Famous Scientists and Inventors-Merged-Compressed

Famous Scientists and Inventors Who Shaped
Electronics Engineering
William Gilbert
William Gilbert is the one coined the word electricus, while on his pioneering
research on magnetism and static electricity. He is an English scientist, the most
distinguished man of science in England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, who
first to use the terms electric attraction, electric force and magnetic pole.
Benjamin Franklin
Often referred to as the Master of Electricity, Benjamin Franklin has great

contributions in the field of electricity, and perhaps the most remembered is his kite
experiment on a thunderstorm that proved electricity and lightning are the same.
He was also able to invent the lightning rod, discover the principle of conservation of
change and identify positive and negative electrical charges.
Luigi Galvani
It was Luigi Galvani who pioneered the bioelectromagnetics, with incredible work in
animal electricity. His experiment with dead frog’s leg muscles has been the
benchmark of electrical patterns and signal from tissues as the nerves and muscles.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb had revolutionary work in the theory of attraction and
repulsion between bodies of the same and opposite electrical charge. He was able to
demonstrate an inverse square law for such forces and examine perfect conductors
and dielectrics.
Alessandro Volta
The inventions of Alessandro Volta have trademarked in electronics engineering,
especially his battery that produced a reliable, steady current of electricity. This feat
of Volta gave rise to electrochemistry, electromagnetism and the modern
applications of electricity.
Hans Christian Ørsted

Hans Christian Ørsted is attributed to be the originator of the connection between
electricity and magnetism. His accidental discovery proved that an electric current
produces a circular magnetic field as it flows through a wire, and the findings stirred
much research into electrodynamics.
André-Marie Ampère
A French mathematician and physicist, André-Marie Ampère is considered the first
person to discover electromagnetism. Among his significant contributions is the
Ampere’s circuital law, which relates the integrated magnetic field around a closed
loop to the electric current passing through the loop.
Georg Simon Ohm

Best known for his Ohm’s Law, which implies that the current flow through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (voltage) and inversely
proportional to the resistance, Georg Simon Ohm had passionate work on the
conductivity of metals and the behavior of electrical circuits.
Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday demonstrated significant work in static electricity. He was the first
to prove that the charge only resided on the exterior of a charged conductor, and
exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. He laid
the foundation of the classical field theory, and developed the first dynamo in the
form of a copper disk rotated between the poles of a permanent magnet.
James Prescott Joule

Now familiar to engineers as the unit of energy, Joule, or James Prescott Joule
discovered the law of conservation of energy and an experiment that further led to
the discovery of the first law of thermodynamics. He was an English physicist with
established work on the relationship between mechanical work and heat transfer.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

Every electronics engineer had encountered Gustav Robert Kichhoff, famous for the
Kirchhoff’s Law. He was a German physicist that helped increase the understanding
of electrical circuits, with laws of thermochemistry and thermal emission named
after him apart from circuit theory. Kirchhoff was also responsible for using
mathematics to understand the science of physics.
Sir Charles Wheatstone

Solely responsible for the device called Wheatstone bridge, Sir Charles Wheatstone
was an English physicist who experimented on the measurement of the speed of
electricity in a conductor using a revolving mirror. The device he developed can
accurately measure electrical resistance now used in most laboratories. He also
patented an early telegraph.
James Clerk Maxwell

It was James Clerk Maxell who first told that electricity and magnetism are actually,
at the deepest level, the same force – the electromagnetic force. He produced
equations called the Maxwell’s Equations that is perhaps his greatest work. Heinrich
Rudolph Hertz
A German physicist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was the first to satisfactorily demonstrate
the existence of electromagnetic radiation waves. He did this by building an
apparatus to produce and detect them. Later, his discovery was used in the flourish
of radio waves as a medium in communication and broadcasting.
Thomas Alva Edison

With a record of 1,093 patents which comprise key and minor innovations, Thomas
Alva Edison is perhaps the most celebrated inventor in American history. Among his
early inventions include the automatic telegraph repeater, when sent telegraph
signals between unmanned stations but was never patented; the electric vote
recorder, Edison’s first patent; and the quadruplex telegraph, which is a system
capable of sending two messages simultaneously in each direction on the same
wire. Later, he developed the carbon telephone, his own system for electricity
distribution, and the wireless telegraph, among others.
Nikola Tesla
This underrated genius named Nikola Tesla invented the alternating-current
generator, the transformer, and he high voltage coil of the picture tube. He also
developed an oscillator that generated half a million volts and a wireless world
broadcasting tower. Tesla also worked on rotary engines, microwaves, radars and
loudspeakers. With all this significant engineering work, he never got the glory he
deserved during his time because he was thought to be a madman.
Guglielmo Marconi
Guglielmo Marconi is an Italian inventor and engineer who developed the first
successful long-distance wireless telegraph. He broadcasted the first transatlantic
radio signal, which attained him partly the Nobel Prize in Physics.
John Ambrose Fleming

The inventor of the oscillation diode valve or vacuum tube, John Ambrose Fleming is
the one who set the benchmark for modern electronics, which why he is regarded as
the father of modern electronics. He enabled the first wireless sets with a reasonable
performance to be manufactured.
Lee De Forest
It was Lee De Forest who invented the Audion vacuum tube, which made live radio
broadcasting possible before the invention of the transistor. It is now the key
component in all radio, telephone, radar, television and computer systems. He had
more than 300 patents.
Walter Schottky
A German physicist who laid work in solid-state physics and electronics, Walter
Schottky discovered an irregularity in the emission of thermions in a vacuum tube,
now known as the Schottky effect. He also developed the screen-grid tube and the
tetrode.
Edwin Howard Armstrong

Best credited for the invention of the frequency-modulated radio, Edwin Howard
Armstrong also has two other key innovations, which are regeneration and
superheterodyning.
Harold Stephen Black

Harold Stephen Black is an American electrical engineer who laid the negative-
feedback principle now widely applied in electronics. He worked with the Western
Electric Company and Bell Telephone Laboratories. He devised the negative-
feedback amplifier while trying to find a way to reduce amplifier distortion.
Philo Taylor Farnsworth

Philo Taylor Fransworth is the man who invented the electronic television, at only
age 21. He did this by smoking a glass slide with carbon and scratched a single line
on it, and placed it on a carbon arc projector and shone onto the photocathode of
the first camera tube.
William B. Shockley
Nobel Prize for Physics winner William B. Shockley was responsible for the
development of the transistor, which is one of the greatest achievements in
technological history. He worked on semiconductor to control and amplify electronic
signals, with John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. They developed the point-contact
transistor, and later on, the junction transistor.
Walter H. Brattain
Walter H. Brattain shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1956 with William Shockley
and John Bardeen for the investigation of the properties of semiconductors and for
the development of the transistor.
John Bardeen
One of the Nobel Prize for Physics trio for their invention of the transistor, John
Bardeen won the same award in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. He focused
on the electrical conduction in semiconductors and metals, and surface properties
of semiconductors.
Otto von Guericke
Invented the first electrostatic generator
Francis Hauksbee (1666 - 1713)

An eighteenth-century British scientist, and a member of the Royal Society. He is
best known for his work on Electricity and electrostatic repulsion. Hauksbee
discovered that if he placed a small amount of mercury in the glass of his modified
version of Otto von Guericke's electrostatic generator
Carl Friedrich Gauss

Experimented with electrical charges and magnetism, and established a
method for measuring magnetic fields
Joseph Henry
A Scottish-American scientist, he was considered one of the greatest American
scientist since Benjamin Franklin. While building electromagnets, he discovered the
electromagnetic phenomenon of self inductance. He also discovered mutual
inductance independently of Faraday, though Faraday was first to publish his results.
The henry, H, is a unit of inductance named after him.
Jack Kilby
Patented the first integrated circuit while at Texas Instruments, then later
patented the portable calculator
Robert Noyce
Further developed the integrated circuit to include more transistors on a silicon
substrate
Gordon Moore
Co-founded Intel in 1968 and known for “Moore’s Law” which observes that
integrated circuit complexity doubles every 2 years
François Jean Dominique Arago (1786–1853)

Known as François Arago was a French mathematician, physicist, astronomer,
freemason, carbonari and politician. He invented the electromagnet in 1820.
Karl Ferdinand Braun, (1850-1918)

German physicist, inventor, and Nobel Prize winner. Braun is best known for his
invention of the first oscilloscope (an electronic instrument that displays changes in
the voltage of an electric circuit) made out of a cathode-ray tube (CRT), but he also
contributed much to the study of electricity and telegraphy, or wireless
communication (see Radio), through groundbreaking research and inventions. He
shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in physics with Italian electrical engineer and inventor
Guglielmo Marconi for their work on wireless communication.
Charles Francis Brush (849 – 1929)

U.S. inventor, entrepreneur and philanthropist. Famous for the "dynamo" (an
electrical generator) for powering arc lights. He built his first arc light before 1867. In
1879 First commercial power station opened in San Francisco, using the Charles
Brush generator and arc lights
Hans R. Camenzind (1934 – 2012)

Swiss electronics engineer best known for designing the 555 timer IC in 1970.
Willis Haviland Carrier (1876-1950)

American engineer, best known for inventing modern air conditioning. In 1911
disclosed his basic Rational Psychrometric Formulae to the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. The formula still stands today as the basis in all fundamental
calculations for the air conditioning industry.
Henry Cavendish (1731 – 1810)

British natural philosopher, scientist, and an important experimental and theoretical
chemist and physicist who started measuring the conductivity of different materials.
Cavendish is noted for his discovery of hydrogen or what he called "inflammable air"
Charles Francois du Fay (1698 – 1739)

French chemist and superintendent of the Jardin du Roi who discovered that
electricity comes in two forms which he called resinous (-) and vitreous (+). Benjamin
Franklin and Ebenezer Kinnersley later renamed the two forms as positive and
negative.
John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945)

English electrical engineer and physicist. He is known for inventing the first
thermionic valve or vacuum tube, the diode, then called the kenotron in 1904.
Stephen Gray (1666 – 1736)

English dyer and amateur astronomer, who was the first to systematically
experiment with electrical conduction, rather than simple generation of static
charges and investigations of the static phenomena. He was instrumental in the
discovery of the conduction of electricity in 1729
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, (1824-87)

German physicist, born in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), and educated at the
University of Königsberg. He was professor of physics at the universities of Breslau,
Heidelberg, and Berlin. With the German chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, Kirchhoff
developed the modern spectroscope for chemical analysis. In 1860 the two scientists
discovered the elements cesium and rubidium by means of spectrum analysis.
Kirchhoff conducted important investigations of radiation heat transfer and also
postulated two rules, now known as Kirchhoff's laws of networks, concerning the
distribution of current in electric circuits.
Georg Von Kleist (1700-1748)

On 11 October 1745 Kleist independently invented the Kleistian jar, more commonly
known as the Leyden jar after graduate student Pieter van Musschenbroek of
Leyden. He discovered that electricity was controllable. Dutch physicist, Pieter van
Musschenbroek invented the "Leyden Jar" the first electrical capacitor. Leyden jars
store static electricity.
Charles Augustus Coulomb (1736-1806)

Invented the torsion balance in 1785. The torsion balance is a simple device – a
horizontal cross-bar is mounted on a stretched wire. A ball is then mounted on each
end of the cross bar. Given a positive or negative charge, those balls will then attract
or repel other objects that carry charges. The balls responding to these charges will
try to twist the wire holding the cross bar.
The wire resists twisting, and how much twisting occurs tells you how much force
the attraction or repulsion exerted. Coulomb showed electrical attraction and
repulsion follow an inverse square law. The unit of charge (Coulomb) is named after
him.
Heinrich F.E. Lenz (1804-1865)
Born in the old university city of Tartu, Estonia (then in Russia), He was a professor at
the University of St. Petersburg. He carried out many experiments following the lead
of Faraday.
He is memorialized by the law which bears his name – the electrodynamics action of
an induced current equally opposes the mechanical inducing action- which was
later recognized to be an expression of the conservation of energy.
Samuel Finley Breese Morse (1791-1872)
He brought a practical system of telegraphy to the fore front using electromagnets,

and invented the code named after him in 1844.
Although in 1837 the development of an electric telegraph system making use of a
deflecting magnetic needle had already been developed by Sir W. F. Cooke and Sir
Charles Wheatstone, who installed the first railway telegraph system in England,
Morse overcame both electrical design flaws and information flow restrictions to
enable the telegraph to become a viable system of communication.
Hermann Lud-wig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
He was an all round universal scientist and researcher. He was one of the 19th
centuries greatest scientists.
In 1870, after analyzing all the prevalent theories of electrodynamics, he lent his
support to Maxwell’s theory which was little known on the European continent.
Sir William Crookes (1832-1919)
Investigated electrical discharges through highly evacuated “Crookes tubes” in the

year 1878. These studies laid the foundation for J. J. Thomson’s research in the late
1890s concerning discharge-tube phenomena and the electron.
He also discovered the element Thallium and made the radiometer.
Joseph Wilson Swan (1828-1914)
Joseph Swan demonstrated his electric lamp in Britain in February 1879. The
filament used carbon and had a partial vacuum and preceded Edison’s
demonstration by six months.
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)
He worked with Maxwell’s equations to reduce the fatigue incurred in solving them.
In the process, he created a form of vector analysis called “Operational Calculus” that
replaced the differential d/dt with the algebraic variable p, thus transforming
differential equations to algebraic equations (Laplace Transforms). This increased the
speed of solution considerably.
He also proposed the ionized air layer named after him (the Heavisids layer), that
inductance can be added to transmission lines to increase transmission distance,
and that charges will increase in mass when accelerated.
Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865-1923)
Discovered the mathematics of hysteresis loss, thus enabling engineers of the time
to reduce magnetic loss in transformers.
He also applied the mathematics of complex numbers to AC analysis and thus put
engineering design of electrical systems on a scientific basis instead of a black art.
Along with Nikola Tesla, he is responsible for wresting the generation of power away
from Edison’s inefficient DC system to the more elegant AC system.
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923)
Discovered X rays, for which he received the first Nobel Prize for physics in 1901. He
observed that barium platinocyanide crystals across the room fluoresced whenever
he turned on a Crooke’s, or cathode-ray discharge tube, even when the tube was
shielded by thin metal sheets.
Roentgen correctly hypothesized that a previously unknown form of radiation of
very short wavelength was involved, and that these X rays (a term he coined) caused
the crystals to glow. He later demonstrated the metallurgical and medical use of X
rays which later brought a revolution in medical science.
The unit of radiation exposure (rad) is named after him.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
In the year 1905, Einstein elaborated on the experimental results of Max Planck who
noticed that electromagnetic energy seemed to be emitted from radiating objects
in quantities that were discrete.
The energy of these emitted quantities – the so called “light-quanta” was directly
proportional to the frequency of the radiation which was completely contrary to
classical electromagnetic theory, based on Maxwell’s equations and the laws of
thermodynamics.
Einstein used Planck’s quantum hypothesis to describe visible electromagnetic
radiation, or light. According to Einstein’s viewpoint, light could be imagined to
consist of discrete bundles of radiation. He used this interpretation to explain the
photoelectric effect, by which certain metals emit electrons when illuminated by
light with a given frequency.
Einstein’s theory, and his subsequent elaboration of it, formed the basis for much of
Quantum Mechanics.
Seymour Cray (1925-1996)
Also known as “The Father of the Supercomputer“, along with George Amdahl,
defined the supercomputer industry in the year 1976.
Ray Prasad (1946-Still Going 2019)
Ray Prasad is Author of the textbook Surface Mount Technology: Principles and
Practice. He is an inductee to the IPC Hall of Fame, the highest honor in Electronics
Industry for his contribution to the electronics industry. He is also the recipient of the
IPC President’s Award, SMTA Member of Distinction Award, Intel Achievement
Award, and Dieter W. Bergman IPC Fellowship Medal.
As the lead engineer, Mr. Prasad introduced SMT into airplanes and defense systems
at Boeing, and as SMT program manager, he managed the global implementation
of SMT at Intel Corporation.
References: https://gineersnow.com/engineering/electronics/famous-scientists-
inventors-shaped-electronics-engineering
https://www.ipwatchdog.com/2017/04/15/pioneers-electricity-top-10-inventors-
electrical-technologies/id=80700/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_tLuDJeh8yU&t=187s
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS
Topic Outcomes
Become aware of the general characteristics of three important semiconductor

materials: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Electronic Devices and Circuits- MAI Pamplona
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
AND CIRCUITS
Engr. Marie Angelie I. Pamplona
OBJECTIVES
1. Define Electronics
2. Discuss the evolution of Electronics
3. Describe the application of

Electronics.
WHAT IS ELECTRONICS
• Electronics comprises
the physics,
engineering,
technology and
applications that deal
with the emission, flow
and control of
electrons in vacuum
and matter.
ELECTRONICS
• Electronics is an applied form of science that
deals with electrons. It handles electric circuits
containing active elements, passive elements
and other underlying techniques making it as
an important part of engineering.
• RA 5734, Sec 21 C – The science that deals
with the development and application of
devices involving the flow of electrons in
vacuum, in gaseous media, plasma and in
semiconductors
ELECTRONICS
• RA9292, Sec 3h – The science dealing with
the development and application of devices
and systems involving the flow of electrons or
the carriers of electric charge, in a vacuum, in
gaseous media, in plasma, in semiconductors,
in solid state and/or in similar devices,
including but not limited to applications
involving optical, electromagnetic and other
energy forms when transduced or converted
into electronic signals
THE START OF MODERN ERA

ELECTRONIC MILESTONES
EVOLUTION OF ELECTRONIC
DEVICES
APPLICATION OF ELECTRONICS
• Consumer Electronics
• This industry is most applicable to the common people.

Consumer Electronics are devices and equipment meant
for everyday use.
• This is again categorized as:

• Office Gadgets such as calculators, Personal
computers, Scanners and Printers, FAX machine, Front
Projector etc.
• Home appliances such as Washing Machine,
Refrigerator, Air Conditioner, Microwave Oven, Vacuum
Cleaner etc.
• Audio and Video Systems such as Headphone, VCRs,
DVD players, Color TVs, Microphone and Loudspeaker,
Video game consoles.
• Advanced Consumer Devices such as Setup Box, ATM,
Dishwasher, Smart Phones, PDA (personal digital
assistant), Barcode Scanners, POS terminals.
• Storage Devices for optical playback and taping, and
portable infotainment. Examples are DVDs, HDD
jukebox, Portable MP3 player.
• Industrial Electronics
• Industrial automation and motion control, Machine

learning, motor drive control, Mechatronics and robotics,
Power converting technologies, Photo voltaic systems,
Renewable energy applications, Power electronics, and
Biomechanics.
• Smart grid systems

• Smart electric systems collect information from the communication
technology and react accordingly based on power consumption. It
is an application of intelligence, computing, and networked
electricity systems.
• Example: Smart Meters
Features of smart grid
• Digital system based on two-way communication
• Interactive Sensors
• Self-monitoring and Debugging
• Valid Distribution of electricity
• Industrial automation and motion control
• Machines are replacing humans these days with increased
productivity, time and cost. Moreover, safety is also considered for
unmanageable works. Hence to delegate the human’s, automation
has become the preferable choice for industries.
• Image processing
• 3D world has been evolved from a single or multiple 2D images.
Various algorithms are developed to extract 3D information from 2D
patterns.
• Moreover, image processing has involved in computer graphics,
Artificial intelligence, Robotics for navigation, Inspection and
Assembly, Computer Vision for Face and gesture recognition,
Virtual reality, medical analysis.
• Medical applications
Advanced sophisticated instruments are being developed for

data recording and physiological analysis. They are proven to be
more useful in diagnosing diseases and for healing purpose.
Some of the medical devices and equipment used are:

• Stethoscope to listen inner sounds happening inside
the human or animal body
• Respiration Monitors for knowing the patient
condition due to change in body temperature, pulse,
respiration and blood flow.
• Defibrillator causes electrical shock to heart
muscles and brings backs the heart to the normal
working condition.
• Glucose meter for measuring sugar levels in the
blood.
• Pace Maker for reducing and increasing the count of
the heart beat.
• Meteorological and Oceanographic
• Environmental monitoring is done through various

sensors and Automatic weather stations.
• Some of them are:

• Barometer for predicting the weather is good or bad. It
gives atmospheric pressure level as an indication. If
pressure level is high weather is good and if pressure is
low it means the weather is bad.
• Anemometer measures the wind speed and wind
direction
• Tipping Bucket Rain gauge for measuring the rainfall
periodically stored in the Automatic weather station such
as Datalogger.
• Hygrometer measuring Humidity
• Drifter Buoy measures current, temperature, and
pressure levels in the ocean
• Data logger for storing the data collected from various
sensors like humidity, temperature, wind speed and
direction, solar radiation, Rain scale.
• Defense and Aerospace
Defense and Aeronautical applications include:

• Missile Launching systems
• Rocket Launchers for space
• Aircraft systems
• Cockpit controllers
• Military Radars
• Boom barrier for military applications
• Automotive (Automobiles)
• Anti-collision unit
• Infotainment console
• Anti-lock braking system
• Cruise control
• Traction control
• Window regulators
• Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
• Airbag control
REFERENCES
• Boylestad, Robert L. (2013) Electronic Devices and

Circuits Theory 11th Edition. Pearson Inc. USA
Electronic References
• https://www.codrey.com/dc-circuits/electronics-and-its-
applications/
• https://www.codrey.com/dc-circuits/electronics-and-its-
applications/
• https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6441235
Thank You
Electronic Devices and Circuits-MAI PAMPLONA
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
CIRCUITS
OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the structure of an atom
2. Discuss insulators, conductors and

semiconductors and how they differ
3. Describe how current is produced in a

semiconductor.
ELECTRONS
• The smallest amount of electrical charge
having the quality called negative polarity.
• Electrons orbit the center of atoms.
PROTONS
• The proton is a basic particle with positive
polarity.
• Protons are located in the nucleus of atoms
along with neutrons, particles which have
neutral polarity.
THE BOHR ATOM

• The BOHR atom is useful for visualizing atomic structure
• The Nucleus is positively charged
and has the protons and neutrons
• Electrons are negatively charged and
in discrete shells
• The atomic number is the number
of protons and determines the
particular element
• In the neutral atom, the number
of electrons is equal to the
number of protons
VALENCE SHELL
• The outer shell is called the valence shell. Electrons in
this shell are involved in chemical reactions and they
account for electrical and thermal conductivity in metals
A neutral Si atom is shown. There

Are 4 electrons in the valence shell
QUESTION:
Is Si a conductor, insulator or semiconductor?
VALENCE SHELL
• Metals have one, two or three electrons in the valence
shell. The atom illustrated here is a sodium atom (Na),
with only one electron in its outer shell.
• Sodium is highly reactive

and easily gives up its single
valence electron. For this reason,
it is not used in electrical work.
• Non-metals have either complete

or nearly complete outer shells,
so they make poor electrical conductors
ENERGY LEVELS
• Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than
those in more distant orbits
• Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of
electron energies exist within atomic structures
• In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy
levels known as shells
• A given atom has fixed number of electrons. The
shells (energy levels) are designated 1,2,3 and
so on, with 1 being closest to the nucleus
ELECTRONS AND SHELLS

ELECTRONS AND SHELLS

• Max. # of Electrons in each shell
Ne= 2n2
• Valence Electrons
• This outermost shell is known as the valence
shell and electrons in this shell are called
valence electrons
IONIZATION
• If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount
of energy, called ionization energy, it can actually
escape from the outer shell and the atom’s
influence
• The departure of a valence electron leaves a
previously neutral atom with an excess of positive
charge (more protons than electrons)
• The process of losing a valence electron is known
as ionization, and the resulting positively charged
atom is called a positive ion
THE QUANTUM MODEL

• Each shell or energy level consists of up to four
subshells called orbitals, which are designated
s,p,d and f.
• Orbitals s can hold a maximum of 2 electrons,
orbital p can hold 6 electrons, orbital d can hold
10 electrons and orbital f can hold 14 electrons
Electrically, all materials fall into 1 of 3

classifications:
• Conductors
• Insulators
• Semi-Conductors
CONDUCTORS
• Have 1 valence electron
• Materials in which electrons can move
freely from atom to atom are called
conductors.
• In general all metals are good conductors.
• The purpose of conductors is to allow
electrical current to flow with minimum
resistance.
INSULATORS
• Have 8 valence electrons
• Materials in which electrons tend to stay put and
do not flow easily from atom to atom are termed
insulators.
• Insulators are used to prevent the flow of
electricity.
• Insulating materials such as glass, rubber, or
plastic are also called dielectrics, meaning they
can store charges.
• Dielectric materials are used in components like
capacitors which must store electric charges.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
• Have 4 valence electrons
• Materials which are neither conductors nor
insulators
• Common semi conductor materials are
carbon, germanium and silicone.
• Used in components like transistors
BAND GAP
• Valence shell of an atom represents a band of
energy levels and that the valence electrons are
confined to that band.
• When an electron acquires enough additional
energy, it can leve the valence shell, become a
free electron, and exist in what is known as the
conduction band.
• The difference in energy between the valence
band and the conduction band is called an
energy gap or band gap
BAND GAP
COVALENT BOND
CURRENT IN A SEMICONDUCTOR
• Energy band diagram for an unexcited
atom in a pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal
CONDUCTION ELECTRON AND HOLES

CONDUCTION ELECTRON AND HOLES

• Hole
• When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a
vacancy is left in the valence band within the crystal
• Electron-Hole Pair
• For every electron raised to the conduction band by
external energy, there is one hole left in the valence
band, creating what is called an electron-hole pair
• Recombination
• Occurs when a conduction-band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole in the valence
band
CONDUCTION ELECTRONS AND HOLES

ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT
• When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic

silicon, the thermally generated free electrons in the
conduction band, which are free to move randomly in the
crystal structure, are now easily attracted toward the
positive end.
• This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a
semiconductive material and is called electron current
ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT

DIODES
OBJECTIVES
1. Understand diode operation and select diodes for
various applications.
2. Analyze nonlinear circuits using the graphical load-line

technique.
3. Analyze and design simple voltage-regulator circuits.
4. Solve circuits using the ideal-diode model and

piecewise-linear models.
What Are Diodes Made Out Of?

• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most common Si Si Si
single elements that are used to make Diodes. A +4 +4 +4
compound that is commonly used is Gallium Arsenide

(GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs because of it’s large Si Si Si
bandgap. +4 +4 +4
• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements,

Si Si Si
meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their structure +4 +4 +4
allows them to grow in a shape called the diamond lattice.
• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group 5
element. When put together as a compound, GaAs creates The diagram above shows the
a zincblend lattice structure. 2D structure of the Si crystal.
The light green lines represent
• In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each atom the electronic bonds made when
shares its valence electrons with its four closest neighbors. the valence electrons are
This sharing of electrons is what ultimately allows diodes to shared. Each Si atom shares
be build. When dopants from groups 3 or 5 (in most cases) one electron with each of its four
closest neighbors so that its
are added to Si, Ge or GaAs it changes the properties of valence band will have a full 8
the material so we are able to make the P- and N-type electrons.
materials that become the diode.
N-Type Material
N-Type Material: When extra valence electrons are introduced into a

material such as silicon an n-type material is
produced. The extra valence electrons are
introduced by putting impurities or dopants into the
silicon. The dopants used to create an n-type
+4 +4 +4 material are Group V elements. The most commonly
used dopants from Group V are arsenic, antimony
and phosphorus.
+4 +5 +4 The 2D diagram to the left shows the extra electron
that will be present when a Group V dopant is
introduced to a material such as silicon. This extra
electron is very mobile.
+4 +4 +4
P-Type Material
P-Type Material: P-type material is produced when the dopant that is

introduced is from Group III. Group III elements
have only 3 valence electrons and therefore there is
an electron missing. This creates a hole (h+), or a
positive charge that can move around in the material.
+4 +4 +4 Commonly used Group III dopants are aluminum,
boron, and gallium.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the hole that will be
+4 +3 +4 present when a Group III dopant is introduced to a
material such as silicon. This hole is quite mobile in
the same way the extra electron is mobile in a n-type
material.
+4 +4 +4
BASIC DIODE CONCEPTS

• INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Energy Diagram of the Three Types of Solid

Intrinsic (pure) Si Semiconductor:
Thermal Excitation, Electron-Hole Pair, Recombination,
and Equilibrium
When equilibrium between

excitation and recombination
is reached :
electron density = hole density
ni = pi = 1.5  10 10 cm -3
for intrinsic Si crystal at 300 K
( Note : Si crystal atom density
is ~ 5  10 22 cm -3 )
*Apply a voltage
across a piece of Si:
electron current
and hole current
• N AND P TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

* Doping: adding of impurities (i.e., dopants) to the intrinsic
semi-conductor material.
* N-type: adding Group V dopant (or donor) such as As, P,
Sb,…
n  p = constant for a semiconductor
For Si at 300K
n  p = n = p = 1.5  10
2
i
2
i ( )
10 2
In n - type material
n  N d the donor conceratio n
n = N d  ni , p  pi
We call
electron the major charge carrier
hole the minor cahage carrier
• N AND P TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

* Doping: adding of impurities (i.e., dopants) to the intrinsic
semi-conductor material.
* P-type: adding Group III dopant (or acceptor) such as Al,
B, Ga,…
n  p = constant for a semiconductor
For Si at 300K
n  p = n = p = 1.5  10
2
i
2
i ( )
10 2
In p - type material
p  N a the acceptor conceratio n
p = N a  pi , n  ni
We call
hole the major charge carrier
electron the minor cahage carrier
The PN Junction
Steady State1
Metallurgical Junction
Na Nd
- - - - - - + + + + + +
- - - - - -
- - - - - - + + + + + +
P - - - - - - + + + + + + n
- - - - - -
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
Space Charge
ionized Region ionized
acceptors donors
E-Field
_ _
+ +
h+ drift = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = e- drift
The PN Junction
Steady State
Metallurgical
Na Junction Nd
- - - - - + + + + +
- - - - - + + + + + When no external source is
P - - - - - + + + + + n connected to the pn junction,
- - - - - + + + + +
diffusion and drift balance
Space Charge each other out for both the
ionized Region ionized
acceptors donors holes and electrons
E-Field
_ _
+ +
h+ drift == h+ diffusion e- diffusion == e- drift
Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes the
net positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region does not
have any free carriers. The width of the space charge region is denoted by W in pn
junction formula’s.
Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.
Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of
carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.
The Biased PN Junction

Metal
Contact
“Ohmic
Contact” _
(Rs~0) +
Applied Electric
P Field n
_
+
Vapplied
The pn junction is considered biased when an external voltage is applied. There are
types of biasing: Forward bias and Reverse bias.
These are described on then next slide.
The Biased PN Junction
Forward Bias: In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With
this shrinking the energy required for charge carriers to cross the
depletion region decreases exponentially. Therefore, as the
Vapplied > 0 applied voltage increases, current starts to flow across the
junction. The barrier potential of the diode is the voltage at which
appreciable current starts to flow through the diode. The barrier
potential varies for different materials.
Reverse Bias: Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This causes the
electric field produced by the ions to cancel out the applied
reverse bias voltage. A small leakage current, Is (saturation
Vapplied < 0 current) flows under reverse bias conditions. This saturation
current is made up of electron-hole pairs being produced in the
depletion region. Saturation current is sometimes referred to as
scale current because of it’s relationship to junction temperature.
• THE PN JUNCTION
* The interface in-between p-type and n-type material is
called a pn-junction.
The barrier potential VB  0.6 − 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge
at 300K : as T  ,VB  .
• BIASING THE PN JUNCTION
*There is no movement of charge

through a pn-junction at equilibrium.
* The pn-junction form a diode which

allows current in only one direction
and prevent the current in the other
direction as determined by the bias.

*Forward Bias: dc voltage positive terminal connected to the p region
and negative to the n region. It is the condition that permits current
through the pn-junction of a diode.

*Forward Bias: dc voltage positive terminal connected to the p region
and negative to the n region. It is the condition that permits current
through the pn-junction of a diode.

*Forward Bias:

*Reverse Bias: dc voltage negative terminal connected to
the p region and positive to the n region. Depletion region
widens until its potential difference equals the bias voltage,
majority-carrier current ceases.
*Reverse Bias:
majority-carrier current ceases.
* However, there is still a very
small current produced by
minority carriers.

* Reverse Breakdown: As reverse voltage reach certain
value, avalanche occurs and generates large current.
• The Diode Characteristic I-V Curve

REFERENCES
• Dailey, Denton. Electronic Devices and Circuits, Discrete and
Integrated. Prentice Hall, New Jersey: 2001. (pp 2-37,
752-753)
• 2 Figure 1.10. The diode transconductance curve, pg. 7
Figure 1.15. Determination of the average forward

resistance of a diode, pg 11
• 3 Example from pages 13-14
• Liou, J.J. and Yuan, J.S. Semiconductor Device Physics and

Simulation. Plenum Press, New York: 1998.
• Neamen, Donald. Semiconductor Physics & Devices. Basic
Principles. McGraw-Hill, Boston: 1997. (pp 1-15, 211-234)
• 1 Figure 6.2. The space charge region, the electric field,
and the forces acting on the charged carriers, pg 213.

Thank You
Electronic Devices and Circuits- MAI PAMPLONA
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
AND CIRCUITS
DIODE AND DIODE

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LOAD LINE ANALYSIS

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
• The analysis of diode can follow one of two paths: using
the actual characteristics or applying an approximate
model for the device
• Load Line Analysis: is used to analyze diode circuit using
its actual characteristics
LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
• A straight line is defined by the parameters of the network
• It is called the load line because the intersection on the
vertical axes is defined by the applied load R
LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
• GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
• The maximum ID equals E/R and the maximum VD
equals E.
• The point where the load line and the characteristics
curve intersect is the Q-point which identifies ID and VD
for a particular diode in a given circuit
EXAMPLE 1
• For the given diode configuration and diode
characteristics, determine VDQ, IDQ and VR
EXAMPLE 2 - SOLUTION
• The load line is firstly drawn between VD=E=10V and

ID=E/R=10/0.5kΩ=20mA. The intersection between the
load line and characteristics defines the Q-point as
VDQ=0.78 and IDQ=18.5mA
• VR=IDQR=(18.5mA)(1kΩ)=18.5V
DIODE CONFIGURATIONS
• The forward resistance of the diode is usually so small
compared to the other series elements of the network that
it can be ignored.
• In general the diode is in the “on” state if the current
established by the applied sources is such that its
direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol
and VD≥0.7V for silicon and VD≥0.3V for Germanium and
VD≥ 1.2V for Gallium Arsenide
• You may assume the diode is “on”, and the find the
current in the diode. If the current flows into the positive
terminal of the diode, then the assumption is right,
otherwise the diode is “off”.
SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

FORWARD BIAS
Constants
• Silicon Diode VD=0.7V
• Germanium Diode VD=0.3V
Analysis for Silicon

• VD=0.7V ( or VD=E if E<0.7V)
• VR=E-VD
• ID=IR=IT=VR/R=(E-VD)/R
Equivalent Circuit for the “on’diode

SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS

REVERSE BIAS
Analysis
• VD=E
• VR=0V
• ID=0A
Equivalent circuit for the “off’diode

SOURCE NOTATION
PARALLEL AND SERIES PARALLEL

CONFIGURATIONS
• Determine Vo, I1, ID1 and ID2
SOLUTION
AND/OR GATES
• Determine Vo
SOLUTION
AND/OR GATES
• Determine the output level for the logic AND gate
SOLUTION
REFERENCE:
• Boylestad, Robert L. (2013) Electronic Devices and
Circuits Theory 11th Edition. Pearson Inc. USA
Thank You
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
CIRCUITS
SPECIAL PURPOSE
DIODES
ZENER DIODE
• A zener diode is a special type of
diode that is designed to operate
in the reverse breakdown region.
An ordinary diode operated in this
region will usually be destroyed
due to excessive current.
• This is not the case for the zener
diode. A zener diode is heavily
doped to reduce the reverse
breakdown voltage.
• This causes a very thin depletion
layer. As a result, a zener diode
has a sharp reverse breakdown
voltage VZ. This is clear from the
reverse characteristic of zener
diode shown.
• Note that the reverse characteristic drops in an almost

vertical manner at reverse voltage VZ. As the curve
reveals, two things happen when VZ is reached :
(i) The diode current increases rapidly.
(ii) The reverse voltage VZ across the diode remains
almost constant.
• In other words,the zener diode operated in this region will

have a relatively constant voltage across it, regardless of
the value of current through the device. This permits the
zener diode to beused as a voltage regulator.
•
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible
light when forward biased.
• Light-emitting diodes are not made from silicon or
germanium but are made by using elements like gallium,
phosphorus and arsenic. By varying the quantities of
these elements, it is possible to produce light of different
wavelengths with colours that include red, green, yellow
and blue.
• For example, when a LED is manufactured using gallium
arsenide, it will produce a red light. If the LED is made
with gallium phosphide, it will produce a green light.
Theory
• When light-emitting diode (LED) is forward biased, the
electrons from the n-type material cross the pn junction
and recombine with holes in the p-type material.
• Recall that these free electrons are in the conduction
band and at a higher energy level than the holes in the
valence band.
• When recombination takes place, the recombining
electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. In
germanium and silicon diodes almost, the entire energy is
given up in the form of heat and emitted light is
insignificant. However, in materials like gallium arsenide,
the number of photons of light energy is sufficient to
produce quite intense visible light.
• The Figure shows the schematic symbol for a LED. The arrows are
shown as pointing away from the diode, indicating that light is being
emitted by the device when forward biased.
• Although LEDs are available in several colors (red, green, yellow and
orange are the most common), the schematic symbol is the same for
all LEDs. There is nothing in the symbol to indicate the color of a
particular LED.
• The Figure shows the graph between radiated light and

the forward current of the LED.
• It is clear from the graph that the intensity of radiated light
is directly proportional to the forward current of LED
LED Voltage and Current

• The forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1V to 3V
and forward current ratings range from 20 mA to 100 mA.
In order that current through the LED does not exceed the
safe value, a resistor RS is connected in series with it as
shown:
• The input voltage is VS and the voltage across LED is VD

Example:
• What value of series resistor is required to limit the
current through a LED to 20 mA with a forward voltage
drop of 1.6 V when connected to a 10V supply?
Solution:
Example:
• What is current through the LED in the circuit shown in the
Figure? Assume that voltage drop across the LED is 2 V.
Solution:
Advantages of LED
The light-emitting diode (LED) is a solid-state light source.
LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps in many
applications because they have the following advantages:
• Low voltage
• Longer life (more than 20 years)
• Fast on-off switching
Applications of LED
• The LED is a low-power device. The power rating of a LED is of the
order of milliwatts. This means that it is useful as an indicator but not
good for illumination. Probably the two most common applications for
visible LEDs are:
• As a power indicator.
• A LED can be used to indicate whether the power is on or not. The
Figure shows the simple use of the LED as a power indicator. When
the switch S is closed, power is applied to the load. At the same time
current also flows through the LED which lights, indicating power is
on. The resistor RS in series with the LED ensures that current rating
of the LED is not exceeded.
•
• Seven-segment display.
• LEDs are often grouped to form seven-segment display. The Figure
shows the front of a seven segment display. It contains seven LEDs (A, B,
C, D, E, Fand G) shaped in a figure of *8.
• Each LED is called a **segment.

• If a particular LED is forward biased,that LED or segment will light and
produces a bar of light. By forward biasing various combinations of seven
LEDs, it is possible to display any number from 0 to 9. For example, if
LEDs A, B, C, D and G are lit (by forward biasing them), the display will
show the number 3. Similarly, if LEDs C, D, E, F, A and G are lit, the
display will show the number 6. To get the number 0, all segments except
G are lit.
*Note that LEDs A, B, C, D, E and F are arranged clockwise from the top
with LED G in the middle.** Each LED is called a segment because it forms
part of the character being displayed.
PHOTODIODE
• A photo-diode is a reverse-biased silicon or germanium
pn junction in which reverse current increases when the
junction is exposed to light.
• The reverse current in a photo-diode is directly
proportional to the intensity of light falling on its pn
junction. This means that greater the intensity of light
falling on the pn junction of photo-diode, the greater will
be the reverse current.
Principle:
• A photo-diode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its
pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current
increases with the increase in light intensity and vice-
versa
Photodiode Principle
• This is explained as follows: When light (photons) falls on
the pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to
the atoms in the junction. This will create more free
electrons (and more holes). These additional free
electrons will increase the reverse current. As the intensity
of light incident on the pn junction increases, the reverse
current also increases. In other words, as the incident
light intensity increases, the resistance of the device
(photo-diode) decreases.
• A photodiode consists of a pn junction mounted on an

insulated substrate and sealed inside a metal case. A
glass window is mounted on top of the case to allow light
to enter and strike the pn junction. The two leads
extending from the case are labelled anode and cathode.
The cathode is typically identified by a tab extending from
the side of the case.
Photodiode Operation
• The Figure shows the basic photo-diode
circuit. The circuit has reverse-biased
photo-diode, resistor R and d.c. supply.
The operation of the photodiode is as
under :
(i) When no light is incident on the pn
junction of photo-diode,the
reverse current Ir is extremely
small. This is called dark current.
• The resistance of photo-diode with no
incident light is called Dark
resistance(RR).
• Dark resistance of photo-diode,
• (ii)When light is incident on the pn junction of the photo-

diode, there is a transfer of energy from the incident light
(photons) to the atoms in the junction. This will create
more free electrons (and more holes). These additional
free electrons will increase the reverse current
• (iii)As the intensity of light increases, the reverse current

IR goes on increasing till it becomes maximum. This is
called saturation current.
Applications of Photodiode
• There are a large number of
applications of photodiodes.
However, we shall give two
applications of photodiodes by way
of illustration.
• (i) Alarm circuit using photo-diode.
• The Figure shows the use of photo-

diode in an alarm system. Light
from a light source is allowed to fall
on a photo-diode
• fitted in the doorway. The reverse
current IR will continue to flow so
long as the light beam is not broken.
If a person passes through the door,
light beam is broken and the
reverse current drops to the dark
current level. As a result, an alarm
is sounded
• (ii) Counter circuit using photo-

diode.
• A photodiode may be used to
count items on a conveyor belt.
• The Figure shows a photo-diode

circuit used in a system that
counts objects as they pass by
on a conveyor. In this circuit, a
source of light sends a
concentrated beam of light
across a conveyor to a photo-
diode. As the object passes, the
light beam is broken, IR drops to
the dark current level and the
count is increased by one.
Example:
• A photo-diode is exposed to light with an illumination of
2.5 mW/cm2. If the sensitivity of the photo-diode for the
given conditions is 37.4 μA/mW/cm2, find the reverse
current through the device.
• Solution:
OPTOISOLATOR
• An optoisolator (also called optocoupler) is a device that
uses light to couple a signal from its input(a photoemitter
e.g., a LED) to its output (a photodetector e.g., a photo-
diode).
• The Figure shows a LED-photo diode optoisolator. The LED

is on the left and the photo-diode is on the right. The
arrangement shown in the figure is referred to as
optocoupling because the output from the LED circuit is
coupled via light to the photo-diode circuit. When the LED is
energised, current flows through the LED. The light from the
LED hits the photo diode and sets up a reverse current
through resistor R2
• . The voltage across the photo-diode is given by :
• The output voltage depends on how large the reverse

current is. If we vary the LED supply, the amount of light
changes and this causes the photo diode current to
change. As a result, Vout changes.
• The key advantage of an optoisolator is the electrical
isolation between the input and output circuits; the only
contact between the input and output circuits is the
stream of light.
TUNNEL DIODE
• A tunnel diode is a pn junction that exhibits
negative resistance between two values of
forward voltage (i.e., between peak-point
voltage and valley-point voltage).
• A conventional diode exhibits positive
resistance when it is forward biased or
reverse biased. However, if a semiconductor
junction diode is heavily doped with
impurities, it exhibits negative resistance in
certain regions in the forward direction. Such
a diode is called tunnel diode
• Theory.
• The tunnel diode is basically a pn junction with heavy
doping of p-type and n-type semiconductor materials. In
fact, a tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times as
heavily as a conventional diode. This heavy doping
results in a large number of majority carriers. Because of
the large number of carriers, most are not used during the
initial recombination that produces the depletion layer. As
a result, the depletion layer is very narrow
• In comparison with conventional diode, the depletion layer
of a tunnel diode is 100 times narrower. The operation of
a tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling effect and
hence the name
Tunneling effect.
• The heavy doping provides a large number of majority carriers.
Because of the large number of carriers, there is much drift
activity in p and n sections. This causes many valence electrons
to have their energy levels raised closer to the conduction
region. Therefore, it takes only a very small applied forward
voltage to cause conduction.
• The movement of valence electrons from the valence energy
band to the conduction band with little or no applied forward
voltage is called tunneling.
• Valence electrons seem to tunnel through the forbidden energy
band. As the forward voltage is first increased, the diode current
rises rapidly due to tunneling effect. Soon the tunneling effect is
reduced and current flow starts to Decrease as the forward
voltage across
• the diode is increased. The tunnel diode is said to have entered
the negative resistance region. As the voltage is further
increased, the tunneling effect plays less and less part until a
valley-point is reached.
• From now onwards, the tunnel diode behaves as ordinary diode
V-I Characteristic of a Tunnel Diode

i. As the forward voltage across the tunnel diode is increased

from zero, electrons from the n-region “tunnel” through the
potential barrier to the p-region. As the forward voltage
increases, the diode current also increases until the peak-
point P is reached. The diode current has now reached peak
current IP(= 2.2 mA) at about peak-point voltage VP(= 0.07
V). Until now the diode has exhibited positive resistance.
ii. As the voltage is increased beyond VP, the tunneling action

starts decreasing and the diodecurrent decreases as the
forward voltage is increased until valley-point V is reached at
valley-point voltage VV(= 0.7V). In the region between peak-
point and valley-point (i.e., between points P and V the diode
exhibits negative resistance i.e., as the forward bias is
increased, the current decreases. This suggests that tunnel
diode, when operated in the negative resistance region, can
be used as an oscillator or a switch.
iii When forward bias is increased beyond valley-point

voltage VV(= 0.7 V), the tunnel diode behaves as a
normal diode. In other words, from point V onwards,
the diode current increases with the increase in
forward voltage.
•
TUNNEL DIODE OSCILLATOR

• A tunnel diode is always operated in the negative resistance region. When
operated in this region, it works very well in an oscillator. The figure shows a
parallel resonant circuit. Note that RP is the parallel equivalent of the series
winding resistance of the coil.
• When the tank circuit is set into oscillations by applying voltage as shown in the
figure below
• damped oscillations are produced. It is because energy is lost in the resistance

RPof the tank circuit. positive-resistance characteristic of the tank circuit.
• If a tunnel diode is placed in series with the tank circuit and biased at the
centre of the negative resistance portion of its characteristic as shown in
the Figure, undamped oscillations are produced at the output.
• It is because the negative-resistance characteristic of the tunnel diode

counteracts the positive-resistance characteristic of the tank circuit.
• The circuit shown above is called tunnel diode oscillator or negative
resistance oscillator.
• The negative resistance oscillator has one major drawback. While the
circuit works very well at extreme high frequencies (upper mega hertz
range), it cannot be used efficiently at low frequencies. Low-frequency
oscillators generally use transistors.
VARACTOR DIODE
• A junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor under
changing reverse bias is known as a varactor diode.
• When a pn junction is formed, depletion layer is created in the
junction area. Since there are no charge carriers within the
depletion zone, the zone acts as an insulator. The p-type
material with holes (considered positive) as majority carriers
and n-type material with electrons as majority carriers act as
charged plates. Thus the diode may be considered as a
capacitor with n-region and p-region forming oppositely
charged plates and with depletion zone between them acting
as a dielectric.
• This is illustrated in the Figure (i). A varactor diode is specially
constructed to have high capacitance under reverse bias.
Figure (ii) shows the symbol of varactor diode. The values of
capacitance of varactor diodes are in the picofarad
(10−12F)range
Theory
• For normal operation, a varactor diode is always reverse
biased. The capacitance of varactor diode is found as:
• When reverse voltage across a varactor diode is

increased, the width Wd of the depletion layer increases.
• Therefore, the total junction capacitance CT of the junction
decreases. On the other hand, if the reverse voltage
across the diode is lowered, the width Wd of the depletion
layer decreases. Consequently, the total junction
capacitance CT increases.
• Note: A forward biased varactor diode would serve no

useful purpose.
Application of Varactor Diode

• This makes a varactor diode ideal for use in circuits that
require voltage-controlled tuning. The Figure shows the
use of varactor diode in a tuned circuit. Note that the
capacitance of the varactor is in parallel with the inductor.
The varactor and the inductor form a parallel LC circuit.
• For normal operation, a varactor diode is always operated
under reverse bias. In fact, this condition is met in the
circuit shown in the Figure.
• The resistance RW in the circuit is the winding resistance
of the inductor. This winding resistance is in series with
the potentiometer R1 Thus R1and RW form a voltage
divider that is used to determine the amount of reverse
bias across the varactor diode D1and therefore its
capacitance.
• By adjusting the setting of R1, we can vary the diode

capacitance. This, in turn, varies the resonant frequency
of the LC circuit. The resonant frequency fr of the LC
circuit is given by:
• If the amount of varactor reverse bias is decreased, the

value of C of the varactor increases. The increase in C will
cause the resonant frequency of the circuit to decrease.
Thus, a decrease in reverse bias causes a decrease in
resonant frequency and vice-versa
Example:
• The LC tank circuit shown in the Figure has a 1 mH
inductor. The varactor has capacitance of 100 pF when
reverse bias is 5V d.c. Determine the resonant frequency
of the circuit for this reverse bias.
• Solution:
SHOCKLEY DIODE
• Named after its inventor, a
Shockley diode is a PNPN
device having two terminals
• This device acts as a switch and
consists of four alternate P-type
and N-type layers in a single
crystal. The various layers are
labelled as P1, N1, P2and N2
for identification. Since a P-
region adjacent to an N-region
may be considered a junction
diode, the Shockley diode is
equivalent to three junction
diodes connected in series as
shown:
Working
• (i) When Shockley diode is forward biased (i.e., anode is positive w.r.t.
cathode), diodes D1 and D3 would be forward-biased while diode D2
would be reverse-biased. Since diode D2 offers very high resistance
(being reverse biased) and the three diodes are in series, the
Shockley diode presents a very high resistance. As the forward
voltage increases, the reverse bias across D2 is also increased.
• At some forward voltage (called breakover voltage V BO ), reverse
breakdown of D2 occurs. Since this breakdown results in reduced
resistance, the Shockley diode presents a very low resistance. From
now onwards, the Shockley diode behaves as a conventional forward-
biased diode; the forward current being determined by the applied
voltage and external load resistance. This behavior of Shockley diode
is indicated on its V-I characteristic:
• (ii) When Shockley diode is reverse biased (i.e., anode is

negative w. r. t. cathode), diodes D1 and D3 would be
reverse-biased while diode D2 would d be forward-biased. If
reverse voltage is increased sufficiently, the reverse voltage
breakdown of Shockley diode is reached. At this point, diodes
D1and D3 would go into reverse-voltage breakdown, the
reverse current flowing through them would rise rapidly and
the heat produced by this current flow could ruin the entire
device. For this reason, Shockley diode should never be
operated with a reverse voltage sufficient to reach the reverse-
voltage breakdown point.
REFERENCES
• Dailey, Denton. Electronic Devices and Circuits, Discrete and
Integrated. Prentice Hall, New Jersey: 2001. (pp 2-37,
752-753)
• 2 Figure 1.10. The diode transconductance curve, pg. 7
Figure 1.15. Determination of the average forward

resistance of a diode, pg 11
• 3 Example from pages 13-14
• Liou, J.J. and Yuan, J.S. Semiconductor Device Physics and

Simulation. Plenum Press, New York: 1998.
• Neamen, Donald. Semiconductor Physics & Devices. Basic
Principles. McGraw-Hill, Boston: 1997. (pp 1-15, 211-234)
• 1 Figure 6.2. The space charge region, the electric field,
and the forces acting on the charged carriers, pg 213.

Thank You
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
Boylestad
DC Biasing - BJTs
Chapter 4
Ch.4 Summary
Biasing
Biasing: Applying DC voltages to a transistor in order

to turn it on so that it can amplify AC signals.
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Boylestad Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
Ch.4 Summary
Operating Point
The DC input
establishes an
operating or
quiescent point
called the Q-point.
Ch.4 Summary
The Three Operating Regions

Active or Linear Region Operation
• Base–Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base–Collector junction is reverse biased
Cutoff Region Operation

• Base–Emitter junction is reverse biased
Saturation Region Operation

• Base–Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base–Collector junction is forward biased
Ch.4 Summary
DC Biasing Circuits
Fixed-bias circuit
Emitter-stabilized bias circuit
Collector-emitter loop
Voltage divider bias circuit
DC bias with voltage feedback
Ch.4 Summary
Fixed Bias
Ch.4 Summary
The Base-Emitter Loop

From Kirchhoff’s voltage
law:
+VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0
Solving for base current:
VCC − VBE
IB =
RB
Ch.4 Summary
Collector-Emitter Loop
Collector current:
IC = IB
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
VCE = VCC − IC RC
Ch.4 Summary
Saturation
When the transistor is operating in saturation, current

through the transistor is at its maximum possible value.
V
ICsat = CC
R
C
VCE  0 V
Ch.4 Summary
Load Line Analysis
The load line end points are:

ICsat
IC = VCC / RC
VCE = 0 V
VCEcutoff
VCE = VCC
IC = 0 mA
The Q-point is the operating point where the value of RB sets the
value of IB that controls the values of VCE and IC .
Ch.4 Summary
The Effect of VCC on the Q-Point
Ch.4 Summary
The Effect of RC on the Q-Point
Ch.4 Summary
The Effect of IB on the Q-Point
Ch.4 Summary
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit
Adding a resistor
(RE) to the emitter
circuit stabilizes
the bias circuit.
Ch.4 Summary
Base-Emitter Loop
+ VCC − IE RE − VBE − IE RE = 0
Since IE = ( + 1)IB:
VCC − IB RB − (β + 1)IB RE = 0
Solving for IB:

VCC − VBE
IB =
RB + (β + 1)RE
Ch.4 Summary
IE RE + VCE + IC RC − VCC = 0
Since IE  IC:
VCE = VCC – IC(RC + RE )
Also:
VE = I E RE
VC = VCE + VE = VCC − IC RC
VB = VCC – IR RB = VBE + VE
Ch.4 Summary
Improved Biased Stability
Stability refers to a condition in which the currents and

voltages remain fairly constant over a wide range of
temperatures and transistor Beta () values.
Adding RE to the emitter improves

the stability of a transistor.
Ch.4 Summary
Saturation Level
The endpoints can be determined from the load line.

VCE = 0 V
VCEcutoff: VCE = VCC ICsat: VCC
IC = 0 mA IC =
RC + RE
Ch.4 Summary
Voltage Divider Bias

This is a very stable bias circuit.
The currents and

voltages are nearly
independent of any
variations in .
Ch.4 Summary
Approximate Analysis
Where IB << I1 and I1  I2 :
R2VCC
VB =
R1 + R2
Where RE > 10R2:

VE
IE =
RE
VE = VB − VBE
VCE = VCC − IC RC − IE RE
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law: IE  IC
VCE = V CC−IC (RC + RE )
Ch.4 Summary
Voltage Divider Bias Analysis

Transistor Saturation Level
V CC
I Csat = ICmax =
RC + RE
Load Line Analysis

Cutoff: Saturation:
V
VCE = VCC I = CC
C R +R
IC = 0 mA C E
VCE = 0 V
Ch.4 Summary
DC Bias With Voltage Feedback

Another way to improve
the stability of a bias
circuit is to add a
feedback path from
collector to base.
In this bias circuit the

Q-point is only slightly
dependent on the
transistor beta, .
Ch.4 Summary
Base-Emitter Loop
VCC – IC RC –IB RB –VBE –IE RE = 0
Where IB << IC: I' C = IC + IB  IC
Knowing IC = IB and IE  IC, the

loop equation becomes:
VCC – β–B RC − IB RB − VBE − βIB RE = 0
VCC − VBE
Solving for IB: IB =
RB + β(RC + RE )
Ch.4 Summary
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law:
IE + VCE + I’CRC – VCC = 0
Since IC  IC and IC = IB:
IC(RC + RE) + VCE – VCC =0
Solving for VCE:
VCE = VCC – IC(RC + RE)
Ch.4 Summary
Base-Emitter Bias Analysis
Transistor Saturation Level

V CC
I Csat = ICmax =
RC + RE
Load Line Analysis

Cutoff Saturation
V
VCE = VCC I = CC
C R +R
IC = 0 mA C E
VCE = 0 V
Ch.4 Summary
Transistor Switching Networks
Transistors with only the DC source applied can be

used as electronic switches.
Ch.4 Summary
Switching Circuit Calculations

Saturation current:
VCC
ICsat =
RC
To ensure saturation:
ICsat
IB 
βdc
Emitter-collector
resistance at VCEsat VCC
Rsat = Rcutoff =
saturation and cutoff: ICsat ICEO
Ch.4 Summary
Switching Time
Transistor switching times:
t on = t r + t d
t off = t s + t f
Ch.4 Summary
Troubleshooting Hints
Approximate voltages VBE  .7 V for silicon transistors
VCE  25% to 75% of VCC
Test for opens and shorts with an ohmmeter.

Test the solder joints.
Test the transistor with a transistor tester or a curve tracer.
Note that the load or the next stage affects the transistor
operation.
Ch.4 Summary
PNP Transistors
The analysis for pnp transistor biasing circuits is

the same as that for npn transistor circuits. The
only difference is that the currents are flowing in
the opposite direction.
ELECTRONICS DEVICES AND CIRCUITS THEORY-
MAI PAMPLONA
ELECTRONICS DEVICES
AND CIRCUITS THEORY
ELECTRONICS DEVICES AND CIRCUITS THEORY- MAI PAMPLONA
BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTORS
TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION
• The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device
consisting of either two n- and one p-type layers of
material or two p- and one n-type layers of material. The
former is called an npn transistor, and the latter is called a
pnp transistor.
TWO TYPES OF BJT

TRANSISTORS
npn pnp
E n p n C E p n p C
Cross Section C Cross Section C

B B
B B
Schematic Schematic
Symbol Symbol
E E
• Collector doping is usually ~ 109
• Base doping is slightly higher ~ 1010 – 1011
• Emitter doping is much higher ~ 1017
TRANSISTOR OPERATION
• The basic operation of the transistor will now be
described using the pnp transistor:
• The operation of the npn transistor is exactly the

same if the roles played by the electron and hole
are interchanged
MAI PAMPLONA
• In the Figure the pnp transistor has been redrawn without

the base-to collector bias.
• The depletion region has been reduced in width due to

the applied bias, resulting in a heavy flow of majority
carriers from the p - to the n -type material.
MAI PAMPLONA
• Let us now remove the base-to-emitter bias of the pnp

transistor of Figure:
• Recall that the flow of majority carriers is zero, resulting in

only a minority-carrier flow, as indicated.
• In summary, therefore: One p–n junction of a transistor is
reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.
• In the Figure
• Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor, with the
resulting majority- and minority-carrier flows indicated. Note that the
widths of the depletion regions, indicating clearly which junction is
forward-biased and which is reverse-biased.
• As indicated also in the Figure a large number of majority carriers will
diffuse across the forward biased p–n junction into the n -type material.
• The question then is whether these carriers will contribute directly to the
base current I B or pass directly into the p -type material. Since the
sandwiched n -type material is very thin and has a low conductivity, a
very small number of these carriers will take this path of high resistance
to the base terminal.
• The magnitude of the base current is typically on the

order of microamperes, as compared to milliamperes for
the emitter and collector currents. The larger number of
these majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-
biased junction into the p -type material connected to the
collector terminal.
• The reason for the relative ease with which the majority
carriers can cross the reverse-biased junction is easily
understood if we consider that for the reverse-biased
diode the injected majority carriers will appear as minority
carriers in the n -type material.
• In other words, there has been an injection of minority
carriers into the n -type base region material. Combining
this with the fact that all the minority carriers in the
depletion region will cross the reverse-biased junction of a
diode accounts for the flow
• Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the transistor as if it were a

single node, we obtain:
• and find that the emitter current is the sum of the collector and
base currents. The collector current, however, comprises two
components—the majority and the minority carriers
• The minority-current component is called the leakage

current and is given the symbol ICO ( IC current with
emitter terminal Open). The collector current, therefore, is
determined in total by:
• For general-purpose transistors, IC is measured in

milliamperes and ICO is measured in microamperes or
nanoamperes. ICO , like I s for a reverse-biased diode, is
temperature sensitive and must be examined carefully
when applications of wide temperature ranges are
considered. It can severely affect the stability of a system
at high temperature if not considered properly.
Improvements in construction techniques have resulted in
significantly lower levels of ICO , to the point where its
effect can often be ignored
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

• The common-base
terminology is derived
from the fact that the
base is common to both
the input and output sides
of the configuration. In
addition, the base is
usually the terminal
closest to, or at, ground
potential.
Notation and symbols used with the
common-base configuration: (a) pnp
transistor; (b) npn transistor.
MAI PAMPLONA
• The arrow in the graphic symbol

defines the direction of emitter
current (conventional flow)
through the device.
• All the current directions appearing in

are the actual directions as defined by
the choice of conventional flow. Note
in each case that IE = IC + IB. Note
also that the applied biasing (voltage
sources) are such as to establish
current in the direction indicated for
each branch.
• That is, compare the direction of IE to
the polarity of VEE for each
configuration and the direction of IC to
the polarity of VCC .
MAI PAMPLONA
• Input or driving
point characteristics
for a common-base
silicon transistor
amplifier.
MAI PAMPLONA
Output or collector characteristics for a common-base transistor amplifier

• The output set relates an output current ( IC ) to an output

voltage ( VCB ) for various levels of input current ( IE ) as
shown in the previous graph. The output or collector set of
characteristics has three basic regions of interest: the
active , cutoff , and saturation.
❖The active region is the region normally employed for linear

(undistorted) amplifiers In the active region the base–emitter junction
is forward-biased, whereas the collector–base junction is reverse-
biased.
❖In the cutoff region the base–emitter and collector–base junctions of a
transistor are both reverse-biased.
❖In the saturation region the base–emitter and collector–base junctions
are forward-biased.
• For the dc analysis, it will be employed that, once a transistor is in the

“on” state, the base-to-emitter voltage will be assumed to be the
following:
MAI PAMPLONA
ALPHA (α)
• DC Mode In the dc mode the levels of IC and IE due to the
majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha and
defined by the following equation:
• where IC and IE are the levels of current at the point of

operation. Even though the characteristics would suggest
that α=1, for practical devices alpha typically extends from
0.90 to 0.998, with most values approaching the high end
of the range.
• Since alpha is defined solely for the majority carriers
• AC Mode
• For ac situations where the point of operation moves on
the characteristic curve, an ac alpha is defined by:
• The ac alpha is formally called the common-base , short-

circuit , amplification factor.
BIASING
• The proper biasing of the common-base configuration in
the active region can be determined quickly using the
approximation IC≈IE and assuming for the moment that IB
≈0 mA.
• The result is the configuration of the Figure below of the
the pnp transistor.
Establishing the proper biasing

management for a common-base pnp
transistor in the active region
• The arrow of the symbol defines the direction of

conventional flow for IE≈IC. The dc supplies are then
inserted with a polarity that will support the resulting
current direction. For the npn transistor the polarities will
be reversed.
MAI PAMPLONA
BREAKDOWN REGION
• As stated earlier the base-to-collector junction is reversed
biased in the active region, but there is a point where too
large a reverse-bias voltage will lead to the avalanche
effect.
• The result is a large increase in current for small
increases in the base-to-collector voltage.
COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION

• The most frequently encountered transistor configuration appears in
below for the pnp and npn transistors.
• It is called the common-emitter configuration because the

emitter is common to both the input and output terminals
(in this case common to both the base and collector
terminals).
• Two sets of characteristics are again necessary to
describe fully the behavior of the common-emitter
configuration: one for the input or base–emitter circuit and
one for the output or collector–emitter circuit.
MAI PAMPLONA
Characteristics of a silicon transistor in the common-emitter

configuration: (a) collector characteristics; (b) base
characteristics.
MAI PAMPLONA
• In the active region of a common-emitter amplifier, the

base–emitter junction is forward-biased, whereas the
collector–base junction is reverse-biased.
• For linear (least distortion) amplification purposes, cutoff
for the common-emitter configuration will be defined by
IC= ICEO .
MAI PAMPLONA
BETA (β)
• DC Mode In the dc mode the levels of IC and IB are
related by a quantity called beta and defined by the
following equation:
• where IC and IB are determined at a particular operating

point on the characteristics. For practical devices the level
of b typically ranges from about 50 to over 400, with most
in the midrange. As fora, the parameter b reveals the
relative magnitude of one current with respect to the
other. For a device with a b of 200, the collector current is
200 times the magnitude of the base current.
• AC Mode For ac situations an ac beta is defined as

follows:
• The formal name for βac is common-emitter, forward-

current , amplification factor .
• Since the collector current is usually the output current for
a common-emitter configuration and the base current is
the input current, the term amplification is included in the
nomenclature above.
• A relationship can be developed between b and a using

the basic relationships introduced thus far:
BIASING
• The proper biasing of a common-emitter amplifier can be
determined in a manner similar to that introduced for the
common-base configuration
Determining the proper biasing arrangement for a common-emitter

npn transistor configuration.
BREAKDOWN REGION
Examining the breakdown region of a transistor in the

common-emitter configuration
COMMON COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION
• The common-collector configuration is used primarily for
impedance-matching purposes since it has a high input
impedance and low output impedance, opposite to that of
the common-base and common emitter configurations.
Common-collector configuration
used for impedance-matching
purposes
Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration:

(a) pnp transistor; (b) npn transistor.
TRANSISTOR SPECIFICATION SHEET

• Since the specification sheet is the communication link
between the manufacturer and user, it is particularly
important that the information provided be recognized and
correctly understood. Although all the parameters have
not been introduced, a broad number will now be familiar.
The remaining parameters will be introduced in the
chapters that follow.
• Reference will then be made to this specification sheet to
review the manner in which the parameter is presented.
THANK YOU

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Famous Scientists and Inventors Who Shaped

Often referred to as the Master of Electricity, Benjamin Franklin has great

Hans Christian Ørsted

Georg Simon Ohm

James Prescott Joule

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

Sir Charles Wheatstone

James Clerk Maxwell

Thomas Alva Edison

John Ambrose Fleming

Edwin Howard Armstrong

Harold Stephen Black

Philo Taylor Farnsworth

Francis Hauksbee (1666 - 1713)

Carl Friedrich Gauss

François Jean Dominique Arago (1786–1853)

Karl Ferdinand Braun, (1850-1918)

Charles Francis Brush (849 – 1929)

Hans R. Camenzind (1934 – 2012)

Willis Haviland Carrier (1876-1950)

Henry Cavendish (1731 – 1810)

Charles Francois du Fay (1698 – 1739)

John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945)

Stephen Gray (1666 – 1736)

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, (1824-87)

Georg Von Kleist (1700-1748)

Charles Augustus Coulomb (1736-1806)

Heinrich F.E. Lenz (1804-1865)

Samuel Finley Breese Morse (1791-1872)

He brought a practical system of telegraphy to the fore front using electromagnets,

Sir William Crookes (1832-1919)

Investigated electrical discharges through highly evacuated “Crookes tubes” in the

Joseph Wilson Swan (1828-1914)

Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923)

The unit of radiation exposure (rad) is named after him.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Seymour Cray (1925-1996)

Ray Prasad (1946-Still Going 2019)

Become aware of the general characteristics of three important semiconductor

2. Discuss the evolution of Electronics

3. Describe the application of

THE START OF MODERN ERA

• This industry is most applicable to the common people.

• This is again categorized as:

• Industrial automation and motion control, Machine

• Smart grid systems

Advanced sophisticated instruments are being developed for

Some of the medical devices and equipment used are:

• Environmental monitoring is done through various

• Some of them are:

Defense and Aeronautical applications include:

• Boylestad, Robert L. (2013) Electronic Devices and

1. Describe the structure of an atom

2. Discuss insulators, conductors and

3. Describe how current is produced in a

THE BOHR ATOM

A neutral Si atom is shown. There

• Sodium is highly reactive