CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS

STRESS
Intensity of force or force per unit area is called the stress. P
Stress, σ = P/A

Tensile force Area = A

Tensile Stress =
Area under tension

Compressive force
Compressive Stress =
Area under compression

NORMAL STRESS
The stress acting perpendicular to the cut surface is referred to as a normal stress. The equation σ = P/A will
give the average normal stress. A refers to the average area at the section which is perpendicular to the force
P. P

a a a

σ=

STRAIN P
Change in length per unit length is called strain. It is also defined as the ratio of the change in shape to the
original shape is called strain. The change in length or deformation is denoted by Δ (delta). The resulting state
of stress and stain is called uniaxial stress and strain.

Strain, ε = Δ/L

Problem 1: A prismatic bar with a circular cross section is subjected to an axial tensile force of 100 kN. The
measured elongation is Δ = 1.5 mm. Calculate the tensile stress and strain in the bar.

100 kN
Cross-section
3.5 m (D = 25 mm)

Solution:
Tensile Stress, σ = P/A = 100×1000/{π(25)2/4}= 203.72 N/mm2 = 204 MPa
Strain, ε = Δ/L = 1.5/(3.5×1000) = 4.3 × 10-4
 Problem 2: If the allowable stress at failure for the material is 35,000 Psi and the applied load on the bar is
P = 20,000 lb. What is the minimum area require to prevent failure?
Solution:
σ = P/A
 A = P/ σ
= 20,000/35,000
= 0.57 in2
Problem 3: If the bar fails at strains greater than 0.15 and original length of the bar is L = 10 ft, what is the
maximum allowable deformation before failure?
Solution:
ε = Δ/L

 Δ = εL
= 0.15×10
= 1.5 ft

STRENGTH
Maximum stress that can be withstood without failure is called strength.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The maximum compressive stress a material can withstand without failure is called compressive strength.
TENSILE STRENGTH
The maximum tensile stress a material can withstand without failure is called tensile strength.
SHEAR STRENGTH
The maximum shear stress which a material can withstand without rupture is called shear strength.
YIELD STRENGTH
Yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified deviation from proportionality of stress
and strain, that is, it indicates the end of elasticity and the beginning of plasticity.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Flexural strength is the strength of a material in bending, that is, resistance to fracture.
SHEARING STRAIN
Shearing strain is defined as the angle of shear measured in radians.

ε
tan φ = εs/1
φ  φ = tan-1(εs)
1

LONGITUDINAL STRAIN
Longitudinal strain is defined as the ratio of change in length to original length.

Poission ratio: Ratio of lateral (transverse) strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson‟s ratio.
Lateral Strain
μ=
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Modulus of rigidity: It designated as G, is the shearing modulus of elasticity, which according to

Hooke‟s lawis the constant proportionality between shearing stress and shearing strain during elastic
behavior.
Shearing Stress
G=
Shearing Strain
E
= Where, μ = Poison‟s Ratio
2(1+μ)
HOOKE’S LAW
The relationship between stress and strain may be said to be linear all materials. This sweeping idealization
and generalization applicable to all materials is known as Hooke’s Law. Symbolically, this law can be
expressed by the equation
 = E
Which simply means that stress is directly proportional to strain, where the constant of proportionality is E.
This constant E is called the elastic modulus/modulus of elasticity/Young’s modulus

ELASTICITY
When a load is applied to a material, the material will deform and when the load is released, the material will
regain to its original size. This property of the material is known as elasticity.

PLASTICITY
Plasticity is a property of a material to undergo a non-reversible change of shape in response to an applied
force. If the loading is too great then a residual strain or permanent strain remains in the material. The
corresponding residual elongation of the bar is called the permanent set (residual strain). The material is said
to be partially elastic.

Loading

Unloading

Residual Strain Elastic Recovery

Proportional Limit
The point at which the stress-strain curve becomes non-linear is called proportional limit .It is the
region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the stress-strain ratio gives us a
proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in the graph represents the
proportional limit.
Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when the load acting on
it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original position, and a
plastic deformation starts to appear in it
Yield Point
The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically. After the yield
point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs. There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii)
lower yield point.
Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before failure. Beyond this
point, failure occurs.
Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes place
Permanent set
The amount by which a material stressed beyond its elastic limit fails to return to its original size or shape
when the load is removed

RELAXATION
When deformation is kept constant, the required amount of load for the said deformation will be
reducedwith time. This phenomenon is called relaxation.

Reduction of load due to relaxation

Tight Cable

Time
Deformation is constant
CREEP
When a load is applied to a material, material will deform. If the load is kept constant on the material, the
deformation will increase with time. This phenomenon is known as creep. In other words, this is the time
dependent deformation due to constant loading

Creep Strain
ε
Instantaneous
elastic strain

Time

Load is constant

FATIGUE
Fatigue is a condition in which the material cracks and fails due to cyclic loading and unloading. If the
stresses are high enough, this leads to the initiation of a crack, the growth of the crack and finally fracture.
In other words, it may be defined as, the time dependent deformation due to cyclic loading.

RELAXATION
When deformation is kept constant, the required amount of load for the said deformation will be
reducedwith time. This phenomenon is called relaxation.

Reduction of load due to relaxation

Tight Cable

Time
Deformation is constant
RESILIENCE/ MODULUS OF RESILIENCE
The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume
without creating a permanent distortion.
Stress (σ)

σ=Eε

Modulus of Resilience = ½ × σ × ε = σ2/2E

Strain (ε)
ε

TOUGHNESS/MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS
It is the ability to absorb or release energy in the plastic range. It is the resistance of a material to
fracturewhen stressed.

Stress (σ)

σ=Eε

Modulus of toughness = the area

σ under the entire stress-strain curve

Strain (ε)

HARDNESS
It is the resistance to deformation and forced penetration. In materials science, hardness is the
characteristicof a solid material expressing its resistance to permanent deformation. In other words,
hardness is the resistance to wear.

MALLEABILITY
The ability of a material to take a new shape when hammered or rolled is called malleability. It is the
physical property of metals and metalloids, or generally of any kind of matter. A malleable metal can
easilybe deformed, especially by hammering or rolling.
BRITTLENESS
It is the tendency of a material to break before it undergoes plastic deformation. Materials that fail in
tensionat relatively low values of strain are classified as brittle materials.
Example: concrete, ceramics, glasses, polymers.

DUCTILITY
Ability to have large deformation before failure is called ductility.
Example: Gold, silver, copper.

STIFFNESS
Load required for unit deformation is called stiffness. It is an intensive material property. The stiffness k
of abody that deflects a distance d under an applied force P is
P
K=
A
GRADE OF STEEL

When grade of steel is increased then material will become brittle hence, material will take less strain.

Example: 40 grade means Yield Strength is 40,000 Psi or 40 ksi. Similarly, 60 grade means Yield
Strengthis 60,000 Psi or 60 ksi.

HOW TO GET YOUNG’S MODULUS

According to Hook‟s Law, we can say that,  = E

Which simply means that stress is directly proportional to strain, where the constant of
proportionality is E. This constant E is called the elastic modulus/modulus of elasticity/Young’s
modulus.
Slope of stress strain curve is called Young’s modulus. We can get young‟s modulus by the
followingthree methods
1. Initial tangent modulus
2. Secant modulus
3. tangent modulus

A θA

tan θA = tangent modulus

B
tan θo = Initial tangent modulus
Stress (σ)

tan θOB = Secant modulus

θOB
θo

Strain