Dynamics

Newtons
Laws
First Law - Objects will stay stationary, or will continue to move with a constant
speed, unless an unbalanced force acts upon them

Second Law - The acceleration produced by a resultant force is proportional to

the force and takes place in the same direction i.e. ΣF = ma

Third Law - If A exerts a force on B, then B will exert an equal and opposite force
on A (GCSE version: action = reaction)

Example
A passenger is standing in a train.

1. The train accelerates and he falls backward. Use Newton's first law of motion to explain why he falls backwards.
2. As the train leaves the station the passenger holds on to a vertical support as the train accelerates. This prevents
the passenger falling backwards. With reference to
Newton's laws of motion, explain why holding on to a
vertical support prevents the passenger falling
backwards.
 Dynamics
momentum = mass x velocity
(kg m/s) (kg) (m/s)

Momentu
m
The law of the conservation of momentum
"Within a closed system, the total momentum in any specified direction remains
constant"
Therefore, momentum is conserved

Elastic & inelastic

collisions
Types of Collisions
Elastic collisions – This occur when two objects collide, and kinetic energy isn't lost.
The objects rebound from each other, and kinetic energy and momentum are
conserved.
Inelastic collisions – These are said to occur when the two objects remain together
after the collision, so we are dealing with an inelastic collision.
You can work out if a collision is elastic or inelastic by: If objects stick together, then a
collision is perfectly inelastic.
When objects don't stick together, we can figure out the type of collision by finding the
initial kinetic energy and comparing it with the final kinetic energy. If the kinetic
energy is the same, then the collision is elastic.

Momentu Kinetic Energy

m
Elastic Collision Yes Yes
Inelastic Collision Yes No
 Force Systems

Types of loading
force
Direct forces
These forces like tensile and compressive forces they act
in the plane at right angles to the cross-sectional area.

Tension is a force that tends to stretch a material e.g.

1. the rope or cable of a crane carrying a load is in tension,
2. rubber bands, when stretched, are in tension,
3. when a nut is tightened, a bolt is under tension.
A tensile force, i.e. one producing tension, increases the length of the material on
which it acts.

Compression is a force that tends to squeeze or crush a material,

1. a pillar supporting a bridge is in compression
2. the sole of a shoe is in compression,
3. the jib of a crane is in compression.
A compressive force, i.e. one producing compression, will decrease the length of
the material on which it acts

Shear is a force that tends to slide one face of the material over an adjacent
face. For example,
1. a rivet holding two plates together is in shear if a tensile force is applied
between the plates
2. a guillotine cutting sheet metal
3. or garden shears, each provide a shear force
4. a horizontal beam is subject to shear force, transmission joints on cars
are subject to shear forces.
A shear force can cause a material to bend, slide or twist.
 Force Systems

Axial vs Transverse
Loading
Axial loading is defined as applying a force on a structure directly along an axis of
the structure i.e. the whole object is in tension or compression.

Transverse loading of a beam refers to loads that are applied perpendicular to the
planar surface of the beam.
 the top will be in compression and
the bottom will be in tension

FoS is a percentage a company will allow its material to tolerate, before reaching
its maximum breaking point i.e. the safety margin.
FoS = ultimate stress/allowable working stress

Limiting and dynamic

friction
If you push a box gently, it doesn't move. Push it a bit harder and it still doesn't
move. In both cases the static frictional force has balanced the applied force, P.
Push harder still and it begins to slide at a steady rate. The applied force is now
equal to the limiting frictional force i.e. F = μN
If the box slides slowly then kinetic friction is approx. equal to the limiting
friction.
At higher speeds, the nature of surfaces is changed by heat so the coefficient of
friction changes.
The friction force will be equal to the push force up to a point called limiting
friction. This is where the object is on the point of sliding. At this point, friction =
μN
If the box slides slowly then kinetic friction is
approx. equal to the limiting friction.
 Properties of beams

Moment
s
Definition – The force times the perpendicular distance from a pivot
The first principle of moments - The sum of the clockwise moments (about a
point) equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments (about that same point)
The second condition of equilibrium – The sum of forces down = the sum of
the forces up (the resultant force in any direction is zero)

Types of beams
Simple supported
beam
A beam with two supports which prevent transverse movement but allow
rotational movement at the support.
(The circles are known as rollers).

Cantileve
r
A beam that is supported at one end, preventing transverse and rotational
movement.
The other end is unsupported and is free to
move as load is applied to the beam

Encastre (fixed
beam)
This beam is where the ends of the beam are fixed in place at both ends.

Continuou
s
A beam with three or more supports which prevent transverse movement but
allows rotational movement at the support
 Properties of beams

Bending
moments
Bending moment diagrams are analytical tools used for
structural design. They are used to determine the type, size, and
material of a member in a structure so that a given set of loads
can be supported without failure.
They show the varying effect of the moment throughout the
beam as well as the effect of shear forces on the beam.
If an object is in equilibrium. The diagram will start and end
at zero

Bending moments cantilevers

If the object has an overall bending moment at a point (normally at one of the
ends), the bending moment diagram will start or end at that point and its opposite
end will be zero
 Gears & levers

MA and
VR
Levers allow a small input force to create a large output
force
Gears can make things move in different directions, more quickly or slowly
1. Mechanical Advantage (MA) is the ratio of the output force to the input
force of a simple machine (such as a lever or gear system) i.e. FO/FI
2. Velocity Ratio (VR) is the ratio of the output speed to input speed of a
simple machine i.e. vO/vI
Classe
s
1 Class Lever
st

1. MA can be greater than, less than, or

equal to 1
e.g. seesaw, crowbar, pair of scissors

2nd Class Lever

1. Load is closer to the fulcrum
2. MA is always greater than 1
3. also called force multiplier lever
e.g. wheelbarrow, nutcracker, bottle opener, brake pedal of a
car

3rd Class Lever

1. effort is closer to the fulcrum
2. MA is always less than 1
e.g. pair of tweezers, various levers in the body

Gear
Types
1. Spur Gears
2. Compound Spur Gears
3. Idler Gears
4. Chain Driven Sprockets
5. Bevel Gears
6. Rack and Pinion
7. Wormgear and Wormwheel
 Gears & levers

Spur Gears

Spur Gears have straight teeth which are parallel to the axis of the wheel. Spur
gears are the most common type of gears.
Advantages simplicity in design, economy of manufacture and maintenance,
and absence of end thrust. They impose only radial loads on the bearings.
Also known as slow speed gears. If noise is not a serious design
problem, spur gears can be used at almost any speed

Compound spur
gears
These are a chain of spur gears that are used to alter direction and or speed and
multiple stages
It is important to note a gear will make the next rotate in the
opposite direction

Idler
gear
Compound gear systems use an Idler wheel in between two main gears to serve 2
main purposes. Firstly, the idler gear will change the direction of rotation of the
Sprocket
output shaft. Which allows reversal rotation of the driving gear
s
Sprockets
Secondly, anare used
idler to can
gear run assist
chainstoorreduce
belts. the size of the
They are typically
input/output gearsused in conveyor
whilst maintainingsystems or bikesof the shafts
the spacing
 Gears & levers

Rack and
Pinion
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear
with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Such a mechanism is used
in cars to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the lefttoright
motion of the tie rod(s)

Worm
Gear
Worm gears are used to transmit power at 90° and where high reductions are
required. The axes of worm gears shafts cross in space. The shafts of worm gears
lie in parallel planes and may be skewed at any angle between zero and a right
angle. In worm gears, one gear has screw threads. Due to this, worm gears are
quiet, vibration free and give a smooth output
 Gears & levers

Gear
Facts
The relationship between number of teeth and speed
 more teeth results in lower speed (angular velocity) N.B. linear speed
depends on the radius
The significance of the direction of rotation
 Direction changes with each sprocket i.e. the middle is an idler gear

How a small input force (torque) can produce a large output force
(torque)
 Work done = F x d i.e. P = F x v OR P = torque x angular velocity i.e.
small force x large distance = large force x small distance (input)
(output)

Gear
Ratios
Mechanical Advantage = Number of teeth output/ Number of teeth input

Velocity Ratio = Number of teeth input / Number of teeth output

= output speed /input speed

Pulley and belt

systems
Instead of using gears or chains you can use a belt and pulley system to transfer
power to other systems

Flat
Belt
 Flat belts are the original belt pulley style used in the early 20th Century.
Their max speeds are around 51m/s
 Pros – They are cheap to manufacture
 Cons – Prone to slipping off the system, need very high tension and can
warp due to heat.
 Gears & levers

V
Belt
 As the names suggests it is a V shape and fits into grooves on the pulley.
 Pros: Slipping is not an issue like flat belt. This means you can run at
higher speeds than a flat belt
 Cons: More cost to make, cannot adjust the dealt of the link

Toothed
Belt
 Toothed belts as you can see have teeth, they are also known as timing belts.
Max speeds of 82m/s
 Pros: Because the teeth fit in, there is no slippage, it is used an alternate to
metal chains as it needs not lubrication
 Cons: Expensive to manufacture to the specification it needs.

MA and
VR
Mechanical Advantage = diameter of output pulley / diameter of input pulley

Velocity Ratio = diameter of input pulley / diameter of output pulley

= (output speed / input speed)

If in a question, there is a compound gear then you times the input teeth or speeds
together and the outputs together.

e.g. With the example below:

MA=(42 x 32)/(16 x 14)
RA=(16 x 14)/(42 x 32)