MECHANICS OF MATERIALS: STRESS & STRAIN

Stress:

 There are four types of forces:

o Normal force (𝑁) is perpendicular to the surface
o Shear force (𝑉) is parallel to the surface
o Torsional moment (𝑀𝑡 ) is about the axis normal
(perpendicular) to the surface
o Bending moment (𝑀𝐵 ) is about the axis parallel
to the surface
 Stress measures the intensity of the force per given area:
o Normal stress (𝜎) results from the normal force 𝑁 and/or bending moment 𝑀𝐵
o Shear stress (𝜏) results from shear stress 𝑉 and/or torsional moment 𝑀𝑡
 Stress can occur on oblique planes:

such that: 𝑁 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

𝑁 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜎= =
𝐴𝜃 𝐴
𝑉 = 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴 𝑉 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴𝜃 = 𝜏= =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝜃 𝐴

 Factor of safety is the ratio of failure load case to the necessary/typical load case:

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝐹𝑆 = =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Strain:

 Strain is a measure of the material’s response to stress and is expressed as a ratio to the
change in length to the original length:
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜 ∆𝐿 Where elongation results in a positive strain;
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = compression results in a negative strain
𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑜
 Shear strain is based on the rotation of the object, measured in radians:
𝛾 = angle of deformation
 Young’s Modulus defines the relationship between normal stress and lateral strain:
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
This can be graphically represented on a stress-strain diagram (note it only holds for the
elastic region) as the rise-run ratio. Young’s Modulus is material-dependent and can be
found in tables.
 Elastic Region in which an applied stress will cause a strain that is
Region non-permanent. When the stress is removed, the material will
return to its original state (reducing any elongation to 0).
Plastic Region in which applied stresses cause irreversible strains.
Region When the stress is removed, the material will return to the
elongation of the yield point but will not reenter the elastic
region.
Yield Dividing point between elastic behavior and plastic behavior
Strength (“point of no return”). Any stress applied that is greater than
the stress at the yield point results in bringing the material into
the plastic region.
Brittle A brittle material will experience miniscule elongation prior to
Material failure.
Ductile A ductile material will experience significant elongation
Material (“necking”) before failure. Particularly, it may have a long
period in the plastic region before the fracture point.
Ultimate The greatest stress that is experienced in a material. Ductile
Strength materials will experience less stress as necking increases. Brittle
materials will have a fracture point very near (if not identical
to) the ultimate strength.
Fracture The point at which the material separates, or breaks. This point
Point will be close to the ultimate stress for low ductility materials
and further from the ultimate stress for high ductility materials.

 Modulus of Rigidity is similar to Young’s Modulus but measures the ratio of shear stress to
angle of deformation:
𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾

 Poisson’s Ratio measures the rate of lateral strain to axial strain; determining how likely a
sample is to “neck” (think of taffy as it is pulled):

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧 𝑣𝜎𝑥 ∆𝐷𝑖𝑎

𝑣=− =− =− ; 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = − ; −𝜀𝑑𝑖𝑎 =
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝐸 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑜

A typical ratio is 0.2 − 0.4. This indicates the “sideways” strain will be 40% of the “linear”
strain.

 Relationship between these three (𝐸, 𝐺, 𝑣) can be described using the following, such
that knowing any two results in knowing the third:

𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝑣)

 Strain energy observes how much energy is absorbed before entering the plastic
deformation zone and in total before failure: 𝑥
Because 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = ∫𝑥 𝑓 𝐹 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 , and Hooke’s Law 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 …
0
𝑥1
1 1
𝑢 = ∫ (𝑘𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝐹𝑥
2 2
Linear approximation 0
𝑥1 𝜀1
of green area 𝑢 𝑃 𝑑𝑥
=∫ ⋅ = ∫ 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝜀𝑥
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴 𝐿
0 0

𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑦
𝐸 2 𝜎𝑦2
𝑢𝑦 = ∫ 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸 ∫ 𝜀𝑥 𝑑𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀 = = 𝑢𝑦
2 𝑦 2𝐸
0 0

𝑢𝑡 = 𝑢𝑦 + ∆𝑦 ⋅ ∆𝑥

For more information, visit a tutor. All appointments are available in-person at the Student Success Center, located in the
Library, or online. Adapted from Hibbeler, R.C. (2014). Mechanics of Materials (9th Edition). Boston, MA: Prentice Hall.