1.

1 Fundamental Concepts of Mechanics of

Deformable Bodies

1. Statics – deals with equilibrium of bodies under

action of forces (bodies may be either at Where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A
rest or move with a constant velocity). is the area in mm2 . The maximum stress in tension or
2. Dynamics - deals with motion of bodies compression occurs over a section normal to the load.
(accelerated motion)
3. Mechanics of deformable bodies - is also known as
strength of materials of mechanics of
materials which deals with the effect of internal and
external forces on a certain structure
together with its deformation.
2.2 Shearing Stress
The characteristics of Strength of Materials are: Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause
a. Strength shearing stress. It differs to tensile and compressive
b. Stiffness stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to
c. Stability the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also
known as tangential stress.
1.2 Types of Loading

where V is the resultant shearing force which passes

which passes through the centroid of the area A being
sheared.

Simple Stress
Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the
applied force divided by the resisting area or
σ = Force / Area

2.1 Normal Stress

The resisting area is perpendicular to the applied 2.3 Bearing Stress
force, thus normal. There are two types of Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the
normal stresses; tensile stress and compressive separate bodies. It differs from compressive
stress. Tensile stress applied to bar tends the stress, as it is an internal stress caused by
bar to elongate while compressive stress tend to compressive forces.
shorten the bar.
 The total force acting at the rear of the tank F
must equal to the total longitudinal stress on
the wall PT = σL Awall. Since t is so small
compared to D, the area of the wall is close to
πDt

THIN WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

3.1 TANGENTIAL STRESS (Circumferential Stress)

Consider the tank shown being subjected to an
internal pressure p. The length of the tank is L
and the wall thickness is t. Isolating the right half of
the tank:

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal

pressure pi, the formula may be expressed
as:

It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice

that of the longitudinal stress.

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal

pressure pi, the formula may be expressed
as:

3.2 LONGITUDINAL STRESS SPHERICAL SHELL

If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t the dividing line between these two classes.
contains gas under a pressure of p, the stress
at the wall can be expressed as:

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

From the origin O to the point called proportional limit,
the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear
relation between elongation and the axial force
causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678
Stress – Strain Diagram
and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-
limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or
compression testing machine. As the axial load is
The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus
gradually increased in increments, the total elongation
of Elasticity E or Young's Modulus and is equal to the
over the gage length is measured at each increment
slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P.
of the load and this is continued until failure of the
specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-
sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal
stress σ and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph
of these quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis Elastic Limit
and the strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress- The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material
strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in will no longer go back to its original shape when the
form for various materials. The diagram shown below load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may
is that for a medium carbon structural steel. be developed such that there is no permanent or
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either residual deformation when the load is entirely
ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material is one removed.
having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of Elastic And Plastic Ranges
rupture like structural steel and aluminum, whereas The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is
brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the called the elastic range. The region from P to R is
point of rupture like cast iron and concrete. An called the plastic range.
arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have
an appreciable elongation or yielding without any
increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is
the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Rapture Strength Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at following mechanical properties: (a) proportional
rupture. This is also known as the breaking strength. limits; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) yield point; (d)
Modulus Of Resilience ultimate strength; and (e) rupture strength.
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit
volume of material as the force is gradually increased
from O to P, in Nm/m3. This may be calculated as the
area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to
up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). We get the corresponding strain and stress for each
The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb loading, by doing that we have,
energy without creating a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit
volume of material as the force is gradually increased
from O to R, in Nm/m3. This may be calculated as the
area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to
R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb
energy without causing it to break.
Working Stress, Allowable Stress, And Factor Of
Safety
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a
material under a given loading. The maximum safe
stress that a material can carry is termed as the
allowable stress. The allowable stress should be
limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit.
However, since proportional limit is difficult to
determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as
either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a
factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or
yield strength) to allowable strength is called the
factor of safety.

The following data were recorded during the tensile

test of a 14-mm-diameter mild steel rod. The gage
length was 50 mm.
Plotting the stress and strain of each loading having Deformation
the strain as the x –axis and the stress as the y-axis, 5.1 Axial deformation
we have In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the
tress is proportional to strain and is given
by: σ = Eε
since σ = P / A and εe = δ / L, then P / A = E δ / L.
Solving for δ,

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar

must have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the
stress must not exceed the proportional limit. If
however, the cross sectional area is not uniform, the
axial deformation can be determined by considering a
differential length and applying integration.
If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform,
the axial deformation can be determined by
considering a differential length and applying
integration.

Based from the stress strain diagram

where A = ty and y and t, if variable, must be

expressed in terms of x.
For a rod of unit mass ρ suspended vertically from
one end, the total elongation due to its own
weight is

where ρ is in kg/m3
, L is the length of the rod in mm, M is the total mass
of the rod in kg, A is the cross-sectional area of the
rod in mm2, and g = 9.81 m/s2.
STIFFNESS, k For hollow cylindrical shaft:
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an
elastic body to the resulting displacement.
It has the unit of N/mm.

TORSION ANGLE OF TWIST

6.1 Torsion The angle θ through which the bar length L will twist is
Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and
twisted at the other end by a torque or twisting
moment T equivalent to F × d, which is applied
where T is the torque in N·mm, L is the length of shaft
perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as shown in the
in mm, G is shear modulus in MPa, J is
figure. Such a bar is said to be in torsion.
the polar moment of inertia in mm4, D and d are
diameter in mm, and r is the radius in mm.

POWER TRANSMITTED BY THE SHAFT

A shaft rotating with a constant angular velocity ω (in
radians per second) is being acted by a
twisting moment T. The power transmitted by the
shaft is

where T is the torque in N·m, f is the number of

revolutions per second, and P is the power in
watts.

TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS, τ HELICAL SPRINGS

For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting When close-coiled helical spring, composed of a wire
moment T, the torsional shearing stress τ at a of round rod of diameter d wound into a helix of mean
distance ρ from the center of the shaft is radius R with n number of turns, is subjected to an
axial load P produces the following stresses and
elongation:

For solid cylindrical shaft:

The maximum shearing stress is the sum of the direct SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
shearing stress τ1 = P/A and the torsional
shearing stress τ2 = Tr/J, with T = PR.

This formula neglects the curvature of the spring. This

where k1, k2,… are the spring constants for
is used for light spring where the ratio
different springs
d/4R is small.
For heavy springs and considering the curvature of
SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS
the spring, a more precise formula is given
a. Statically determinate beams are those beams in
by: (A.M.Wahl Formula)
which the reactions of the supports may be
determined by the use of the equations of static
equilibrium. The beams shown below are examples of
statically determinate beams.
where m is called the spring index and (4m – 1) / (4m
– 4) is the Wahl Factor.

The elongation of the bar is

Notice that the deformation δ is directly proportional to

the applied load P. The ratio of P to δ is
called the spring constant k and is equal to

SPRINGS IN SERIES
For two or more springs with spring laid in
series, the resulting spring constant k is given
by
b. Statically Indeterminate Beams
If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam
exceeds the number of equations in static
equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically
indeterminate. In order to solve the reactions of the
beam, the static equations must be supplemented by
equations based upon the elastic
deformations of the beam.
The degree of indeterminacy is taken as the
difference between the number of reactions to the
number of equations in static equilibrium that can be
applied. In the case of the propped beam
shown, there are three reactions R1, R2, and M and
only two equations (∑M = 0 and sum; Fv =
0) can be applied, thus the beam is indeterminate to
the first degree (3 – 2 = 1).

MOVING LOADS
9.1 SINGLE MOVING LOAD
For a single moving load, the maximum moment
occurs when the load is at the midspan and the
maximum shear occurs when the load is very near the
support (usually assumed to lie over the
support).

8.1 SHEAR AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS

Consider a simple beam shown of length L that
carries a uniform load of w (N/m) throughout its length
and is held in equilibrium by reactions R1 and R2.
Assume that the beam is cut at point distance of x
from he left support and the portion of the beam to the 9.2 TWO MOVING LOADS
right of C be removed. The portion removed must For two moving loads, the maximum shear occurs at
then be replaced by vertical shearing force V together the reaction when the larger load is over
with a couple M to hold the left portion of the bar in that support. The maximum moment is given by
equilibrium under the action of R1 and wx. The couple
M is called the resisting moment or moment and the
force V is called the resisting shear or shear. The sign
of V and M are taken to be positive if they have the
senses indicated above.
9.3 THREE OR MORE MOVING LOADS
In general, the bending moment under a particular
load is a maximum when the center of the beam is
midway between that load and the resultant of all the
loads then on the span. With this rule, we compute
the maximum moment under each load, and use the
biggest of the moments for the design. Usually, the
biggest of these moments occurs under the biggest
load. The maximum shear occurs at the reaction
where the resultant load is nearest. Usually, it
happens if the biggest load is over that support and
as many a possible of the remaining loads are still on
the span. In determining the largest moment and Consider a fiber at a distance y from the neutral axis,
shear, it is sometimes necessary to check the because of the beam’s curvature, as the
condition when the bigger loads are on the span and effect of bending moment, the fiber is stretched by an
the rest of the smaller loads are outside.
amount of cd. Since the curvature of the
STRESSES IN BEAMS beam is very small, bcd and Oba are considered as
10.1 Flexural Stress similar triangles.
Forces and couples acting on the beam cause The strain on this fiber is
bending (flexural stresses) and shearing stresses
on any cross section of the beam and deflection
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
beam. If couples are applied to the ends of the beam
and no forces act on it, the bending is said By Hooke’s law, ε = σ / E, then
to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the
bending is called ordinary bending.
ASSUMPTIONS
In using the following formulas for flexural and
which means that the stress is proportional to the
shearing stresses, it is assumed that a plane
section of the beam normal to its longitudinal axis distance y from the neutral axis.
prior to loading remains plane after the forces
and couples have been applied, and that the beam is
initially straight and of uniform cross
section and that the moduli of elasticity in tension and
compression are equal.
Flexure Formula
Stresses caused by the bending moment are known
as flexural or bending stresses. Consider a beam to
be loaded as shown.
The flexural stress is given by

The beam curvature is:

where ρ is the radius of curvature of the beam in mm 5. Method of superposition
(in), M is the bending moment in N·mm Of these methods, the first two are the ones that are
(lb·in), fb is the flexural stress in MPa (psi), I is the commonly used.
centroidal moment of inertia in mm4
(in4), and c is the distance from the neutral axis to the 11.1 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD
outermost fiber in mm (in). The double integration method is a powerful tool in
solving deflection and slope of a beam at
SECTION MODULUS any point because we will be able to get the equation
In the formula of the elastic curve.
If EI is constant, the equation may be written as:

the ratio I/c is called the section modulus and is where x and y are the coordinates shown in the figure
usually denoted by S with units of mm3(in3). The of the elastic curve of the beam under
maximum bending stress may then be written as load, y is the deflection of the beam at any distance x.
E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam,
I represent the moment of inertia about the neutral
axis, and M represents the bending moment
This form is convenient because the values of S are
A Self-regulated Learning Module 2
available in handbooks for a wide range of
at a distance x from the end of the beam. The product
standard structural shapes.
EI is called the flexural rigidity of the
beam.
Beam Deflections
The first integration y' yields the slope of the elastic
The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in
curve and the second integration y gives the
terms of its deflection from its original unloaded
deflection of the beam at any distance x. The resulting
position. The deflection is measured from the original
solution must contain two constants of
neutral surface of the beam to the neutral surface of
integration since EI y" = M is of second order. These
the deformed beam. The configuration assumed by
two constants must be evaluated from
the deformed neutral surface is known as the elastic
known conditions concerning the slope deflection at
curve of the beam.
certain points of the beam. For instance, in
the case of a simply supported beam with rigid
supports, at x = 0 and x = L, the deflection y = 0,
and in locating the point of maximum deflection, we
simply set the slope of the elastic curve y' to
zero.

Methods of Determining Beam Deflections

Numerous methods are available for the
determination of beam deflections. These methods
include:
1. Double-integration method
2. Area-moment method
3. Strain-energy method (Castigliano's Theorem)
4. Conjugate-beam method