Computer Graphics

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Computer Graphics Tutorial

It is difficult to display an image of any size on the computer screen. This method is simplified by using Computer graphics.
Graphics on the computer are produced by using various algorithms and techniques. This tutorial describes how a rich
visual experience is provided to the user by explaining how all these processed by the computer.
Introduction of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics involves technology to access. The Process transforms and presents information in a visual form. The
role of computer graphics insensible. In today life, computer graphics has now become a common element in user
interfaces, T.V. commercial motion pictures.
Computer Graphics is the creation of pictures with the help of a computer. The end product of the computer graphics is a
picture it may be a business graph, drawing, and engineering.
In computer graphics, two or three-dimensional pictures can be created that are used for research. Many hardware devices
algorithm has been developing for improving the speed of picture generation with the passes of time. It includes the
creation storage of models and image of objects. These models for various fields like engineering, mathematical and so on.
Today computer graphics is entirely different from the earlier one. It is not possible. It is an interactive user can control
the structure of an object of various input devices.
Definition of Computer Graphics:

It is the use of computers to create and manipulate pictures on a display device. It comprises of software techniques to
create, store, modify, represents pictures.
Why computer graphics used?
Suppose a shoe manufacturing company want to show the sale of shoes for five years. For this vast amount of information
is to store. So a lot of time and memory will be needed. This method will be tough to understand by a common man. In
this situation graphics is a better alternative. Graphics tools are charts and graphs. Using graphs, data can be represented
in pictorial form. A picture can be understood easily just with a single look.
Interactive computer graphics work using the concept of two-way communication between computer users. The computer
will receive signals from the input device, and the picture is modified accordingly. Picture will be changed quickly when we
apply command.
Application of Computer Graphics
1. Education and Training: Computer-generated model of the physical, financial and
economic system is often used as educational aids. Model of physical systems,
physiological system, population trends or equipment can help trainees to
understand the operation of the system.
For some training applications, particular systems are designed. For example Flight
Simulator.
Flight Simulator: It helps in giving training to the pilots of airplanes. These pilots spend
much of their training not in a real aircraft but on the ground at the controls of a Flight
Simulator.
Advantages:
1. Fuel Saving
2. Safety
3. Ability to familiarize the training with a large number of the world’s airports.
2. Use in Biology: Molecular biologist can display a picture of molecules and gain insight
into their structure with the help of computer graphics.
3. Computer-Generated Maps: Town planners and transportation engineers can use

computer-generated maps which display data useful to them in their planning work.
4. Architect: Architect can explore an alternative solution to design problems at an
interactive graphics terminal. In this way, they can test many more solutions that would not
be possible without the computer.
5. Presentation Graphics: Example of presentation Graphics are bar charts, line graphs,
pie charts and other displays showing relationships between multiple parameters.
Presentation Graphics is commonly used to summarize
o Financial Reports
o Statistical Reports
o Mathematical Reports
o Scientific Reports
o Economic Data for research reports
o Managerial Reports
o Consumer Information Bulletins
o And other types of reports
6. Computer Art: Computer Graphics are also used in the field of commercial arts. It is
used to generate television and advertising commercial.
7. Entertainment: Computer Graphics are now commonly used in making motion pictures,
music videos and television shows.
8. Visualization: It is used for visualization of scientists, engineers, medical personnel,

business analysts for the study of a large amount of information.
9. Educational Software: Computer Graphics is used in the development of educational

software for making computer-aided instruction.
10. Printing Technology: Computer Graphics is used for printing technology and textile
design.
Example of Computer Graphics Packages:

1. LOGO
2. COREL DRAW
3. AUTO CAD
4. 3D STUDIO
5. CORE
6. GKS (Graphics Kernel System)
7. PHIGS
8. CAM (Computer Graphics Metafile)
9. CGI (Computer Graphics Interface)
Interactive and Passive Graphics

2. Non-Interactive or Passive Computer Graphics:
In non-interactive computer graphics, the picture is produced on the monitor, and the user
does not have any controlled over the image, i.e., the user cannot make any change in the
rendered image. One example of its Titles shown on T.V.
Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication between the computer and
the user, User can see the produced image, and he cannot make any change in the image.
(b) Interactive Computer Graphics:

In interactive Computer Graphics user have some controls over the picture, i.e., the user
can make any change in the produced image. One example of it is the ping-pong game.
Interactive Computer Graphics require two-way communication between the computer and
the user. A User can see the image and make any change by sending his command with an
input device.
Advantages:
1. Higher Quality
2. More precise results or products
3. Greater Productivity
4. Lower analysis and design cost
5. Significantly enhances our ability to understand data and to perceive trends.
Working of Interactive Computer Graphics:
The modern graphics display is very simple in construction. It consists of three components:
1. Frame Buffer or Digital Memory

2. A Monitor likes a home T.V. set without the tuning and receiving electronics.
3. Display Controller or Video Controller: It passes the contents of the frame buffer to the
monitor.
Frame Buffer: A digital frame buffer is large, contiguous piece of computer memory used
to hold or map the image displayed on the screen.
o At a minimum, there is 1 memory bit for each pixel in the raster. This amount of
memory is called a bit plane.
o A 1024 x 1024 element requires 220 (210=1024;220=1024 x 1024)sq.raster or
1,048,576 memory bits in a single bit plane.
o The picture is built up in the frame buffer one bit at a time.
o ∵ A memory bit has only two states (binary 0 or 1), a single bit plane yields a black
and white (monochrome display).
o As frame buffer is a digital device write raster CRT is an analog device.
Properties of Video Monitor:
1. Persistence: Persistence is the duration of phosphorescence. Different kinds of

phosphors are available for use in CRT. Besides color, a major difference between phosphor
in their persistence how they continue to emit light after the electron beam is removed.
2. Resolution: Use to describe the number of pixels that are used on display image.
3. Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of width to its height. Its measure is unit in length or
number of pixels.
Aspect Ratio =
Display Processor:
It is interpreter or piece of hardware that converts display processor code into pictures. It is
one of the four main parts of the display processor
Parts of Display Processor
1. Display File Memory

2. Display Processor
3. Display Generator
4. Display Console
Display File Memory: It is used for generation of the picture. It is used for identification of
graphic entities.
Display Controller:
1. It handles interrupt
2. It maintains timings
3. It is used for interpretation of instruction.
Display Generator:
1. It is used for the generation of character.

2. It is used for the generation of curves.
Display Console: It contains CRT, Light Pen, and Keyboard and deflection system.
The raster scan system is a combination of some processing units. It consists of the control
processing unit (CPU) and a particular processor called a display controller. Display
Controller controls the operation of the display device. It is also called a video controller.
Working: The video controller in the output circuitry generates the horizontal and vertical
drive signals so that the monitor can sweep. Its beam across the screen during raster scans.
As fig showing that 2 registers (X register and Y register) are used to store the coordinate of
the screen pixels. Assume that y values of the adjacent scan lines increased by 1 in an
upward direction starting from 0 at the bottom of the screen to ymax at the top and along
each scan line the screen pixel positions or x values are incremented by 1 from 0 at the
leftmost position to xmax at the rightmost position.
The origin is at the lowest left corner of the screen as in a standard Cartesian coordinate
system.
At the start of a Refresh Cycle:
X register is set to 0 and y register is set to ymax. This (x, y’) address is translated into a
memory address of frame buffer where the color value for this pixel position is stored.
The controller receives this color value (a binary no) from the frame buffer, breaks it up into
three parts and sends each element to a separate Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC).
These voltages, in turn, controls the intensity of 3 e-beam that are focused at the (x, y)
screen position by the horizontal and vertical drive signals.
This process is repeated for each pixel along the top scan line, each time incrementing the X
register by Y.
As pixels on the first scan line are generated, the X register is incremented throughx max.
Then x register is reset to 0, and y register is decremented by 1 to access the next scan
line.
Pixel along each scan line is then processed, and the procedure is repeated for each
successive scan line units pixels on the last scan line (y=0) are generated.
For a display system employing a color look-up table frame buffer value is not directly used
to control the CRT beam intensity.
It is used as an index to find the three pixel-color value from the look-up table. This lookup
operation is done for each pixel on every display cycle.
As the time available to display or refresh a single pixel in the screen is too less, accessing
the frame buffer every time for reading each pixel intensity value would consume more time
what is allowed:
Multiple adjacent pixel values are fetched to the frame buffer in single access and stored in
the register.
After every allowable time gap, the one-pixel value is shifted out from the register to control
the warm intensity for that pixel.
The procedure is repeated with the next block of pixels,and so on, thus the whole group of
pixels will be processed.
Display Devices:
The most commonly used display device is a video monitor. The operation of most video
monitors based on CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). The following display devices are used:
1. Refresh Cathode Ray Tube

2. Random Scan and Raster Scan
3. Color CRT Monitors
4. Direct View Storage Tubes
5. Flat Panel Display
6. Lookup Table
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):
CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional computer
monitors and televisions. The image on CRT display is created by firing electrons from the
back of the tube of phosphorus located towards the front of the screen.
Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are projected on a screen.
The color you view on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue and green light.
Components of CRT:
Main Components of CRT are:
1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating

filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a source of electrons which are
focused into a narrow beam directed at the face of the CRT.
2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.

3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons into a
narrow beam.
4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam. It creates an
electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam as it passes through the area.
In a conventional CRT, the yoke is linked to a sweep or scan generator. The deflection yoke
which is connected to the sweep generator creates a fluctuating electric or magnetic
potential.
5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with
phosphors. Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them. Phosphorescence
is the term used to characterize the light given off by a phosphor after it has been exposed
to an electron beam.
Random Scan and Raster Scan Display:

Random Scan Display:
Random Scan System uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a line
image on the CRT screen. The picture is constructed out of a sequence of straight-line
segments. Each line segment is drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from
one point on the screen to the next, where its x & y coordinates define each point. After
drawing the picture. The system cycles back to the first line and design all the lines of the
image 30 to 60 time each second. The process is shown in fig:
Random-scan monitors are also known as vector displays or stroke-writing displays or
calligraphic displays.
Advantages:
1. A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where an image is to
be drawn.
2. Produce smooth line drawings.
3. High Resolution
Disadvantages:
1. Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.
Raster Scan Display:

A Raster Scan Display is based on intensity control of pixels in the form of a rectangular box
called Raster on the screen. Information of on and off pixels is stored in refresh buffer or
Frame buffer. Televisions in our house are based on Raster Scan Method. The raster scan
system can store information of each pixel position, so it is suitable for realistic display of
objects. Raster Scan provides a refresh rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.
Frame Buffer is also known as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are called
picture elements or pixels. Beam refreshing is of two types. First is horizontal retracing and
second is vertical retracing. When the beam starts from the top left corner and reaches the
bottom right scale, it will again return to the top left side called at vertical retrace. Then it
will again more horizontally from top to bottom call as horizontal retracing shown in fig:
Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan
1. Interlaced Scanning
2. Non-Interlaced Scanning
In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to bottom. Due
to which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can be solved by Non-
Interlaced scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines are traced or visited by an
electron beam, then in the next circle, even number of lines are located.
For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it gives flickers.
For interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is used.
Advantages:
1. Realistic image
2. Million Different colors to be generated
3. Shadow Scenes are possible.
Disadvantages:
1. Low Resolution
2. Expensive
Differentiate between Random and Raster Scan

Display:
Random Scan Raster Scan
1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.
2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive
3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough
4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill
5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on the
picture.
6. Only screen with view on an area is 6. Whole screen is scanned.

displayed.
7. Beam Penetration technology come under 7. Shadow mark technology came under
it. this.
8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing
9. It is restricted to line drawing 9. It is suitable for realistic display.

applications
Color CRT Monitors:
The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphors. The phosphors are different
colors. There are two popular approaches for producing color displays with a CRT are:
1. Beam Penetration Method

2. Shadow-Mask Method
3. Beam Penetration Method:

The Beam-Penetration method has been used with random-scan monitors. In this method,
the CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphor, red and green and the displayed color
depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor layers. This method
produces four colors only, red, green, orange and yellow. A beam of slow electrons excites
the outer red layer only; hence screen shows red color only. A beam of high-speed electrons
excites the inner green layer. Thus screen shows a green color.
Advantages:
1. Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
1. Only four colors are possible
2. Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.
4. Shadow-Mask Method:
o Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System because they
produce a much wider range of colors than the beam-penetration method.
o It is used in the majority of color TV sets and monitors.
Construction: A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each pixel position.
o One phosphor dot emits: red light

o Another emits: green light
o Third emits: blue light
This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a shadow mask grid just
behind the phosphor coated screen.
Shadow mask grid is pierced with small round holes in a triangular pattern.
Figure shows the delta-delta shadow mask method commonly used in color CRT system.
Working: Triad arrangement of red, green, and blue guns.
The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams simultaneously; the 3
electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains
a sequence of holes aligned with the phosphor- dot patterns.
When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dotted
triangle, which occurs as a small color spot on the screen.
The phosphor dots in the triangles are organized so that each electron beam can activate
only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.
Inline arrangement: Another configuration for the 3 electron guns is an Inline

arrangement in which the 3
electron guns and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen, are aligned
along one scan line rather of in a triangular pattern.
This inline arrangement of electron guns in easier to keep in alignment and is commonly
used in high-resolution color CRT’s.
Advantage:
1. Realistic image
2. Million different colors to be generated
3. Shadow scenes are possible
Disadvantage:
1. Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.
2. Relatively poor resolution
3. Convergence Problem
Direct View Storage Tubes:

DVST terminals also use the random scan approach to generate the image on the CRT
screen. The term “storage tube” refers to the ability of the screen to retain the image which
has been projected against it, thus avoiding the need to rewrite the image constantly.
Function of guns: Two guns are used in DVST
1. Primary guns: It is used to store the picture pattern.

2. Flood gun or Secondary gun: It is used to maintain picture display.
Advantage:
1. No refreshing is needed.
2. High Resolution
3. Cost is very less
Disadvantage:
1. It is not possible to erase the selected part of a picture.
2. It is not suitable for dynamic graphics applications.
3. If a part of picture is to modify, then time is consumed.
Flat Panel Display:

The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement compare to CRT.
Example: Small T.V. monitor, calculator, pocket video games, laptop computers, an
advertisement board in elevator.
1. Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display and LED (Light
Emitting Diodes).
2. Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Examples are LCD (Liquid
Crystal Device).
Plasma Panel Display:

Plasma-Panels are also called as Gas-Discharge Display. It consists of an array of small
lights. Lights are fluorescent in nature. The essential components of the plasma-panel
display are:
1. Cathode: It consists of fine wires. It delivers negative voltage to gas cells. The voltage is
released along with the negative axis.
2. Anode: It also consists of line wires. It delivers positive voltage. The voltage is supplied
along positive axis.
3. Fluorescent cells: It consists of small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is applied to
this liquid (neon gas) it emits light.
4. Glass Plates: These plates act as capacitors. The voltage will be applied, the cell will glow
continuously.
The gas will slow when there is a significant voltage difference between horizontal and
vertical wires. The voltage level is kept between 90 volts to 120 volts. Plasma level does not
require refreshing. Erasing is done by reducing the voltage to 90 volts.
Each cell of plasma has two states, so cell is said to be stable. Displayable point in plasma
panel is made by the crossing of the horizontal and vertical grid. The resolution of the
plasma panel can be up to 512 * 512 pixels.
Figure shows the state of cell in plasma panel display:

Advantage:
1. High Resolution
2. Large screen size is also possible.
3. Less Volume
4. Less weight
5. Flicker Free Display
Disadvantage:
1. Poor Resolution
2. Wiring requirement anode and the cathode is complex.
3. Its addressing is also complex.
LED (Light Emitting Diode):

In an LED, a matrix of diodes is organized to form the pixel positions in the display and
picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer. Data is read from the refresh buffer and
converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern in the
display.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

Liquid Crystal Displays are the devices that produce a picture by passing polarized light from
the surroundings or from an internal light source through a liquid-crystal material that
transmits the light.
LCD uses the liquid-crystal material between two glass plates; each plate is the right angle
to each other between plates liquid is filled. One glass plate consists of rows of conductors
arranged in vertical direction. Another glass plate is consisting of a row of conductors
arranged in horizontal direction. The pixel position is determined by the intersection of the
vertical & horizontal conductor. This position is an active part of the screen.
Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy degree

Celsius. It is flat and requires very little power to operate.
Advantage:
1. Low power consumption.
2. Small Size
3. Low Cost
Disadvantage:
1. LCDs are temperature-dependent (0-70°C)
2. LCDs do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast.
3. LCDs have no color capability.
4. The resolution is not as good as that of a CRT.
Look-Up Table:
Image representation is essentially the description of pixel colors. There are three primary
c0olors: R (red), G (green) and B (blue). Each primary color can take on intensity levels
produces a variety of colors. Using direct coding, we may allocate 3 bits for each pixel, with
one bit for each primary color. The 3-bit representation allows each primary to vary
independently between two intensity levels: 0 (off) or 1 (on). Hence each pixel can take on
one of the eight colors.
Bit 1:r Bit 2:g Bit Color name

3:b
0 0 0 Black
0 0 1 Blue
0 1 0 Green
0 1 1 Cyan
1 0 0 Red
1 0 1 Magenta
1 1 0 Yellow
1 1 1 White
A widely accepted industry standard uses 3 bytes, or 24 bytes, per pixel, with one byte for
each primary color. The way, we allow each primary color to have 256 different intensity
levels. Thus a pixel can take on a color from 256 x 256 x 256 or 16.7 million possible
choices. The 24-bit format is commonly referred to as the actual color representation.
Lookup Table approach reduces the storage requirement. In this approach pixel values do
not code colors directly. Alternatively, they are addresses or indices into a table of color
values. The color of a particular pixel is determined by the color value in the table entry that
the value of the pixel references. Figure shows a look-up table with 256 entries. The entries
have addresses 0 through 255. Each entry contains a 24-bit RGB color value. Pixel values
are now 1-byte. The color of a pixel whose value is i, where 0 <i<255, is persistence by the
color value in the table entry whose address is i. It reduces the storage requirement of a
1000 x 1000 image to one million bytes plus 768 bytes for the color values in the look-up
table.
Scan Conversion Definition

It is a process of representing graphics objects a collection of pixels. The graphics objects
are continuous. The pixels used are discrete. Each pixel can have either on or off state.
The circuitry of the video display device of the computer is capable of converting binary
values (0, 1) into a pixel on and pixel off information. 0 is represented by pixel off. 1 is
represented using pixel on. Using this ability graphics computer represent picture having
discrete dots.
Any model of graphics can be reproduced with a dense matrix of dots or points. Most human
beings think graphics objects as points, lines, circles, ellipses. For generating graphical
object, many algorithms have been developed.
Advantage of developing algorithms for scan

conversion
1. Algorithms can generate graphics objects at a faster rate.
2. Using algorithms memory can be used efficiently.
3. Algorithms can develop a higher level of graphical objects.
Examples of objects which can be scan converted

1. Point
2. Line
3. Sector
4. Arc
5. Ellipse
6. Rectangle
7. Polygon
8. Characters
9. Filled Regions
The process of converting is also called as rasterization. The algorithms implementation

varies from one computer system to another computer system. Some algorithms are
implemented using the software. Some are performed using hardware or firmware. Some
are performed using various combinations of hardware, firmware, and software.
Pixel or Pel:
The term pixel is a short form of the picture element. It is also called a point or dot. It is the
smallest picture unit accepted by display devices. A picture is constructed from hundreds of
such pixels. Pixels are generated using commands. Lines, circle, arcs, characters; curves are
drawn with closely spaced pixels. To display the digit or letter matrix of pixels is used.
The closer the dots or pixels are, the better will be the quality of picture. Closer the dots
are, crisper will be the picture. Picture will not appear jagged and unclear if pixels are
closely spaced. So the quality of the picture is directly proportional to the density of pixels
on the screen.
Pixels are also defined as the smallest addressable unit or element of the screen. Each pixel
can be assigned an address as shown in fig:
Different graphics objects can be generated by setting the different intensity of pixels and
different colors of pixels. Each pixel has some co-ordinate value. The coordinate is
represented using row and column.
P (5, 5) used to represent a pixel in the 5th row and the 5th column. Each pixel has some
intensity value which is represented in memory of computer called a frame buffer. Frame
Buffer is also called a refresh buffer. This memory is a storage area for storing pixels values
using which pictures are displayed. It is also called as digital memory. Inside the buffer,
image is stored as a pattern of binary digits either 0 or 1. So there is an array of 0 or 1
used to represent the picture. In black and white monitors, black pixels are represented
using 1’s and white pixels are represented using 0’s. In case of systems having one bit per
pixel frame buffer is called a bitmap. In systems with multiple bits per pixel it is called a
pixmap.
Scan Converting a Point

Each pixel on the graphics display does not represent a mathematical point. Instead, it
means a region which theoretically can contain an infinite number of points. Scan-
Converting a point involves illuminating the pixel that contains the point.
Example: Display coordinates points as shown in fig would both be

represented by pixel (2, 1). In general, a point p (x, y) is represented by the integer part of
x & the integer part of y that is pixels [(INT (x), INT (y).
Scan Converting a Straight Line
A straight line may be defined by two endpoints & an equation. In fig the two endpoints
are described by (x1,y1) and (x2,y2). The equation of the line is used to determine the x, y
coordinates of all the points that lie between these two endpoints.
Using the equation of a straight line, y = mx + b where m = & b = the y interrupt, we
can find values of y by incrementing x from x =x1, to x = x2. By scan-converting these
calculated x, y values, we represent the line as a sequence of pixels.
Properties of Good Line Drawing Algorithm:

5. Line should appear Straight: We must appropriate the line by choosing
addressable points close to it. If we choose well, the line will appear straight, if not,
we shall produce crossed lines.
The lines must be generated parallel or at 45° to the x and y-axes. Other lines cause a
problem: a line segment through it starts and finishes at addressable points, may happen
to pass through no another addressable points in between.
6. Lines should terminate accurately: Unless lines are plotted accurately, they may
terminate at the wrong place.
7. Lines should have constant density: Line density is proportional to the no. of
dots displayed divided by the length of the line.
To maintain constant density, dots should be equally spaced.

4. Line density should be independent of line length and angle: This can be done
by computing an approximating line-length estimate and to use a line-generation
algorithm that keeps line density constant to within the accuracy of this estimate.
5. Line should be drawn rapidly: This computation should be performed by special-

purpose hardware.
Algorithm for line Drawing:

1. Direct use of line equation
2. DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer)
3. Bresenham’s Algorithm
Direct use of line equation:

It is the simplest form of conversion. First of all scan P1 and P2 points. P1 has co-ordinates
(x1’,y1’) and (x2’ y2’ ).
Then m = (y2’,y1’)/( x2’,x1’) and b =
If value of |m|≤1 for each integer value of x. But do not consider
If value of |m|>1 for each integer value of y. But do not consider
Example: A line with starting point as (0, 0) and ending point (6, 18) is given. Calculate
value of intermediate points and slope of line.
Solution: P1 (0,0) P7 (6,18)
x1=0
y1=0
x2=6
y2=18

We know equation of line is
y =m x + b
y = 3x + b..............equation (1)
put value of x from initial point in equation (1), i.e., (0, 0) x =0, y=0
0=3x0+b
0 = b ⟹ b=0
put b = 0 in equation (1)

y = 3x + 0
y = 3x
Now calculate intermediate points

Let x = 1 ⟹ y = 3 x 1 ⟹ y = 3
Let x = 2 ⟹ y = 3 x 2 ⟹ y = 6
Let x = 3 ⟹ y = 3 x 3 ⟹ y = 9
Let x = 4 ⟹ y = 3 x 4 ⟹ y = 12
Let x = 5 ⟹ y = 3 x 5 ⟹ y = 15
Let x = 6 ⟹ y = 3 x 6 ⟹ y = 18
So points are P1 (0,0)

P2 (1,3)
P3 (2,6)
P4 (3,9)
P5 (4,12)
P6 (5,15)
P7 (6,18)
Algorithm for drawing line using equation:
Step1: Start Algorithm
Step2: Declare variables x1,x2,y1,y2,dx,dy,m,b,
Step3: Enter values of x1,x2,y1,y2.

The (x1,y1) are co-ordinates of a starting point of the line.
The (x2,y2) are co-ordinates of a ending point of the line.
Step4: Calculate dx = x2- x1
Step5: Calculate dy = y2-y1
Step6: Calculate m =
Step7: Calculate b = y1-m* x1
Step8: Set (x, y) equal to starting point, i.e., lowest point and xendequal to largest value
of x.
If dx < 0
then x = x2
y = y2
xend= x1
If dx > 0
then x = x1
y = y1
xend= x2
Step9: Check whether the complete line has been drawn if x=xend, stop
Step10: Plot a point at current (x, y) coordinates
Step11: Increment value of x, i.e., x = x+1
Step12: Compute next value of y from equation y = mx + b
Step13: Go to Step9.
Program to draw a line using LineSlope Method

1. #include <graphics.h>
2. #include <stdlib.h>
3. #include <math.h>
4. #include <stdio.h>
5. #include <conio.h>
6. #include <iostream.h>
7.
8. class bresen
9. {
10. float x, y, x1, y1, x2, y2, dx, dy, m, c, xend;
11. public:
12. void get ();
13. void cal ();
14. };
15. void main ()
16. {
17. bresen b;
18. b.get ();
19. b.cal ();
20. getch ();
21. }
22. Void bresen :: get ()
23. {
24. print (“Enter start & end points”);
25. print (“enter x1, y1, x2, y2”);
26. scanf (“%f%f%f%f”,sx1, sx2, sx3, sx4)
27. }
28. void bresen ::cal ()
29. {
30. /* request auto detection */
31. int gdriver = DETECT,gmode, errorcode;
32. /* initialize graphics and local variables */
33. initgraph (&gdriver, &gmode, “ “);
34. /* read result of initialization */
35. errorcode = graphresult ();
36. if (errorcode ! = rok) /*an error occurred */
37. {
38. printf(“Graphics error: %s \n”, grapherrormsg (errorcode);
39. printf (“Press any key to halt:”);
40. getch ();
41. exit (1); /* terminate with an error code */
42. }
43. dx = x2-x1;
44. dy=y2-2y1;
45. m = dy/dx;
46. c = y1 – (m * x1);
47. if (dx<0)
48. {
49. x=x2;
50. y=y2;
51. xend=x1;
52. }
53. else
54. {
55. x=x1;
56. y=y1;
57. xend=x2;
58. }
59. while (x<=xend)
60. {
61. putpixel (x, y, RED);
62. y++;
63. y=(x*x) +c;
64. }
65. }
#include <graphics.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
OUTPUT:
Enter Starting and End Points

Enter (X1, Y1, X2, Y2) 200 100 300 200
DDA Algorithm
DDA stands for Digital Differential Analyzer. It is an incremental method of scan
conversion of line. In this method calculation is performed at each step but by using
results of previous steps.
Suppose at step i, the pixels is (xi,yi)
The line of equation for step i

yi=mxi+b......................equation 1
Next value will be
yi+1=mxi+1+b.................equation 2
m=
yi+1-yi=∆y.......................equation 3
yi+1-xi=∆x......................equation 4
yi+1=yi+∆y
∆y=m∆x
yi+1=yi+m∆x
∆x=∆y/m
xi+1=xi+∆x
xi+1=xi+∆y/m
Case1: When |M|<1 then (assume that x1<x2)

x= x1,y=y1 set ∆x=1
yi+1=y1+m, x=x+1
Until x = x2</x
Case2: When |M|<1 then (assume that y1<y2)
x= x1,y=y1 set ∆y=1
xi+1= , y=y+1
Until y → y2</y
Advantage:
1. It is a faster method than method of using direct use of line equation.
2. This method does not use multiplication theorem.
3. It allows us to detect the change in the value of x and y ,so plotting of same point twice is not possible.
4. This method gives overflow indication when a point is repositioned.
5. It is an easy method because each step involves just two additions.
Disadvantage:
1. It involves floating point additions rounding off is done. Accumulations of round off error cause accumulation of error.
2. Rounding off operations and floating point operations consumes a lot of time.
3. It is more suitable for generating line using the software. But it is less suited for hardware implementation.
DDA Algorithm:
Step2: Declare x1,y1,x2,y2,dx,dy,x,y as integer variables.
Step3: Enter value of x1,y1,x2,y2.
Step4: Calculate dx = x2-x1
Step5: Calculate dy = y2-y1
Step6: If ABS (dx) > ABS (dy)
Then step = abs (dx)
Else
Step7: xinc=dx/step
yinc=dy/step
assign x = x1
assign y = y1
Step8: Set pixel (x, y)
Step9: x = x + xinc
y = y + yinc
Set pixels (Round (x), Round (y))
Step10: Repeat step 9 until x = x2
Step11: End Algorithm
Example: If a line is drawn from (2, 3) to (6, 15) with use of DDA. How many points will needed to generate such line?
Solution: P1 (2,3) P11 (6,15)
x1=2
y1=3
x2= 6
y2=15
dx = 6 – 2 = 4
dy = 15 – 3 = 12
m=
For calculating next value of x takes x = x +

Program to implement DDA Line Drawing Algorithm:
1. #include<graphics.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. #include<stdio.h>
4. void main()
5. {
6. intgd = DETECT ,gm, i;
7. float x, y,dx,dy,steps;
8. int x0, x1, y0, y1;
9. initgraph(&gd, &gm, “C:\\TC\\BGI”);
10. setbkcolor(WHITE);
11. x0 = 100 , y0 = 200, x1 = 500, y1 = 300;
12. dx = (float)(x1 – x0);
13. dy = (float)(y1 – y0);
14. if(dx>=dy)
15. {
16. steps = dx;
17. }
18. else
19. {
20. steps = dy;
21. }
22. dx = dx/steps;
23. dy = dy/steps;
24. x = x0;
25. y = y0;
26. i = 1;
27. while(i<= steps)
28. {
29. putpixel(x, y, RED);
30. x += dx;
31. y += dy;
32. i=i+1;
33. }
34. getch();
35. closegraph();
36. }
#include<graphics.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
Output:
Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
This algorithm is used for scan converting a line. It was developed by Bresenham. It is
an efficient method because it involves only integer addition, subtractions, and
multiplication operations. These operations can be performed very rapidly so lines can be
generated quickly.
In this method, next pixel selected is that one who has the least distance from true line.
The method works as follows:
Assume a pixel P1’(x1’,y1’),then select subsequent pixels as we work our may to the
night, one pixel position at a time in the horizontal direction toward P 2’(x2’,y2’).
Once a pixel in choose at any step
The next pixel is
1. Either the one to its right (lower-bound for the line)

2. One top its right and up (upper-bound for the line)
The line is best approximated by those pixels that fall the least distance from the path
between P1’,P2’.
To chooses the next one between the bottom pixel S and top pixel T.
If S is chosen
We have xi+1=xi+1 and yi+1=yi
If T is chosen
We have xi+1=xi+1 and yi+1=yi+1
The actual y coordinates of the line at x = xi+1is

y=mxi+1+b
The distance from S to the actual line in y direction

s = y-yi
The distance from T to the actual line in y direction
t = (yi+1)-y
Now consider the difference between these 2 distance values

s–t
When (s-t) <0 ⟹ s < t
The closest pixel is S
When (s-t) ≥0 ⟹ s < t
The closest pixel is T
This difference is
s-t = (y-yi)-[(yi+1)-y]
= 2y – 2yi -1

Substituting m by and introducing decision variable

di=△x (s-t)
di=△x (2 (xi+1)+2b-2yi-1)
=2△xyi-2△y-1△x.2b-2yi△x-△x
di=2△y.xi-2△x.yi+c
Where c= 2△y+△x (2b-1)
We can write the decision variable di+1 for the next slip on
di+1=2△y.xi+1-2△x.yi+1+c
di+1-di=2△y.(xi+1-xi)- 2△x(yi+1-yi)
Since x_(i+1)=xi+1,we have

di+1+di=2△y.(xi+1-xi)- 2△x(yi+1-yi)
Special Cases
If chosen pixel is at the top pixel T (i.e., di≥0)⟹ yi+1=yi+1
di+1=di+2△y-2△x
If chosen pixel is at the bottom pixel T (i.e., di<0)⟹ yi+1=yi

di+1=di+2△y
Finally, we calculate d1
d1=△x[2m(x1+1)+2b-2y1-1]
d1=△x[2(mx1+b-y1)+2m-1]
Since mx1+b-yi=0 and m = , we have

d1=2△y-△x
Advantage:
1. It involves only integer arithmetic, so it is simple.
2. It avoids the generation of duplicate points.
3. It can be implemented using hardware because it does not use multiplication and
division.
4. It is faster as compared to DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) because it does not

involve floating point calculations like DDA Algorithm.
Disadvantage:
8. This algorithm is meant for basic line drawing only Initializing is not a part of
Bresenham’s line algorithm. So to draw smooth lines, you should want to look into a
different algorithm.
Bresenham’s Line Algorithm:

Step2: Declare variable x1,x2,y1,y2,d,i1,i2,dx,dy

Step3: Enter value of x1,y1,x2,y2
Where x1,y1are coordinates of starting point
And x2,y2 are coordinates of Ending point
Step4: Calculate dx = x2-x1

Calculate dy = y2-y1
Calculate i1=2*dy
Calculate i2=2*(dy-dx)
Calculate d=i1-dx
Step5: Consider (x, y) as starting point and xendas maximum possible value of x.
If dx < 0
Then x = x2
y = y2
xend=x1
If dx > 0
Then x = x1
y = y1
xend=x2
Step6: Generate point at (x,y)coordinates.
Step7: Check if whole line is generated.

If x > = xend
Stop.
Step80: Calculate co-ordinates of the next pixel

If d < 0
Then d = d + i1
If d ≥ 0
Then d = d + i2
Increment y = y + 1
Step9: Increment x = x + 1
Step10:0 Draw a point of latest (x, y) coordinates
Step11: Go to step 7
Step12: End of Algorithm
Example: Starting and Ending position of the line are (1, 1) and (8, 5). Find
intermediate points.
Solution: x1=1
y1=1
x2=8
y2=5
dx= x2-x1=8-1=7
dy=y2-y1=5-1=4
I1=2* ∆y=2*4=8
I2=2*(∆y-∆x)=2*(4-7)=-6
d = I1-∆x=8-7=1
X y d=d+I1 or I2
1 1 d+I2=1+(-6)=-5
2 2 d+I1=-5+8=3
3 2 d+I2=3+(-6)=-3
4 3 d+I1=-3+8=5
5 3 d+I2=5+(-6)=-1
6 4 d+I1=-1+8=7
7 4 d+I2=7+(-6)=1
8 5
Program to implement Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm:
3. void drawline(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1)
4. {
5. int dx, dy, p, x, y;
6. dx=x1-x0;
7. dy=y1-y0;
8. x=x0;
9. y=y0;
10. p=2*dy-dx;
11. while(x<x1)
12. {
13. if(p>=0)
14. {
15. putpixel(x,y,7);
16. y=y+1;
17. p=p+2*dy-2*dx;
18. }
19. else
20. {
21. putpixel(x,y,7);
22. p=p+2*dy;}
23. x=x+1;
24. }
25. }
26. int main()
27. {
28. int gdriver=DETECT, gmode, error, x0, y0, x1, y1;
29. initgraph(&gdriver, &gmode, “c:\\turboc3\\bgi”);
30. printf(“Enter co-ordinates of first point: “);
31. scanf(“%d%d”, &x0, &y0);
32. printf(“Enter co-ordinates of second point: “);
33. scanf(“%d%d”, &x1, &y1);
34. drawline(x0, y0, x1, y1);
35. return 0;
36. }
#include<stdio.h>
void draw line(int x0, int y0, int x
{
int dx, dy, p, x, y;
Output:
 DDifferentiate between DDA Algorithm and

Bresenham's’Line Algorithm:
 DDA Algorithm Bre
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Defining a Circle:
Circle is an eight-way symmetric figure. The shape of circle is the same in all quadrants. In each quadrant, there are two
octants. If the calculation of the point of one octant is done, then the other seven points can be calculated easily by using
the concept of eight-way symmetry.
For drawing, circle considers it at the origin. If a point is P (x, y), then the other seven points will be
1
So we will calculate only 45°arc. From which the whole circle can be determined easily.
If we want to display circle on screen then the putpixel function is used for eight points as shown below:
putpixel (x, y, color)
putpixel (x, -y, color)
putpixel (-x, y, color)
putpixel (-x, -y, color)
putpixel (y, x, color)
putpixel (y, -x, color)
putpixel (-y, x, color)
putpixel (-y, -x, color)
Example: Let we determine a point (2, 7) of the circle then other points will be (2, -7), (-2, -7), (-2, 7), (7, 2), (-7, 2), (-
7, -2), (7, -2)
These seven points are calculated by using the property of reflection. The reflection is accomplished in the following way:
The reflection is accomplished by reversing x, y co-ordinates.
There are two standards methods of mathematically defining a circle centered at the origin.
1. Defining a circle using Polynomial Method
2. Defining a circle using Polar Co-ordinates
Defining a circle using Polynomial Method:

The first method defines a circle with the second-order polynomial equation as shown in fig:
y2=r2-x2
Where x = the x coordinate
y = the y coordinate
r = the circle radius
With the method, each x coordinate in the sector, from 90° to 45°, is found by stepping x
from 0 to & each y coordinate is found by evaluating for each step of x.

Algorithm:
Step1: Set the initial variables
r = circle radius
(h, k) = coordinates of circle center
x=o
I = step size
xend=
Step2: Test to determine whether the entire circle has been scan-converted.
If x > xend then stop.
Step3: Compute y =
Step4: Plot the eight points found by symmetry concerning the center (h, k) at the current
(x, y) coordinates.
Plot (x + h, y +k) Plot (-x + h, -y + k)

Plot (y + h, x + k) Plot (-y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-y + h, x + k) Plot (y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-x + h, y + k) Plot (x + h, -y + k)
Step5: Increment x = x + i
Step6: Go to step (ii).
Program to draw a circle using Polynomial Method:

2. #include<conio.h>
3. #include<math.h>
4. voidsetPixel(int x, int y, int h, int k)
5. {
6. putpixel(x+h, y+k, RED);
7. putpixel(x+h, -y+k, RED);
8. putpixel(-x+h, -y+k, RED);
9. putpixel(-x+h, y+k, RED);
10. putpixel(y+h, x+k, RED);
11. putpixel(y+h, -x+k, RED);
12. putpixel(-y+h, -x+k, RED);
13. putpixel(-y+h, x+k, RED);
14. }
15. main()
16. {
17. intgd=0, gm,h,k,r;
18. double x,y,x2;
19. h=200, k=200, r=100;
20. initgraph(&gd, &gm, "C“\\TC\\BGI ")“
22. x=0,y=r;
23. x2 = r/sqrt(2);
24. while(x<=x2)
25. {
26. y = sqrt(r*r - –*x);
27. setPixel(floor(x), floor(y), h,k);
28. x += 1;
29. }
30. getch();
31. closegraph();
32. return 0;
33. }
Output:
Defining a circle using Polar Co-ordinates :

The second method of defining a circle makes use of polar coordinates as shown in fig:
x=r cos θ y = r sin θ
Where θ=current angle
r = circle radius
x = x coordinate
y = y coordinate
By this method, θ is stepped from 0 to & each value of x & y is calculated.
Algorithm:
Step1: Set the initial variables:
r = circle radius
(h, k) = coordinates of the circle center
i = step size
θ_end=
θ=0
Step2: If θ>θendthen stop.
Step3: Compute
x = r * cos θ y=r*sin?θ
Step4: Plot the eight points, found by symmetry i.e., the center (h, k), at the current (x, y)
coordinates.
Plot (x + h, y +k) Plot (-x + h, -y + k)

Plot (y + h, x + k) Plot (-y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-y + h, x + k) Plot (y + h, -x + k)
Plot (-x + h, y + k) Plot (x + h, -y + k)
Step5: Increment θ=θ+i
Step6: Go to step (ii).
Program to draw a circle using Polar Coordinates:

3. #define color 10
4. void eightWaySymmetricPlot(int xc,int yc,int x,int y)
5. {
6. putpixel(x+xc,y+yc,color);
7. putpixel(x+xc,-y+yc,color);
8. putpixel(-x+xc,-y+yc,color);
9. putpixel(-x+xc,y+yc,color);
10. putpixel(y+xc,x+yc,color);
11. putpixel(y+xc,-x+yc,color);
12. putpixel(-y+xc,-x+yc,color);
13. putpixel(-y+xc,x+yc,color);
14. }
15. void PolarCircle(int xc,int yc,int r)
16. {
17. int x,y,d;
18. x=0;
19. y=r;
20. d=3-2*r;
21. eightWaySymmetricPlot(xc,yc,x,y);
22. while(x<=y)
23. {
24. if(d<=0)
25. {
26. d=d+4*x+6;
27. }
28. else
29. {
30. d=d+4*x-4*y+10;
31. y=y-1;
32. }
33. x=x+1;
34. eightWaySymmetricPlot(xc,yc,x,y);
35. }
36. }
37. int main(void)
38. {
39. int gdriver = DETECT, gmode, errorcode;
40. int xc,yc,r;
41. initgraph(&gdriver, &gmode, "c“\\turboc3\\bgi")”
42. errorcode = graphresult();
43. if (errorcode != grrok
44. {
45. printf("G“aphics error: %s\n",”grapherrormsg(errorcode));
46. printf("P“ess any key to halt:")”
47. getch();
48. exit(1);
49. }
50. printf("E“ter the values of xc and yc ,that is center points of circle : ")“
51. scanf("%“%d",”xc,&yc);
52. printf("E“ter the radius of circle : ")“
53. scanf("%“",”r);
54. PolarCircle(xc,yc,r);
55. getch();
56. closegraph();
57. return 0;
58. }
Output:
Bresenham's’Circle Algorithm:
Scan-Converting a circle using Bresenham's’algorithm works as follows: Points are
generated from 90° to 45°, moves will be made only in the +x & -y directions as shown
in fig:
The best approximation of the true circle will be described by those pixels in the raster
that falls the least distance from the true circle. We want to generate the points from
90° to 45°. Assume that the last scan-converted pixel is P1 as shown in fig. Each new
point closest to the true circle can be found by taking either of two actions.
9. Move in the x-direction one unit or

10. Move in the x- direction one unit & move in the negative y-direction one unit.
Let D (Si) is the distance from the origin to the true circle squared minus the distance to
point P3 squared. D (Ti) is the distance from the origin to the true circle squared minus
the distance to point P2 squared. Therefore, the following expressions arise.
D (Si)=(xi-1+1)2+ yi-12 -r2

D (Ti)=(xi-1+1)2+(yi-1 -1)2-r2
Since D (Si) will always be +ve & D (Ti) will always be -ve, a decision variable d may be
defined as follows:
di=D (Si )+ D (Ti)
Therefore,
di=(xi-1+1)2+ yi-12 -r2+(xi-1+1)2+(yi-1 -1)2-r2
From this equation, we can drive initial values of di as
If it is assumed that the circle is centered at the origin, then at the first step x = 0 & y =
r.
Therefore,
di=(0+1)2+r2 -r2+(0+1)2+(r-1)2-r2
=1+1+r2-2r+1-r2
= 3 - –r
Thereafter, if d_i<0,then only x is incremented.

xi+1=xi+1 di+1=di+ 4xi+6
& if di≥0,then x & y are incremented

xi+1=xi+1 yi+1 =yi+ 1
di+1=di+ 4 (xi-yi)+10
Bresenham's’Circle Algorithm:
Step2: Declare p, q, x, y, r, d variables

p, q are coordinates of the center of the circle
r is the radius of the circle
Step3: Enter the value of r
Step4: Calculate d = 3 - –r
Step5: Initialize x=0

&nbsy= r
Step6: Check if the whole circle is scan converted

If x > = y
Stop
Step7: Plot eight points by using concepts of eight-way symmetry. The center is at (p,
q). Current active pixel is (x, y).
putpixel (x+p, y+q)
putpixel (y+p, x+q)
putpixel (-y+p, x+q)
putpixel (-x+p, y+q)
putpixel (-x+p, -y+q)
putpixel (-y+p, -x+q)
putpixel (y+p, -x+q)
putpixel (x+p, -y-q)
Step8: Find location of next pixels to be scanned

If d < 0
then d = d + 4x + 6
increment x = x + 1
If d ≥ 0
then d = d + 4 (x - –) + 10
increment x = x + 1
decrement y = y - –
Step9: Go to step 6
Step10: Stop Algorithm
Example: Plot 6 points of circle using Bresenham Algorithm. When radius of circle is 10
units. The circle has centre (50, 50).
Solution: Let r = 10 (Given)
Step1: Take initial point (0, 10)

d = 3 - –r
d = 3 - – * 10 = -17
d < 0 ∴ d = d + 4x + 6
= -17 + 4 (0) + 6
= -11
Step2: Plot (1, 10)

d = d + 4x + 6 (∵ d < 0)
= -11 + 4 (1) + 6
= -1
Step3: Plot (2, 10)

d = d + 4x + 6 (∵ d < 0)
= -1 + 4 x 2 + 6
= 13
Step4: Plot (3, 9) d is > 0 so x = x + 1, y = y - –

d = d + 4 (x-y) + 10 (∵ d > 0)
= 13 + 4 (3-9) + 10
= 13 + 4 (-6) + 10
= 23-24=-1
Step5: Plot (4, 9)
d = -1 + 4x + 6
= -1 + 4 (4) + 6
= 21
Step6: Plot (5, 8)

d = d + 4 (x-y) + 10 (∵ d > 0)
= 21 + 4 (5-8) + 10
= 21-12 + 10 = 19
So P1 (0,0)⟹(50,50)
P2 (1,10)⟹(51,60)
P3 (2,10)⟹(52,60)
P4 (3,9)⟹(53,59)
P5 (4,9)⟹(54,59)
P6 (5,8)⟹(55,58)
Program to draw a circle using Bresenham's’circle drawing

algorithm:
6.
7. void EightWaySymmetricPlot(int xc,int yc,int x,int y)
8. {
9. putpixel(x+xc,y+yc,RED);
10. putpixel(x+xc,-y+yc,YELLOW);
11. putpixel(-x+xc,-y+yc,GREEN);
12. putpixel(-x+xc,y+yc,YELLOW);
13. putpixel(y+xc,x+yc,12);
14. putpixel(y+xc,-x+yc,14);
15. putpixel(-y+xc,-x+yc,15);
16. putpixel(-y+xc,x+yc,6);
17. }
18.
19. void BresenhamCircle(int xc,int yc,int r)
20. {
21. int x=0,y=r,d=3-(2*r);
22. EightWaySymmetricPlot(xc,yc,x,y);
23.
24. while(x<=y)
25. {
26. if(d<=0)
27. {
28. d=d+(4*x)+6;
29. }
30. else
31. {
32. d=d+(4*x)-(4*y)+10;
33. y=y-1;
34. }
35. x=x+1;
36. EightWaySymmetricPlot(xc,yc,x,y);
37. }
38. }
39.
40. int main(void)
41. {
43. int xc,yc,r,gdriver = DETECT, gmode, errorcode;
45. initgraph(&gdriver, &gmode, "C“\\TURBOC3\\BGI")”
46.
48. errorcode = graphresult();
49.
50. if (errorcode != grrok /* an error occurred */
51. {
52. printf("G“aphics error: %s\n",”grapherrormsg(errorcode));
53. printf("P“ess any key to halt:")”
54. getch();
55. exit(1); /* terminate with an error code */
56. }
57. printf("E“ter the values of xc and yc :")”
58. scanf("%“%d",”xc,&yc);
59. printf("E“ter the value of radius :")”
60. scanf("%“",”r);
61. BresenhamCircle(xc,yc,r);
62.
63. getch();
64. closegraph();
65. return 0;
66. }
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <math.h>
Output:
MidPoint Circle Algorithm

It is based on the following function for testing the spatial relationship between the
arbitrary point (x, y) and a circle of radius r centered at the origin:
Now, consider the coordinates of the point halfway between pixel T and pixel S
This is called midpoint (xi+1,yi- ) and we use it to define a decision parameter:
Pi=f (xi+1,yi- ) = (xi+1)2+(yi- )2-r2 ...............equation 2
If Pi is -ve ⟹midpoint is inside the circle and we choose pixel T
If Pi is+ve ⟹midpoint is outside the circle (or on the circle)and we choose pixel S.
The decision parameter for the next step is:
Pi+1=(xi+1+1)2+(yi+1- )2- r2............equation 3
Since xi+1=xi+1, we have

If pixel T is choosen ⟹Pi<0
We have yi+1=yi
If pixel S is choosen ⟹Pi≥0
We have yi+1=yi-1
We can continue to simplify this in n terms of (xi,yi) and get
Now, initial value of Pi (0,r)from equation 2
We can put ≅1
∴r is an integer
So, P1=1-r
Algorithm:
Step1: Put x =0, y =r in equation 2
We have p=1-r
Step2: Repeat steps while x ≤ y
Plot (x, y)
If (p<0)
Then set p = p + 2x + 3
Else
p = p + 2(x-y)+5
y =y - – (end if)
x =x+1 (end loop)
Step3: End
Program to draw a circle using Midpoint Algorithm:

6. #include <iostream.h>
7.
8. class bresen
9. {
10. float x, y,a, b, r, p;
11. public:
12. void get ();
13. void cal ();
14. };
15. void main ()
16. {
17. bresen b;
18. b.get ();
19. b.cal ();
20. getch ();
21. }
22. Void bresen :: get ()
23. {
24. cout<<"E”TER CENTER AND RADIUS";”
25. cout<< "E“TER (a, b)";”
26. cin>>a>>b;
27. cout<<"E”TER r";”
28. cin>>r;
29. }
30. void bresen ::cal ()
31. {
33. int gdriver = DETECT,gmode, errorcode;
34. int midx, miroki;
36. initgraph (&gdriver, &gmode, " “)“
38. errorcode = graphresult ();
39. if (errorcode ! = grrok /*an error occurred */
40. {
41. printf("G“aphics error: %s \n",”grapherrormsg (errorcode);
42. printf ("P“ess any key to halt:")”
43. getch ();
44. exit (1); /* terminate with an error code */
45. }
46. x=0;
47. y=r;
48. putpixel (a, b+r, RED);
49. putpixel (a, b-r, RED);
50. putpixel (a-r, b, RED);
51. putpixel (a+r, b, RED);
52. p=5/4)-r;
53. while (x<=y)
54. {
55. If (p<0)
56. p+= (4*x)+6;
57. else
58. {
59. p+=(2*(x-y))+5;
60. y--;
61. }
62. x++;
63. putpixel (a+x, b+y, RED);
64. putpixel (a-x, b+y, RED);
65. putpixel (a+x, b-y, RED);
67. putpixel (a+x, b+y, RED);
69. putpixel (a-x, b+y, RED);
70. putpixel (a-x, b-y, RED);
71. }
72. }
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
Output:
Filled Area Primitives:

Region filling is the process of filling image or region. Filling can be of boundary or interior
region as shown in fig. Boundary Fill algorithms are used to fill the boundary and flood-fill
algorithm are used to fill the interior.
Boundary Filled Algorithm:
This algorithm uses the recursive method. First of all, a starting pixel called as the seed is
considered. The algorithm checks boundary pixel or adjacent pixels are colored or not. If the
adjacent pixel is already filled or colored then leave it, otherwise fill it. The filling is done
using four connected or eight connected approaches.
Four connected approaches is more suitable than the eight connected approaches.
1. Four connected approaches: In this approach, left, right, above, below pixels are
tested.
2. Eight connected approaches: In this approach, left, right, above, below and four
diagonals are selected.
Boundary can be checked by seeing pixels from left and right first. Then pixels are checked
by seeing pixels from top to bottom. The algorithm takes time and memory because some
recursive calls are needed.
Problem with recursive boundary fill algorithm:

It may not fill regions sometimes correctly when some interior pixel is already filled with
color. The algorithm will check this boundary pixel for filling and will found already filled so
recursive process will terminate. This may vary because of another interior pixel unfilled.
So check all pixels color before applying the algorithm.
Algorithm:
1. Procedure fill (x, y, color, color1: integer)
2. int c;
3. c=getpixel (x, y);
4. if (c!=color) (c!=color1)
5. {
6. setpixel (x, y, color)
7. fill (x+1, y, color, color 1);
8. fill (x-1, y, color, color 1);
9. fill (x, y+1, color, color 1);
10. fill (x, y-1, color, color 1);
11. }
Flood Fill Algorithm:

In this method, a point or seed which is inside region is selected. This point is called a seed point. Then fou
The flood fill algorithm has many characters similar to boundary fill. But this method is more suitable for fill
we use this algorithm.
In fill algorithm, we start from a specified interior point (x, y) and reassign all pixel values are currently set
we then step through pixel positions until all interior points have been repainted.
Disadvantage:
Very slow algorithm
May be fail for large polygons
Initial pixel required more knowledge about surrounding pixels.
Algorithm:
Procedure floodfill (x, y,fill_ color, old_color: integer)
If (getpixel (x, y)=old_color)
{
setpixel (x, y, fill_color);
fill (x+1, y, fill_color, old_color);
fill (x-1, y, fill_color, old_color);
fill (x, y+1, fill_color, old_color);
fill (x, y-1, fill_color, old_color);
}
10. }
Program1: To implement 4-connected flood fill algorithm:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<dos.h>
void flood(int,int,int,int);
void main()
{
intgd=DETECT,gm;
initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C”/TURBOC3/bgi")”
10. rectangle(50,50,250,250);
11. flood(55,55,10,0);
12. getch();
13. }
14. void flood(intx,inty,intfillColor, intdefaultColor)
15. {
16. if(getpixel(x,y)==defaultColor)
17. {
18. delay(1);
19. putpixel(x,y,fillColor);
20. flood(x+1,y,fillColor,defaultColor);
21. flood(x-1,y,fillColor,defaultColor);
22. flood(x,y+1,fillColor,defaultColor);
23. flood(x,y-1,fillColor,defaultColor);
24. }
25. }
Output:
Program2: To implement 8-connected flood fill algorithm:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<dos.h>
#include<conio.h>
void floodfill(intx,inty,intold,intnewcol)
{
int current;
current=getpixel(x,y);
if(current==old)
10. {
11. delay(5);
12. putpixel(x,y,newcol);
13. floodfill(x+1,y,old,newcol);
14. floodfill(x-1,y,old,newcol);
15. floodfill(x,y+1,old,newcol);
16. floodfill(x,y-1,old,newcol);
17. floodfill(x+1,y+1,old,newcol);
18. floodfill(x-1,y+1,old,newcol);
19. floodfill(x+1,y-1,old,newcol);
20. floodfill(x-1,y-1,old,newcol);
21. }
22. }
23. void main()
24. {
25. intgd=DETECT,gm;
26. initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C”\\TURBOC3\\BGI")”
27. rectangle(50,50,150,150);
28. floodfill(70,70,0,15);
29. getch();
30. closegraph();
31. }
Output:
Scan Line Polygon Fill Algorithm:

This algorithm lines interior points of a polygon on the scan line and these points are done
on or off according to requirement. The polygon is filled with various colors by coloring
various pixels.
In above figure polygon and a line cutting polygon in shown. First of all, scanning is done.
Scanning is done using raster scanning concept on display device. The beam starts scanning
from the top left corner of the screen and goes toward the bottom right corner as the
endpoint. The algorithms find points of intersection of the line with polygon while moving
from left to right and top to bottom. The various points of intersection are stored in the
frame buffer. The intensities of such points is keep high. Concept of coherence property is
used. According to this property if a pixel is inside the polygon, then its next pixel will be
inside the polygon.
Side effects of Scan Conversion:

1. Staircase or Jagged: Staircase like appearance is seen while the scan was converting
line or circle.
2. Unequal Intensity: It deals with unequal appearance of the brightness of different

lines. An inclined line appears less bright as compared to the horizontal and vertical line.
Unit-2
Introduction of Transformations
Computer Graphics provide the facility of viewing object from different angles. The architect
can study building from different angles i.e.
1. Front Evaluation
2. Side elevation
3. Top plan
A Cartographer can change the size of charts and topographical maps. So if graphics images
are coded as numbers, the numbers can be stored in memory. These numbers are modified
by mathematical operations called as Transformation.
The purpose of using computers for drawing is to provide facility to user to view the object
from different angles, enlarging or reducing the scale or shape of object called as
Transformation.
Two essential aspects of transformation are given below:
1. Each transformation is a single entity. It can be denoted by a unique name or symbol.

2. It is possible to combine two transformations, after connecting a single transformation is
obtained, e.g., A is a transformation for translation. The B transformation performs scaling.
The combination of two is C=AB. So C is obtained by concatenation property.
There are two complementary points of view for describing object transformation.
1. Geometric Transformation: The object itself is transformed relative to the coordinate system
or background. The mathematical statement of this viewpoint is defined by geometric
transformations applied to each point of the object.
2. Coordinate Transformation: The object is held stationary while the coordinate system is
transformed relative to the object. This effect is attained through the application of
coordinate transformations.
An example that helps to distinguish these two viewpoints:

The movement of an automobile against a scenic background we can simulate this by
o Moving the automobile while keeping the background fixed-(Geometric

Transformation)
o We can keep the car fixed while moving the background scenery- (Coordinate
Transformation)
Types of Transformations:
1. Translation
2. Scaling
3. Rotating
4. Reflection
5. Shearing
Translation
It is the straight line movement of an object from one position to another is called
Translation. Here the object is positioned from one coordinate location to another.
Translation of point:
To translate a point from coordinate position (x, y) to another (x 1 y1), we add algebraically
the translation distances Tx and Ty to original coordinate.
x1=x+Tx
y1=y+Ty
The translation pair (Tx,Ty) is called as shift vector.
Translation is a movement of objects without deformation. Every position or point is

translated by the same amount. When the straight line is translated, then it will be drawn
using endpoints.
For translating polygon, each vertex of the polygon is converted to a new position. Similarly,
curved objects are translated. To change the position of the circle or ellipse its center
coordinates are transformed, then the object is drawn using new coordinates.
Let P is a point with coordinates (x, y). It will be translated as (x 1 y1).

Matrix for Translation:
Scaling:
It is used to alter or change the size of objects. The change is done using scaling factors.
There are two scaling factors, i.e. Sx in x direction Sy in y-direction. If the original position is
x and y. Scaling factors are Sx and Sy then the value of coordinates after scaling will be x1
and y1.
If the picture to be enlarged to twice its original size then Sx = Sy =2. If Sxand Sy are not
equal then scaling will occur but it will elongate or distort the picture.
If scaling factors are less than one, then the size of the object will be reduced. If scaling
factors are higher than one, then the size of the object will be enlarged.
If Sxand Syare equal it is also called as Uniform Scaling. If not equal then called as
Differential Scaling. If scaling factors with values less than one will move the object closer
to coordinate origin, while a value higher than one will move coordinate position farther
from origin.
Enlargement: If T1= ,If (x1 y1)is original position and T1is translation vector
then (x2 y2) are coordinated after scaling
The image will be enlarged two times

Reduction: If T1= . If (x1 y1) is original position and T1 is translation
vector, then (x2 y2) are coordinates after scaling
Matrix for Scaling:
Example: Prove that 2D Scaling transformations are commutative i.e, S1 S2=S2 S1.
Solution: S1 and S2 are scaling matrices

Rotation:
It is a process of changing the angle of the object. Rotation can be clockwise or
anticlockwise. For rotation, we have to specify the angle of rotation and rotation point.
Rotation point is also called a pivot point. It is print about which object is rotated.
Types of Rotation:
1. Anticlockwise
2. Counterclockwise
The positive value of the pivot point (rotation angle) rotates an object in a counter-
clockwise (anti-clockwise) direction.
The negative value of the pivot point (rotation angle) rotates an object in a clockwise
direction.
When the object is rotated, then every point of the object is rotated by the same angle.
Straight Line: Straight Line is rotated by the endpoints with the same angle and
redrawing the line between new endpoints.
Polygon: Polygon is rotated by shifting every vertex using the same rotational angle.
Curved Lines: Curved Lines are rotated by repositioning of all points and drawing of the
curve at new positions.
Circle: It can be obtained by center position by the specified angle.
Ellipse: Its rotation can be obtained by rotating major and minor axis of an ellipse by
the desired angle.
Matrix for rotation is a clockwise direction.
Matrix for rotation is an anticlockwise direction.
Matrix for homogeneous co-ordinate rotation (clockwise)

Matrix for homogeneous co-ordinate rotation (anticlockwise)
Rotation about an arbitrary point: If we want to rotate an object or point about an

arbitrary point, first of all, we translate the point about which we want to rotate to the
origin. Then rotate point or object about the origin, and at the end, we again translate it
to the original place. We get rotation about an arbitrary point.
Example: The point (x, y) is to be rotated
The (xc yc) is a point about which counterclockwise rotation is done
Step1: Translate point (xc yc) to origin
Step2: Rotation of (x, y) about the origin

Step3: Translation of center of rotation back to its original position
Example1: Prove that 2D rotations about the origin are commutative i.e. R1 R2=R2 R1.
Solution: R1 and R2are rotation matrices

Example2: Rotate a line CD whose endpoints are (3, 4) and (12, 15) about origin
through a 45° anticlockwise direction.
Solution: The point C (3, 4)

Example3: Rotate line AB whose endpoints are A (2, 5) and B (6, 12) about origin
through a 30° clockwise direction.
Solution: For rotation in the clockwise direction. The matrix is
Step1: Rotation of point A (2, 5). Take angle 30°

Step2: Rotation of point B (6, 12)
Program to rotate a line:
3. #include<math.h>
4. int main()
5. {
6. intgd=0,gm,x1,y1,x2,y2;
7. double s,c, angle;
8. initgraph(&gd, &gm, "C:\\TC\\BGI");
9. setcolor(RED);
10. printf("Enter coordinates of line: ");
11. scanf("%d%d%d%d",&x1,&y1,&x2,&y2);
12. cleardevice();
14. line(x1,y1,x2,y2);
15. getch();
16. setbkcolor(BLACK);
17. printf("Enter rotation angle: ");
18. scanf("%lf", &angle);
20. c = cos(angle *3.14/180);
21. s = sin(angle *3.14/180);
22. x1 = floor(x1 * c + y1 * s);
23. y1 = floor(-x1 * s + y1 * c);
24. x2 = floor(x2 * c + y2 * s);
25. y2 = floor(-x2 * s + y2 * c);
26. cleardevice();
27. line(x1, y1 ,x2, y2);
28. getch();
29. closegraph();
30. return 0;
31. }
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main()
{
Output:
Before rotation
After rotation
Reflection:
It is a transformation which produces a mirror image of an object. The mirror image can be
either about x-axis or y-axis. The object is rotated by180°.
Types of Reflection:
1. Reflection about the x-axis
2. Reflection about the y-axis
3. Reflection about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through the origin
4. Reflection about line y=x
1. Reflection about x-axis: The object can be reflected about x-axis with the help of the
following matrix
In this transformation value of x will remain same whereas the value of y will become
negative. Following figures shows the reflection of the object axis. The object will lie another
side of the x-axis.
2. Reflection about y-axis: The object can be reflected about y-axis with the help of
following transformation matrix
Here the values of x will be reversed, whereas the value of y will remain the same. The
object will lie another side of the y-axis.
The following figure shows the reflection about the y-axis

3. Reflection about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through origin:
In the matrix of this transformation is given below
In this value of x and y both will be reversed. This is also called as half revolution about the
origin.
4. Reflection about line y=x: The object may be reflected about line y = x with the help
of following transformation matrix
First of all, the object is rotated at 45°. The direction of rotation is clockwise. After it
reflection is done concerning x-axis. The last step is the rotation of y=x back to its original
position that is counterclockwise at 45°.
Example: A triangle ABC is given. The coordinates of A, B, C are given as
A (3 4)
B (6 4)
C (4 8)
Find reflected position of triangle i.e., to the x-axis.
Solution:
The a point coordinates after reflection
The b point coordinates after reflection
The coordinate of point c after reflection

a (3, 4) becomes a1 (3, -4)
b (6, 4) becomes b1 (6, -4)
c (4, 8) becomes c1 (4, -8)
Shearing:
It is transformation which changes the shape of object. The sliding of layers of object occur.
The shear can be in one direction or in two directions.
Shearing in the X-direction: In this horizontal shearing sliding of layers occur. The
homogeneous matrix for shearing in the x-direction is shown below:
Shearing in the Y-direction: Here shearing is done by sliding along vertical or y-axis.
Shearing in X-Y directions: Here layers will be slided in both x as well as y direction. The
sliding will be in horizontal as well as vertical direction. The shape of the object will be
distorted. The matrix of shear in both directions is given by:
Matrix Representation of 2D Transformation
Homogeneous Coordinates
The rotation of a point, straight line or an entire image on the screen, about a point other
than origin, is achieved by first moving the image until the point of rotation occupies the
origin, then performing rotation, then finally moving the image to its original position.
The moving of an image from one place to another in a straight line is called a translation. A
translation may be done by adding or subtracting to each point, the amount, by which
picture is required to be shifted.
Translation of point by the change of coordinate cannot be combined with other

transformation by using simple matrix application. Such a combination is essential if we
wish to rotate an image about a point other than origin by translation, rotation again
translation.
To combine these three transformations into a single transformation, homogeneous

coordinates are used. In homogeneous coordinate system, two-dimensional coordinate
positions (x, y) are represented by triple-coordinates.
Homogeneous coordinates are generally used in design and construction applications. Here
we perform translations, rotations, scaling to fit the picture into proper position.
Example of representing coordinates into a homogeneous coordinate system: For

two-dimensional geometric transformation, we can choose homogeneous parameter h to
any non-zero value. For our convenience take it as one. Each two-dimensional position is
then represented with homogeneous coordinates (x, y, 1).
Following are matrix for two-dimensional transformation in

homogeneous coordinate:
Composite Transformation:
A number of transformations or sequence of transformations can be combined into single one called as composition. The
resulting matrix is called as composite matrix. The process of combining is called as concatenation.
Suppose we want to perform rotation about an arbitrary point, then we can perform it by the sequence of three
transformations
1. Translation
2. Rotation
3. Reverse Translation
The ordering sequence of these numbers of transformations must not be changed. If a matrix is represented in column
form, then the composite transformation is performed by multiplying matrix in order from right to left side. The output
obtained from the previous matrix is multiplied with the new coming matrix.
Example showing composite transformations:

The enlargement is with respect to center. For this following sequence of transformations will be performed and all will be
combined to a single one
Step1: The object is kept at its position as in fig (a)
Step2: The object is translated so that its center coincides with the origin as in fig (b)
Step3: Scaling of an object by keeping the object at origin is done in fig (c)
Step4: Again translation is done. This second translation is called a reverse translation. It will position the object at the
origin location.
Above transformation can be represented as T .STV V

-1
Note: Two types of rotations are used for representing matrices one is column method. Another is the row method.
Advantage of composition or concatenation of matrix:

1. It transformations become compact.
2. The number of operations will be reduced.
3. Rules used for defining transformation in form of equations are complex as compared to matrix.
Composition of two translations:

Let t t t t are translation vectors. They are two translations P and P . The matrix of P and P given below. The P and P are
1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 1 2
represented using Homogeneous matrices and P will be the final transformation matrix obtained after multiplication.
Above resultant matrix show that two successive translations are additive.
Composition of two Rotations: Two Rotations are also additive
Composition of two Scaling: The composition of two scaling is multiplicative. Let S and S are matrix to be multiplied.
11 12
General Pivot Point Rotation or Rotation about
Fixed Point:
For it first of all rotate function is used. Sequences of steps are given below for rotating an
object about origin.
1. Translate object to origin from its original position as shown in fig (b)
2. Rotate the object about the origin as shown in fig (c).
3. Translate the object to its original position from origin. It is called as reverse translation as
shown in fig (d).
The matrix multiplication of above 3 steps is given below
Scaling relative to fixed point:

For this following steps are performed:
Step1: The object is kept at desired location as shown in fig (a)
Step2: The object is translated so that its center coincides with origin as shown in fig (b)
Step3: Scaling of object by keeping object at origin is done as shown in fig (c)
Step4: Again translation is done. This translation is called as reverse translation.

Computer Graphics Window:
The method of selecting and enlarging a portion of a drawing is called windowing. The area
chosen for this display is called a window. The window is selected by world-coordinate.
Sometimes we are interested in some portion of the object and not in full object. So we will
decide on an imaginary box. This box will enclose desired or interested area of the object.
Such an imaginary box is called a window.
Viewport: An area on display device to which a window is mapped [where it is to

displayed].
Basically, the window is an area in object space. It encloses the object. After the user
selects this, space is mapped on the whole area of the viewport. Almost all 2D and 3D
graphics packages provide means of defining viewport size on the screen. It is possible to
determine many viewports on different areas of display and view the same object in a
different angle in each viewport.
The size of the window is (0, 0) coordinate which is a bottom-left corner and toward right
side until window encloses the desired area. Once the window is defined data outside the
window is clipped before representing to screen coordinates. This process reduces the
amount of data displaying signals.
The window size of the Tektronix 4.14 tube in Imperial College contains 4.96 points
horizontally and 3072 points vertically.
Viewing transformation or window to viewport transformation or windowing

transformation: The mapping of a part of a world-coordinate scene to device coordinates
is referred to as a viewing transformation etc.
Viewing transformation in several steps:
First, we construct the scene in world coordinate using the output primitives and attributes.
To obtain a particular orientation, we can set up a 2-D viewing coordinate system in the
window coordinate plane and define a window in viewing coordinates system.
Once the viewing frame is established, are then transform description in world coordinates
to viewing coordinates.
Then, we define viewport in normalized coordinates (range from 0 to 1) and map the
viewing coordinates description of the scene to normalized coordinates.
At the final step, all parts of the picture that (i.e., outside the viewport are dipped, and the
contents are transferred to device coordinates).
By changing the position of the viewport:We can view objects at different locations on
the display area of an output device as shown in fig:
By varying the size of viewports: We can change the size and proportions of displayed
objects. We can achieve zooming effects by successively mapping different-sized windows
on a fixed-size viewport.
As the windows are made smaller, we zoom in on some part of a scene to view details that
are not shown with larger windows.
Computer Graphics Window to Viewport Co-
ordinate Transformation
Once object description has been transmitted to the viewing reference frame, we choose the
window extends in viewing coordinates and selects the viewport limits in normalized
coordinates.
Object descriptions are then transferred to normalized device coordinates:
We do this thing using a transformation that maintains the same relative placement of an
object in normalized space as they had in viewing coordinates.
If a coordinate position is at the center of the viewing window:
It will display at the center of the viewport.

Fig shows the window to viewport mapping. A point at position (xw, yw) in window mapped
into position (xv, yv) in the associated viewport.
In order to maintain the same relative placement of the point in the viewport as in the
window, we require:
Solving these impressions for the viewport position (xv, yv), we have
xv=xvmin+(xw-xwmin)sx
yv=yvmin+(yw-ywmin)sy ...........equation 2
Where scaling factors are

Equation (1) and Equation (2) can also be derived with a set of transformation that converts
the window or world coordinate area into the viewport or screen coordinate area. This
conversation is performed with the following sequence of transformations:
1. Perform a scaling transformation using a fixed point position (xw min,ywmin) that scales the
window area to the size of the viewport.
2. Translate the scaled window area to the position of the viewport. Relative proportions of
objects are maintained if the scaling factors are the same (sx=sy).
From normalized coordinates, object descriptions are mapped to the various display devices.
Any number of output devices can we open in a particular app, and three windows to
viewport transformation can be performed for each open output device.
This mapping called workstation transformation (It is accomplished by selecting a window

area in normalized space and a viewport area in the coordinates of the display device).
As in fig, workstation transformation to partition a view so that different parts of normalized

space can be displayed on various output devices).
Matrix Representation of the above three steps of
Transformation:
Step1:Translate window to origin 1
Tx=-Xwmin Ty=-Ywmin
Step2:Scaling of the window to match its size to the viewport

Sx=(Xymax-Xvmin)/(Xwmax-Xwmin)
Sy=(Yvmax-Yvmin)/(Ywmax-Ywmin)
Step3:Again translate viewport to its correct position on screen.

Tx=Xvmin
Ty=Yvmin
Above three steps can be represented in matrix form:

VT=T * S * T1
T = Translate window to the origin
S=Scaling of the window to viewport size
T1=Translating viewport on screen.
Viewing Transformation= T * S * T1
Advantage of Viewing Transformation:

We can display picture at device or display system according to our need and choice.
Note:
o World coordinate system is selected suits according to the application program.

o Screen coordinate system is chosen according to the need of design.
o Viewing transformation is selected as a bridge between the world and screen
coordinate.
Computer Graphics Zooming

Zooming is a transformation often provided with an imaginary software. The transformation
effectively scales down or blows up a pixel map or a portion of it with the instructions from
the user. Such scaling is commonly implemented at the pixel level rather than at the
coordinates level. A video display or an image is necessarily a pixel map, i.e., a collection of
pixels which are the smallest addressable elements of a picture. The process of zooming
replicates pixels along successive scan lines.
Example: for a zoom factor of two
Each pixel value is used four times twice on each of the two successive scan lines.
Figure shows the effect of zooming by a factor of 2.
Such integration of pixels sometimes involves replication using a set of ordered patterns,
commonly known as Dithering.
The two most common dither types are:

o Ordered dither.
o Random dither.
There are widely used, especially when the grey levels (share of brightness) are
synthetically generated.
Computer Graphics Panning

The process of panning acts as a qualifier to the zooming transformation. This step moves
the scaled up portion of the image to the center of the screen and depending on the scale
factor, fill up the entire screen.
Advantage:
Effective increase in zoom area in all four direction even if the selected image portion (for
zooming) is close to the screen boundary.
Inking:
If we sample the position of a graphical input device at regular intervals and display a dot at
each sampled position, a trial will be displayed of the movement of the device.This
technique which closely simulates the effect of drawing on paper is called Inking.
For many years the primary use of inking has been in conjunction with online character-
recognition programs.
Scissoring:
In computer graphics, the deleting of any parts of an image which falls outside of a window
that has been sized and laid the original vision ever. It is also called the clipping.
Clipping:
When we have to display a large portion of the picture, then not only scaling & translation is
necessary, the visible part of picture is also identified. This process is not easy. Certain
parts of the image are inside, while others are partially inside. The lines or elements which
are partially visible will be omitted.
For deciding the visible and invisible portion, a particular process called clipping is used.
Clipping determines each element into the visible and invisible portion. Visible portion is
selected. An invisible portion is discarded.
Types of Lines:
Lines are of three types:
1. Visible: A line or lines entirely inside the window is considered visible

2. Invisible: A line entirely outside the window is considered invisible
3. Clipped: A line partially inside the window and partially outside is clipped. For clipping point
of intersection of a line with the window is determined.
Clipping can be applied through hardware as well as software. In some computers,
hardware devices automatically do work of clipping. In a system where hardware clipping is
not available software clipping applied.
Following figure show before and after clipping
The window against which object is clipped called a clip window. It can be curved or
rectangle in shape.
Applications of clipping:
1. It will extract part we desire.
2. For identifying the visible and invisible area in the 3D object.
3. For creating objects using solid modeling.
4. For drawing operations.
5. Operations related to the pointing of an object.
6. For deleting, copying, moving part of an object.
Clipping can be applied to world co-ordinates. The contents inside the window will be
mapped to device co-ordinates. Another alternative is a complete world co-ordinates picture
is assigned to device co-ordinates, and then clipping of viewport boundaries is done.
Types of Clipping:
1. Point Clipping
2. Line Clipping
3. Area Clipping (Polygon)
4. Curve Clipping
5. Text Clipping
6. Exterior Clipping
Point Clipping:
Point Clipping is used to determining, whether the point is inside the window or not. For this
following conditions are checked.
1. x ≤ xmax
2. x ≥ xmin
3. y ≤ ymax
4. y ≥ ymin
The (x, y) is coordinate of the point. If anyone from the above inequalities is false, then the
point will fall outside the window and will not be considered to be visible.
Line Clipping:
It is performed by using the line clipping algorithm. The line clipping algorithms are:
1. Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm

2. Midpoint Subdivision Line Clipping Algorithm
3. Liang-Barsky Line Clipping Algorithm
Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm:

In the algorithm, first of all, it is detected whether line lies inside the screen or it is outside
the screen. All lines come under any one of the following categories:
1. Visible
2. Not Visible
3. Clipping Case
1. Visible: If a line lies within the window, i.e., both endpoints of the line lies within the
window. A line is visible and will be displayed as it is.
2. Not Visible: If a line lies outside the window it will be invisible and rejected. Such lines
will not display. If any one of the following inequalities is satisfied, then the line is
considered invisible. Let A (x1,y2) and B (x2,y2) are endpoints of line.
xmin,xmax are coordinates of the window.
ymin,ymax are also coordinates of the window.

x1>xmax
x2>xmax
y1>ymax
y2>ymax
x1<xmin
x2<xmin
y1<ymin
y2<ymin
3. Clipping Case: If the line is neither visible case nor invisible case. It is considered to be
clipped case. First of all, the category of a line is found based on nine regions given below.
All nine regions are assigned codes. Each code is of 4 bits. If both endpoints of the line have
end bits zero, then the line is considered to be visible.
The center area is having the code, 0000, i.e., region 5 is considered a rectangle window.
Following figure show lines of various types
Line AB is the visible case

Line OP is an invisible case
Line PQ is an invisible line
Line IJ are clipping candidates
Line MN are clipping candidate
Line CD are clipping candidate
Advantage of Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping:

1. It calculates end-points very quickly and rejects and accepts lines quickly.
2. It can clip pictures much large than screen size.
Algorithm of Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping:

Step1:Calculate positions of both endpoints of the line
Step2:Perform OR operation on both of these end-points
Step3:If the OR operation gives 0000

Then
line is considered to be visible
else
Perform AND operation on both endpoints
If And ≠ 0000
then the line is invisible
else
And=0000
Line is considered the clipped case.
Step4:If a line is clipped case, find an intersection with boundaries of the window
m=(y2-y1 )(x2-x1)
(a) If bit 1 is "1" line intersects with left boundary of rectangle window
y3=y1+m(x-X1)
where X = Xwmin
where Xwminis the minimum value of X co-ordinate of window
(b) If bit 2 is "1" line intersect with right boundary

y3=y1+m(X-X1)
where X = Xwmax
where X more is maximum value of X co-ordinate of the window
(c) If bit 3 is "1" line intersects with bottom boundary

X3=X1+(y-y1)/m
where y = ywmin
ywmin is the minimum value of Y co-ordinate of the window
(d) If bit 4 is "1" line intersects with the top boundary
X3=X1+(y-y1)/m
where y = ywmax
ywmax is the maximum value of Y co-ordinate of the window
Example of Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm:

Let R be the rectangular window whose lower left-hand corner is at L (-3, 1) and upper
right-hand corner is at R (2, 6). Find the region codes for the endpoints in fig:
The region code for point (x, y) is set according to the scheme
Bit 1 = sign (y-ymax)=sign (y-6) Bit 3 = sign (x-xmax)= sign (x-2)
Bit 2 = sign (ymin-y)=sign(1-y) Bit 4 = sign (xmin-x)=sign(-3-x)
Here
So
A (-4, 2)→ 0001 F (1, 2)→ 0000

B (-1, 7) → 1000 G (1, -2) →0100
C (-1, 5)→ 0000 H (3, 3) → 0100
D (3, 8) → 1010 I (-4, 7) → 1001
E (-2, 3) → 0000 J (-2, 10) → 1000
We place the line segments in their appropriate categories by testing the region codes found
in the problem.
Category1 (visible): EF since the region code for both endpoints is 0000.
Category2 (not visible): IJ since (1001) AND (1000) =1000 (which is not 0000).
Category 3 (candidate for clipping): AB since (0001) AND (1000) = 0000, CD since
(0000) AND (1010) =0000, and GH. since (0100) AND (0010) =0000.
The candidates for clipping are AB, CD, and GH.
In clipping AB, the code for A is 0001. To push the 1 to 0, we clip against the boundary line
xmin=-3. The resulting intersection point is I1 (-3,3 ). We clip (do not display) AI1 and I1 B.
The code for I1is 1001. The clipping category for I1 B is 3 since (0000) AND (1000) is (0000).
Now B is outside the window (i.e., its code is 1000), so we push the 1 to a 0 by clipping
against the line ymax=6. The resulting intersection is l2 (-1 ,6). Thus I2 B is clipped. The code
for I2 is 0000. The remaining segment I1 I2 is displayed since both endpoints lie in the
window (i.e., their codes are 0000).
For clipping CD, we start with D since it is outside the window. Its code is 1010. We push
the first 1 to a 0 by clipping against the line ymax=6. The resulting intersection I3 is ( ,6),and
its code is 0000. Thus I3 D is clipped and the remaining segment CI3 has both endpoints
coded 0000 and so it is displayed.
For clipping GH, we can start with either G or H since both are outside the window. The
code for G is 0100, and we push the 1 to a 0 by clipping against the line y min=1.The resulting
intersection point is I4 (2 ,1) and its code is 0010. We clip GI4 and work on I4 H. Segment I4
H is not displaying since (0010) AND (0010) =0010.
Mid Point Subdivision Line Clipping Algorithm:

It is used for clipping line. The line is divided in two parts. Mid points of line is obtained by
dividing it in two short segments. Again division is done, by finding midpoint. This process is
continued until line of visible and invisible category is obtained. Let (xi,yi) are midpoint
x5lie on point of intersection of boundary of window.

Advantage of midpoint subdivision Line Clipping:
It is suitable for machines in which multiplication and division operation is not possible. Because
it can be performed by introducing clipping divides in hardware.
Algorithm of midpoint subdivision Line Clipping:

Step1: Calculate the position of both endpoints of the line
Step2: Perform OR operation on both of these endpoints
Step3: If the OR operation gives 0000

then
Line is guaranteed to be visible
else
Perform AND operation on both endpoints.
If AND ≠ 0000
then the line is invisible
else
AND=6000
then the line is clipped case.
Step4: For the line to be clipped. Find midpoint

Xm=(x1+x2)/2
Ym=(y1+y2)/2
Xmis midpoint of X coordinate.
Ymis midpoint of Y coordinate.
Step5: Check each midpoint, whether it nearest to the boundary of a window or not.
Step6: If the line is totally visible or totally rejected not found then repeat step 1 to 5.
Step7: Stop algorithm.
Example: Window size is (-3, 1) to (2, 6). A line AB is given having co-ordinates of A (-4, 2)
and B (-1, 7). Does this line visible. Find the visible portion of the line using midpoint
subdivision?
Solution:
Step1: Fix point A (-4, 2)

Step2: Find b"=mid of b'and b
So (-1, 5) is better than (2, 4)

Find b"&bb"(-1, 5) b (-1, 7)
So B""to B length of line will be clipped from upper side
Now considered left-hand side portion.

A and B""are now endpoints
Find mid of A and B""
A (-4, 2) B ""(-1, 6)
Liang-Barsky Line Clipping Algorithm:
Liang and Barsky have established an algorithm that uses floating-point arithmetic but finds the
appropriate endpoints with at most four computations. This algorithm uses the parametric
equations for a line and solves four inequalities to find the range of the parameter for which the
line is in the viewport.
Let P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) is the line which we want to study. The parametric equation of the line
segment from gives x-values and y-values for every point in terms of a parameter that ranges
from 0 to 1. The equations are
x=x1+(x2-x1 )*t=x1+dx*t and y=y1+(y2-y1 )*t=y1+dy*t
We can see that when t = 0, the point computed is P(x1, y1); and when t = 1, the point computed
is Q(x2, y2).
Algorithm of Liang-Barsky Line Clipping:

1. Set tmin=0 and tmax=1
2. Calculate the values tL,tR,tT and tB(tvalues).

If t<tmin or t<tmax? ignore it and go to the next edge
Otherwise classify the tvalue as entering or exiting value (using inner product to classify)
If t is entering value set tmin=t if t is exiting value set tmax=t.</t</t
3. If tmin< tmax? then draw a line from (x1 + dx*tmin, y1 + dy*tmin) to (x1 + dx*tmax?, y1 + dy*tmax? )
4. If the line crosses over the window, you will see (x1 + dx*tmin, y1 + dy*tmin) and (x1 + dx*tmax? , y1 + dy*tmax?) are intersection between line and edge.
Text Clipping:
Several methods are available for clipping of text. Clipping method is dependent on the
method of generation used for characters. A simple method is completely considered, or
nothing considers method. This method is also called as all or none. If all characters of the
string are inside window, then we will keep the string, if a string character is outside then
whole string will be discarded in fig (a).
Another method is discarded those characters not completely inside the window. If a
character overlap boundary of window. Those will be discarded in fig (b).
In fig (c) individual character is treated. Character lies on boundary is discarded as which it
is outside the window.
Curve Clipping:
Curve Clipping involves complex procedures as compared to line clipping. Curve clipping
requires more processing than for object with linear boundaries. Consider window which is
rectangular in shape. The circle is to consider against rectangle window. If circle is
completely inside boundary of the window, it is considered visible. So save the circle. If a
circle is in outside window, discard it. If circle cut the boundary then consider it to be
clipping case.
Exterior Clipping:
It is opposite to previous clipping. Here picture which is outside the window is considered.
The picture inside the rectangle window is discarded. So part of the picture outside the
window is saved.
Uses of Exterior Clipping:
1. It is used for displaying properly the pictures which overlap each other.
2. It is used in the concept of overlapping windows.
3. It is used for designing various patterns of pictures.
4. It is used for advertising purposes.
5. It is suitable for publishing.
6. For designing and displaying of the number of maps and charts, it is also used.
Polygon Clipping:
Polygon clipping is applied to the polygons. The term polygon is used to define objects
having outline of solid. These objects should maintain property and shape of polygon after
clipping.
Polygon:
Polygon is a representation of the surface. It is primitive which is closed in nature. It is
formed using a collection of lines. It is also called as many-sided figure. The lines combined
to form polygon are called sides or edges. The lines are obtained by combining two vertices.
Example of Polygon:
1. Triangle
2. Rectangle
3. Hexagon
4. Pentagon
Following figures shows some polygons.
Types of Polygons
1. Concave
2. Convex
A polygon is called convex of line joining any two interior points of the polygon lies inside
the polygon. A non-convex polygon is said to be concave. A concave polygon has one
interior angle greater than 180°. So that it can be clipped into similar polygons.
A polygon can be positive or negative oriented. If we visit vertices and vertices visit
produces counterclockwise circuit, then orientation is said to be positive.
Sutherland-Hodgeman Polygon Clipping:
It is performed by processing the boundary of polygon against each window corner or edge.
First of all entire polygon is clipped against one edge, then resulting polygon is considered,
then the polygon is considered against the second edge, so on for all four edges.
Four possible situations while processing
1. If the first vertex is an outside the window, the second vertex is inside the window. Then
second vertex is added to the output list. The point of intersection of window boundary and
polygon side (edge) is also added to the output line.
2. If both vertexes are inside window boundary. Then only second vertex is added to the
output list.
3. If the first vertex is inside the window and second is an outside window. The edge which
intersects with window is added to output list.
4. If both vertices are the outside window, then nothing is added to output list.
Following figures shows original polygon and clipping of polygon against four windows.
Disadvantage of Cohen Hodgmen Algorithm:
This method requires a considerable amount of memory. The first of all polygons are stored
in original form. Then clipping against left edge done and output is stored. Then clipping
against right edge done, then top edge. Finally, the bottom edge is clipped. Results of all
these operations are stored in memory. So wastage of memory for storing intermediate
polygons.
Weiler-Atherton Polygon Clipping:
When the clipped polygons have two or more separate sections, then it is the concave
polygon handled by this algorithm. The vertex-processing procedures for window boundaries
are modified so that concave polygon is displayed.
Let the clipping window be initially called clip polygon and the polygon to be clipped the
subject polygon. We start with an arbitrary vertex of the subject polygon and trace around
its border in the clockwise direction until an intersection with the clip polygon is
encountered:
1. If the edge enters the clip polygon, record the intersection point and continue to trace the
subject polygon.
2. If the edge leaves the clip polygon, record the intersection point and make a right turn to
follow the clip polygon in the same manner (i.e., treat the clip polygon as subject polygon
and the subject polygon as clip polygon and proceed as before).
Whenever our path of traversal forms a sub-polygon we output the sub-polygon as part of
the overall result. We then continue to trace the rest of the original subject polygon from a
recorded intersection point that marks the beginning of a not-yet traced edge or portion of
an edge. The algorithm terminates when the entire border of the original subject polygon
has been traced exactly once.
Introduction of Shading
Shading is referred to as the implementation of the illumination model at the pixel points or
polygon surfaces of the graphics objects.
Shading model is used to compute the intensities and colors to display the surface. The
shading model has two primary ingredients: properties of the surface and properties of the
illumination falling on it. The principal surface property is its reflectance, which determines
how much of the incident light is reflected. If a surface has different reflectance for the light
of different wavelengths, it will appear to be colored.
An object illumination is also significant in computing intensity. The scene may have to save
illumination that is uniform from all direction, called diffuse illumination.
Shading models determine the shade of a point on the surface of an object in terms of a
number of attributes. The shading Mode can be decomposed into three parts, a contribution
from diffuse illumination, the contribution for one or more specific light sources and a
transparency effect. Each of these effects contributes to shading term E which is summed to
find the total energy coming from a point on an object. This is the energy a display should
generate to present a realistic image of the object. The energy comes not from a point on
the surface but a small area around the point.
The simplest form of shading considers only diffuse illumination:
Epd=Rp Id
where Epd is the energy coming from point P due to diffuse illumination. Id is the diffuse
illumination falling on the entire scene, and Rp is the reflectance coefficient at P which
ranges from shading contribution from specific light sources will cause the shade of a
surface to vary as to its orientation concerning the light sources changes and will also
include specular reflection effects. In the above figure, a point P on a surface, with light
arriving at an angle of incidence i, the angle between the surface normal Np and a ray to the
light source. If the energy Ips arriving from the light source is reflected uniformly in all
directions, called diffuse reflection, we have
Eps=(Rp cos i)Ips
This equation shows the reduction in the intensity of a surface as it's tipped obliquely to the
light source. If the angle of incidence i exceeds90°, the surface is hidden from the light
source and we must set Epsto zero.
Constant Intensity Shading

A fast and straightforward method for rendering an object with polygon surfaces is constant
intensity shading, also called Flat Shading. In this method, a single intensity is calculated for
each polygon. All points over the surface of the polygon are then displayed with the same
intensity value. Constant Shading can be useful for quickly displaying the general
appearances of the curved surface as shown in fig:
In general, flat shading of polygon facets provides an accurate rendering for an object if all
of the following assumptions are valid:-
The object is a polyhedron and is not an approximation of an object with a curved surface.
All light sources illuminating the objects are sufficiently far from the surface so that N. L and
the attenuation function are constant over the surface (where N is the unit normal to a
surface and L is the unit direction vector to the point light source from a position on the
surface).
The viewing position is sufficiently far from the surface so that V. R is constant over the
surface (where V is the unit vector pointer to the viewer from the surface position and R
represent a unit vector in the direction of ideal specular reflection).
Gouraud shading
This Intensity-Interpolation scheme, developed by Gouraud and usually referred to as
Gouraud Shading, renders a polygon surface by linear interpolating intensity value across
the surface. Intensity values for each polygon are coordinate with the value of adjacent
polygons along the common edges, thus eliminating the intensity discontinuities that can
occur in flat shading.
Each polygon surface is rendered with Gouraud Shading by performing the following
calculations:
1. Determining the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.

2. Apply an illumination model to each vertex to determine the vertex intensity.
3. Linear interpolate the vertex intensities over the surface of the polygon.
At each polygon vertex, we obtain a normal vector by averaging the surface normals of all
polygons staring that vertex as shown in fig:
Thus, for any vertex position V, we acquire the unit vertex normal with the calculation
Once we have the vertex normals, we can determine the intensity at the vertices from a
lighting model.
Following figures demonstrate the next step: Interpolating intensities along the
polygon edges. For each scan line, the intensities at the intersection of the scan line with a
polygon edge are linearly interpolated from the intensities at the edge endpoints. For
example: In fig, the polygon edge with endpoint vertices at position 1 and 2 is intersected
by the scanline at point 4. A fast method for obtaining the intensities at point 4 is to
interpolate between intensities I1 and I2 using only the vertical displacement of the scan line.
Similarly, the intensity at the right intersection of this scan line (point 5) is interpolated
from the intensity values at vertices 2 and 3. Once these bounding intensities are
established for a scan line, an interior point (such as point P in the previous fig) is
interpolated from the bounding intensities at point 4 and 5 as
Incremental calculations are used to obtain successive edge intensity values between scan
lines and to obtain successive intensities along a scan line as shown in fig:
If the intensity at edge position (x, y) is interpolated as
Then we can obtain the intensity along this edge for the next scan line, Y-1 as
Similar calculations are used to obtain intensities at successive horizontal pixel positions
along each scan line.
When surfaces are to be rendered in color, the intensities of each color component is
calculated at the vertices. Gouraud Shading can be connected with a hidden-surface
algorithm to fill in the visible polygons along each scan-line. An example of an object-
shaded with the Gouraud method appears in the following figure:
Gouraud Shading discards the intensity discontinuities associated with the constant-shading
model, but it has some other deficiencies. Highlights on the surface are sometimes
displayed with anomalous shapes, and the linear intensity interpolation can cause bright or
dark intensity streaks, called Match bands, to appear on the surface. These effects can be
decreased by dividing the surface into a higher number of polygon faces or by using other
methods, such as Phong shading, that requires more calculations.
Phong Shading
A more accurate method for rendering a polygon surface is to interpolate the normal vector
and then apply the illumination model to each surface point. This method developed by
Phong Bui Tuong is called Phong Shading or normal vector Interpolation Shading. It displays
more realistic highlights on a surface and greatly reduces the Match-band effect.
A polygon surface is rendered using Phong shading by carrying out the following steps:
1. Determine the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.

2. Linearly & interpolate the vertex normals over the surface of the polygon.
3. Apply an illumination model along each scan line to calculate projected pixel intensities for
the surface points.
Interpolation of the surface normal along a polynomial edge between two vertices as shown
in fig:
Incremental methods are used to evaluate normals between scan lines and along each scan
line. At each pixel position along a scan line, the illumination model is applied to determine
the surface intensity at that point.
Intensity calculations using an approximated normal vector at each point along the scan line
produce more accurate results than the direct interpolation of intensities, as in Gouraud
Shading. The trade-off, however, is that phong shading requires considerably more
calculations.

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Computer Graphics Tutorial

Introduction of Computer Graphics

Definition of Computer Graphics:

Why computer graphics used?

3. Computer-Generated Maps: Town planners and transportation engineers can use

8. Visualization: It is used for visualization of scientists, engineers, medical personnel,

9. Educational Software: Computer Graphics is used in the development of educational

Example of Computer Graphics Packages:

Interactive and Passive Graphics

(b) Interactive Computer Graphics:

1. Frame Buffer or Digital Memory

1. Persistence: Persistence is the duration of phosphorescence. Different kinds of

Parts of Display Processor

1. Display File Memory

1. It is used for the generation of character.

1. Refresh Cathode Ray Tube

1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating

2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.

Random Scan and Raster Scan Display:

Raster Scan Display:

Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan

Differentiate between Random and Raster Scan

Random Scan Raster Scan

1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.

2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive

3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

6. Only screen with view on an area is 6. Whole screen is scanned.

8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing

9. It is restricted to line drawing 9. It is suitable for realistic display.

1. Beam Penetration Method

3. Beam Penetration Method:

o One phosphor dot emits: red light

Inline arrangement: Another configuration for the 3 electron guns is an Inline

Direct View Storage Tubes:

Function of guns: Two guns are used in DVST

1. Primary guns: It is used to store the picture pattern.

Flat Panel Display:

Plasma Panel Display:

Figure shows the state of cell in plasma panel display:

LED (Light Emitting Diode):

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy degree

Bit 1:r Bit 2:g Bit Color name

Scan Conversion Definition

Advantage of developing algorithms for scan

Examples of objects which can be scan converted

The process of converting is also called as rasterization. The algorithms implementation

Scan Converting a Point

Example: Display coordinates points as shown in fig would both be

Properties of Good Line Drawing Algorithm:

To maintain constant density, dots should be equally spaced.

5. Line should be drawn rapidly: This computation should be performed by special-

Algorithm for line Drawing:

Direct use of line equation:

Then m = (y2’,y1’)/( x2’,x1’) and b =

If value of |m|≤1 for each integer value of x. But do not consider

If value of |m|>1 for each integer value of y. But do not consider