Introduction

Machines are the devices which make our work easier and
faster. A machine is a device which helps us to lift heavy loads, or
speed up the motion or change the direction of force in the desired
direction. Machines help in gaining force. With the help of
machines small force can be used to overcome a large force.
e.g. screw jack can lift an object as heavy as car to change
its tyres. Machine can change the direction of the force so
that force can be applied in a more convenient manner. e.g.
rope passing over a wheel make easy to lift water from well.
Also, Machines help in carrying out unsafe and dangerous
tasks. e.g. pair of tongs can be used to lift a piece of burning
coal from fire.
A simple machine is a mechanical device that changes the
direction or magnitude of a force. In general, they can be defined as
the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage (also
called leverage) to multiply force. different types of simple
machines are:-

• Lever
• Inclined plane
• Pulley
• Wheel and axle
• Wedge
• Screw
Technical terms related to simple
machines are:-
Deriviation from book.

Lever
A lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a fixed point called the fulcrum.
The bar may be either straight or curved.In use, a lever has both an effort
(or applied) force and a load (resistant force). A lever amplifies an
input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to
provide leverage. The ratio of the output force to the input force is
the mechanical advantage of the lever.
Force and lever

A lever in balance

A lever is a beam connected to ground by a hinge, or pivot, called a fulcrum. The ideal lever does
not dissipate or store energy, which means there is no friction in the hinge or bending in the beam. In
this case, the power into the lever equals the power out, and the ratio of output to input force is given
by the ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to the points of application of these forces. This is
known as thelaw of the lever.

The mechanical advantage of a lever can be determined by considering the balance

of moments or torque, T, about the fulcrum.

where F1 is the input force to the lever and F2 is the output force. The distances a and b are the
perpendicular distances between the forces and the fulcrum.

Since the moments of torque must be balanced, . So, .

The mechanical advantage of the lever is the ratio of output force to input force,

This relationship shows that the mechanical advantage can be computed from ratio of the
distances from the fulcrum to where the input and output forces are applied to the lever,
assuming no losses due to friction, flexibility or wear.

Law of the lever

The lever is a movable bar that pivots on a fulcrum attached to a fixed point. The lever operates by
applying forces at different distances from the fulcrum, or a pivot.

Assuming the lever does not dissipate or store energy, the power into the lever must equal the
power out of the lever. As the lever rotates around the fulcrum, points farther from this pivot move
faster than points closer to the pivot. Therefore, a force applied to a point farther from the pivot must
be less than the force located at a point closer in, because power is the product of force and velocity.
 This is the law of the lever, which was proven by Archimedes using geometric reasoning. It
shows that if the distance a from the fulcrum to where the input force is applied (point A) is
greater than the distance b from fulcrum to where the output force is applied (point B), then the
lever amplifies the input force. On the other hand, if the distance afrom the fulcrum to the input
force is less than the distance b from the fulcrum to the output force, then the lever reduces the
input force.

First Class Lever

Fulcrum is between EF (effort) and RF (load)
Effort moves farther than Resistance.
Multiplies EF and changes its direction. Common
examples of first-class levers include crowbars,
scissors, pliers, tin snips and seesaws.
Here, The mechanical advantage of a lever
is the ratio of the length of the lever on the
applied force side of the fulcrum to the length of
the lever on the resistance force side of the
fulcrum.
Second Class Lever
RF (load) is between fulcrum and EF
Effort moves farther than Resistance.
Multiplies EF, but does not change its direction.
Examples of second-class levers include nut crackers,
wheel barrows, doors, and bottle openers.
Here, The mechanical advantage of a lever is the
ratio of the distance from the applied force to the
fulcrum to the distance from the resistance force to
the fulcrum.
Third Class Lever
EF is between fulcrum and RF (load)
Does not multiply force
Resistance moves farther than Effort.
Multiplies the distance the effort force travels. Examples of third-class
levers include tweezers, arm hammers, and shovels.

Here, The mechanical advantage of a lever is the ratio of the

distance from the applied force to the fulcrum to the distance of the
resistance force to the fulcrum
Inclined Plane
An inclined plane, also known as a ramp, is a flat supporting surface
tilted at an angle, with one end higher than the other, used as an aid
for raising or lowering a load. The inclined plane is one of the six
classical simple machines defined by Renaissance scientists. Inclined
planes are widely used to move heavy loads over vertical obstacles;
examples vary from a ramp used to load goods into a truck, to a
person walking up a pedestrian ramp, to an automobile or railroad
train climbing a grade.[3]
Moving an object up an inclined plane requires less force than lifting it
straight up, at a cost of an increase in the distance moved. The
mechanical advantage of an inclined plane, the factor by which the
force is reduced, is equal to the ratio of the length of the sloped
surface to the height it spans. Due to conservation of energy, the
same amount of mechanical energy (work) is required to lift a given
object by a given vertical distance, disregarding losses from friction,
but the inclined plane allows the same work to be done with a smaller
force exerted over a greater distance.
Inclined planes are widely used in the form of loading ramps to load
and unload goods on trucks, ships, and planes.] Wheelchair ramps are
used to allow people in wheelchairsto get over vertical obstacles
without exceeding their strength. Escalators and slanted conveyor
belts are also forms of inclined plane

The mechanical advantage MA of a simple machine is defined as the

ratio of the output force exerted on the load to the input force applied.
For the inclined plane the output load force is just the gravitational
force of the load object on the plane, its weight Fw. The input force is
the force Fi exerted on the object, parallel to the plane, to move it up
the plane. The mechanical advantage is
 The MA of an ideal inclined plane without friction is sometimes
called ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) while the MA when friction
is included is called the actual mechanical advantage (AMA).

Wheel and axle

Wheel and axle essentially consist of two cylinders of different
radii joined together, such that if one is made to rotate the other
too rotates. the axle is stuck rigidly to a large wheel. Fan
blades are attached to the wheel. When the axel turns, the
fan blades spin.
Gears are a set of toothed wheels working together to
transfer rotational motion from one gear to the other. Gear ratio
of a gear system is defined as the ratio of number of teeth in the
driving wheel to the number of teeth in the driven wheel.
The mechanical advantage of a simple machine like the
wheel and axle is computed as the ratio of the resistance to the
effort. The larger the ratio the greater the multiplication of force
(torque) created or distance achieved. By varying the radii of the
axle and/or wheel, any amount of mechanical advantage may be
gained.In this manner, the size of the wheel may be increased to
an inconvenient extent. In this case a system or combination of
wheels (often toothed, that is, gears) are used. As a wheel and
axle is a type of lever, a system of wheels and axles is like a
compound lever.

mechanical advantage, is given by

The ideal mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is calculated with the following formula:
The actual mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is calculated with the following formula:

where

R = resistance force, i.e. the weight of the bucket in this example.

Eactual = actual effort force, the force required to turn the wheel.

Pulley
Pulley is a flat circular disc having a groove in its edge and
capable of rotating around a fixed point passing through its
central axis commonly called axle. A pulley is a metallic or
wooden disc with a grooved rim. The pulley rotates about an axis
passing through its centre. A pulley can be used to simply change
the direction of a force or to gain a mechanical advantage, depending
on how the pulley is arranged.

Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and to
transmit power. In nautical contexts, the assembly of wheel, axle, and
supporting shell is referred to as a "block."
A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have
a groove or grooves between two flanges around its circumference.
The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope, cable, belt,
or chain that runs over the pulley inside the groove or grooves.
Principle : - The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system
assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless, and that there is no
energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not
stretch.
In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In
addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts.
This means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block
must each support half the load.

Rope and pulley system :- A set of pulleys assembled so that they

rotate independently on the same axle form a block. Two blocks with a
rope attached to one of the blocks and threaded through the two sets
of pulleys form a block and tackle.
A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed
mounting point and the other is attached to the moving load. The ideal
mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number
of parts of the rope that support the moving block.
In the diagram below , the ideal mechanical advantage of each of the
block and tackle assemblies shown is as follows:
• Gun Tackle: 2
• Luff Tackle: 3
• Double Tackle: 4
• Gyn Tackle: 5
• Threefold purchase: 6

A rope and pulley system that is, a block and tackle is characterised
by the use of a single continuous rope to transmit a tension force
around one or more pulleys to lift or move a load the rope may be a
light line or a strong cable. This system is included in the list of simple
machinesidentified by Renaissance scientists.[8][9]
If the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then
its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act
on the load.
different types of pulley systems:

• Fixed: A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to

a supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the
force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference.
Mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a
movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter.
 Movable: A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A
single movable pulley is supported by two parts of the same rope and
has a mechanical advantage of two. The mechanical advantage of a
moveable pulley is equal to the number of ropes that support the moveable
pulley.

• Compound: A combination of fixed and a movable pulleys forms

a block and tackle. A block and tackle can have several pulleys
mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further increasing the
mechanical advantage.
Belt and pulley systems
A belt and pulley system is characterised by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. This allows
for mechanical power, torque, andspeed to be transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are of differing
diameters, a mechanical advantage is realised.

A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt sheave may be smooth (devoid of
discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt) so
that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter of the
sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets.

In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the pulley often is slightly convex to
keep the flat belt centred. It is sometimes referred to as a crowned pulley. Though once widely used
on factory line shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving the rotating brush in upright vacuum
cleaners, in belt sanders and bandsaws.[12] Agricultural tractors built up to the early 1950s generally
had a belt pulley for a flat belt (which is what Belt Pulley magazine was named after). It has been
replaced by other mechanisms with more flexibility in methods of use, such as power take-
off and hydraulics.
Just as the diameters of gears (and, correspondingly, their number of teeth) determine a gear
ratio and thus the speed increases or reductions and the mechanical advantage that they can
deliver, the diameters of pulleys determine those same factors. Cone pulleys and step pulleys (which
operate on the same principle, although the names tend to be applied to flat belt versions and V belt
versions, respectively) are a way to provide multiple drive ratios in a belt-and-pulley system that can
be shifted as needed, just as a transmissionprovides this function with a gear train that can be
shifted. V belt step pulleys are the most common way that drill presses deliver a range of spindle
speeds.

Flat belt on a belt pulley

Belt and pulley system

Cone pulley driven from above by aline shaft