1.Difference between 32 bit and 64 bit operating system.

The terms 32-bit and 64-bit refer to the way a computer's processor (also called a CPU), handles information. The 64-bit version of Windows handles large amounts of random access memory (RAM) more effectively than a 32-bit system. Open System by clicking the Start button , clicking Control Panel, clicking System and Maintenance, and then clicking System.

1. 2.

Under System, you can view the system type.

The benefits of using a 64-bit operating system are most apparent when you have a large amount of random access memory (RAM) installed on your computer (typically 4 GB of RAM or more). In such cases, because a 64-bit operating system can handle large amounts of memory more efficiently than a 32-bit operating system, a 64-bit operating system can be more responsive when running several programs at the same time and switching between them frequen

2. Default Backup process for server o.s Cold back up. Hot backup 3. Why http has port no 80? 4. Why does blue screen occurs?

The Blue Screen of Death (also called BSoD, Blue Screen, or bluescreen), known officially as a Stop Error [1] or a bug check, is the error screen displayed by the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems upon encountering a critical error, of a non-recoverable nature, that causes the system to "crash." The term is named after the color of the screen generated by the error. In UNIXbased operating systems, a similar term is kernel panic. Stop errors are usually hardware or driver related, causing the computer to stop responding in order to prevent damage to the hardware, whereupon, in the latest versions of Windows, the screen presents information for diagnostic purposes that was collected as the operating system performed a bug check. 5. A software after getting th installed it rolls back automatically, why?

Ask your administrator whether he has configured Roaming Profiles. There might be a problem with even this Roaming Profile, so that the new profile from your pc never gets written back to the servers location. Next time, you're rebooting, you'll get the old profile from the server and Office or any other program, that might have been installed, loses it's registry settings. Well sometimes when you have to reinstall a program such as office it looks in the directory in program files and in windows XP or above all the files left over in there are right protected, so when attempting to reinstall it can't replaces those files that it requires to install over, back up you user created files then delete the sub programs folder for office 2000 or rename it, then try

reinstalling it.. That way there are not any right protected files that can't be replaced 6. Major difference between vista and windows 7.
There are sheer amount of features and tweaks under the hood. In terms of features and usability Windows 7 is the un-challenged OS till date. If you have been running Vista, then obviously you want to know difference between Vista and Windows 7, before making the wise decision.

The list below takes you through a list of major Windows 7 features that are not available in Vista.

Simply put, Windows 7 is much faster, safer and better than any OS out there including its predecessor Vista.

Apart from all the changes that we have mentioned in the above list, there are many small, new features exist in Windows 7, which can only be experienced by installing Windows 7.

You can also refer our difference between windows 7 Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate editions to know more about Windows 7 editions.

1. Types of OS 2. Server OS
Server OSes are designed from the ground up to provide platforms for multi-user, frequently businesscritical, networked applications. As such, the focus of such operating systems tends to be security, stability and collaboration, rather than user interface.

Server OSes provide a platform for multi-user applications, and most come bundled with a batch of common server applications, such as Web servers, e-mail agents and terminal services.

Common applications for server OSes (Back to contents)

File and printer sharing: File sharing involves setting up a common storage point for a company's documents - a network drive, as it were. Print sharing allows multiple computers to use a single printer. Windows 95, 98 and ME do have file and print sharing, but are not recommended for use as server OSes. Application services (including databases): a server OS's ability to run the applications you need is obviously crucial. Servers function as crucial database stores and shared environments for collaborative applications (such as networked MYOB or Quicken). Web site services: A hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) server is included with many server OSes, either via an integrated application, or other HTTP applications such as the Apache open source server. Some OSes also come with more advanced features, such as database integration (so you can dynamically build Web pages based on information in a database), personalisation and scripting. The world's most popular HTTP server application, Apache, comes with just about every version of Unix and also runs on Windows. Microsoft provides Internet Information Server (IIS) for Windows platforms. E-mail, groupware and messaging: A central e-mail server allows you to forward and receive e-mails to and from your business, as well as control individual e-mail accounts based on a domain. Groupware applications, such as Lotus Notes, Microsoft Exchange or Novell GroupWise, provide email as well as much more sophisticated collaboration. These applications can include shared calendars, document version management, group forums, database/messaging integration, instant messaging and whiteboard sharing. Open source mail systems such as SendMail and Exim are also popular. Terminal services: Allow a client to run a productivity application on a server, while seeing the visual results of the application on their screen. For instance, a client ('terminal') could be running Microsoft Word on the server from their desktop. The server does all the processing work, and just transmits the graphical changes to the terminal, while taking the user's input (mouse movements and key strokes) and sending them to the server. This model allows a company to use clients that don't have a lot of processing power (and enforces the storage of documents on the server, rather than on local hard drives). A server with a lot of memory and a fast processor is needed if it's going to be running productivity applications for the whole office. Nearly every current server OS can do this via Windows Terminal Server, Citrix MetaFrame or the X Window System (which is used by Novell and just about every Unix variant). Caching: Speeding up network access (usually Internet access) by storing previously downloaded files in a cache - kind of like the way an Internet browser keeps a cache of the Web pages you have visited so it doesn't have to download the files all over again. Examples of caching server applications include Novell BorderManager, Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server, Inktomi Traffic Server and Squid.

3. Diff B/w Domain & Workgroup

Design and implementation is simple

Works well for a small number of computers and does not require a Windows server No computer has control over another computer Each computer has a set of local user accounts domain Centralized account administration, security policies and permissions Users can logon to any computer on a domain without needing an account on that particular computer. With this, access to resources can be done by just a single log-on. Computers can be connected to each other on different local networks.

4. I I S? What are the versions of IIS

An IIS (Internet Information Server) application is a Visual Basic application that lives on a Web server and responds to requests from the browser. An IIS application uses HTML to present its user interface and uses compiled Visual Basic code to process requests and respond to events in the browser. To the user, an IIS application appears to be made up of a series of HTML pages. To the developer, an IIS application is made up of a special type of object called a webclass, that in turn contains a series of resources called webitems. The webclass acts as the central functional unit of the application, processing data from the browser and sending information to the users. You define a series of procedures that determine how the webclass responds to these requests. The webitems are the HTML pages and other data the webclass can send to the browser in response to a request.

5. Networking
In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications and allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected devices. 6. Classes of IP-Public/Private 7. Diff B/w Switch & Hub Its job is very simple: anything that comes in one port is sent out to the others. That's it. Every computer connected to the hub "sees" everything that every other computer on the hub sees A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently. By paying attention to the traffic that comes across it, it can "learn" where particular addresses are.

8. How to disable Virus affected one among 500 computers 9. OSI Layers

OSI Reference Model

Application Presentation -File, printing, message, database, and application services. -Data encryption / decryption, compression, and

translating services. Session Transport Network Data Link Physical -Dialog control. -End to end connection. -Routing. -Framing. -Physical topology.

Advantages of Using a Layered Model 1. Allows a layer to be changed without impacting the rest of the model. 2. Interoperability between network applications is improved by using a standard interface. 3. Design and development efforts can be made in a modular fashion. 4. Network operations and troubleshooting can be simplified. Five Conversion Steps of Data Encapsulation Data >> Segments >> Packets >> Frames >> Bits

1. Upper layers convert and format the information into data and send it to the Transport Layer. 2. The Transport layer turns the data into segments and adds headers then sends them to the Network
layer.

3. The Network layer receives the segments and converts them into packets and adds header
information (logical addressing) and sends them to the Data Link Layer.

4. The Data Link layer receives the packets and converts them into frames and adds header
information (physical source and destination addresses) and sends the frames to the Physical Layer.

5. The Physical layer receives the frames and converts them into bits to be put on the network
medium.

Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network resources for the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. Two key types of application-layer implementations are TCP/IP applications and OSI applications. TCP/IP applications are protocols, such as Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), that exist in the Internet Protocol suite. OSI applications are protocols, such as File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM), Virtual Terminal Protocol (VTP), and Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP), that exist in the OSI suite. Internetworking Applications WWW

-Connects countless servers presenting diverse formats: multimedia, graphics, text, sound, and video. Applications such as Netscape Navigator, Internet Explorer, and Mosaic simplify accessing and viewing web sites. EMAIL -Versatile can use SMTP or X.400 to deliver messages between different email applications. Electronic Data Interchange -Composite of specialized standards that facilitates the flow of tasks such as accounting, shipping / receiving, and order and inventory tracking between business. Bulletin Boards -Includes Internet chat rooms, and sharing public domain software. Internet Navigation Utilities -Includes Gopher, WAIS, and search engines, e.g. Yahoo, Excite, and Alta Vista. Helps users locate resources and information on the Internet. Financial Transaction Services -They gather and sell information pertaining to investments and credit data to their subscribers. Back to Top

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that are applied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent from the application layer of one system will be readable by the application layer of another system. Some examples of presentation-layer coding and conversion schemes include common data representation formats, conversion of character representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data encryption schemes. Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image, sound, and video formats, enable the interchange of application data between different types of computer systems. Conversion schemes are used to exchange information with systems by using different text and data representations, such as EBCDIC and ASCII. Standard data compression schemes enable data that is compressed at the source device to be properly decompressed at the destination. Standard data encryption schemes enable data encrypted at the source device to be properly deciphered at the destination. Presentation-layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular protocol stack. The following serve to direct graphic and visual image presentations: PICT -Picture format used by Mac and PowerPC programs for transferring Quick draw graphics. TIFF -Tagged Image File Format, a standard graphics format for high-resolution bitmapped images. JPEG -Joint Photographic Experts Group standards. MIDI -Musical Instrument Digital Interface, used for digitized music. MPEG -Moving Picture Experts Group, standard for compression and coding of motion video. Digital storage and bit rates up to 1.5 Mbps.

Quicktime -Mac and PowerPC audio and video applications. Back to Top

Session Layer
The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between presentation layer entities. Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of session-layer implementations include Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the name binding process; and Session Control Protocol (SCP), the DECnet Phase IV session-layer protocol. Also provides dialog control between devices or nodes. Coordinates and organizes communications between system by offering three different modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. The layer basically keeps different applications' data separate from other applications' data. Session Layer Protocols and Interfaces NFS -Network File System, developed by Sun Microsystems and used with TCP/IP and Unix workstations to allow transparent access to remote resources. SQL -Developed by IBM to provide users with a simpler way to define their information requirements on both local and remote systems. RPC -A broad client / server redirection tool used for disparate service environment. Its procedures are created on clients and performed on servers. X Window -Widely used by intelligent terminals for communications with remote Unix computers, allowing them to operate as though they were locally attached monitors. AppleTalk Session Protocol -A client / server mechanism which establishes and maintains sessions between AppleTalk client and server machines. Digital Network Architecture Session Control Protocol -A DECnet session layer protocol. Back to Top

Transport Layer
The transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport services that are transparent to upper layers. Transport-layer functions typically include flow control, multiplexing, virtual circuit management, and error checking and recovery. Services located in Transport layer both segment and reassemble data from upper layer applications and unite it onto the same data stream. They provide end-to-end data transport services and can establish a logical connection between the sending host and destination host on an Internetwork. It also hides details of any network dependent information from the higher layer by providing transparent data transfer. Flow Control -Data integrity is ensured by maintaining flow control and allowing users the option to request reliable data transport between systems. Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that the

transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving device can process. Reliable data transport employs a connection-oriented communication session between systems. The protocols ensure that the following are achieved: -segments delivered are acknowledged to sender upon delivery. -non acknowledged segments are re-sent. -segments are put back in sequence upon arrival at their destination. -a manageable data flow is maintained to avoid congestion, overloading, and data loss. Multiplexing The Transport layer is responsible for providing mechanisms for multiplexing upper layer applications. Multiplexing enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link. Virtual Circuits Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport layer. Error Checking and Recovery Error checking involves creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission errors, while error recovery involves taking an action, such as requesting that data be retransmitted, to resolve any errors that occur. Acknowledgments -Positive acknowledgement with retransmission ensures that reliable data delivery by requiring a receiving machine to send an acknowledgment message to the sender when it receives data. The sending machine documents each segment sent and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next segment. Using windowing, the machine will transfer an agreed upon number of segments. If the receiving machine receives all the segments intact, it will request the next segment of the next window. If it misses a segment, it will request the missing segment and will transmit a request for the next segment of the next window, when the first window's segments are all received. -During a transfer, congestion can occur because high speed computers can generate data faster that the network can transfer it or because many computers are using the network and sending datagrams through a single gateway. When a machine receives a flood of datagrams, it stores them in a buffer. If the buffer fills, all additional datagrams are discarded. Transport can issue a "not ready" signal to stop a device from transmitting additional segments. Once the buffer is emptied, it sends a "ready" transport indicator. When the waiting machine receives this "go" signal, it continues where it left off. To avoid failures in data transfers, the receiving host acknowledges every segment it receives. Connection-Oriented Communications -In reliable transport operations One device first establishes a connection oriented session with is peer (Initiation) Both host's application programs begin by notifying their individual Operating Systems that a connection is about to be initiated. (Synchronization) The two Operating Systems communicate by sending messages over the network confirming that the transfer is approved and both sides are ready for it to take place. (Negotiating) Once the synchronization is complete, a connection is fully established and data transfer begins. (Established) The data transfers. While the information is being transferred between hosts, the two machines periodically check in with each other, communicating through their protocol software to ensure that all is going well and that data is being received properly.

Windowing

-A window is the number of segments that can be sent without receiving an acknowledgement. Windowing can increase the throughput for data exchanges by limiting the number of acknowledgments needed for total segments transferred. Example: if the window size is three then an acknowledgment is required after the third segment is transferred. Back to Top

Network Layer
The Network layer provides routing and related functions that enable multiple data links to be combined into an internetwork. This is accomplished by the logical addressing (as opposed to the physical addressing) of devices. The network layer supports both connection-oriented and connectionless service from higher-layer protocols. Network-layer protocols typically are routing protocols, but other types of protocols are implemented at the network layer as well. Routers work at this level and provide the routing services for an internetwork. Routing a Packet 1. The router receives the packet and looks up the destination IP address. 2. If the packet isn't destined for the router, the router looks for the destination address in the routing table. 3. Once the destination interface is found, the packet will be sent to the interface. 4. At the destination interface, the packet is framed and sent out on the local network. -There are two types of packets at the Network layer. Data Packets -Used to transport user data through internetwork. -Uses routed protocols such as: IP and IPX. Router Update Packets -Used to update neighbor routers about networks connected to routers on the internetwork. -Routing protocols: RIP, EIGRP, OSPF. -Builds and maintains routing tables on each router. Routing Table Network Address -Protocol specific network addresses. A table is maintained for individual routing protocols since each protocol keeps track of a network with a different addressing scheme. Interface -The interface the packet is sent out on when destined for a particular network. Metric -The distance to the remote network. -Routers breakup broadcast domains by not forwarding broadcast or multicast packets through a router. They also breakup collision domains as each interface is a separate network. -Routers use logical addresses in a network layer header to determine the next hop router to forward the packet to. -Routers can use access lists to control security on packets entering or leaving an interface.

-Routers can provide layer 2 bridging and can simultaneously route through the same interface -Routers provide connections between Virtual LANs. (VLANs) -Routers can provide Quality of Service for specific types of network traffic. Back to Top Network vs. Data Link Layer Addresses Network layer addressing is referred to as logical addressing, whereas Data Link layer addressing uses physical addresses. The physical address of a device can't be changed without removing or replacing the hardware (physical address is burned into a NIC's ROM); while a logical address is configured in software and can be changed as needed.

Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. Different Data Link layer specifications define different network and protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, network topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control. The Data Link layer translates messages from the Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to transmit. It formats messages into data frames and adds a customized header containing the source and destination hardware addresses. Data Link layer is responsible for uniquely identifying each device on a local network. Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing) defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer. Network topology consists of the data link layer specifications that often define how devices are to be physically connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology. Error notification alerts upper-layer protocols that a transmission error has occurred, and the sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are transmitted out of sequence. Flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.

-When a packet is sent between routers, it is framed with control information at the Data Link layer. The information is removed at the destination router and only the original packet remains. If the packet is to go to another router, the framing process is repeated until it gets to the receiving host. The packet is never altered, only encapsulated with control information to be passed on to the different media type. The IEEE has subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC). MAC (Media Access Control) The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the data link layer manages protocol access to the physical network medium. The IEEE MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which enable multiple devices to uniquely identify one another at the data link layer. --The MAC describes how a station schedules, transmits and receives data on a shared media environment. --Ensures reliable transfer of information across the link, synchronizes data transmission, recognizes errors (doesn't correct them), and controls the flow of data. --Defines how packets are placed on the media. --Physical addressing is defined here as well as local topologies. --MAC example is Ethernet/802.3 and Token Ring/802.5 --Line discipline, error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and optional flow control can be used at this layer. --In General, MACs are only important in shared medium environments where multiple nodes can connect to the same transmission medium.

LLC (Logical Link Control) The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer of the data link layer manages communications between devices over a single link of a network. LLC is defined in the IEEE 802.2 specification and supports both connectionless and connection-oriented services used by higher-layer protocols. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of fields in data link layer frames that enable multiple higher-layer protocols to share a single physical data link. --Responsible for identifying Network layer protocols and encapsulating them. --A LLC header tells the Data Link layer what to do with a packet once it is received. Switches and Bridges Work at Data Link layer and filter network using MAC addresses. Layer 2 switching is hardware based switching because it uses an ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit). Switches and Bridges read each frame as it passes through, it then puts the source address in a filter table and keeps track of which port it was received on. This tells the switch where that device is located. After a filter table is built, the device will only forward frames to the segment where the destination address is located. If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the layer 2 device will block it from being forwarded. If the destination is on another segment, the frame will only be forwarded to that segment (transparent bridging). When a layer 2 device receives a frame and the destination is unknown to the device's filter table, it will forward the frame to all connected segments. If the unknown device replies, the filter table is updated with that device's location.

-Layer 2 devices (Switches / Bridges) propagate broadcast storms and the only way to prevent them is with a router. -Each port on a switch is in its own collision domain. -Switches allow all segments to transmit simultaneously. -Switches can't translate different media types. Back to Top

Physical Layer
The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between communicating network systems. Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. Physical-layer implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN specifications. -The Physical layer has two responsibilities, send and receive bits (bits have a value of 1 or 0). -The interface between DCEs and DTEs is defined at the Physical layer. -The DCE is on the service provider side. -The DTE is the attached device, the services available to a DTE are accessed through a CSU/DSU. -HSSI Peer-based communications assumes intelligence in DCE and DTE devices. Hubs and Repeaters -Hubs are multiple port repeaters. A repeater receives a signal, regenerates the digital signal, and forwards it on all active ports. An active hub does the same thing. All devices plugged into a hub are on the same collision and the same broadcast domains. Hubs don't look at any traffic that enters, it just forwards all traffic to all ports. Every device connected to the hub must listen if a device transmits.

10. Which layer transfers the data pack from host application Data link layer 11. Port Nos 0-1023 sys processes 1024-49151 ordinary users....for specific services 49151--- private port 12. How will you remove virus from computer and the customer doesnt have internet access 13. How will you change the rules of particular domain in a server you spend any time on the Internet sending e-mail or browsing the Web, then you use domain name servers without even realizing it. Domain name servers, or DNS, are an incredibly important but completely hidden part of the Internet, and they are fascinating. The DNS system forms one of the largest and most active distributed databases on the planet. Without DNS, the Internet would shut down very quickly. When you use the Web or send an e-mail message, you use a domain name to do it. For example, the URL "http://www.howstuffworks.com" contains the domain name howstuffworks.com. So does the e-mail address "iknow@howstuffworks.com." Human-readable names like "howstuffworks.com" are easy for people to remember, but they don't do machines any good. All of the machines use names called IP addresses to refer to one another. For example, the machine that humans refer to as "www.howstuffworks.com" has the IP address 70.42.251.42. Every time you use a domain name, you use the Internet's domain name servers (DNS) to translate the human-readable domain name into the machine-readable IP address. During a day of browsing and e-mailing, you might access the domain name servers hundreds of times! In this article, we'll take a look at the DNS system so you can understand how it works and appreciate its amazing capabilities.

DNS Servers and IP Addresses

Domain name servers translate domain names to IP addresses. That sounds like a simple task, and it would be -- except for five things:

There are billions of IP addresses currently in use, and most machines have a humanreadable name as well. There are many billions of DNS requests made every day. A single person can easily make a hundred or more DNS requests a day, and there are hundreds of millions of people and machines using the Internet daily. Domain names and IP addresses change daily. New domain names get created daily. Millions of people do the work to change and add domain names and IP addresses every day.

The DNS system is a database, and no other database on the planet gets this many requests. No other database on the planet has millions of people changing it every day, either. That is what makes the DNS system so unique.

IP Addresses To keep all of the machines on the Internet straight, each machine is assigned a unique address called an IP address. IP stands for Internet protocol, and these addresses are 32-bit numbers normally expressed as four "octets" in a "dotted decimal number." A typical IP address looks like this:
70.42.251.42

The four numbers in an IP address are called octets because they can have values between 0 and 255 (28 possibilities per octet). Every machine on the Internet has its own IP address. A server has a static IP address that does not change very often. A home machine that is dialing up through a modem often has an IP address that is assigned by the ISP when you dial in. That IP address is unique for your session and may be different the next time you dial in. In this way, an ISP only needs one IP address for each modem it supports, rather than for every customer. If you are working on a Windows machine, you can view your current IP address with the command WINIPCFG.EXE (IPCONFIG.EXE for Windows 2000/XP). On a UNIX machine, type nslookup along with a machine name (such as "nslookup www.howstuffworks.com") to display the IP address of the machine (use the command hostname to learn the name of your machine). For more information on IP addresses, see IANA. As far as the Internet's machines are concerned, an IP address is all that you need to talk to a server. For example, you can type in your browser the URL http://70.42.251.42 and you will arrive at the machine that contains the Web server for HowStuffWorks. Domain names are strictly a human convenience.

Domain Names
If we had to remember the IP addresses of all of the Web sites we visit every day, we would all go nuts. Human beings just are not that good at remembering strings of numbers. We are good at remembering words, however, and that is where domain names come in. You probably have hundreds of domain names stored in your head. For example:

www.howstuffworks.com - a typical name www.yahoo.com - the world's best-known name www.mit.edu - a popular EDU name encarta.msn.com - a Web server that does not start with www www.bbc.co.uk - a name using four parts rather than three ftp.microsoft.com - an FTP server rather than a Web server

The COM, EDU and UK portions of these domain names are called the top-level domain or firstlevel domain. There are several hundred top-level domain names, including COM, EDU, GOV, MIL, NET, ORG and INT, as well as unique two-letter combinations for every country. Within every top-level domain there is a huge list of second-level domains. For example, in the COM first-level domain, you've got:

howstuffworks

yahoo msn microsoft plus millions of others...

Every name in the COM top-level domain must be unique, but there can be duplication across domains. For example, howstuffworks.com and howstuffworks.org are completely different machines. In the case of bbc.co.uk, it is a third-level domain. Up to 127 levels are possible, although more than four is rare. The left-most word, such as www or encarta, is the host name. It specifies the name of a specific machine (with a specific IP address) in a domain. A given domain can potentially contain millions of host names as long as they are all unique within that domain. Because all of the names in a given domain need to be unique, there has to be a single entity that controls the list and makes sure no duplicates arise. For example, the COM domain cannot contain any duplicate names, and a company called Network Solutions is in charge of maintaining this list. When you register a domain name, it goes through one of several dozen registrars who work with Network Solutions to add names to the list. Network Solutions, in turn, keeps a central database known as the whois database that contains information about the owner and name servers for each domain. If you go to the whois form, you can find information about any domain currently in existence. While it is important to have a central authority keeping track of the database of names in the COM (and other) top-level domain, you would not want to centralize the database of all of the information in the COM domain. For example, Microsoft has hundreds of thousands of IP addresses and host names. Microsoft wants to maintain its own domain name server for the microsoft.com domain. Similarly, Great Britain probably wants to administrate the uk top-level domain, and Australia probably wants to administrate the au domain, and so on. For this reason, the DNS system is a distributed database. Microsoft is completely responsible for dealing with the name server for microsoft.com -- it maintains the machines that implement its part of the DNS system, and Microsoft can change the database for its domain whenever it wants to because it owns its domain name servers. Every domain has a domain name server somewhere that handles its requests, and there is a person maintaining the records in that DNS. This is one of the most amazing parts of the DNS system -- it is completely distributed throughout the world on millions of machines administered by millions of people, yet it behaves like a single, integrated database!

The Distributed System

Name servers do two things all day long:

They accept requests from programs to convert domain names into IP addresses. They accept requests from other name servers to convert domain names into IP addresses. It can answer the request with an IP address because it already knows the IP address for the domain.

When a request comes in, the name server can do one of four things with it:

It can contact another name server and try to find the IP address for the name requested. It may have to do this multiple times. It can say, "I don't know the IP address for the domain you requested, but here's the IP address for a name server that knows more than I do." It can return an error message because the requested domain name is invalid or does not exist.

When you type a URL into your browser, the browser's first step is to convert the domain name and host name into an IP address so that the browser can go request a Web page from the machine at that IP address (see How Web Servers Work for details on the whole process). To do this conversion, the browser has a conversation with a name server. When you set up your machine on the Internet, you (or the software that you installed to connect to your ISP) had to tell your machine what name server it should use for converting domain names to IP addresses. On some systems, the DNS is dynamically fed to the machine when you connect to the ISP, and on other machines it is hard-wired. If you are working on a Windows 95/98/ME machine, you can view your current name server with the command WINIPCFG.EXE (IPCONFIG for Windows 2000/XP). On a UNIX machine, type nslookup along with your machine name. Any program on your machine that needs to talk to a name server to resolve a domain name knows what name server to talk to because it can get the IP address of your machine's name server from the operating system. The browser therefore contacts its name server and says, "I need for you to convert a domain name to an IP address for me." For example, if you type "www.howstuffworks.com" into your browser, the browser needs to convert that URL into an IP address. The browser will hand "www.howstuffworks.com" to its default name server and ask it to convert it. The name server may already know the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. That would be the case if another request to resolve www.howstuffworks.com came in recently (name servers cache IP addresses to speed things up). In that case, the name server can return the IP address immediately. Let's assume, however, that the name server has to start from scratch. A name server would start its search for an IP address by contacting one of the root name servers. The root servers know the IP address for all of the name servers that handle the top-level domains. Your name server would ask the root for www.howstuffworks.com, and the root would say (assuming no caching), "I don't know the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com, but here's the IP address for the COM name server." Obviously, these root servers are vital to this whole process, so:

There are many of them scattered all over the planet. Every name server has a list of all of the known root servers. It contacts the first root server in the list, and if that doesn't work it contacts the next one in the list, and so on.

Here is a typical list of root servers held by a typical name server:

; ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; ; ; This file holds the information on root name servers needed to initialize cache of Internet domain name servers (e.g. reference this file in the "cache . " configuration file of BIND domain name servers). This file is made available by InterNIC registration services under anonymous FTP as file /domain/named.root on server FTP.RS.INTERNIC.NET -OR- under Gopher at RS.INTERNIC.NET

; under menu InterNIC Registration Services (NSI) ; submenu InterNIC Registration Archives ; file named.root ; ; last update: Aug 22, 1997 ; related version of root zone: 1997082200 ; ; ; formerly NS.INTERNIC.NET ; . 3600000 IN NS A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 198.41.0.4 ; ; formerly NS1.ISI.EDU ; . 3600000 NS B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. B.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 128.9.0.107 ; ; formerly C.PSI.NET ; . 3600000 NS C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. C.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.33.4.12 ; ; formerly TERP.UMD.EDU ; . 3600000 NS D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. D.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 128.8.10.90 ; ; formerly NS.NASA.GOV ; . 3600000 NS E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. E.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.203.230.10 ; ; formerly NS.ISC.ORG ; . 3600000 NS F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. F.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.5.5.241 ; ; formerly NS.NIC.DDN.MIL ; . 3600000 NS G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. G.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.112.36.4 ; ; formerly AOS.ARL.ARMY.MIL ; . 3600000 NS H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. H.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 128.63.2.53 ; ; formerly NIC.NORDU.NET ; . 3600000 NS I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. I.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 192.36.148.17 ; ; temporarily housed at NSI (InterNIC) ; . 3600000 NS J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. J.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 198.41.0.10 ; ; housed in LINX, operated by RIPE NCC ; . 3600000 NS K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. K.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A 193.0.14.129 ; ; temporarily housed at ISI (IANA)

; . 3600000 NS L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A ; ; housed in Japan, operated by WIDE ; . 3600000 NS M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 3600000 A ; End of File

L.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 198.32.64.12

M.ROOT-SERVERS.NET. 202.12.27.33

The formatting is a little odd, but basically it shows you that the list contains the actual IP addresses of 13 different root servers. The root server knows the IP addresses of the name servers handling the several hundred top-level domains. It returns to your name server the IP address for a name server for the COM domain. Your name server then sends a query to the COM name server asking it if it knows the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. The name server for the COM domain knows the IP addresses for the name servers handling the HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM domain, so it returns those. Your name server then contacts the name server for HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM and asks if it knows the IP address for www.howstuffworks.com. It does, so it returns the IP address to your name server, which returns it to the browser, which can then contact the server for www.howstuffworks.com to get a Web page. One of the keys to making this work is redundancy. There are multiple name servers at every level, so if one fails, there are others to handle the requests. There are, for example, three different machines running name servers for HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM requests. All three would have to fail for there to be a problem. The other key is caching. Once a name server resolves a request, it caches all of the IP addresses it receives. Once it has made a request to a root server for any COM domain, it knows the IP address for a name server handling the COM domain, so it doesn't have to bug the root servers again for that information. Name servers can do this for every request, and this caching helps to keep things from bogging down. Name servers do not cache forever, though. The caching has a component, called the Time To Live (TTL), that controls how long a server will cache a piece of information. When the server receives an IP address, it receives the TTL with it. The name server will cache the IP address for that period of time (ranging from minutes to days) and then discard it. The TTL allows changes in name servers to propagate. Not all name servers respect the TTL they receive, however. When HowStuffWorks moved its machines over to new servers, it took three weeks for the transition to propagate throughout the Web. We put a little tag that said "new server" in the upper left corner of the home page so people could tell whether they were seeing the new or the old server during the transition.

Creating a New Domain Name

When someone wants to create a new domain, he or she has to do two things:

Find a name server for the domain name to live on. Register the domain name.

Technically, there does not need to be a machine in the domain -- there just needs to be a name server that can handle the requests for the domain name. There are two ways to get a name server for a domain:

You can create and administer it yourself. You can pay an ISP or hosting company to handle it for you.

Most larger companies have their own domain name servers. Most smaller companies pay someone. The history of HowStuffWorks is typical. When howstuffworks.com was first created, it began as a parked domain. This domain lived with a company called www.webhosting.com. Webhosting.com maintained the name server and also maintained a machine that created the single "under construction" page for the domain. To create a domain, you fill out a form with a company that does domain name registration (examples: register.com, verio.com, networksolutions.com). They create an "under construction page," create an entry in their name server, and submit the form's data into the whois database. Twice a day, the COM, ORG, NET, etc. name servers get updates with the newest IP address information. At that point, a domain exists and people can go see the "under construction" page. HowStuffWorks then started publishing content under the domain www.howstuffworks.com. We set up a hosting account with Tabnet (now part of Verio, Inc.), and Tabnet ran the DNS for HowStuffWorks as well as the machine that hosted the HowStuffWorks Web pages. This type of machine is called a virtual Web hosting machine and is capable of hosting multiple domains simultaneously. Five-hundred or so different domains all shared the same processor. As HowStuffWorks became more popular, it outgrew the virtual hosting machine and needed its own server. At that point, we started maintaining our own machines dedicated to HowStuffWorks, and began administering our own DNS. We currently have four servers:

AUTH-NS1.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM 70.42.150.19 AUTH-NS2.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM 70.42.150.20 AUTH-NS3.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM 70.42.251.19 AUTH-NS4.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM 70.42.251.20

Our primary DNS is auth-ns1.howstuffworks.com. Any changes we make to it propagate automatically to the secondary, which is also maintained by our ISP. All of these machines run name server software called BIND. BIND knows about all of the machines in our domain through a text file on the main server that looks like this:
@ @ @ mail vip1 www NS auth-ns1.howstuffworks.com. NS auth-ns2.howstuffworks.com. MX 10 mail A 209.170.137.42

A 216.183.103.150 CNAME vip1

Decoding this file from the top, you can see that:

The first two lines point to the primary and secondary name servers. The next line is called the MX record. When you send e-mail to anyone at howstuffworks.com, the piece of software sending the e-mail contacts the name server to get the MX record so it knows where the SMTP server for HowStuffWorks is (see How E-mail Works for details). Many larger systems have multiple machines handling incoming e-mail, and therefore multiple MX records.

The next line points to the machine that will handle a request to mail.howstuffworks.com. The next line points to the IP address that will handle a request to oak.howstuffworks.com. The next line points to the IP address that will handle a request to howstuffworks.com (no host name).

You can see from this file that there are several physical machines at separate IP addresses that make up the HowStuffWorks server infrastructure. There are aliases for hosts like mail and www. There can be aliases for anything. For example, there could be an entry in this file for scoobydoo.howstuffworks.com, and it could point to the physical machine called walnut. There could be an alias for yahoo.howstuffworks.com, and it could point to yahoo. There really is no limit to it. We could also create multiple name servers and segment our domain. As you can see from this description, DNS is a rather amazing distributed database. It handles billions of requests for billions of names every day through a network of millions of name servers administered by millions of people. Every time you send an e-mail message or view a URL, you are making requests to multiple name servers scattered all over the globe. What's amazing is that the process is usually completely invisible and extremely reliable!

14. How does a web server work? The basic of any hosting account are that you need two parts to make the whole. For an example you need a client, which would be the person or thing requesting the information. You also need the server at which the information is stored. This is where the simplicity dies off though. Here are your basic steps for any exchange between a person and a server. First the clients browser (like Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera) take apart the address from the protocol. Then a domain name server translates the domain name you typed in into an IP address. The browser then looks at the protocol (In this case would be HTTP) and decides how you wish to access the data. After that the signal gets sent to retrieve the information from that server. Then it comes back to you as a web page in your browser. Other than handling the the requests from users to get data the server also is in charge of telling apart different file types, storing data and information in ways that can be accessed at a moments notice and a slew of other important jobs. All of these different jobs and how quickly the server can act through all of these tasks should weigh in heavily when looking for your next dedicated hosting account. 15. How to make 2 routers connected to a network with single DHCP
Yeah you are right, that became clear to me, too. Since I don't have a switch, I have to use the second router as a switch. So I connected the two computer to the second router as well as the connection to the first router (on a LanPort). That worked well except for the computer directly connected to router 1. They now used router 2 as DHCP (I have no idea why). So I have to disable DHCP of the second router. Furthermore I have to give router 2 an I IP in the address-range of router 1, to have access to it's configuration menu. Now everything works! All the mashines have access to the internet with router 1 as gateway and DHCP-server, while router 2 operates

like a switch.

Connecting two routers wired to create a single LAN

You have one router running in your network. This router connects to the internet. Now you want to hook up a second router (e.g. a wireless router to have wireless access) in your network connecting both with an ethernet cable. The following is in most cases the best approach for home networks. You'll find similar answers with some screenshots in the Linksys Easy Answers, e.g. 4579 The setup: 1. Unplug the second router from anything. Connect a single computer to the router. Do not connect the second router to the first at the moment! 2. Configure the router at http://192.168.1.1/ 3. Change the LAN IP address of the second router from 192.168.1.1 to a free address in your LAN (e.g. 192.168.1.2 should be O.K. if the first router is also a Linksys router). The address you change to (192.168.1.2) must not be used by any other device with static IP address in your network nor should be assigned by the DHCP server your network. A default Linksys router uses 192.168.1.1 itself and the DHCP server assigns 192.168.1.100149. 4. Turn off the DHCP server on the second router. 5. Save the setting. 6. Unplug the computer from the second router. 7. Connect an ethernet cable from a numbered LAN port of the first router to a numbered LAN port of the second router. Do not use the Internet/WAN port on the second router! 8. That's it! If you don't know or don't want to know more about networking you don't have to read the rest here. What do you have now? The second router is connected through a LAN port to your existing network. This basically means that the router part of the device is actually not used. So you have a router device that you don't operate as router in your network. Whatever you connect to the second router either through one of the remaining LAN ports or through a wireless if it has one, is directly connected to your LAN. Devices connected to the second router use the DHCP server of the first router to get an IP address. They use the first router directly for internet access. Everything is connected to a single larger ethernet network. Everything is in a single "broadcast" domain. If the second router is not a wireless one, you basically have a few more ports in your network. In that case it might have been cheaper to get a simple switch/hub instead to extend your network. Please remember: as the second router is not connected through the Internet/WAN port many configurations and functions of the second router won't work simply because they

require an internet connection on the router itself. Some examples are: access restrictions, dynamic DNS service, port forwardings, MAC address clone, the firewall... All these things must be configured on the first router and only there. Why is this better than connecting the second router with the Internet port? A router is a separating network element. It separates two networks and allows certain traffic to cross. Sometimes this is necessary in a network setup but for most home networks it only creates a lot of obstacles. 1. In default Gateway mode the second router does network address translation (NAT). This means computers connected to the second router can connect to computers connected to the first router but not in the opposite direction. 2. If you use Router mode on the second router: you have to configure "routes" on the first router and possibly your computer connected to the first router so that IP packets find their way into the subnet of the second router. 3. You have two separate ethernet networks and thus two "broadcast" domains. A broadcast in the first router's subnet reaches all computers connected there. The same applies to the second router. A broadcast will never cross the second router, though. This is an obstacle for applications that depend on broadcasting to locate other computers and services. Windows file and printer sharing is one example here. With the second router in between, computers on one side do not know about computers on the other side. You cannot search your workgroup for the computer on the other side even when they use the identical workgroup name. You will be able to access the other computer using the IP address directly (e.g. \\192.168.1.100\share) but that's usually a hassle and the IP address may change if it is assigned by the DHCP server to the computer. There are ways to deal with some of these issues (e.g. save the host names in lmhosts files...) but all this requires more effort and attention to keep everything up-to-date. 4. Port forwardings become more complicated. If you need a port forwarding (i.e. you want a port on a computer in your network to be accessible from the internet) on a computer connected to the second router you have to setup two forwardings: one on the first router to the second router and one on the second router to the computer. 5. If you have two wireless routers: you cannot roam between both routers without loosing the connection. This is simply because if a wireless computers moves from one router to the other it needs a different IP address. 6. The whole configuration becomes more complicated: you always have to think about where to configure what, e.g. dynamic DNS service, access restrictions, ... 16. OSI Model Layers and its functions 17. What protocol is used in Application Layer, Session Layer, Transport Layer and what port nos 18. How many reserved ports are there 0-1023 19. I have 500 computers. Which OS will you prefer and why? 20. Flavours of Server?
Windows Security Officer v7.5.5.4 :: 2011-01-30 :: 0 Windows server datacenter 2003 br :: 2005-07-13 :: 25

Windows Server 2003 - Standard :: 2005-11-03 :: 39 Windows Server 2003 32 BIT :: 2010-01-04 :: 47 Windows Server 2003 All :: 2005-04-30 :: 32 Windows Server 2003 Ent. VLK :: 2007-07-09 :: 36 Windows Server 2003 Enterprise :: 2008-02-11 :: 35 Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition :: 2007-02-26 :: 54 Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition (RC2) :: 2006-07-10 :: 14 Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Espaol :: 2005-01-25 :: 29 Windows Server 2003 Family Edition :: 2007-01-12 :: 32 Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition :: 2006-02-21 :: 26 Windows Server 2003 SBS Evaluation PL :: 2005-07-18 :: 20 Windows Server 2003 Standard Edition PL :: 2005-05-10 :: 25 Windows Server 2003 Trail 2003 :: 2005-01-03 :: 35 Windows Server 2003 upd :: 2006-06-22 :: 42 Windows server 2003 Volume Licence :: 2005-01-23 :: 45 Windows Server 2003 x64 Editions (Volume License) :: 2006-07-10 :: 39 Windows server 2008 :: 2010-02-05 :: 12 Windows Server 2008 :: 2009-09-21 :: 8 Windows Server 2008 Data Ctr/Itan :: 2010-01-26 :: 43 Windows Server 2008 Ent/Web/Std/DC :: 2010-01-04 :: 32 Windows Server 2008 Enterprise :: 2008-04-04 :: 50 Windows Server 2008 Enterprise :: 2009-09-21 :: 11 Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition :: 2007-10-07 :: 28 Windows Server 2008 R2 MAK Key :: 2009-12-28 :: 34 Windows Server 2008 R2 Technet :: 2010-03-16 :: 19 Windows server 2008 stand :: 2009-07-03 :: 13 Windows Server 2008 Std/Ent :: 2010-01-26 :: 24 Windows Server 2008 Technet :: 2010-03-16 :: 20 Windows Serwer 2008 RC1 :: 2007-12-25 :: 24

21. Editions of Windows 2003 Server Web edition Datacenter edition Standard edition Enterprise edition 22. How to remove virus from server 23. What makes the switch an intelligent device Switches are much more intelligent devices that analyze each packet coming in. The switch determines where the traffic needs to go and transmits it only on the port connected to the destination computer. This is a much more efficient use of the networks bandwidth, and it also prevents unauthorized users from intercepting traffic on the network. Until recently, switches were much more expensive than hubs, but recent advances in switch technology have made hubs all but obsolete. 24. When can you call a OS as Server OS 25. What is HTTP?Port No of HTTP 26. Flavours of SP 2003 27. Domain Access for the server 28. 500 Computers in Server Domain and how will clean up 300 virus infected computers without internet connectivity 29. How does DNS work 30. Where are the websites & files gets stored in? 31. Which tool is used to monitor the bandwidth of n/w?Wireshark 32. How to reduce network traffic on a n/w 33. Will firewall be enabled by default in windows 2003 Server?

34. What are the well known port numbers and what are their port range? 35. What is domain server 36. What is Group Policy 37. What is Work Group 38. What are Types of W2K3 servers 39. What is a server used for 40. What are the restrictions in work group 41. Diff b/w WEP & Wsk 42. Steps to be followed to connect to wireless n/w in a laptop 43. Can a software be installed in a virus infected system and that's a standalone computer with no internet connection. 44. What is the procedure to connect a group of 5 computers to a wireless printer 45. How will you delete the virus and stop the replication in and stop the replication in a LAN Connection of computers 46. What will you do if the mcafee installation stucks on a brand new computer? Remove the overclocking of the processor and memory. Overclocking can cause instability in the hardware, which will normally cause...freezes.