Module 1

Insertion Loss Method of Filter

Design

Dr Shilpa Kharche

1
 Insertion Loss Method
• The image parameter method of the previous section may yield a usable
filter response for some applications, but there is no methodical way of
improving the design.
• The insertion loss method allows a high degree of control over the
passband and stopband amplitude and phase characteristics, with a
systematic way to synthesize a desired response.
• The necessary design trade-offs can be evaluated to best meet the
application requirements.
• If, for example, a minimum insertion loss is most important, a binomial
response could be used
• A Chebyshev response would satisfy a requirement for the sharpest cutoff.
• If it is possible to sacrifice the attenuation rate, a better phase response
can be obtained by using a linear phase filter design.
• In addition, in all cases, the insertion loss method allows filter performance
to be improved in a straightforward manner, at the expense of a higher
order filter.
• For the filter prototypes to be discussed below, the order of the filter is
2
equal to the number of reactive elements.
 Insertion Loss Method
Filter response is characterized by the power loss ratio defined as:

Where Γ(ω) is the reflection coefficient at the input port of

the filter, assuming the output port is matched.

Insertion Loss:

3
 Filter Design Method

• Development of a prototype (low-pass filter with fc=1Hz and is made of

generic lumped elements)
• Specify prototype by choice of the order of the filter N and the type of its
response
• Same prototype used for any low-pass, band pass or band stop filter of a
given order.
• Use appropriate filter transformations to enter specific characteristics
• Through these transformations prototype changes – low-pass, band-pass
or band-stop
• Filter implementation in a desired from (microstrip or CPW) use
implementation transformations.

4
Low Pass Prototype

5
 Binomial/Butterworth/ Maximally Flat Filter Design

For ω>ωc, the attenuation increases monotonically with frequency.

For ω > ωc, PLR ~ k2(ω/ωc)2N , which shows that the insertion loss
increases at the rate of 20N dB/decade.

6
 Chebyshev/Equi Ripple Filter Design
Power loss is expressed as Nth order Chebyshev polynomial TN(ω)
where 1 + k^2 is the ripple level in the passband.

Much better out-of-band rejection than maximally flat response of the same
order. Chebyshev filters are preferred a lot of times.
The nth-order Chebyshev
polynomial is a polynomial of
degree n, denoted by Tn(x).

7
 Chebyshev/Equi Ripple Filter Design
1. For −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, |Tn(x)| ≤ 1. In
this range the Chebyshev
polynomials oscillate between
±1. This is the equal-ripple
property, and this region will
be mapped to the passband
of the Filter.
2. For |x| >1, |Tn(x)| >1. This
region will map to the
frequency range outside the
passband.
3. For |x| >1, the |Tn(x)|
increases faster with x as n
increases.

let x = cos θ for |x| < 1. Then the Chebyshev polynomials can be expressed
as Tn(cos θ) = cos nθ,
or more generally as

Tn(x) = cos(n cos−1 x) for |x| < 1, 8

Tn(x) = cosh(n cosh−1 x) for x > 1
 Chebyshev/Equi Ripple Filter Design
Power loss is expressed as Nth order Chebyshev polynomial TN(ω)
where 1 + k^2 is the ripple level in the passband.

PLR = 1 at ω = 0 for N odd,

PLR = 1 + k^2 at ω = 0 for N even.

• For N even, a value of R is not unity, so

there will be an impedance mismatch if
the load has a unity (normalized)
impedance; asymmetric design.
• This can be corrected with a quarter-
wave transformer, or by using an
additional filter element to make N odd.
For odd N, it can be shown that R = 1.
• So, most of the cases, filters are
designed using odd number of reactive
elements (Order of the filter is odd) 9
Find the order of the maximally flat filter

10
Find the order of the maximally flat filter

11
 Find the order of the Chebyshev filter
PLR = 1 + k^2 Passband

IL=Lr = 10 log (1 + k^2) is the ripple amplitude (IL/Attenuation) in

the passband.

Stopband

12
Find the order of the Chebyshev filter

13
Comparison of Butterworth and Chebyshev filter Responses

14
Maximally Flat Low-Pass Filter

g0=1,ωc=1, N=1 to 10

15
Equal-Ripple Low-Pass Filter

g0=1,ωc=1, N=1 to 10

16
 Equal-Ripple Low-Pass Filter

g0=1,ωc=1, N=1 to 10

17
 Filter Transformations
• Impedance Scaling

Low Pass Prototype Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter

Band Pass Filter

Band Stop Filter 18
 Low Pass Prototype to Low Pass Filter
• Frequency Scaling for Low-Pass Filters

Low Pass Prototype

• Impedance scaling

Low Pass Filter 19

 Low Pass Prototype to high Pass Filter
• Frequency Scaling for High-Pass Filters

Low Pass Prototype

• Impedance scaling

High Pass Filter 20

 Low Pass Prototype to Band Pass Filter
• Frequency Scaling for Band-Pass Filters

Low Pass Prototype

• Impedance scaling

Band Pass Filter

21
 Low Pass Prototype to Band Pass Filter
• Frequency Scaling for Band-Pass Filters

Low Pass Prototype

• Impedance scaling

Band Pass Filter

22
 Low Pass Prototype to Band stop Filter
• Frequency Scaling for Band-stop Filters

Low Pass Prototype

23
Band Stop Filter
Filter Transformations

24
Design a maximally flat low pass filter with cutoff frequency of 2GHz,
impedance of 50Ω, and at least 15dB insertion loss at 3GHz.
Compute and plot the amplitude response and group delay for f= 0 to
4GHz

1. First find the required order of the filter to satisfy the insertion loss
specification at 3GHz.
2. Make a low pass prototype
3. Apply impedance and frequency Scaling
4. Make final filter circuit with element values

25
Design a maximally flat low pass filter with cutoff frequency of 2GHz,
impedance of 50Ω, and at least 15dB insertion loss at 3GHz.
Compute and plot the amplitude response and group delay for f= 0 to
4GHz

1. We have |ω/ωc | − 1 = 0.5. Referring to graph of attenuation

for maximally flat low pass filter prototype, we see the value
N = 5.
2. Element Values are g0 = 1, g1 = 0.618, g2 = 1.618, g3 = 2.000,
g4 = 1.618, g5 = 0.618, g6 = 1

3. Apply impedance and frequency Scaling

26
Design a maximally flat low pass filter with cutoff frequency of 2GHz,
impedance of 50Ω, and at least 15dB insertion loss at 3GHz.
Compute and plot the amplitude response and group delay for f= 0 to
4GHz
Apply impedance and frequency Scaling

27
Design a 3dB, equi-ripple low pass filter with a cutoff frequency
of 2 GHz, 50 Ω impedance level, and at least 15 dB insertion
loss at 3 GHz

1. First find the required order of the filter to satisfy the insertion loss
specification at 3GHz.
2. Make a low pass prototype
3. Apply impedance and frequency Scaling
4. Make final filter circuit with element values

28
Design a 3dB, equi-ripple low pass filter with a cutoff frequency
of 2 GHz, 50 Ω impedance level, and at least 15 dB insertion
loss at 3 GHz
1. First find the required order of the filter to satisfy the insertion loss
specification at 3GHz.

29
Design a 3dB, equi-ripple low pass filter with a cutoff frequency
of 2 GHz, 50 Ω impedance level, and at least 15 dB insertion
loss at 3 GHz
2. Frequency and impedance Scaling

30
Design a bandpass filter having a 0.5 dB equal-ripple response,
with N = 3. The center frequency is 1 GHz, the bandwidth is
10%, and the impedance is 50 .

g1 = 1.5963 = L1,
g2 = 1.0967 = C2,
g3 = 1.5963 = L3,
g4 = 1.000 = RL .

31
Design a bandpass filter having a 0.5 dB equal-ripple response,
with N = 3. The center frequency is 1 GHz, the bandwidth is
10%, and the impedance is 50 .

32
 Filter Implementation
• Lumped element inductors and capacitors are available only for a limited
range of values.
• Difficult to implement at microwave frequency range.
• Distributed circuit such as short circuited or open circuited transmission
line stubs are used to approximate ideal lumped elements.

• Richards’ Transformation

• maps the ω plane to the Ω plane, which repeats with a period of ω /vp =
2π.
• This transformation was introduced by P. Richards to synthesize an LC
network using open- and short-circuited transmission line stubs.

Separation between two distributed components affects the filter performance

at microwave frequencies.
33
 Filter Implementation
• Richards’ Transformation

An inductor can be replaced with a short-circuited stub of length β and

characteristic impedance L

a capacitor can be replaced with an open-circuited stub of length β and

characteristic impedance 1/C

• A unity filter impedance is assumed.

• Cutoff occurs at unity frequency for a low-pass filter prototype
34
 Filter Implementation
• Richards’ Transformation

• Cutoff occurs at unity frequency for a low-pass filter prototype

• which gives a stub length of = λ/8, where λ is the wavelength of the line
at the cutoff frequency, ωc.
• At the frequency ω0 = 2ωc, the lines will be λ/4 long, and an attenuation
pole will occur.
• At frequencies away from ωc, the impedances of the stubs will no longer
match the original lumped-element impedances, and the filter response
will differ from the desired prototype response.
• The response will be periodic in frequency, repeating every 4ωc.
• Since the electrical lengths of all the stubs are the same (λ/8 at ωc),
these lines are called commensurate lines.

Separation between two distributed components affects the filter

performance at microwave frequencies. 35
 Filter Implementation
• Kuroda’s Identities

• Physically separate transmission line stubs

• Transform series stubs into shunt stubs, or vice versa
• Change impractical characteristic impedances into more realizable ones

The additional transmission line sections are called unit elements and are 36
λ/8 long at ωc
 Filter Implementation
• Kuroda’s Identities

Ω = tan βl

ABCD Matrix of Transmission line of length l

The open-circuited shunt stub in the first circuit has an impedance of

− j Z2 cot βl = − j Z2/Ω

The ABCD matrix of the entire circuit is

37
 Filter Implementation
• Kuroda’s Identities

Ω = tan βl

ABCD Matrix of Transmission line of length l

The short-circuited series stub in the second circuit has an impedance of

j(Z1/n^2)tan βl = j Z1/n^2
The ABCD matrix of the entire circuit is

38
 Filter Implementation
• Kuroda’s Identities

39
Example: Design a low-pass filter for fabrication using microstrip
lines. The specifications include a cutoff frequency of 4 GHz, an
impedance of 50 Ω , and a third-order 3 dB equal-ripple pass band
response.

• Lumped element low pass prototype (from tables, typically)

• Convert series inductors to series stubs, shunt capacitors to shunt
stubs
• Add λ/8 lines of Zo = 1 at input and output

• Apply Kuroda identity for series inductors to obtain equivalent with

shunt open stubs with λ/8 lines between them
• Transform design to 50Ω and fc to obtain physical dimensions (all
elements are λ/8).

From Table the normalized low-pass prototype element values are

g1 = 3.3487 = L1, g2 = 0.7117 = C2, g3 = 3.3487 = L3, g4 = 1.0000 = RL
40
Example: Design a low-pass filter for fabrication using microstrip
lines. The specifications include a cutoff frequency of 4 GHz, an
impedance of 50 Ω , and a third-order 3 dB equal-ripple pass band
response.
• Lumped element low pass prototype (from tables, typically)
From Table the normalized low-pass prototype element values are
g1 = 3.3487 = L1, g2 = 0.7117 = C2, g3 = 3.3487 = L3, g4 = 1.0000 = RL

41
 Example: Design a low-pass filter for fabrication using microstrip
lines. The specifications include a cutoff frequency of 4 GHz, an
impedance of 50 Ω , and a third-order 3 dB equal-ripple pass band
response.
• Lumped element low pass prototype (from tables, typically)

• Richards transformations is used to convert inductors and capacitors to series

and shunt stubs

42
Example: Design a low-pass filter for fabrication using microstrip
lines. The specifications include a cutoff frequency of 4 GHz, an
impedance of 50 Ω , and a third-order 3 dB equal-ripple pass band
response.
• Unit elements are added at the ends of the filter.

• Richards transformations is used to convert inductors and capacitors to series

and shunt stubs
43
Example: Design a low-pass filter for fabrication using microstrip
lines. The specifications include a cutoff frequency of 4 GHz, an
impedance of 50 Ω , and a third-order 3 dB equal-ripple pass band
response.
• The second Kuroda’s identity is applied to convert series SC stubs to
shunt OC stubs.

44
Example: Design a low-pass filter for fabrication using microstrip
lines. The specifications include a cutoff frequency of 4 GHz, an
impedance of 50 Ω , and a third-order 3 dB equal-ripple pass band
response.
• Impedance and frequency scaling are done.

45
Example: Design a low-pass filter for fabrication using microstrip
lines. The specifications include a cutoff frequency of 4 GHz, an
impedance of 50 Ω , and a third-order 3 dB equal-ripple pass band
response.
• Design and fabrication of actual low pass microstrip filter.

46