercise) that works
insane person, and (3) being a Canadian citizen. (i.e., is sufficient), and can ignore all the other ways (for example,
dieting, diet pills).
These constitute all the necessary conditions for being eligible to
vote in federal elections in Canada. But notice that these three
necessary conditions are, when taken together, a sufficient
condition. This is because any person who satisfies all three of
these conditions is eligible to vote. Whenever we can list all the
necessary conditions for something we will have listed the
conditions that are jointly sufficient conditions.

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75
Chapter 4

Communication

After reading this chapter, students should be

able to do the following:

1. Discover the mistakes in communication.


2. Illustrate the effect of grammar.


3. Identify innuendo.


4. Examine the complexities of communication.

This chapter is designed to reveal some of the major pitfalls in • In a Serbian hotel: "The flattening of underwear with pleasure is
normal communication. Usually your goal is to communicate well. the job of the chambermaid."
You want to be clear, to be precise, and to get the message
• On the menu of a Swiss restaurant: "Our wines leave you
across with the proper tone. But not always. There are many
nothing to hope for."
reasons for not wanting to directly say what you mean. That
birthday present from Aunt Bessie deserves a thank you, but you • In a Norwegian cocktail lounge: "Ladies are requested not to
don't want to tell her that the present itself is useless to you. have babies at the bar."
When you insert into your history essay the famous remark
"History is a pack of tricks played on the dead," you don't intend (These errors and many others have been circulating widely, but
to be taken literally. However, this chapter explores the logical the above list is part of a longer list reported on by Jon Carroll in
aspects of good communication when you do want to say what the San Francisco Chronicle, July 30, 1990.)
you mean and mean what you say. This goal is not always easy to
You wouldn't make errors like these, would you?
achieve.
Concept check
Not realizing what you are saying
You’ve been hired by a Tokyo car rental firm to revise the
All of us sometimes say things that aren't quite what we mean, following paragraph of its brochure in order to improve the
but those whose native language is not English have special English. How would you rewrite it?
troubles in this regard. Here are some examples of items written
When passenger of foot heave in sight, tootle the horn. Trumpet
in English by non-native speakers:
him melodiously at first, but if he still obstacles your passage then
• Sign outside a doctor's office in Rome: "Specialist in women tootle him with vigor.
and other diseases."
There are many ways to rewrite the statement more clearly. Here
• Bucharest hotel lobby: "The lift is being fixed for the next day. is one: "Lightly honk your horn if a pedestrian blocks your path. If
During that time, we regret that you will be unbearable." he continues to block your path, honk more vigorously."

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Abusing rules of grammar

Bad spelling is a source of communication problems,

though not an especially subtle one. The great
individualist from Tennessee, Davy Crockett (1786-1836),
was a frontiersman who had little respect for book
learning; he spelled words any way he wanted and said
“The rules of English spelling are contrary to nature."

He had a point, because English spelling isn't designed

for easy learning—ask anyone from another country. But
none of us can change that situation. Crockett couldn't,
and you can't. So, if we are to communicate effectively,
we've all got to spell words the way most everybody else
does.

One of the first rules of good communication is to use

grammar and semantics correctly. For example, the
sentence "She is a person lovely" is bad grammatically,
but the semantics is OK. The sentence "She is a negative
square root" uses good grammar but bad semantics,
although people will know what you mean if you say the
sentence is grammatically weird. The primary goal as a
communicator is to communicate your meaning clearly.
Don’t make your audience do extra work to figure out
what you mean when they encounter bad grammar or
bad semantics.

78
A common error is to make phrases modify unintended parts of a when a new speaker makes a comment, we listeners apply the
sentence. The reader can get the wrong idea. principle of charity by assuming that what they said is intended to
be a relevant contribution to the conversation. In fact, it's a sign
Here is an example from a newspaper article:
of mental illness if a person too often makes a comment that is
Coach Pucci offered his resignation effective at the end of the irrelevant to the conversation. Mentally healthy people try to make
current school year, on Christmas. contributions that can be easily understood to be relevant.

This report puzzles the reader because the school year ends in The lesson the principle of charity offers to speakers rather than
the spring, not at Christmastime. It would have been better to put listeners is that we should clearly say what we mean so that our
the words on Christmas closer to the part of the sentence they listeners or readers won't be put through unnecessary mental
relate to, as in the following rewrite: gymnastics trying to figure out what we really intended to say.

Coach Pucci offered his resignation on Christmas, to be effective Communication is often hampered when people are sloppy and
at the end of the current school year. don't realize what they are saying. Here are some humorous but
authentic examples. Imagine being a teacher at an elementary
The original sentence was odd—odd enough that the reader had school and receiving these two excuses from Anne's parents:
to stop and do extra work to figure out what you meant. In doing (From The Sacramento Bee newspaper, February 24,1988.)
this, readers apply a special principle of logical reasoning:
• Anne didn't come to school. She was in bed under the doctor
The reader applies the principle of charity by taking the writer to and could not get up.
mean something sensible when the writer could easily be
interpreted as unintentionally having said something silly or • Please excuse Anne. She was sick and I had her shot.
obviously false.
With a little charity and empathy, you can figure out what the
According to the principle of charity, you should give the benefit parent meant.
of the doubt to writers or speakers whose odd statements you
What would you think if you were a welfare department employee
are trying to understand; if the statements appear to be silly, then
and you received this letter from a woman applying for financial
look for a less silly, but still likely, interpretation. In a conversation,
assistance?

79
• I am forwarding my marriage certificate and six children. I had a. "I am in urgent need of funds. For two weeks I have been in
seven, but one died which was baptized on a half sheet of bed with the doctor, but I am still ill."
paper.
b. "I want money quick as I can get it. At my doctor's request, I
If you take her literally, you might wonder when the six kids will be have been in bed for the last two weeks, but I am still ill."
arriving. Can you imagine the scene as that seventh child was
Answer (b). The point is to eliminate the sexual allusion.
baptized while it sat balanced on a half sheet of soggy paper?
There are effective ways to clear up such writing problems. Here Over-using euphemisms
is one way:
When you replace a harsh-sounding phrase with one that means
I am mailing you my marriage certificate and the birth certificates more or less the same but is gentler, you are using a euphemism.
of my six children. I had a seventh child, but he died. That child's Taking a brick from King Tut's tomb during a visit to the Egyptian
baptismal certificate is on the enclosed half sheet of paper. pyramids is really stealing, but the person who does so is likely to
cover it up with the
Writers need to take some care in expressing themselves or run
the risk of saying something they don't mean; conversely, readers euphemism "souvenir hunting." If the mortician mentions your
must be continually aware of not taking writers too literally. "dearly departed" grandmother, that's a euphemism for your dead
grandmother. The term dead is a more accurate though harsher
Concept check
one. If you're the type of person who tells it like it is, you will have
The person receiving the following letter at the welfare a hard time being a successful mortician or politician.
department knew not to take it too literally:
The connotations of a term are what it suggests to the reader or
"I want money quick as I can get it. I have been in bed with the hearer. Euphemisms have fewer negative connotations; they have
doctor for two weeks, and he doesn't do me any good." fewer associations that are unpleasant to think about or that
might offend the hearer's morality or sensitivities. Euphemisms
Select one of the following choices as the better rewrite of the
include genteelisms such as "disrobed" for naked and "bosom"
welfare letter:
for "breasts. " A "Rocky Mountain oyster" is not an oyster at all, is
it? The Bowlers' Association has resolved to use euphemisms to

80
make bowling a more upscale sport. They plan to get bowling out
of the bowling "alleys" and into the bowling "centers." They also Concept Check
plan to get the balls out of the "gutters" and into the "channels."

Concept check
Which terms are euphemisms for "American"?
What is a euphemism for "armpit sweat-stopper"?
a. Yankee
Underarm antiperspirant.
b. Capitalist pig
Using a euphemism in place of a negatively charged term can
c. Imperialist
keep a discussion going past sensitive points that might
otherwise end the discussion or escalate hostilities. However, d. All of the above
euphemisms have their down side. They can be used for very
serious deception. In the 1930s and 1940s, the German e. None of the above
bureaucratic memos called their Nazi mass murder of the Jews
Answer (e). Answers (b) and (c) are more negative than
by the euphemism "the final solution to the Jewish problem."
"American." Answer (a) is not more negative than
Sometimes we pay insufficient attention to the connotations of "American" in some regions of the world; New
what we say. Suppose you were asked one of the following Englanders have no problem with being called "Yankee"
questions. as long as they aren't called "Yankee dogs." But even in
New England "Yankee" isn’t a euphemism, just a
1. Is the government spending too much for welfare? synonym.

2. Is the government spending too much for assistance to the

poor? poets, and advertisers are the three groups in our society who
need to be the most sensitive to connotations.
In a public opinion poll, it was found that twice as many
Americans said "yes" to question 1 than to question 2. Can you Two words that are synonymous according to a dictionary or a
see how connotations accounted for the difference? Pollsters, thesaurus can often have radically different connotations. Some

81
public relations people make their fortunes by trading on their communication because you would apply the principle of charity
appreciation of these subtleties. Others achieve success by and figure out what the parent probably meant instead.
finding synonyms that disguise what is meant. The U.S.
An innuendo is a negative suggestion made by disguised
Department of Defense purchasers have paid a lot more money
references or veiled comments about a person. If your professor
for a hammer when it was called a "manually powered fastener-
were to write a letter of recommendation to graduate school for
driving impact device." The phrase isn't a euphemism for
you that said, "This student always managed to spell his (or her)
hammer, but it does serve to obscure what is really meant. Such
name correctly," you would be upset by the innuendo. The
cover-up phrases are called doubletalk. One D.O.D. purchase
professor is using innuendo to suggest you have few talents;
order called a steel nut a "hexiform rotatable surface compression
being able to spell one's own name correctly is such a minor
unit."
positive feature that the reader is likely to believe the writer
The Navy reported a 90 percent success rate for its Tomahawk cannot find anything more positive to say. This letter is an
missiles. By "success rate" the Navy meant the rate of example of damning with faint praise.
successfully leaving the launch pad when the fire button was
Concept check
pressed. An even worse cover-up term was "collateral damage,"
which was what the military called damage to non-military Identify the innuendo in the following passage.
citizens and their homes and vehicles.
The vice president is a man who projects the image of being
Unintended innuendo honest. The innuendo is that the vice-president is not as honest
as his public relations image would suggest. If you call your
Here is a letter from Anne's parents to her elementary school
opponent a "possible liar," you are insinuating something. You
teacher:
aren't specifically charging that he is a liar, but you aren't exactly
Anne was late because she was not early. . . . She is too slow to withholding the charge either.
be quick.
Imagine that you are a university professor who has been asked
If you were Anne's teacher, you would notice the implication that to write a short letter of recommendation for a student, Juanita
Anne is dimwitted, but you'd discount it as sloppy Barrena, who wants to be admitted to social work graduate
school. Here are two recommendation letters. Notice that they
82
both state the same facts, yet one is positive, and one is
negative. How could that be?

To whom it concerns:

Ms. Juanita Barrena, one of my ex-students, surprised me by

asking that I write a letter of recommendation to you. Although
she got an A- instead of an A, she was friendly and, if I remember
correctly, organized a study group for the tests. Occasionally, she
spoke in class. I recommend her.

Yours truly,

Washington Carver

To the Graduate School of Social Work:

I am delighted to have been asked by my student Juanita Barrena

to write a letter of recommendation to your graduate school of
social work. Juanita excelled in my European History course,
capturing an A- in a difficult course. In addition to her good
grade, she stands out in my mind as being quite exceptional. Not
only did her insightful comments capture the attention of the
entire class while demonstrating an excellent grasp of the
material, but she also showed special initiative by organizing a
study group for my tests. Organizing this group demonstrated her
special talent for using her social skills to achieve a specific goal
that contributed to the group as a whole, an asset that will serve
her well in the field of social work. Regarding her personality, I am

83
again happy to be able to add more favorable comments; she is Disobeying rules of discourse
very friendly, an especially appropriate asset for her future career.
A cardinal rule of good communication is to imagine yourself in
I know of nothing about her that would reflect unfavorably upon
the shoes of the person you are trying to communicate with. Here
her application. I am convinced that Juanita has demonstrated a
is another rule: If you don't like what someone has to say, don't
high level of academic and social skills and shows promise of
let him say it again. That is not a rule of good communication, just
succeeding in graduate school. Again, I am happy to recommend
a joke. This one is, though: Obey the rules of discourse. The rules
her wholeheartedly for admission to your graduate program.
of discourse are the rules that guide communicators in normal
Yours truly, writing and conversation. These rules are the guidelines most
everyone follows and expects others to follow. We try, for
Prof. Washington Carver History Department 

example, to interpret other people's speech the way they intend it
Phone: (996) 486-9433
to be interpreted. We try not to be long winded or roundabout. We
The emotional tone of the second letter is more animated and try to be courteous. We violate a rule of discourse when we praise
positive. For example, the second says "capturing an A-," which faintly. If we are going to praise something, we are normally
is more positive than "getting an A- instead of an A." In the expected not to praise it at a lower level than it deserves.
second letter, Carver says he is "delighted to have been asked" to
Some of the rules of discourse are rules of logical reasoning, and
write the letter, but in the first letter he says he is "surprised" to
some are not. Interpreting someone's speech the right way is a
have been asked, raising the possibility that the request was an
rule of logical reasoning, but being courteous is not.
unpleasant surprise.
It's a rule of discourse not to ask someone to do the impossible,
The second letter is longer, showing that the professor gave more
and it's a rule not to say something unless you believe it. That is
attention to the student's request. The typos in the first letter are
why it is so odd to say, "That is true, but I don't really believe it."
a sign of Carver's inattention. In the second letter, Carver added
It is also a rule of discourse not to give too little information, or
his phone number, demonstrating his willingness to talk further if
too much information, or irrelevant information.
the admissions committee desires; doing so is evidence he
believes Barrena is worthy of some extra effort on his part. These rules are for normal situations. You don't follow the rules
when you want to keep information secret or when you want to

84
distract people by providing them with so much information that statement that ought to be convincing; it doesn't need to be the
they won't think to ask you the questions you don't want asked. sort of thing you would find in a math book. You prove a
statement to other persons if you give them reasons that ought to
Concept check
convince them, even if those reasons don't actually convince
What rule of discourse are you violating if, when there is a knock them. The important point is that people don’t know something if
on your door, you open it smiling and say, "You're not unwelcome they are not justified in believing it.
to come in"?
Sometimes, it isn't obvious who has the burden of proof. If two
Don't be roundabout. people each make a statement disagreeing with the other, who
has the heavier burden of proof? You can't tell by asking, "Who
Being sarcastic is a technique that intentionally violates the rules spoke first?" Usually the burden is on the shoulders of the person
or that conveys a pessimistic opinion. Saying in a sarcastic tone who makes the strangest statement. A statement is considered
"Yes, I believe you" conveys just the opposite. It is an interesting strange if it would be likely not to be accepted by the majority of
way to say, "No, I do not believe you." Isn’t it fascinating to experts in the area under discussion. People who make
analyze the rules of language? controversial statements have the greater burden of proving their
statements.
Not sticking to the issue & not treating it fairly
The claim that an alleged mass murderer is innocent may be
Let’s consider the notions of accepting the burden of proof,
unacceptable to people in a community because the community
identifying the issue in a disagreement, sticking to the issue, fair
members have been convinced of his guilt by media coverage.
play in argumentation, and creating a counterargument.
Nevertheless, the burden of proof does not rest with those who
Not accepting the burden of proof make the controversial claim of his innocence; it still rests with
those who assert his guilt. The legal experts would say that the
If a neighbor says, "Jeff slit the tires on my son Jeremy's bike," he controversial claim is the claim that he is guilty before the trial has
is expressing his opinion. An opinion is a belief. But is his opinion concluded.
also a fact? Maybe. He can show it is a fact if he can prove it to
be true. If he expects to convince other people of his opinion, it is There are other problems in determining where the burden lies. In
his duty to prove it. A proof of a statement is an argument for that the late twentieth century, an English researcher discovered a
85
poem inserted between two pages of an obscure book in the Concept check
Bodleian Library of Oxford University in England. The poem was
Jeremy says, "My goldfish are dumb, dumb, dumb. They don't
handwritten by a seventeenth-century scribe who attributed it to
know one-tenth as much about the world as I do." David
William Shakespeare. Surprisingly, however, this poem was not
responds, "You can't say that. Maybe we just can't communicate
part of the currently known works of Shakespeare. Was it really
with your fish." Who has the greater burden of proof in this
by Shakespeare? That's the question. Examination of the paper
dispute?
and ink verified that the poem was indeed copied in the
seventeenth century. Shakespeare himself died in the early Jeremy doesn't. He is simply making a claim that agrees with
seventeenth century. The poem is clearly written in the style of a common sense. Since David is challenging common sense, he
Shakespearean poem, although it is not an especially good has the greater burden of proving his claim.
poem. The researcher is convinced the poem is Shakespeare's.
At this point, does the researcher have Diverting attention from the issue

the burden of providing more proof, or does the skeptic have the Besides shouldering one's share of the burden of proof, an
burden of proving the poem is not Shakespeare's? equally important duty for a logical reasoner is to stick to the
issue during an argument. The issue in a piece of reasoning is
The burden of proof has now shifted to the skeptic, not on the what the reasoning is specifically about; it's the central question
person who said it was written by Shakespeare. Unfortunately, it under discussion as opposed to the more general topic or
takes expertise to know this. Because of how the poem was subject. In the example of the neighbor accusing Jeff of slitting
discovered, when it was copied, and the style it is written in, the bicycle's tires, suppose another neighbor says, "Quit picking
experts on English poetry generally concede that the case has on Jeff. You've hassled him before, and now you are doing it
been made in favor of Shakespeare, as author, and the burden is again. You never liked the fact that your son got beat up when he
on somebody to show he was not the author. Many skeptical started that fight with Jeff." Now the second neighbor is raising a
researchers have analyzed the poem, looking at such things as different issue. The issue was whether Jeff did it, but the new
the number of words that aren't in any of Shakespeare's other neighbor is trying to divert attention from this to a new issue,
works, but they have failed to prove their case. whether the accuser of Jeff has a hidden agenda. Even if you
settle that second issue and find that the neighbor does have a

86
hidden agenda, that does not settle the issue of whether Jeff did not arguing in good faith if he is pulling you off the fence onto his
slight the bicycle tires. side by some means other than giving good reasons.

A good reasoner follows the principles of sticking to the issue and Concept check
treating it fairly. The goal is to pursue the truth about the issue,
Identify the issue in the following discussion.
not to sidetrack, confuse, or con one's opponent. Logical
reasoners argue in good faith. The purpose is not to win, but to Jennifer: You are worrying too much. You should spend less time
discover the truth. However, political debaters usually don't thinking about the consequences for police officers and more
pursue such a high ideal. Similarly, lawyers fight for their client; about the consequences for the mayor's office. If the mayor or
they don't try to convince the jury their client is guilty, even when vice mayor were injured, there would be an outpouring of grief
they believe that the client is indeed guilty. throughout the city.

It is possible to learn a lot about good reasoning by examining the James: Police put their lives on the line for us every day. Each
major errors in faulty reasoning. Errors in reasoning are called police officer's life is valuable, as valuable as the life of the mayor.
fallacies, and this chapter explores some of the major fallacies Our police deserve our respect.
having to do with getting off the issue. These are often called the
fallacies of irrelevance, because when you stray off the issue you Jennifer: You are thinking of TV shows. Being a farmer is a lot
make irrelevant remarks. more dangerous than being a cop, but that's a side issue. Look, if
some of the police guarding the mayor and her staff get shot
When trying to spot the issue in an argument, one technique you during the event we are planning, well, that's life. They know the
can use is to search for some conclusion that is being defended. risk. That's why we politicians pay them so much money.
Then try to see if the reasoner is promoting the conclusion as
their way of settling a controversy. That controversy will be the James: That sounds pretty callous to me. I don't think you should
issue. Figuratively, the technique works like this. Imagine that you write off police lives the way you write off the latest 2 percent
are walking along the top of a fence, and someone is giving you budget cut.
reasons to come down on one side. The issue in the argument is
Jennifer: Wake up to the realities. I'm talking political power, and
whether to come down on one side or on the other. The arguer is
you're just talking sentiment and morality.

87
The issue is: The Toyota is owned by Barack, who is a citizen of the state of
Hawaii, and aren't Hawaiians Americans? So, the car is owned by
a. that police lives are valuable.
an American citizen.
b. whether political power is more important than morality.
The argument is fallacious, given the content. Yet the same
c. that Jennifer is being callous about police lives and James is argument would be on target in another context where the issue
being sensitive and showing respect for them. is the nationality of the car's owner, but it’s not relevant to the
issue of whether the car will start. Intentionally diverting
d. whether the lives of the police are as valuable as those of the someone’s attention from one issue to another is called the red
mayor and vice mayor.
herring fallacy and the irrelevant issue is called the red herring.
e. that if the mayor or vice mayor were injured, there would be an The name comes from a prison break in which the prisoners are
outpouring of grief all through the city. being chased by prison guards using dogs. The prisoner throws a
red herring fish in some direction to divert the dogs in that
Answer (d). (a) is not the answer because it makes a statement on direction. (Dogs presumably will be attracted more by the smell of
James's side of the issue, (b) is not the answer because, although the herring than the smell of the prisoners.) The bottom line here
it does give an approximate statement of the topic, the more is that knowing the issue is key to deciding whether an argument
specific issue is better stated by answer (d). Answer (c) states is any good.
James's position on the issue, but it does not state the issue
itself, (e) states something that James and Jennifer might agree One extremely common technique of providing a red herring
to, but it is not the specific subject of their controversy. works like in this example. It is the 1950s and you are
manufacturing cigarettes. Your opponent is complaining that
The normal goal of an arguer is to provide convincing reasons for statistics show cigarette smoking causes several kinds of health
a conclusion that takes a position on the issue at hand. problems. To throw the discussion off track you comment, "Can
Arguments that do not achieve that goal are said to be bad, you be certain? Surely the link between cigarettes and health
illogical, or fallacious. If the issue is whether a particular Toyota problems isn't definitive, is it?" Raising doubt is what you are
will start in the morning, the following argument doesn't speak to selling now, and it is the best means of competing with the body
the issue:

88
of facts. The current debate around climate change is a similar c. Those minorities who helped write the proposal insist, however,
scenario. that the local community councils formed under the merger will
offer an unprecedented opportunity for minorities to hold office
Scientists are some of our society's best examples of critical
and to sway the debates on issues vital to their communities.
thinkers, and it is their professional responsibility to pay careful
attention to the evidence and to use the best methods of d. There will be no loss of adequate representation, they contend.
acquiring that evidence carefully. It is true that there are many
Answer (d). The issue is whether the merger of the city and
examples of scientists who have not acted as critical thinkers, but
county governments of Johnson County will result in loss of
pointing out these examples is not a good reason to conclude
adequate political representation for minorities. Answer (e) is not
that scientists cannot be trusted any more than anyone else on
as good because it doesn't say what minorities might lose.
scientific issues. This sub-issue of whether scientists are always
Answers (a) and (b) are too imprecise, though they say nothing
totally reliable is a red herring.
false. Answer (c) is the worst answer because it comes down on
Concept check one side of the real issue by using the word that instead of
whether.
What is the specific issue about minority politics referred to in the
headline of the following newspaper article? The article's author • a. The issue is whether the result of the election for a merger in
isn't taking a position on either side of the issue. Johnson County will hurt minorities.

Minority politics at issue in merger a. The issue is the election in Johnson County.

a. If Johnson County voters approve the merger of city and b. The issue is minority politics in Johnson County.
county governments into one mega-government in the November
c. The issue is that the local community councils formed under
election, how minorities exercise political power could be
the merger will offer an unprecedented opportunity for minorities
dramatically transformed.
to hold office and to sway the debates on issues vital to their
b. At least two current elected officials—both minorities—contend communities.
that the transformation means that minority communities will lose
what little influence they now have.

89
d. The issue is whether the merger in Johnson County will seriously doubt that we can expect anything as overt as the
weaken minority influence in government. sending of U.S. troops into the region. On the other hand,
neighboring countries may be upset, so there is always a threat of
A discussion is easier to follow if everybody stays on the topic
invasion from that direction."
and doesn't stray off on tangents. The duty of the logical reasoner
is to avoid getting lost and diverting the attention of others from The issue was whether the government was involved in covert
the topic at hand. Stacey doesn't do her duty in the following (secret) activities in Central America. The politician avoided that
conversation: issue by directing attention toward overt (public) activities. The
politician cleverly and intentionally committed the fallacy of
Macey: Would the Oakland A's be in first place if they were to win
avoiding the issue. Because politicians are so likely to use this
tomorrow's baseball game?
avoidance technique, reporters at press conferences are often
Stacey: What makes you think they'll ever win tomorrow's game? permitted a follow-up question. A good follow-up here would be,
"Thank you, sir, but I asked about the likelihood of covert
Stacey has committed the fallacy of avoiding the question. Her operations, not overt ones. Can you speak to that issue?"
answer does not answer the question; it avoids it. This fallacy
(error) is one kind of fallacy of avoiding the issue, because Concept check
answering the question is the issue here. Answering a question
In the following interview, does Pee-Wee Herman answer the
with a question is a common way of avoiding an issue.
question put to him, or does he avoid it?
Like magicians, most politicians are experts at steering our
Interviewer: Did you include the romance in your film as a
attention away from the real issue. A politician was once asked,
response to people labeling you as asexual or of indeterminate
"Do you think either the U.S. National Security Council or the
gender?
Pentagon is actively involved in covert activities in this region of
Central America?" The politician responded with, "I think the fact Pee-Wee: It's just something I wanted to do. I never understand
that the president has sent troops into Central America in the past why people say that, though. A lot of the reviews of the show
is not necessarily a reason to expect that he will do so now in this mentioned stuff like "His gender is confusing to children." To me
region of the world. There has been a lot of pressure by the U.S. it's clearly male on my TV show. I don't see the confusion. I don't
banking community to upset the economic situation, but I wear wigs or cross-dress. My name is Pee-Wee. There aren't a lot
90
of women named Pee-Wee. Probably from this interview a lot of
them will write to me, [gruffly] "Mah name is Pee-Wee and ah'm a
woman."

Pee-Wee's comments do answer the question that was asked;

they don't sidestep it. When asked whether he included the
romance in order to overcome accusations about his sexuality, he
directly answered the question by saying he included it just
because he wanted to and not because he wanted to overcome
accusations about his sexuality. He then went on to address the
accusations about his sexuality. You may believe he has a weak
answer, or you may believe he didn't say enough. However, a
weak answer is still an answer, so Pee-Wee did not commit the
fallacy of avoiding the question.

A final note about the fallacy of avoiding the question. If

somebody asks you a question, you wouldn't automatically be
committing the fallacy by refusing to answer the question. Only if
you should answer but don't do you commit the fallacy.

An arguer might suggest several issues while addressing another

issue. The distinction is important in this conversation:

Sanderson: These Korean video cassettes are a lot cheaper than

the ones Sony makes.

Tamanaka: Yeah, it's a shame. It's time Congress quit

contemplating its navel and created tariffs against Korean
electronic imports.
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Sanderson: I don't see any reason for tariffs. Tariffs just restrict here is that their audience will fail to see the forest because
free trade. they’re being told to look at too many individual trees.

Tamanaka: There should be more U.S. tariffs against Korean

electronic imports because Koreans are getting unfair assistance
Re-defining the issue
from their government to subsidize their electronics
manufacturing and because Koreans already have too much It is one thing to argue about an issue but another to agree on
influence in the American economy. what the issue is. For example, on the twenty-fifth anniversary of
the first U.S. government report on smoking, the Surgeon General
The issue in the conversation is whether there should be more
said that cigarette smoking was responsible for more than one
tariffs against Korean electronic imports. The argument in
out of every six deaths in the United States. Noting that nearly 30
Tamanaka's last remarks addresses this issue. However, his
percent of American adults still smoke, despite the Government's
remarks also suggest other issues, such as: Is there anything
warnings, the Surgeon General said that many publications that
wrong with having Korean influence on the American economy? If
carry cigarette advertisements also refuse to run articles on the
it being right or wrong depends on how much Korean influence,
danger of smoking. In addition, the Surgeon General defended
then how much is too much? Are Korean electronics
taxes on cigarettes. The issue, said the Surgeon General, is
manufacturers really getting a government subsidy? If so, is that
health. Not so, said
unfair? These side issues get suggested, but they don't get
addressed in Tamanaka's argument. An argument will normally the cigarette companies; the issue is individual freedom—whether
address one issue at a time. If you create an argument, your our society should have more or less government interference in
reasoning will be easier to follow if you take the issues one at a private enterprise. The issue is whether the government should
time and not try to handle everything at once. be involved, by taxation and by requiring warnings on cigarette
packs, in an unconstitutional attempt at censorship. It's time for
Giving too many details
more people, including the Surgeon General, to wake up to the
Communicators sometimes communicate ineffectively by offering fact that "smokers and the tobacco industry are productive forces
too many details for the purpose at hand. The common metaphor in the economy," said the director of media relations for the

92
Tobacco Institute, which is the lobbying organization for the write a four-page essay on a topic of their own choosing.
industry. Choosing the issue of whether capitalism is better than
communism would be inadvisable because this issue is so large
Notice that both parties in this argument are trying to redefine the
and the essay is supposed to be so short. That big issue would
issue or “frame the issue” for their own benefit. In this scenario it
not be manageable. The essay would have to discuss every
is probably a mistake to say that one party has identified the right
country in the world and its economics, political freedom, military,
issue and the other has not. All these issues should be
lifestyles, and so forth. The essay would be improved if the
addressed. Bringing them all out into the open gives the public a
student narrowed the issue to, let us say, whether race relations
better appreciation of the situation and the ability to make more
were better under American capitalism or under Soviet
informed choices.
communism during World War II.
Progress can also be made in some disagreements by focusing
Concept check
on the issue in other ways: by defining the issue more precisely,
by narrowing the issue, and by noticing when one issue must be State the issue in the following letter to the editor. Then sketch
settled before another can be fully addressed. For an example of the argument for the other side of the issue—that is, the side that
the dependence of issues, consider the lobbyist for San the letter writer is opposed to.
Francisco who is deciding whether the city should take a position
Regarding "Driver Dies after Chase on 1-5," Oct. 28: The article
to support or oppose a proposed state law to redefine the
seemed to be really confused. It stated, "The death was the fifth
formula for distributing state monies to county hospitals. The
this year in the Sacramento area resulting from high-speed police
lobbyist will probably not be able to decide whether to
chases." In fact, it resulted, as most if not all of them do, from
recommend support for or opposition to the bill until another
some low-life scumbag fleeing officers attempting to apprehend
issue is settled—whether the bill will give more or less money to
him─in this case for auto theft.
San Francisco County Hospital. Local governments usually don't
take a stand for or against a bill based solely on fiscal impact, but What would you suggest officers do, wave good-bye as soon as
they always keep fiscal impact in mind. someone's speed exceeds the limit? Or would you prefer that
police just never arrest anyone who travels at high speeds? I'm
Here is an example of progress by narrowing the issue. Suppose
a student in a government or political science class is asked to
93
sure suspects would like that, but I'm also sure decent, law- that bricks are radioactive, the radioactivity is so trivial that it is
abiding citizens wouldn't. not worth bothering about. The danger of wood fires is far more
serious. The moral is:
Covering up the reasons that favor your opponent
Critical thinkers give opponents a fair hearing, and do not
The reasoner who is trying to be fair and seek the truth not only
misrepresent what they say or do.
stays on the issue but also avoids misrepresenting the views of
the opposition. In addition, the logical reasoner doesn't hide the Very often we all selectively use information in order to help or
opponent's reasons under the carpet. The reasoner who does so hurt another person. The Reverend Jesse Jackson tells this story.
is guilty of a cover-up. Take this passage, for instance: One cold February afternoon, the newly inaugurated Republican
President of the U.S. was on the Presidential Yacht off the coast
When you are considering which kind of apartment to live in, you
of Maine. He had some engine trouble, but nobody on board
should prefer wooden buildings to brick buildings. Brick buildings
could fix it. Being in a hurry, he got out of the boat and walked
are more dangerous during earthquakes because wood will bend
across the water to get help on shore. The newspaper reporters
during the quake, but brick will crack and crash down on you.
on shore who saw him were astonished. Off they raced to
Also, and even more important, brick has been discovered to be
compose and call in stories to their editors. All the reporters
radioactive. If you put a sensitive Geiger Counter up to a brick,
phoned in essentially the same story, but the next day’s headlines
any brick, it will click, and it won't with wood. We already have
in the Republican newspapers said, “President Walks on Water.”
enough sources of radiation in our lives without living surrounded
The headlines in the Democratic newspapers said, “President
by hundreds of brick sources. So, next time you are apartment
Cannot Swim.” We all tend to process new evidence through the
hunting, remember to look for wood.
lens of what we already believe.
Did you spot the cover-up? It sounds well-reasoned, but it is
Review of major points
covering up the bad aspects of wood while scaring you away
from bricks. Although it is true that earthquakes are more of a This chapter examined a variety of ways that writers and
danger for brick apartments than for wood apartments, speakers communicate less well than we and they expect.
earthquakes are rare, while fire is a much greater danger Sometimes a writer will unwittingly make statements with low
everywhere, and bricks don't burn. Second, although it is true information content, will mask the true meaning with euphemism,

94
 issues that are suggested. Some disagreements can be settled by
Assignment 4a drawing attention to the issue, by more precisely defining the

 issue, by narrowing the issue, and by noticing when one issue
Use this scrolling text box to complete this assignment’s must be settled before another one can be fully addressed.
three (3) exercises. Then, submit your answers to the
three (3) to Canvas under Assignment 4.
 In this chapter we briefly distinguished fact from opinion,
introduced the notions of taking a position on an issue, shifting
1. Find a newspaper headline that distorts the facts for the burden of proof, making a fallacy, and offering a
attention and rewrite it to be more accurate. Explain counterargument.

why.


2. Match the harsh words in the first column (on the left)
Glossary
with their euphemisms in the second column (on the
right):
Burden of proof: The duty to prove some statement you’ve
retreat adjust downward
advocated. The burden is usually on the shoulders of the person
mad neutralize who wants others to accept his or her statement. When two

doubletalk, or innuendo, will use sloppy sentence construction, or people make statements that disagree, the burden falls on the

will violate the rules of discourse. The chapter also introduced the shoulders of the person making the more controversial statement.

principle of charity, which readers use to help interpret materials Counterargument: An argument that attempts to undermine

by writers who do not say what they mean nor mean what they another argument.
say.
Euphemism: A gentler word or phrase used to replace a harsh-
3. Create
People whoamake
euphemism for the
statements term
have the“lobbyist.”
burden of proving their sounding one.
statements. Their goals should be to stick to the issue, to pursue
Fallacies: Reasoning errors.
the truth about the issue, and not to sidetrack, confuse, or con
the opponent. Progress can sometimes be made when issues are Fallacy of avoiding the issue: Failing to address the issue at
identified, or they are identified more clearly. It is important to hand by going off on tangents. However, the fallacy isn't
distinguish between the issue that is addressed and the side
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committed by a reasoner who says that some other issue must Red herring fallacy: The error of intentionally distracting
first be settled before the original issue can be adequately someone with a side issue or irrelevant issue.
addressed.
Shifting the burden of proof: By making a reasonable case for
Fallacy of avoiding the question: A type of fallacy of avoiding your position on an issue, you thereby shift the responsibility of
the issue that occurs when the issue is how to answer some proof to the shoulders of your opponent who disagrees with your
question. The fallacy would be committed if someone's answer position.
were to avoid the question rather than answer it.

Innuendo: A negative suggestion made by disguised references

FEEDBACK
or veiled comments about a person.

Issue: The specific topic, subject, or central question under

discussion, as opposed to the general topic, subject or question.

Knowledge truths: you are justified in believing.

Principle of charity: Giving the benefit of the doubt to writers

and speakers who have said something silly or obviously false, 

Tap on the thumbnail above to leave
and not taking them too literally. feedback for your professor.

Position on an issue: Your belief about how an issue should be

settled.
This chapter has been reproduced in
Proof: An argument that ought to be convincing. It doesn't need
compliance with the licensing for
to be the sort of thing you would find in a math book. You prove a
Logical Reasoning by Bradley H.
statement to other persons if you give them reasons that ought to
convince them, even if those reasons don't actually convince Dowden.

them.

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Chapter 5

Argument

After reading this chapter, students should be

able to do the following:

1. Defining a statement.


2. Formulate an argument.


3. Developing proof in a position.


4. Constructing deductive and inductive

argument.
What is a statement? Concept check

Statements are what is said. More accurate, statements are Is the following sentence a statement?
things that are said that are either true or false. They are also
The biggest question your pre-historic ancestors faced was, "Is
called claims. Here is one: "The homicide rate in England was fifty
that thing behind the bushes my next meal, or am I its next
times higher in the fourteenth century than it is today." Here is
meal?"
another: “Neptune has the fastest winds in the solar system.”
Both of these statements happen to be true. A statement that is Answer: The question itself is not a statement, but the larger
especially important to us might be called a proposition, sentence containing the question is. The larger sentence is used
assertion, judgment, hypothesis, principle, thesis, or, in some to make a statement about the question.
situations, a law. Statements have to be capable of being true or
false even if we don't know which. So, if you say, “Is it midnight?” You can’t spot the claims if you don’t speak the language. In the
then you've not made a statement. Suggestions, commands, and passage below from a famous Valley girl, try to decide whether
proposals aren’t statements either. The suggestion “We should the phrase in italics is (used to make) a claim. You won't be able
get a new refrigerator,” and the command, “Stand back!” and the to figure this out if you don’t understand a little Valley-girl-ese.
proposal, “Let’s quit studying,” are not statements. It would be
So, I loan Whitney my copy of GQ, right, and she drops
very odd to call any of them “true” or “false.” The following are
strawberry yogurt right on the cover, and like I could totally be so
statements: “She suggested we should get a new refrigerator,”
edged, but I tried to be cool.
and “He said, 'Stand back!'”
To tell whether it's expressing a claim, you don't have to be able
Although there is a difference between a declarative sentence
to figure out whether it's true, but only whether it could
used to make a statement and the statement made with that
be─whether it's the sort of thing that might be true or might be
declarative sentence, this book will often not honor that fine
false. The passage does make the claim. Its claim is that the
distinction and will speak of declarative sentences themselves as
speaker could be upset by Whitney's dropping strawberry yogurt
being statements.
on her copy of GQ Magazine.

98
In spotting statements or claims, you need to pay close attention If it's raining, we should take the umbrella.
to language. One of the following is a claim and the other is not.
It is raining.
Which is which?
So, we should take the umbrella.
I promised to give you $5. I promise to give you $5. 26

What is an argument? Concept check


The word argument has more than one meaning. In this book we
will not use the word in the sense of being unpleasantly Match the numbers with the letters.
argumentative. Instead, it will mean at least one conclusion a. Only a claim, with no reasons given to back it up.
supported by one or more reasons, all of which are statements.
b. An argument using bad reasons.
It takes only one person to have our kind of argument, not two. c. An argument using good reasons (assuming that the
Saying that two people are "in an argument" means that there are arguer is being truthful).
two arguments, not one, in our sense of “argument.” Each of the d. None of the above.
two persons has his or her own argument. In short, our word
1. What time does the movie start?
argument is a technical term with a more precise meaning than it
has in ordinary conversation. 2. This card can save you a lot of money.

3. Vote Republican in the next election because doing so

Statements that serve as reasons in an argument are also called will solve almost all the world's problems.
premises. Nothing to do with the yard sign that says, “Keep off
4. John Adams was the second president of the United
the premises.” Any argument must have one or more premises. States. My history teacher said so, and I looked it up on
And it will have one or more "inference steps" taking you from the Wikipedia with my phone.
premises to the conclusion. The simplest arguments have just
(d 1, a 2, b 3, c 4.) Passage (1) is a question, not a claim. A
one step. Here is an example of a very simple argument that claim is an assertion that something is true, and it is usually
takes you to the conclusion in just one inference step from two made with a declarative sentence.
premises:

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To find out whether an argument is present, you need to use your Sanderson: Brief news, that's what.
detective skills. Ask yourself whether the speaker gave any
Harris: Brief news like boxer shorts?
reason for saying what was said. If you get a satisfactory answer
to your own question, then you probably have detected an Sanderson: Ha! Look at a time breakdown of the average half-
argument, and you’ve uncovered its conclusion and premises. In hour news program broadcast on American TV. It is nine minutes
detecting an argument, your main goal is to locate the conclusion, of news!
then the reasons given for that conclusion, while mentally deleting
all the other sentences and phrases that are not part of the Harris: What's the rest?
argument.
Sanderson: Eleven minutes of commercials, six of sports, and
For any conclusion, the premises used directly to support it are four of weather. You can't do much in nine minutes. I say nine is
called its basic premises. In a more complicated argument, there not enough if you are going to call it the "news." What do you
may be reasons for the reasons, and so on. But these reasons for think?
the reasons are not part of the core. The core of the argument is
Harris: It is enough for me. News can be boring. Besides, if the
the conclusion plus its basic premises.
American public didn't like it, they wouldn't watch it.
Every argument has to start somewhere, so it is not a good
Sanderson: Now that's an interesting but ridiculous comment.
criticism of an argument to complain that all its premises have not
But I’ve got to go now; we can talk again later.
been argued for.
Sanderson’s conclusion is
Concept check
a. If the American public didn't like brief TV news, they wouldn't
Select the one best choice for the conclusion of Sanderson's watch it.
argument in the following disagreement.
b. Do you realize just what sort of news you get in a half-hour
Sanderson: Do you realize just what sort of news you get on a American TV news program?
half-hour American TV news program?
c. That's an interesting but ridiculous comment [about the
Harris: Yes, newsy news. What do you mean? American public's taste].
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d. There is not enough news on a thirty-minute TV news program do you want instead, ten minutes?" Sanderson should have
in America. mentioned that too much important news is left out in nine
minutes and then tried to back up this remark.
e. An average half-hour American TV news program is eleven
minutes of commercials, nine of news, six of sports, and four of What is the issue?
weather.
We argue in order to settle issues. Issues arise when there is
After choosing Sanderson's conclusion from the above list, uncertainty about whether to accept or reject a claim, or about
comment on the quality of his argument for that conclusion. what to do or not do. For example, someone argues for the claim
that you ought to quit eating strawberry yogurt because it causes
Answer (d) is correct. Sanderson's conclusion is that more time
cancer, and you wonder whether it really does cause cancer. You
should be spent on the news during a thirty-minute TV news
are wondering about the following issue:
program. Answer (e) is wrong because it is simply a fact that
Sanderson uses in his argument. It is something he wants the whether eating strawberry yogurt causes cancer.
reader to believe, but it is not something he is arguing for.
It's common to express an issue by using the word "whether" to
Regarding the quality of Sanderson's argument, saying only "I
indicate the uncertainty involved. You don’t want to express the
don't like his argument" is insufficient; it doesn't go deep enough.
issue by taking just one side of the issue.
This kind of answer is just opinion. To go deeper, the opinion
should be backed up by reasons. The weakest part of When two people are "in an argument," they are divided on the
Sanderson's argument is that he isn't giving us good enough issue. The metaphor is that they are on opposite sides of the
reasons to believe his conclusion. He makes the relevant fence.

comment that news occupies only nine minutes out of thirty. He 

then suggests that you cannot "do much in nine minutes," and he A second, common way of expressing an issue is to present it as
evidently thinks this comment is a reason to believe his a question:
conclusion, but by itself it is weak. He probably believes it is
obvious that nine is brief, but he ought to argue for this. It's not Will eating strawberry yogurt cause cancer?
obvious to his opponent, Harris. Harris could respond by saying,
"You can do nine minutes' worth of news in nine minutes. What
101
 


The question also brings out the uncertainty and doesn't take a The issue of whether an oppressive government is better than no
side. It would be a mistake to say the issue is that eating government is a claim open to refutation.
strawberry yogurt causes cancer. That way of present the issue
What is the best way to rewrite the sentence in order to remove
destroys the uncertainty and presents only one side of the issue.
the confusion?
The issue is not the same as the topic. The topic is food and
a. The claim of whether an oppressive government is better than
health. Topics are more general than issues; issues are more
no government is an issue open to refutation.
specific than topics. When you find an argument, the issue is
whether the argument’s conclusion is correct. b. The issue of whether an oppressive government is better than
no government is a refuted claim.
Concept check
c. The claim that an oppressive government is better than no
The following sentence shows that the writer is confused about
government is controversial and open to refutation.
the difference between an issue and a claim:
d. The issue of whether an oppressive government is better than
no government is a position open to refutation.

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The topic is oppressive governments. The issue is whether an Answer (a). A yes answer and a no answer would be giving
oppressive government is better than no government. One opposite answers to this issue.
position on that issue is the claim that an oppressive government
What is a proof?
actually is better than no government. This claim is controversial.
Thus you should select c as the answer to the above question. People often argue in order to prove something. But that word
That answer is the only one that isn't using one of the following “proof” is a tricky word. There are different standards of proof in
terms incorrectly: issue, position, claim. different situations. You have to meet a higher standard if you are
proving a new theorem in mathematics than if you are proving to
Our example above used the slippery term “refutation.” If you
your neighbor that you saw the same film he did last week.
claim what somebody just said is false, then you aren't refuting
Basically, though, a proof is a convincing argument, an argument
their claim; you are simply disagreeing with it. In order to refute it,
that should convince your audience, not simply an argument that
you'd have to make a successful case that what they said is false.
does convince them.
You can’t refute someone’s claim merely by contradicting it.

Concept check
Concept check
Suppose you cannot locate that favorite blue shirt you want to
What is the issue in this argument?
wear. You’ve looked in the closet where you usually keep your
You politicos keep arguing that institutions can't be changed shirts. You remember washing it at the Laundromat in your
when, in fact, they change all the time. Haven't they ever heard of apartment building last week. Maybe you hung it back in the
the institution of slavery? It’s gone from this continent, isn’t it? closet after that, or maybe you didn’t. You can’t remember. You
don’t remember any other time it has been out of the apartment
a. Can institutions be changed?
recently. Could you be having a memory problem? You do
b. Whether the institution of slavery changed. remember your worst case of bad memory; last year you were
sure your apartment key was on the kitchen table, but then you
c. That institutions can be changed. found it an hour later on a shelf in your refrigerator. But after

d. That institutions can't be changed. thinking about this you decide that is very unlikely the shirt loss is
because of memory failure. You decide to do a more careful

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search. You look through each item of clothing in your closet, on proof your shirt was stolen even if it was, because having a proof
the closet floor, and in the drawers in your dresser where you requires having a totally convincing case.
place other clothes. You look a few more places in your
Indicators
apartment. Then you remember that occasionally you hang
clothes in the closet on top of other clothes hanging there Spotting an argument and evaluating whether the argument is any
because you don’t have enough coat hangers. So, you search good are two distinct abilities. Usually you use them both at the
your closet one more time looking under everything hanging same time. Before you can evaluate an argument, you have to
there. Still no shirt. So you conclude, “This proves the shirt was identify it, so let’s begin with this skill. When you are reading a
stolen.” You start thinking about your three friends who have been passage, ask yourself, "Is the writer intending to prove
in your apartment since the last time you saw that blue shirt. something? Am I being given any reasons intended to convince
David was there when you went out for an hour to get party me to believe something or do something?" Detecting arguments
supplies. The shirt would fit him. That proves the shirt was stolen. can be difficult sometimes, but there are verbal clues to look for.
The start of a conclusion is often indicated by the word therefore,
A logical reasoner hearing this story might say, “That’s not really a
so, or thus. In addition to these conclusion indicators, the terms
proof,” and this judgment would be correct. What else would it
because and suppose-that signal that a reason is coming. Since
take for you to have a real proof the shirt was stolen by David?
the technical term for reasons is premises, the terms because and
It’s more likely you lost your shirt in the Laundromat than to a thief suppose-that are called premise indicators. The logical reasoner
in your apartment. You can’t have a proof without being sure that is always on the alert for premise indicators and conclusion
the shirt wasn’t lost at the Laundromat or on your travels back indicators.
from there. If you could rule this out, then you’d have a stronger
Often, however, arguers are not so helpful, and we readers and
case that it was stolen. Even so, that evidence about the
listeners have to recognize an argument without the help of any
Laundromat is not going to be available to you. Also, for a decent
indicator terms. Even when we have indicator terms, we can’t rely
proof you’d need some more direct evidence of a thief, such as a
on them 100%. Those same terms might have other uses. For
friend telling you he saw David wearing it yesterday, or a neighbor
example, do you see why the conclusion indicator "so" is not
telling you she noticed someone leaving your apartment
working as a conclusion indicator in the following?
yesterday carrying a blue shirt. Most probably you’ll never get a

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Air contains molecules. Dirt does, too. So does water. reading this sentence, then the chances are that we haven't
arrived there yet, even if we are drifting there.)
There is no argument here, just a sequence of claims. The word
“so” is indicating another term in the sequence. It is working as Concept check
the word “and” usually works, not as a conclusion indicator of an
Do all strong arguments have two or more premises plus at least
argument.
one conclusion?
Premise indicators are verbal clues that you are being given a
a. yes b. no
reason or premise. Then ask yourself, "What are the reasons for
the conclusion?" or "How is this point being supported?" Your Answer (b). Some good arguments have only one premise. Here
answers supply the premises. There are verbal clues for finding is an example: "Viruses are the simplest life forms, so that virus
premises, too. The words "since" and "because" are the most you are looking at with your microscope is simpler than other life
common premise indicator terms, but there are many others. forms."

Concept check When looking for an argument within a passage, you need to be
alert that sometimes the conclusion is stated before the premises,
Does this sentence by Albert Einstein contain a conclusion
sometimes after the premises, and sometimes embedded in the
indicator word that is actually working to indicate a conclusion?
middle of the premises. Often, sentences are included that are
The unleashed power of the atom has changed everything save neither premises nor conclusions; they are there for elaboration or
our modes of thinking, and we thus drift toward unparalleled for some other purpose, such as to entertain, to describe, to
catastrophe. explain, to discount a possible complaint, and so forth.

a. yes b. no

Answer (a). Einstein is giving an argument, and he is using the Here is an example of an argument from authority that contains
word “thus” to indicate his conclusion that the human race is both kinds of indicator phrases:
drifting toward unparalleled nuclear catastrophe. (If you are

105
 Answer (b). Some good arguments have only one premise. Here
Indicators
is an example: "Viruses are the simplest life forms, so that virus
Use this scrolling text box to learn premise indicators 
 you are looking at with your microscope is simpler than other life
and conclusion indicators.

forms."


Premise indicators


• since

• because 

• for the reason that The following phrases by themselves are not indicator phrases:

• assuming if on the contrary

• suppose
yet and
• as indicated by
nevertheless also
• is implied by
Because the encyclopedia says that the whale shark is the
• givenfish
thatin the ocean, it follows that the whale shark really is So, do not trust these words to reliably indicate either a premise
biggest
or a conclusion. Occasionally words that could be indicators do
• in
the view offish
biggest theon
fact that
Earth.
not function as indicators. Look at the word “since” in this
• for
The word Because indicates a premise, and the phrase it follows example:
• granted
that that
indicates the conclusion. Indicators come before what they
Since November when the inflationary spiral ended, state taxes
indicate. After identifying
doubt that
this argument, you might go on to
• one cannot have been high. State farm subsidies will therefore continue to
evaluate it as being fairly strong, but as leaving out the crucial
rise.
information about whether there are freshwater fish bigger than
any fish in the ocean. Can you think of one? There aren’t any. This passage does contain an argument, and the conclusion
indicator word therefore signals the conclusion, but the premise
• therefore
Here are lists of some more indicator phrases:
indicator word since isn't functioning to indicate a premise. It is
• consequently
106
• thus
working as a time indicator. Because since has multiple statements in the passage would be reasonably convincing
meanings, you need to determine whether it is functioning as a premises for which other statements.
premise indicator in the particular situation you are looking at. The
Concept check
good news is that when it is a sign that some element of an
argument is present, it always indicates a premise and never a Do these passages contain arguments? If so, locate the
conclusion. conclusion. Identify each indicator phrase as being either a
conclusion indicator or a premise indicator.
Notice how different these two arguments are.

She’s not here, so she’s gone to the supermarket. Rewriting arguments in standard form

She’s not here, since she’s gone to the supermarket. Can you spot the conclusion and premises in this argument?

The two arguments have different conclusions, don’t they? One of All machines have a finite working lifetime, and even though that

the arguments is much stronger than the other. Which one is that? big tree doesn’t look like a typical machine it is really just a
biological machine; therefore, I believe it will stop working
Concept check someday, too.

Identify the indicator phrases in the following passage: The claim “That big tree doesn’t look like a typical machine” is a
discount claim. The argument’s conclusion is "That big tree will
I’ve been in love with you ever since you began going out with my
stop working someday." This conclusion does not occur explicitly
friend Charles. So you shouldn't say no one loves you now that
in the passage. The conclusion is slightly hidden in the words that
he doesn't love you anymore.
follow the indicator word therefore. We readers have to figure out
So is a conclusion indicator. Since is not operating as a premise that the word it is referring to "that big tree," and we must also
indicator. mentally strip away the word too and the phrase I believe. The
reason to remove “I believe” is that it is clear the arguing isn’t
When you are suspicious that an argument is present in a trying to convince that he or she believes the conclusion, but is
passage, the best strategy for finding it, besides simply asking trying to convince you that the conclusion is true. After
the arguer whether they are arguing, is to ask yourself which

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appreciating all this, we can give the following more explicit you can succeed with more complicated arguments when the
picture of the argument: stakes are higher.

• All machines have a finite working lifetime. Here is a list of what you should pay attention to when rewriting
an argument in standard form:
• That big tree is really just a biological machine.
• List the premises, followed by the conclusion
• That big tree will stop working someday.
• Remove extraneous sentences including discount phrases
Creating this clear list with the conclusion below the line is called
rewriting the argument in standard form. In place of a line, if you • Remove indicator phrases
add the symbol ∴ before the conclusion, then that is also putting
• Replace pronouns with their antecedents if possible
the argument into standard form. The term “standard form”
means standard format. • Draw a line between the premises and the conclusion (or else
place a ‘1∴’ before the conclusion)
The argument we’ve been analyzing was originally a single
sentence, but this one sentence now has been shown to be • Add implicit premises
composed of four statements, one being a discount claim and the
other three being the core argument. • Remove ambiguity wherever possible

The process of transforming an argument into its standard form is • There is no need to number the premises because premise
like the subconscious mental process that occurs when a logical order should not make any difference.
reasoner "sees the argument” in a passage. Normally, you would
Conditionals & the word if
take the trouble to display the argument in standard form only
when confronted with an especially complicated argument that The word if is not in the list of premise indicator words. You
you must figure out very carefully. Nobody is suggesting that from cannot rely on if to indicate a premise. Here is why. In argument A
now on you sit down with the morning newspaper and rewrite all below, the word if is followed by a premise, but in argument B it is
its arguments into standard form. However, trying your hand at part of the conclusion.
rewriting a few simpler arguments will help build up your skill so

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A. If, as we know, all men are mortal and Jeremiah is a man, not a If the Campbell's Soup Company puts less salt in its soup, sales
god, then he is mortal, too. of Campbell's soup will increase.

B. If a mercury thermometer is given prolonged heating, it will Does it follow from this conditional claim that Campbell's Soup
break. This is because prolonged heating will cause the mercury Company does put less salt in its soup? No. Is the speaker
to expand a great deal. But the thermometer will break apart committed to the claim that sales of Campbell's soup will
whenever the mercury expands this much. increase? No, the commitment is only to an increase on the
condition that the company does something about the salt. That
Let's examine argument B more carefully. Does it assume that a
is why conditionals are called "conditionals."
mercury thermometer is actually given prolonged heating? No.
Notice also that the conclusion is not that the mercury Should you conclude from the original conditional statement that,
thermometer will actually break, but only that it will break if if Campbell's sales do not increase, then the company failed to
heated. The conclusion is an if-then statement: if the thermometer put less salt in its soup? Yes, this last conditional statement,
is heated, then it will break. So, the if is not indicating a premise, follows with certainty from the original conditional statement. It is
nor is it indicating a conclusion; it is performing another function. the contrapositive of the original statement. Conditionals have a
These if-then statements are called conditional statements or standard form which is “If A, then B.”
conditionals. When we say, “If we cancel the picnic, I’ll be happy,”
Often conditionals are expressed in other ways. For example,
we are offering a conditional, but not offering an argument.
here is a conditional that contains neither an “if” nor a “then:”
Worse yet, the occurrence of the word "if" in a sentence is not a
The larger a star the quicker it burns up and dies.
reliable indicator that the sentence contains a conditional. For
example, the sentence, "If you don't mind, you're standing on my Rewriting it in standard form produces:
foot" is not a conditional. It is a special idiom in English and is not
a conditional because it cannot be rewritten equivalently as "P If a star is larger, then it burns up and dies quicker.
implies Q."
Concept check
A statement can be a conditional even if the companion word
The Governor of Alaska
then is not present. For example:

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Suppose you were to learn for certain that if a person is the
governor of Alaska, then he or she is a U.S. citizen. If so, can you Concept check

be absolutely sure that if somebody is not a U.S. citizen, then he
or she is not the governor of Alaska? Answer "yes" or "no, not always" to these conditional
claims:
Yes, you can be sure. This is the contrapositive of the original
conditional. • a. If it's an apple, then it's a fruit.

Is the following conditional making a true statement about the real • b. If it's a fruit, then it's an apple.
world?
• c. It's an apple if it's a fruit.
If President John F. Kennedy was born in Bangladesh, then he
was born in Asia. • d. It's a fruit if it's an apple.

Deductively valid & inductively strong • e. It's not a fruit if it's not an apple.

The primary goal in argumentation is for the conclusion to follow • f. It's not an apple if it's not a fruit

from its basic premises either with certainty or with high

(a) yes (b) no (c) no (d) yes (e) no
probability. Technically, this means the arguer desires the
argument to be deductively valid or to be inductively strong.
FEEDBACK
The concept of deductive validity can be given alternative
definitions to help you grasp the concept. Below are five different This chapter has been reproduced in
definitions of the same concept. It is common to drop the word compliance with the licensing for
deductive from the term deductively valid: Logical Reasoning by Bradley H.
Dowden.
An argument is valid if the premises can’t all be true without the
conclusion also being true.


Tap on the thumbnail above to leave
feedback for your professor.
110
Chapter 6

Media

After reading this chapter, students should be

able to do the following:

1. Analyze the media.


2. Distinguishing bias.


3. Evaluate between objective and subjective

positions.


4. Interpret the effects of the media.

Critiquing the media interpreted as including freedom of the media. This protection is
important because the threat of exposure by a legally protected
For most of us, the main source of information about the world media is the best way to deter governments who may be tempted
beyond our immediate personal experience is the media. Most of to lie to the people about their competence or to cover up their
the skills we need to assess this information have already been misdeeds or to manipulate public opinion. As we all know, even in
covered in earlier chapters; however, there are some special the face of a protected media, governments still try to deceive the
problems associated with the media that require more detailed public with some regularity. Of course, usually we know that
discussion. In this chapter, we will discuss how to critique the these attempts have been made only because of exposure by or
media and consider some of the problems that arise in doing so. through the media. In addition, there is no reason to think that all
In particular, we will examine how the media reports factual news such attempts have been detected and exposed by the media.
stories and consider how to determine whether or not these However, it is clear that without a legally protected media we
reports are unbiased. In addition, we will examine the ways in would be utterly helpless in the face of government manipulation.
which the media can influence how we interpret the information
But the very fact that the media enjoys special protection against
that comes to us from all sources as well as how the media can
interference carries with it the risk that the media may abuse its
shape many of our deeply held values.
role. Of course, the media is subject to the laws of libel, and may
It is important to remember that the media plays a very important be sued for publishing false information which harms someone.
role in democratic societies, namely, that of watchdog on the But apart from this restriction, which applies to all of us, the
actions of government. This role is so important that in many media is free to publish whatever it chooses. Of course, if we
countries the media is given special legal protection against direct value a free media, we cannot advocate additional legal
interference by the government. Indeed, in some countries this restrictions in order to ensure that the media performs its role in a
protection is entrenched in the constitution in order to make responsible manner. If the media is free to report as it sees fit,
government interference virtually impossible. In Canada, for then sometimes it will see fit to report irresponsibly. This is the
example, section 2 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms price we have to pay for a free media. That is the nature of human
specifically protects "freedom of the press and other media of freedom. However, while we have an obligation to respect and
communications.” In the U.S., the first amendment to the defend the freedom of the media, we also have an obligation both
constitution protects freedom of speech, which the courts have

112
as citizens and as reasoning human beings to react intelligently to other words, freedom of the media means that control of what
the media. There are two aspects to this obligation. gets published should remain in the hands of private citizens.
Criticizing the media does not challenge in any way the principle
First, we have an obligation to scrutinize the media in order to
that the media should be free. Criticizing the media assumes only
ensure that we understand its limitations and possible biases. If
that editors and journalists sometimes do their job badly, and that
we don't do this, we risk being unknowingly misled and
when they do they can legitimately be criticized for their failings.
manipulated.
People who criticize the media are almost never calling for
Second, we have an obligation to criticize the media when it government intervention. On the contrary, they are calling for the
behaves irresponsibly. The underlying reason for protecting the particular editors concerned to do their job better voluntarily.
freedom of the media is that the health of a democracy depends
crucially upon the freedom of the media to criticize the Assignment 6a
government and to advocate policies that are at variance with


those of the government. When the media behaves irresponsibly
Answer each of the following two (2) questions. Then,
it is weakening its role as a defender of democracy, and it is submit your answers to Canvas under Assignment 6.
important to challenge the media whenever this happens.

It is important to understand the difference between criticizing the 1. Should the media be regulated?
media and attacking the freedom of the media. Some people
2. Should social media be regulated?
respond to criticism of the media by appealing to the principle of
the freedom of the media. This response in effect claims that
freedom of the media includes freedom from criticism. Such a
response sadly misunderstands the nature of the freedom of the
media. Freedom of the media requires only that the government Determining bias
not control the media. In a society where freedom of the media is
The most obvious failing of the media is biased reporting. Loaded
respected, publishers and editors will be free to publish whatever
terms are used most often and most blatantly in newspaper
they think is appropriate, and anyone who wants to start a
newspaper or other news organization will be free to do so. In
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headlines, but can, of course, also occur in the text of stories. In each case it is easy to see that one of the two headlines relies
Consider the following pair of headlines: upon loaded terms to convey a specific value judgment. The use
of quotation marks in the first example ("Cover Up") is interesting
(a) PM Blames Staff for Fiasco
because it allows the newspaper to deny a bias by saying that the
(b) Military Accepts Responsibility for Embarrassing PM headline did not claim that there was a cover up but merely
quoted someone else's allegation of a cover up. In fact, most
The first headline conveys the idea that the Prime Minister has readers will not notice the quotation marks and will take the
refused to accept responsibility for something that is his or her alleged cover up as a fact and assume that the newspaper
responsibility, which strongly suggests that the Prime Minister is a endorses the negative judgement conveyed by the phrase.
moral and political coward. The second headline makes no such
suggestion and is consistent with the idea that the Prime Minister Selectivity is a more complex source of biased reporting.
has behaved responsibly. Here are some other pairs of headlines Selectivity occurs in three ways. First, editors have to make
in which loaded terms convey quite different views: decisions as to what to report and what to ignore. After all, there
are thousands of incidents that occur every day that we would all


agree are not worth reporting. No one could blame a television
(a) City Council "Cover Up" of Hospital Fraud
network for failing to report that someone spilled a cup of coffee
(b) Councillor Alleges Cover Up of Hospital Fraud at breakfast. Every television news broadcast and every issue of a
newspaper or news magazine reflects the editors' judgments as
(a) Critics Disgusted by More Olympic Corruption
to what should be reported and what should not.
(b) Olympic Scandal Deepens: IOC Will Investigate New
There is no way around this; some selection has to be made by
Charges
someone. Second, selectivity occurs when decisions are made as
(a) More Food Aid Disappears: Canadians Conned by Corrupt to the prominence that is given to each story. For newspapers,
Officials the question is which story will be the main front page headline,
and which stories will be mentioned on page 38. For television
(b) Food for Starving Gets Through: Delays Blamed on Rebels
news programs, the question is which story comes first and
(a) Butchered 7 Teenage Girls: Now Seeks Freedom which stories are left to the end. Once again, these decisions are

(b) Serial Killer's Parole Application Denied 114

unavoidable. Only two or perhaps three stories can receive front cases, however, the bias becomes apparent only through the
page coverage, and only one story can come first in a television identification of a pattern of coverage.
news broadcast. Third, editors have to make decisions as to the
Is objective reporting possible?
amount of coverage to be given to each story. Should it receive
detailed treatment, perhaps with additional related stories on the Identifying bias in reporting is usually a straightforward task
same topic from different reporters, or does it warrant only short requiring only the use of critical thinking skills. But how easy is it
cursory coverage? These three types of selectivity make it to remove bias from a story? At first sight, this task seems equally
possible for the media to present biased coverage of a certain straightforward. After all, since a bias is something present in a
event, or certain types of events. They make it easy to play up or story that shouldn't be there, once we identify it we should be
play down a particular story to make it seem more or less able to remove it, thus leaving an unbiased story. Removing a
important to the audience. The story is covered and all the bias is only difficult if we cannot identify it; once we recognize
relevant facts may be mentioned, but the impact of the story can and identify a bias removing it is no more difficult than removing a
be significantly affected by the prominence given to it. pair of spectacles with tinted lenses. Many people think of bias
this way because it seems to follow directly from the method we
It is usually easy to identify and describe biased reporting that
use to identify bias in a story. We identify a bias in a story, they
results from the use of loaded terms. Bias that arises from
argue, by comparing the actual story with an ''ideal” unbiased
selectivity is a little more difficult to recognize. Often it only
account. We compare the two and note the differences: the bias
becomes apparent when a pattern of bias is detected. For
will consist of whatever is in the actual story that is not in the
example, a newspaper that routinely gives front page prominence
ideal story, and/or whatever is in the ideal story that is not in the
to stories about welfare fraud and relegates to the back pages a
actual story. On this view, bias is simply a failure to achieve
government report that shows that only 6% of welfare claims are
objectivity. It is assumed that we understand what objectivity is
fraudulent can legitimately be suspected of attempting to create
and can recognize it when we see it. The ability to understand
an anti-welfare sentiment. Similarly, a newspaper that always
objectivity is thus a precondition for recognizing bias.
gives prominence to reports of high salaries of business
executives and record profits of corporations may legitimately be But this view is frequently attacked on the ground that it is
suspected of attempting to foster antibusiness sentiment. In both unrealistic and naive to think that we know what objectivity is.
There is no "ideal" objective story, the critics argue, and objective
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reporting is therefore impossible. All reporting is necessarily Objectivity is an unintelligible goal, like trying to draw a round
subjective and reflects the values and biases of the reporters and square. This attack raises an extremely important issue which
editors. It may appear that some accounts are unbiased, but this must be addressed in any assessment of the media. If the critics
is misleading, for an "unbiased" account is simply one whose are correct and objective reporting is impossible, it makes no
biases coincide with our own. I may think my favorite newspaper sense to criticize the media for biased reporting. All we can do is
is unbiased and yours is biased, but from your point of view my seek to identify bias so we can screen it out if we don't agree with
favorite newspaper is biased while yours is unbiased. In reality, it, or turn to a different media source for our information.
the critics argue, we are both wrong, for objectivity is
Initially, the view that unbiased objective reporting is impossible
unattainable. It is not only unattainable in practice, but is also
looks plausible. We all know from our own experience how
unattainable in principle. Objectivity is not some ideal goal we can
difficult it is to attain objectivity. No matter how hard we might try
strive for even though we know we can never achieve it, like a
to describe some event in totally objective terms we realize we
sprinter who strives to run 100 meters in under nine seconds.

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can never produce anything other than our interpretation of it. (a) Ronald Smith, a science teacher at Oak Lane High School, lost
Two people who are asked to produce detailed objective his temper yesterday and threw a book at a student, 17-year-old
descriptions of the same event will never agree down to the last David Jones, hitting him on the head. Jones has complained
detail. They might produce closely similar accounts but this will about Smith's behavior to the school principal, Marion Lee, but
be merely a coincidence that arises only because they happen to Lee has so far refused to take any action against Smith. Jones
share the same biases. It seems that every conceivable was unavailable for comment, but his friends say he is planning to
description of a given event can never be anything other than charge Smith with assault. When contacted by reporters, Smith
someone's interpretation of it. And since the media is just as refused to answer questions and referred reporters to Mr. L.
inescapably biased as individuals, it makes no sense to expect Rostock, Director of Education for the county Board of Education,
anything other than some particular interpretation when we watch also refused to comment on the incident.
the news on television or read a newspaper. It therefore makes no
(b) Ronald Smith, a science teacher at Oak Lane High School,
sense to criticize the media for bias. How can we criticize anyone
was attacked yesterday by one of his students. The student, 17-
for doing what is unavoidable? We might as well criticize water for
year-old David Jones, had refused to stop laughing and talking in
running downhill.
class despite repeated requests from Smith. When Smith ordered
But does this conclusion really follow? Does the fact that Jones to leave the room, Jones threw his text book at Smith, who
interpretation is inescapable make nonsense of the idea that we caught it and tossed it back to Jones. Jones then stormed out of
can aim at objectivity and impartiality? Does it really rule out the the room and left the school. When contacted, the school
possibility of criticizing media bias? It certainly would if all principal, Marion Lee, said she had interviewed both Smith and
interpretations are equally legitimate. But is this so? Are all Jones, and that Jones had already apologized to Smith. She said
interpretations of an event equally reasonable? If we are she now regards the matter as closed.
confronted by two conflicting interpretations of some event can
These two accounts present quite different interpretations of the
we only shrug and treat them as equally valid?
event. There are also certain factual discrepancies. Did Smith
Consider the following hypothetical example of conflicting news throw a book at Jones and hit his head? Or did Smith merely toss
reports: the book back to Jones after Jones had thrown it at Smith?
Surely anyone who actually witnessed the event would be able to

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say which account is correct. After all, either the book actually hit decide which story is more reasonable are in effect refusing to
Jones on the head, or it did not. Similarly, either Jones did in fact carry out further investigation. They have closed their minds to
apologize to Smith, or he did not. Since it is the reporter's job to the possibility of further reasonable inquiry.
uncover the relevant facts the discrepancies between the two
When dealing with conflicting accounts of an event, we are led to
stories show that one of the reporters has failed to do his or her
ask certain questions in order to decide which account is better.
job properly and has misreported the facts. But there is also a
The fact that we ask these questions shows that we reject the
significant discrepancy in how the two accounts interpret the
suggestion that all interpretations are equal. We ask them
actions of the principal. The first account suggests that the
because we believe that some interpretations are better (i. e.,
principal is attempting to cover up the incident. The second
more reasonable, or more defensible, or closer to the truth) than
account makes it appear that the principal acted appropriately.
others. And the questions we ask are of a type that should
Which of these is the more reasonable interpretation? The
already be familiar to anyone with well developed critical thinking
information provided by the two accounts doesn't answer this
skills. For example, we asked whether certain factual statements
question, but further investigation into the incident would likely
were true, and whether other statements were relevant. These are
make the answer clear. For example, would it be reasonable to
both questions we need to ask when assessing arguments. This
interpret Smith's action of throwing or tossing the book to Jones
does not mean that news reports are actual arguments, but it
as an assault? In some cases, observers might find it hard to say,
does mean that we can use our critical thinking skills to assess
but usually it will be obvious whether it really was a threatening
them.
action or not. These are all legitimate questions that arise out of
the discrepancies between the two stories. Asking them is
How to assess news reports
reasonable and natural. The answers to them will enable us to
decide which story is closer to the truth, or which is the more There are two primary purposes of news reports and the news
reasonable interpretation. People who think that there is no way media in general: (a) to describe some event to the reader, and (b)
to decide between the two accounts (because all reporting is to persuade the reader to accept an interpretation of the event.
biased) are forced to view such questions as illegitimate. But this We sometimes get so caught up in the factual descriptions that
is surely just wrong. Further investigation will almost certainly we forget about the second purpose of news reports. Journalists,
favor one story or the other, or perhaps a third version combining however, are always aware of the need to present the factual
elements from both. People who hold that there is no way to
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description in a way that gives it a certain interpretation. For
example, a story about a fire in a retirement home may highlight
the narrow escapes of the residents and the heroism of the fire
department, or it may focus on the failure of smoke alarms and
inadequate safety inspections. Both stories may include the same
factual descriptions of the incident, but the interpretations will be
different. The presence of the interpretive element does not mean
that reporters and editors deliberately present a biased story. In
most cases, they see what they are doing as presenting a
responsible interpretation. If challenged to defend the content of
a story they will usually claim that the facts are true and that their
interpretation is a reasonable one. When we assess news
coverage by news organizations (newspapers, magazines, radio


and television stations), it is important to realize that there are
event, as when they interview the victims of fraud. They may
these two different aspects — the factual and the interpretive —
quote from official police reports. They may quote someone with
to consider because they are different they require different types
relevant expertise. In each case the source of the information is
of assessment.
identified so that the reporter can justify the claims made in the

Assessing factual claims report. It is sometimes important to remind ourselves that when a
reporter quotes witnesses or experts the reporter cannot
Descriptions in news reports consist of empirical truth claims. The guarantee the truth of what is said. Occasionally, we may suspect
factual truth of news reports is in practice relatively easy to that a reporter may not be telling the truth, or may be deliberately
assess because news reports are usually quite explicit in attempting to create a misleading impression of the facts.
identifying the source of their factual claims. Reporters However, most news organizations are careful to avoid publishing
sometimes present their own eyewitness accounts, as when they anything whose factual truth is in doubt. They believe, probably
describe a riot or flood that they have themselves witnessed. correctly, that if they are perceived as unreliable on factual
Sometimes they quote what witnesses have said about some 
 matters their audience or readership will decline. This is why they

119
are quick to publish corrections and apologies whenever they requires more than merely recognizing that a bias is present. For
make a mistake and publish a false statement. example, we need to know more than that the news organization
dislikes the Prime Minister. We need to know what reasons they
Normally we do not need to check the factual reliability of the
would give to explain or justify their hostility. This requires us to
news media with respect to particular news reports. But if we are
pay attention to the pattern of coverage and bias over a
concerned about the general reliability of a news organization
significant period of time. Is the hostility based on dislike of the
there are certain questions we should ask. Does it have a
Prime Minister's character and personal qualities? Or the
reputation for carefully checking its factual claims? Does it
government's policies? Or the inability to overcome government
apologize whenever it makes a factual error? If there are
inefficiency? If we want to understand the interpretation being
conflicting reports of an event by different news organizations is
given to stories about the Prime Minister we need to know what
there internal evidence that would indicate which story is correct?
reasons lie behind the hostility. What these reasons will reveal is
When we have personal knowledge of an event being reported or
an interpretive framework that influences and is present in all the
background knowledge of a situation, does the report match our
coverage. This framework will always include a political
knowledge of the facts? Sometimes, however, a factual story may
perspective, sometimes including a commitment to a particular
be so important to us that we will want to do some independent
political party, but it extends far beyond the political sphere. It
checking to determine whether the story is correct. This may
may, for example, include a view of the role of the arts, the value
present us with a difficult practical challenge for it may require us
of amateur sport, support for certain educational policies, and
to interview witnesses for ourselves, and to obtain documents
concern about the role of organized religion in society. There are
and reports that may be difficult to obtain.
often subtle interconnections within an interpretive framework. It
may be, for example, that although the hostility directed towards
Assessing interpretive frameworks
the Prime Minister is most evident with respect to certain
Assessing interpretations presented in news stories is much more personal qualities, it is the government's policies that underlie the
complex. The interpretive aspect of a news report needs to be hostility. The news organization may believe that the best way to
understood in the context of the kind of interpretation that is undermine public support for the government's policies is not by
present in the overall news coverage of a particular news attacking them directly but by ridiculing the Prime Minster's
organization. To understand the interpretation in a news story personal qualities. If we decide that the news organization is
hostile to the government's policies, we need to understand
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which particular policies are disliked most strongly. Is it the
Assignment 6b
government's support for NATO? Is it the refusal to introduce
major tax cuts? Is it that the government is soft on crime, or 

Use this scrolling text box to complete the assignment.
hostile to minority rights, or that it treats certain regions of the
Choose one (1) of the following sets of questions. Then,
country unfairly? Only when we can answer these questions will submit your answers to Canvas under Assignment 6.
we really understand the interpretive framework that lies behind
the interpretations given to particular stories.
1. Find an article on a controversial topic. How strong are
Once we understand the interpretive framework in the coverage the arguments? Are there counterarguments that
provided by a particular news organization, we are in a position to should be taken into account? Is it factual or fake
news? Comment on the impact of the article. Submit in
assess it. It may be that some of the Prime Minister's personal
canvas.
qualities are less than admirable, but if we are aware that news
2. Find Twitter tweets by a politician or celebrity. Do they
stories that focus on these personal qualities are part of an
policy stance that is part of the interpretive framework and then
attempt to undermine public support for certain government
decide for ourselves whether we agree with it or not.
policies, we will no longer regard these stories as innocuous. We
will want to object that the Prime Minister's accent or clothes or Of course, an interpretive framework may not include a position
protruding ears have nothing to do with any significant political on every controversial social and political issue. Sometimes a
issue. It may be that the law deals too leniently with criminals, but news organization is neutral with respect to certain issues. For
we will want to know whether news reports that focus on crimes example, it may be neutral on the question whether more
committed by repeat offenders really show a failure of government action is required to achieve significant reductions of
government policy and precisely what that failure consists in. In greenhouse gas emissions. Such neutrality can sometime be
short, we will want to use our own judgment to decide what we deceptive, however, for while a news organization may be neutral
think is the most defensible social policy regarding the treatment on whether government action is needed it may have strong
of offenders, and on this basis decide whether we agree with the views on what the government should do if further action is
interpretation presented by a particular news organization. This is needed. For example, it may insist that if further government
the kind of thing we must do for every element of the news action is needed it should only take the form of tax incentives to
organization's interpretive framework. We must identify each

121
manufacturers. The neutrality may extend only to one specific Some people regard the tabloids as simple entertainment that is
aspect of an issue. designed to amuse, rather than as serious attempts to report
news. They think the tabloids are good for a laugh and that it is a
It would be a mistake to think that an interpretive framework must
mistake to criticize them. According to one media watcher, the
be accepted or rejected as a whole. There will likely be some
usual criticisms of tabloids miss the point; the only legitimate
coherence among the various elements that make up an
criticism of a tabloid is when it isn't funny. But this is surely far too
interpretive framework, but this does not mean we cannot be
glib. It is true that some people buy tabloids just for their humor
selective in our judgments about the framework. We may, for
value. What ought to concern us, however, is their effect on those
example, agree with a news organization on matters of foreign
readers who think that the tabloids are reporting news. Surely for
policy and disagree with it on domestic policy issues. Or we may
these readers the effect of a steady diet of tabloids must be to
agree with it on the need to strengthen the role of religion and
blunt their critical faculties and to encourage them to accept
religious institutions in our society and disagree with it on the
outrageous claims at face value. Instead of improving their ability
need for welfare reform.
to understand the world around them the tabloids make them
Note: The so-called "tabloid" press — weekly newspapers that more ignorant and more likely to listen to any demagogue who
are sold mainly in supermarket checkout aisles — feature two comes along. Not only are the tabloids an insult to human
types of stories. (1) Bizarre stories about space aliens, two- intelligence, they are a dangerous influence in our democratic
headed babies, UFOs, and Elvis sightings. They are always society. No-one is suggesting that they should be banned but
presented as true accounts and never acknowledge that there are surely we should try to create a society in which the average
good reasons to be skeptical about their claims. In many cases citizen would be too embarrassed to buy a tabloid.
the claims are so outlandish that they could not possibly be true.
There is a bottom line in all this. Newspapers and television
(2) Reports of scandals involving Hollywood and pop music
stations are subject to the constraints of the marketplace. If they
celebrities. These reports are often heavily criticized for violations
cannot sell their product they will go out of business and their
of privacy and sleazy journalistic practices, and have led to many
product will no longer be available for anyone. Giving the public
lawsuits from angry celebrities. They are frequently shown to be
what it wants is not only not reprehensible, it is actually a
blatantly false or wild exaggerations.
requirement of a free market society. It is healthy when
newspapers and television shows compete for the public's

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attention. A society in which there is vigorous competition within
the media is a society that is vibrant and alive. What the critics fail
to recognize is that there is no realistic alternative to "pandering
to the public's taste" through marketplace competition. The only
way to remove the media from the competition of the
marketplace would be to abolish private ownership. No sane
person wants state ownership of the media.

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Chapter 7

Appendix

• References

• Image credits
Section 1

References

Chapter 1 Chapter 5

College success [eBook edition]. (2012). Saylor Academy. https:// Dowden, B. H. (2020). Logical reasoning. California State University Sacramento.
saylordotorg.github.io/text_college-success/index.html  https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/Logical-Reasoning.pdf 

Chapter 2 Chapter 6

College success [eBook edition]. (2012). Saylor Academy. https:// Jackson, R., & McLeod, M. (2015). The logic of our language: An introduction to
saylordotorg.github.io/text_college-success/index.html  symbolic logic. Broadview Press. 

Chapter 3 Seuren, P. A. M. (2010). The logic of language: Language from within volume II 
[eBook edition]. Oxford University Press. EBSCO eBooks. (See http://lynn-
Jackson, R., & McLeod, M. (2015). The logic of our language: An introduction to lang.student.lynn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
symbolic logic. Broadview Press.  direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=303941&site=ehost-live&scope=site) 

Seuren, P. A. M. (2010). The logic of language: Language from within volume II 
[eBook edition]. Oxford University Press. EBSCO eBooks. (See http://lynn-
lang.student.lynn.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=303941&site=ehost-live&scope=site) 

Chapter 4

Dowden, B. H. (2020). Logical reasoning. California State University Sacramento.

https://www.csus.edu/indiv/d/dowdenb/4/Logical-Reasoning.pdf 

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Section 2

Image credits

Copyright page Classroom: https://www.pexels.com/photo/white-wooden-rectangular-

table-159213/
Copyright symbol: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Copyright.svg
Writing: https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-holding-fountain-pen-753695/
Cover
Rewrite, edit, rewrite: https://www.pexels.com/photo/rewrite-edit-text-on-a-
Cover art: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/artificial-intelligence-brain- typewriter-3631711/
think-4389372/
Chapter 3
Chapter 1
Title page: https://pixabay.com/photos/microphone-vocal-voice-
Title page: https://www.pexels.com/photo/analysis-blackboard-board- announcer-1102739/
bubble-355952/
Chalkboard talk: https://pixabay.com/photos/board-chalk-head-talk-
Man in thought: https://www.pexels.com/photo/man-sitting-on-sofa-beside-pile- presentation-3700375/
of-books-2377182/
Press: https://pixabay.com/photos/font-lead-set-book-printing-705667/
Bloom’s taxonomy: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
Definition: https://pixabay.com/photos/definition-word-dictionary-text-390785/
File:Bloom_taxonomy.jpg

Question marks: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/question-mark-important- Chapter 4

sign-1872665/
Title page: https://www.pexels.com/photo/three-black-handset-toys-821754/

Chapter 2
Grammar: https://pixabay.com/photos/grammar-magnifier-magnifying-
glass-389907/
Title page: https://www.pexels.com/photo/grayscale-photography-of-person-
holding-pen-783737/ Classroom: https://pixabay.com/photos/classroom-lecture-hall-college-1699745/

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Pee Wee Herman: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pee-
Wee_Herman_(1988).jpg

Chapter 5

Title page: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/pair-man-woman-discussion-707506/

Pointing fingers: https://pixabay.com/vectors/pointing-index-finger-hand-

left-29723/

Chapter 6

Title page: https://pixabay.com/photos/macbook-laptop-computer-

iphone-2618561/

Newspapers: https://www.pexels.com/photo/folded-newspapers-158651/

Social media: https://pixabay.com/photos/twitter-facebook-together-292994/

Appendix

Title page: https://www.pexels.com/photo/man-wearing-black-and-white-stripe-

shirt-looking-at-white-printer-papers-on-the-wall-212286/

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