Ives Equipment | 877-768-1600 | www.ivesequipment.

com

Understanding
Ultrasonic Level
Measurement
third edition SIEMENS
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Acknowledgements
As you can imagine, a project like this involves the efforts and
contributions of many people. To begin with, the authors want to thank
the generations of engineers, designers, application specialists, sales
people, support staff, and management who have developed the
technology and the products over the years. All of us also owe a huge
debt of gratitude to our customers who have allowed us to grow and to
share in their successes by participating in our vision. All together, they
have created the SITRANS LUT400, the revolutionary ultrasonic
controller with one millimeter accuracy the markets have been waiting for.
The authors also want to thank all of the writers and photographers who
have contributed material used in this book, both in specific content and
for general background information. They are too numerous to mention,
but their enthusiasm for the technology and their efforts are much valued.
The artistic contributions of Peter Froggatt are also appreciated. Over the
years, his drawings and photos have helped define the product line, and
his work graces many of the pages in this humble tome. Those who took
the time to edit and provide comments and other input also have our
gratitude.
Specifically, we want to thank the editing and organizational skills of
Jamie Chepeka. Her dedication to the project was unwavering, even in
the face of looming deadlines and creative angst. Without her
management guidance, we would still be staring at our screens.
Lastly, the authors apologize in advance for any and all mistakes,
inaccuracies, and omissions. We take full responsibility and assure you
that we will do better next time.
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Contents
Chapter One
History of ultrasonics
Ultrasonics and level measurement
Product development map
Ultrasonic theory
Sound
Using sound
Frequency and wavelength
Measurement principle
The medium and the message
Sound intensity
Sound velocity and temperature
Sound velocity and gas
Sound velocity and pressure
Sound velocity and vacuum
Sound velocity and attenuation
Sound reflection
Sound diffraction
Sound pressure level (SPL)
Sound intensity changes
Summary

Chapter Two
Ultrasonic instrumentation
The transducer
Transducer environments
Transducer accuracy
Transducer resolution and accuracy
Impedance matching
Axis of transmission
Beam width
Beam spreading
Ringdown
The controllers
Digital filtering
Averaging echoes
Echo extraction algorithms
Summary
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Chapter Three
The sound and the slurry
Topics
Transducers and ultrasonic systems
Single systems
Compound systems
Transducers
Temperature and transducer material
Temperature sensors
Sound and differential amplifiers
Single-ended receiver
Differential receiver
Application temperature
Housing material
Range and power
Conditions
Transducer selection
Blanking distance and height placement
Temperature
Installation
Transducer design: the heart of the matter
Summary

Chapter Four
Echo processing
Topics
Echo processing - intelligence
Understanding echo processing
Shots and profiles
Finding the true echo
Echo quality
Figure of merit
Echo parameter fine tuning
Echo profiles
Profile components
Echo profile
Ringdown
TVT curve (Time Varying Threshold)
Echo marker
Echo lock window
Echo processing parameters
Echo confidence
The echo
Echo strength
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Noise
Noise interference
Determining the noise source
Non-transducer noise sources
Common wiring problems
Reducing electrical noise
Acoustic noise
Reducing acoustic noise
Summary

Chapter Five
Installation
Topics
Select the right transducer
Location
Obstructions
Closed vessels
Tanks
Tank access
Open vessels
Open channel meters: weirs and flumes
Flumes
Transducer location
Lift stations
Position control
Hazardous approvals
Approvals
Controller installation
Summary

Chapter Six
Applications
Applications
Topics
Cement
Mining
Chemical storage
Aggregate
Blending silos and storage bunkers
Environmental
Collection system: lift station/pump station/wet well
Wastewater treatment plant
Environmental applications
Food industry
Chemical industry
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Other industries

Chapter Seven
Best in class – the ultrasonic product line
SITRANS LUT400
Key benefits
SITRANS Probe LU
Key benefits
The Probe
Key benefits
MultiRanger 100/200
Key benefits
SITRANS LU10
Key benefits
HydroRanger 200
Key benefits
Echomax Transducers
XRS-5
Key benefits
XPS/XCT Series
Key benefits
XLT Series
Key benefits
ST-H
Key benefits
Conclusion

Glossary
Works Cited
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Chapter One

History of ultrasonics
How sweet that joyous sound, whenever we meet.1
Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments has a long and successful
history specializing in the manufacture of equipment for industrial process
measurement. Based in Peterborough, Canada, Siemens Milltronics
(PI2) is now a key member of the Sensors and Communication division
within the Siemens Industry division, supplying instrumentation across
the globe.
Founded in 1954 by Stuart Daniel, a former employee of Canadian
General Electric, the company began as Milltronics and engineered
electronic ball mill grinding controls for the cement and mining industry.
From this, the company expanded and diversified its product line to
develop a wide range of process measurement devices. It has become a
leader in level measurement technology. The Siemens Milltronics range
of instrumentation now includes ultrasonic, radar, and capacitance
technologies, but the foundation of its innovation and successful design
and technical expertise lies in its ultrasonic echo-ranging technology.
Siemens Milltronics ultrasonic echo-ranging technology comprises highly
sophisticated instrumentation applying digital circuitry to ultrasonic echo-
ranging. This innovation has produced a range of technologically
advanced products capable of monitoring liquid and solids levels from a
few centimeters to over 60 meters (200 ft). To date, over 1,000,000 points
of level on a diverse range of material, including solids, liquids, slurries,
and resins, are monitored across the globe by Siemens Milltronics, many
in hostile and hazardous environments.

The Siemens Milltronics ultrasonic product line is constantly improving as

technological advances are implemented, new products are developed,
and new applications are tackled and won over. Complemented by a
team of highly skilled applications engineers, service personnel, and a
dedicated Siemens sales force, Siemens Milltronics continues to provide
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reliable and innovative level solutions to

industry across the globe.

Ultrasonics and level measurement

The measurement of level has been integral to human development
since pre-industrial times.
“Egypt,” Herodotus remarked more than 2000 years ago, referring to
the vast irrigation project that sustains that country’s agriculture, “is
the gift of the river.” Every June, as snowmelts from the Tanzanian
Highlands and spring rain from the Congo begin accumulating in the
Nile, its elevation begins to rise. It rises gently to a crest in late
September or early October, then subsides by late December. Seed
goes into the rich, freshly deposited silt as soon as the flood
recedes.
Egyptian engineers began capturing the river for irrigation projects
about 7,000 years ago. Because the system relies on a complicated
system of gates to distribute water across a broad, relatively flat
area, it’s vital that engineers know the height of the river in advance
of its arrival. The first solution was to simply mark the riverbanks and
convey information back to headquarters via runners. Later,
engineers developed a large variety of “nilometers,” devices used to
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measure the river height. Most, however, consisted of ordinary

graduated scales that projected vertically upward from the riverbed
and were read directly.
Today, the U.S. Geological Survey and the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration use similar devices: graduated poles
stuck into the water. Technicians read most of them manually, but
there are some in flood-prone areas that transmit information directly
to the agency via radio. Though millennia-old solutions for measuring
river level are still in use, there are thousands of level-determination
problems in industry that demand much more sophisticated
solutions. Like their forebears, contemporary engineers have
responded with impressive ingenuity.2
Ingenuity is also the key to the success of Siemens Milltronics ultrasonic
technology as it meets the demands of level measurement in the process
systems market. The need for process measurement dates back to the
Industrial Revolution when the development of the steam engine created
a requirement for the accurate measurement of temperature, pressure,
and flow.
By the early twentieth century, process engineers were determining
process measurements using a variety of mechanical devices including
floats, sight glasses, thermometers, gauges, and armatures. Accuracy
was often elusive, and these devices were supplemented by human
experience. Process engineers often relied on their senses to
complement the technology: using sight, sound, touch, smell, and even
texture, engineers would examine process smoke, liquid clarity, texture,
and smell to determine product quality. However, chemical compounds,
safety restrictions, system complexity, and awareness now make this
type of tactile verification impossible, requiring measurement to be made
by the instrument alone.
Process measurement incorporates a variety of solutions, from pressure
and temperature to flow and level. While Siemens SC PI offers
instrumentation to measure all of these, Siemens Milltronics specializes
in the calculation of level.
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Level measurement instrumentation currently employs a variety of

sophisticated technologies, with ultrasonic measurement as the
cornerstone. The origins of ultrasonic measurement technology lie in
early use by submarines of sonar for depth gauging and marine
detection, but it wasn’t until 1949 that these principles were applied to
level measurement. Bob Redding, of Evershed and Vignoles, developed
an ultrasonic instrument with servocontrol that automatically measured oil
level and then transferred that information to a remote indicator.
Other technologies were also applied to remote level measurement by
companies like Magnetrol, which applied its magnetic switching
technology to the control of pumps and other devices for use in water
level alarming. The device transmitted level changes to the switch
mechanism without any mechanical or electrical connection and
eliminated mechanical devices such as diaphragms and stuffing boxes.
In 1963, Magnetrol introduced Modulevel©3, the first magnetically coupled
pneumatic proportional level control. The first significant sensing
instrument, it led the way to new markets in continuous process level
control. By the 1970s, ultrasonic technology, already used in ship and
plane detection, was developed for the measurement industries. Sonar
principles were applied to use in air, using modified low frequency sonar
equipment with piezoelectric crystals to generate echo ranging. These
new sensors were applied to process control tasks such as point level,
continuous level, concentration, and full pipe applications. In the mid-
1980s, analog instrumentation went digital and offered 4 to 20 mA signal,
opening up communication possibilities, and greatly increasing its value
as control instrumentation.
Milltronics entered the market in these early days of ultrasonic
development. In 1973, after being the main Raytheon®4 distributor in
Canada and the USA, Milltronics acquired the Raytheon Ultrasonic
Ranging business segment and the AiRanger II product. Over the next 30
years, Milltronics®5 has become the market leader and the most trusted
name in ultrasonics level measurement. After the Siemens acquisition in
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2000, the Milltronics brand has combined with the Totally Integrated
Automation vision of Siemens to offer ultrasonic level measurement
equipment as an integral component of complete system design.

Product development map

Ultrasonic theory
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Ultrasonic measuring technology operates on the simple principle of

measuring the time it takes sound to travel a distance. While the idea is
simple, the process of creating, controlling, and measuring the sound
travel is not.

Sound
Sound is the interpretation of electrical signals. These signals are derived
from acoustic pressure waves that activate a transducer similar to the
human ear. This organic transducer interprets the electrical signals
channeled into the ear canal.
The sound signals are caused by the mechanical vibration of the object.
The vibration is transferred to the gas modules in the surrounding
medium within which it is contained. The transfer occurs as the vibrations
alternately compress and decompress the molecules next to the object,
spreading outward like the rings in a pond into which a stone has been
thrown. As the object moves into the gas, its molecules compress into a
smaller space.
As the object moves out of the gas, its molecules decompress into a
larger space. This pattern or wave of compression and decompression
travels outward from the vibrating object through the gas and manifests
the phenomenon called “sound.” If there is no gas, as in a perfect
vacuum, then there will be no propagation of sound.
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Sound levels in the everyday world

The sound, or noise, of everyday life surrounds us from our breakfast to

household chores, work, and travel. Sound is everywhere and its
occurrence seems a natural part of our environment. Sound, however,
can also be used, not just for direct communication as in speech or
music, but also as a resource to be harnessed and then applied to a
method of measurement.

Using sound
Sound can be used as a measurement tool because there is a
measurable time lapse between sound generation and the “hearing” of
the sound. This time lapse is then converted into usable information.
Ultrasonic sensing equipment has the ability to generate a sound and
then the capacity to interpret the time lapse of the returned echo. It uses
a transducer to create the sound and sense the echo, and then a
processor to interpret the sound and convert it into information.
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Frequency and wavelength

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Vibration of the sound waves is related to time and is called “frequency.”

Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) and refers to the number of cycles
per second. A pure sound wave of a particular frequency exerts sound
pressure which varies sinusoidally with time. One wavelength or cycle is
defined as the distance from one compression peak to the next. The
wave length of a specific frequency is related to the velocity at which the
sound travels:

The number of cycles that occur in one second defines the frequency in
Hertz at which the sound is being generated. For our purpose, the
frequency is constant. At best, the human ear can detect sounds ranging
from 20 to 20,000 Hertz. The sound range above this frequency is known
as ultrasonics.

Measurement principle
A piezoelectric crystal inside the transducer converts an electrical signal
into sound energy, firing a burst of sound into the air where it travels to
the target, after which it is reflected back to the transducer. The
transducer then acts as a receiving device and converts the sonic energy
back into an electrical signal. An electronic signal processor analyzes the
return echo and calculates the distance between the transducer and the
target. The time lapse between firing the sound burst and receiving the
return echo is directly proportional to the distance between the
transducer and the material in the vessel. This very basic principle lies at
the measurement heart of the technology and is illustrated in this
equation:
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The speed of sound through air is a constant: 344 meters per second
within an ambient air temperature of 20 °C. Therefore, if it takes 58.2
milliseconds for the echo to be detected, we have this result:

The medium and the message

For an ultrasonic measuring system to have any value, it must provide a
consistent output value for the same physical level conditions over a long
period of time. This repeatability depends mostly on conditions of the
sound media and the target material. The velocity of sound (344 m/sec)
is determined through the standard medium of air and at the ideal
temperature of 20 °C. However, often the conditions under which
ultrasonic measurement occur are not ideal as there can be numerous
factors influencing the medium, thereby altering the sound transmission
speed and affecting measurement:
temperature
medium type (gas)
medium stratification
vacuum

Sound intensity
Sound intensity describes how much energy there is in a wave of sound.
The units of sound intensity are watts per square meter (W/m2). When
sound intensities are compared to one another, it is usual to use the
decibel as a unit of measure. The ratio of two sound intensities I1, and I2
is given by this equation:
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For sound in air, the usual reference intensity chosen as the 0 dB point is
0 dB = 10-12 W/m2. Using that reference point, 120 dB describes a
sound intensity that is 120 dB larger than the 0 dB reference intensity,
which is an intensity of 1 W/m2. 120 dB is considered the threshold of
pain for the human ear. The decibel scale is used because of its ability to
easily compare sound intensities which may vary over an enormous
range of values.

Sound velocity and temperature

Temperature changes affect the velocity of sound in air, and the
variations in temperature require compensation to calculate accurate
measurement. If the temperature of the air between the transducer and
the target is uniform, then compensation is achieved and an accurate
measurement can be made.
The temperature of the application, or the medium through which the
sound travels, is required to calculate the velocity. However, Siemens
Milltronics transducers have built-in temperature sensors, and a
temperature reading is taken each time the transducer is fired to
compensate for temperature fluctuations.
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This chart tracks the increase in the velocity of sound as the temperature
increases.

Sound velocity and gas

The velocity at which sound propagates in a gas is constant, as long as
there are no changes in the gas. The following formula calculates the
velocity for a gas:

Example
At (20 Celsius or 293 Kelvin), the velocity of sound is:
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Note that the speed of sound varies with absolute temperature. In air at
normal ambient temperatures, which is about 300 K, a change of 1 K or
C (to 301 K) causes the speed of sound to increase:

Sound velocity and pressure

Sound velocity in a medium experiencing variable pressures is calculated
using the following formula:

This formula suggests that the speed of sound varies with pressure as it
does with temperature.
The vapor saturation in air of various chemicals must also be accounted
for. The saturation level is relevant to the different vapor pressures of
each chemical as illustrated in the next chart. Note that the curved lines
are for 100% saturation and the true sound velocity is in between the
applicable curve and that shown for air.
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Sound velocity and vacuum

If a tree falls in a vacuum, does it make any noise? No. Sound requires
something to vibrate, and in a vacuum, there is no medium to vibrate.
Thus an application that operates in a vacuum has to rely on an alternate
technology for level measurement.
Siemens Milltronics has a comprehensive line of radar instruments for
non-contacting measurement, and a thorough range of capacitance
instruments and guided wave radar for level and interface contact
measurement. All these technologies operate perfectly well in a vacuum.

Sound velocity and attenuation

Attenuation refers to a decrease of signal strength as it moves from one
point to another. For sound signals, a high degree of attenuation
generally occurs where there are high levels of dust, humidity, or steam.
Attenuation also occurs where target materials are highly absorbent to
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sound, foam for example. In such applications, impedance and frequency

selection are essential in order to transfer as much power as possible
from the transducer into the air and vice versa.
Where the medium between the transducer and the target is other than
the natural composition of air, the velocity of sound can also change. If
the medium is homogeneous, compensation can be achieved. If,
however, the medium is stratified so the propagation of sound undergoes
changes in velocity at various levels, then only an approximation can be
made by using the average velocity of the medium to calculate the
distance that the sound has traveled.

Sound reflection
When a sound wave arrives at an interface between media of different
density (e.g. air and water), some of the sound energy is reflected and
some of it is transmitted through the second medium. The ratio of energy
reflected to energy transmitted is dependent upon the acoustic
impedances of each media. The greater the ratio or difference, the
greater the amount of energy that will be reflected.
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The angle of the reflected sound wave (on a smooth surface) is equal to
the angle of the incident soundwave, but to the opposite side of the
normal to the plane of the surface. Ideally, for measuring level, this angle
is kept to a minimum.
A surface is considered smooth if the roughness, expressed as the peak
to valley difference, is 1/8 or less of the incident wavelength. Any
absorption of the sonic energy is ignored for this example.

Sound diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the sound wave bends around an object such
that there is little or no reflection. For a given size object, diffraction
decreases with a decrease in wavelength (increase in frequency).

Sound pressure level (SPL)

Sound pressure level (SPL) is the pressure of sound in comparison with
the reference pressure level where Pref is the reference for sound
pressure in air (20.4mPa at 1KHz). The SPL can be measured by a
microphone.

Sound intensity changes

When sound propagates within a gas, it spreads out so that the energy it
carries is diffused over an increasing area as the wave travels further
from its source. Excluding losses caused by other factors described later,
sound intensity decreases at a rate that is inversely proportional to the
square of the change in distance.
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That is to say, if the intensity of sound is X at a point l from the source,

then the intensity will be X/4 at a distance of 2l from the source.

Summary
The sound waves are affected by many factors within the application
environment, and the application engineer must always verify that all
these conditions are known before setting up the application:
temperature
medium absorbency (dust, steam)
medium type
pressure
medium stratification
vacuum
reflectivity of material
Siemens Milltronics ultrasonic instrumentation tackles applications that
involve one or more of these conditions. Our experienced sales
application engineers will design an instrument configuration that will
provide reliable and accurate measurement.

1 Van Morrison, “Joyous Sound.” A Period of Transition, 1977.

2 Felton, Bob. “Level Measurement: Ancient Chore, Modern Tools.” ISA, August 2001.
3 Modulevel is a registered trademark of Magnetrol.
4 ® Raytheon is a registered trademark of the Raytheon company.
5 ® Milltronics is a registered trademark of Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments.
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Chapter Two

Ultrasonic instrumentation
Stop, children, what’s that sound1
Measurement repeatability is dependent
on the signal processor being used. The
specified accuracy values take into
account such factors as loss of
resolution, supply voltage variation,
operating temperature, circuit linearity,
and load resistance. These factors
depend on the instrumentation
hardware and software, not the
application conditions.

Ultrasonic level measurement

instrumentation requires two components, one to generate the sound and
receive the echo (transducer), and one to interpret the data, derive a
measurement, and affect a reaction of the controller. Even though some
ultrasonic instruments combine the components in one unit (SITRANS
Probe LU, Pointek ULS200), the individual functionality remains distinct.
The operation and technical specifications regarding instrument
performance will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.

The transducer
Advances in the design of ultrasonic transducers have significantly
contributed to the success of ultrasonics as a level measurement
technology. Transducers are the vocal chords and ears of an ultrasonic
level measurement system. The sound pulse is created by the transducer
which converts the electrical transmit pulse into sonic energy, effectively
radiating that sonic energy into the air and towards a target.
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After the transmission process is complete, the transducer then acts as

the receiving device for the returning echo signal. This information is then
processed and turned into a measurement value.
The effective acoustic energy is generated from the face of the
transducer and is radiated outward, decreasing in amplitude at a rate
inversely proportional to the square of the distance as the unit energy is
dissipated over a larger area. Maximum power is radiated axially
(perpendicular) to the face in a line referred to as the “axis of
transmission.” Where off-axis power is reduced by half (-3 dB) with
respect to an on-axis point equidistant from the transducer, a conical
boundary is established. The diametrical measurement of the cone in
degrees defines the half-power beam angle. Although the beam angle for
a round face transducer can be derived empirically, it can be predicted by
the following formula:

Transducer environments
Transducers carry a full range of hazardous application approvals from
CSA and FM to ATEX (European Union Explosive Atmospheres
protection). Constructed from the most advanced material compounds,
transducers are available for some of the harshest industrial
environments:
For corrosive applications, transducers are fabricated with materials
such as PVDF or PTFE, allowing ultrasonics to be used with acids
and solvents.
In dusty applications, acoustic impedance matching materials such
as polyurethane and polyethylene foam are used because their
elastic properties amplify the crystal’s vibration.
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For long-range solids applications, long-range transducers deliver

high power output to measure solid materials accurately to distances
over 200 feet. The flexural mode transducer delivers more power by
driving a large central disc with the central piezoelectric crystal. The
large metal disc is made to vibrate along with the piezoelectric
crystal, producing a standing wave on its surface. Holes punched in
concentric rings allow every other antinode to be delayed to the point
that they become in phase with the others. The net effect is an
intense sound pressure wave which is transmitted into the air. This
type of transducer is very well suited for dusty environments.

Transducer accuracy
The accuracy of any installation is dependent on the care taken to ensure
the electronics agree with the physical measurement and the accuracy of
this calibration. Due to the design of the electronics, insitu calibration is
easy and high accuracy is readily obtainable. Traceability to known
standards is dependent on the method and equipment used as the
reference.

Transducer resolution and accuracy

The minimum change or increment of distance that can be detected is
referred to as the resolution of the measurement system. Resolution is
dependent on the wavelength and the timing resolution of the electronics.
The shorter the wavelength, the smaller the increment that can be
resolved given a specific signal processor. The SITRANS LUT400, has a
design resolution of less than one millimeter (0.078") and a one
millimeter accuracy specification.
In science, engineering, industry and statistics, accuracy is defined as
how close the measurement system quantity is to the measurement of
that quantity’s actual value.

Impedance matching
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The vibration of the transducer face acts upon the surrounding air to
produce a sound wave. However, for efficient transfer of power from the
crystal to the air, impedance matching materials must be used. Matching
material steps down the high impedance of the crystal to the low
impedance of air. On Siemens Milltronics transducers, a special low
density material is used as an interface.
The impedance matching can be further enhanced by an additional
facing material. However, this is not always required nor practical from an
application standpoint.
Acoustic impedance matching is improved by these materials as their
elastic properties amplify magnitude (D) of the crystal’s vibration. As
expressed by this formula:

More amplitude is now possible with a given force by increasing the

distance the vibration has traveled through the transducer face.

Axis of transmission
Sound energy is generated from the face of the transducer and radiates
outward.
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The energy generated at the face of the transducer decreases in

amplitude at a rate inversely proportional to the square of the distance
traveled. Maximum power is radiated axially (perpendicular) to the face in
a line referred to as the “axis of transmission.”

Beam width
Beam width is defined as “twice the angle at which off-axis transmission
is 3 dB less than the transmission axis acoustic pressure levels (as
measured equidistant from the transducer face).” Therefore, a diametrical
power measurement of the cone in degrees defines the half-power beam
angle.
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Beam width is a function of the transducer radiating surface area,

frequency, and plane.
For ultrasonic level measurement, wide dispersion is undesirable. The
narrower the beam width, the less likely vessel obstructions will be
detected.
For short and wide vessels, a 12° beam width is ideal to simplify aiming.
For tall, narrow vessels, a 5° to 6° beam width will avoid vessel wall
seam or corrugation detection for maximum reliability.

Beam spreading
As well as the main beam, side lobes of a much lower intensity may
radiate in the form of a conical shell, concentric to the main component.
The main component and the side lobes may be depicted on a polar plot
in order to visualize the pattern of sound. It is desirable to have as much
energy as possible concentrated in the main beam in order to reduce
unwanted echoes generated from the side lobes. Similarly, it is necessary
that energy be prevented from radiating from the end opposite the
transducer face. As well as good output power, the transducer must be
sensitive to the weak return echoes as no amount of electronics can
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compensate for non-detection of an echo. Thus, proper transducer

design is fundamentally important in putting the theory of ultrasonic
echoranging into practice.

Ringdown
The primary active component of the transducer is a piezoelectric crystal
that exhibits an expansion and contraction of its length when subjected to
alternating voltage. When the voltage is removed, the crystal is no longer
excited and its mechanical vibration begins to decay. The inherent nature
of the crystal and the surrounding transducer mass is to continue
vibrating. This vibration is called “ringing.” The time it takes for this ring to
stop is often called “ringdown.”

The level of ringing depends not only on the crystal itself but also on the
materials and construction of the entire transducer. Modern transducers
have significantly less ringdown than earlier versions. Due to research
into the latest construction materials and techniques, the blanking
distance of the newest ultrasonic instruments like the SITRANS Probe LU
is now only 0.25 meters (10").

The controllers
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The transducers can be likened to the scouts of a level measurement

system. They go out and get the information and bring it back. The
controllers analyze that information and then turn it into something useful.
Since its inception, ultrasonic level measurement technology has
improved greatly with advances in electronic signal processors. Digital
systems transmit in the same manner as analog systems, but digitize the
analog received signal of the return echo and store the complete echo as
a profile.
The processor, inside the controller, then analyzes the profile using
software algorithms, extracting one echo from the profile as the most
probable to be the target echo. Then, the signal processor converts the
time differential between the transmit and the time of the selected target
echo into distance.

Digital ultrasonic measurement also has the ability to use software

filtering techniques and intelligent echo extraction algorithms to
determine distance. The microprocessor gives the signal processor the
ability to perform high speed manipulation of the data gathered from an
echo profile. Using analog-to-digital conversion, echo profiles received by
the transducer are digitized by the receiving device and stored in memory
for future evaluation. Storing the echo profile in memory makes it
possible to perform the many tests on the data necessary to determine
the true material echo.
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Digital filtering
Digital filtering removes unwanted noise from the echo profile, including
electrical noise always present in an industrial environment.
For example, variable speed motor drives produce high levels of
electrical noise that are usually very high in amplitude yet very short in
duration when compared to the data being gathered for the echo profile.
Therefore, digital filtering is used to remove any data from the profile
below a given limit in duration, significantly reducing the effect of the
noise on the overall measurement quality.

Averaging echoes
In applications that create high levels of dust or acoustic noise, high
speed data manipulation permits the averaging of many echo profiles to
develop a composite that can be more accurately analyzed. Averaging of
echo profiles performs several useful tasks: random sources of
interference such as acoustic noise or air currents are averaged out of
the echo data and echoes are enhanced in dusty and otherwise
challenging applications.

Echo extraction algorithms

Echo extraction algorithms are software-based functions used to evaluate
an echo profile. An echo profile can be evaluated in many ways, with
each method having particular advantages in different applications.
Before microprocessors, analog signal processors evaluated the echo
profile as it returned and then the receiver looked for any echo above a
set threshold. Once an echo of sufficient amplitude was detected, the
distance was calculated and the output was generated. Unfortunately,
analog signal processors were unable to differentiate between real but
erroneous returns and the true echo in difficult applications.
Digital signal processors apply echo extraction algorithms after the entire
echo profile has been received, and then use many techniques to
determine which echo represents the true material level.
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One method of echo extraction involves storing a profile of the empty

bin. This stored profile is then used as a template, allowing the
processor to ignore obstructions in the bin. For example, in a bin
fabricated with bracing around the inside surface, the return echoes
can indicate bracing and not level. When the echo profile for the
empty bin is captured, the profile shows echo returns indicating the
bracings. In order to discriminate against these erroneous echoes,
the signal processor compares each echo profile to the template
profile initially taken and stored in memory. This template profile
contains the echoes produced by the bracing. Thus, using this
comparison, the echoes from the bracing are ignored and the true
material echo is selected.
Another method evaluates the echo profile based on the
characteristics of the echo and its location in the echo profile. This
method first selects the most likely echo in the profile by using a
threshold similar to that used by the analog signal processor. Once
the most likely candidates have been selected, the algorithims begin
to evaluate each echo based on the type of material being
measured. If the material is liquid, then the program evaluates the
echo on amplitude and its location in the echo profile.For example,
when measuring a liquid surface the characteristic echo is narrow
and high in amplitude. Liquid is very reflective to ultrasonic
frequencies; therefore, the true liquid level will usually be the first
echo received; and in a liquid application, the algorithm would select
the first echo received with the highest amplitude.
For solids measurement, the processor selects the most likely
echoes in the same manner, only using differed selection criteria
based on the differing characteristics of that solid material. In this
case, the program looks for an echo which is of lesser amplitude and
wider than that of a liquid echo. The echo is wider because most
solid materials have an angle of repose which reflects many different
echoes from differing points on the angle of repose. The algorithm
must now look for the selected echo which is the highest in
amplitude and the widest. Therefore, the processor will select the
echo with the greatest area.
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Summary
Digital signal processing and advanced echo extraction algorithms make
ultrasonics a reliable and accurate method of measuring solids and
liquids. Ultrasonic instrumentation is thus a valuable addition to many
operations, providing long term and cost-effective measurement. This
book provides a thorough look at ultrasonic level technology, at the
instrumentation, and at the wide variety of applications best suited for its
use as this proven technology continues to be a preferred solution to
many measurement needs.

1 Buffalo Springfield, “For What It’s Worth.” Buffalo Springfield, 1967.

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Chapter Three

The sound and the slurry

Somebody's shouting
Up at a mountain
Only my own words return1
The transducer is the speaker and microphone in the ultrasonic level
system, producing the ultrasonic waves and then sensing the echoes as
they return so the controller can respond as programmed. Siemens
Milltronics transducers have a proven and extensive application history,
and are the reliable eyes and ears of thousands of applications around
the world.
This chapter examines the role of the transducer in an ultrasonic sensing
system, how it is made, and how it works.

Topics
ultrasonic systems
transducers
blanking
differential amplifiers
echo processing
reducing noise
beam angle
profiles

Transducers and ultrasonic systems

The ultrasonic sensing system is available in two formats:
single systems: the transducer and the controller electronics are
integrated into one enclosure
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compound systems: the transducer and the controller are separate

entities

Single systems
A single unit system is often referred to
as a “level transmitter.” The Siemens
SITRANS Probe LU level transmitter
combines the electronics and
transducer in a compact system ideally
suited for liquid level measurement up
to 12 meters (40 ft).

The transducer portion of the SITRANS

Probe LU is in the lower half of the
device; the controller, electronics and
wiring area are in the upper half. Level
transmitters are versatile and are
suitable for many applications, including
both general purpose use in safe areas
and use in hazardous areas, depending
on approvals.

Compound systems
Compound systems separate the
ultrasonic transducer from the controller.
The transducer is mounted on the
vessel while the controller is in a safe
area away from the application in a
control room or a field mounted
electrical panel. Siemens offers a wide
variety of controllers and transducers,
like the SITRANS LUT400 and
Echomax XRS-5, that can be matched
to suit many applications.
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Transducers carry many safety

approvals for mounting and for use in
hazardous areas, and they are
designed to withstand rugged industrial
environments. The transducer is
connected to the controller by cable
(either co-axial or twisted pair), receives
the electrical transmit pulse, and then
sends the return echo pulse along the
same wire. The transducer and
controller can be separated up to a
distance of 365 meters (1200 ft).

Transducers
A transducer is simply a device that converts one form of energy into
another. Thus, devices such as the speakers connected to an
entertainment system are transducers because they convert electrical
signals generated by the amplifier into the music you hear. A microphone
is the reverse of a speaker: a transducer converting sound into electrical
signals.

The time required to change from transmit to receive mode is finite. See “Blanking."

The ultrasonic transducer performs both functions. Like a speaker, it

converts the high frequency electrical pulse from the controller into high
frequency sound, and then projects the sound into the vessel. And like a
microphone, it converts the sound echo back into an electrical pulse,
transmitting this signal back to the controller for processing. The
transducer does not transmit and receive simultaneously, but constantly
changes from transmit mode to receive mode many times per second.
The heart of the ultrasonic transducer is a piezoelectric ceramic crystal
that vibrates when a high voltage pulse is applied, sending out sound
waves. Conversely, when the sound waves return, the vibrations cause
the piezoelectric crystal to produce an electrical signal which is then sent
back to the controller for interpretation. The difference between the
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transmitted signal and received signal, is significant, and the outgoing

transmit can be several hundred volts, while the received signal is in the
microvolt to millivolt range.
Because the return signal is so slight, it can be affected by any number of
situational influences: medium temperatures, attenuation, and
obstructions. To achieve maximum performance benefit from the
ultrasonic system, all the application conditions need to be considered
when designing an ultrasonic level system.

Temperature and transducer material

The temperature of the application can affect the performance
of the transducer, as does its constancy, because fluctuations
also affect the reading reliability. Transducers compensate for
these conditions by incorporating temperature sensors and by
using temperature resistant materials in their construction so
that the readings are unaffected by these conditions. The
temperature variation effect is generally 0.17% for every degree
centigrade; so for every degree the application temperature
fluctuates, the level measurement is affected by 0.17%.

Temperature sensors
When transducers were first
developed, temperature
variations were mediated by
the use of an external sensor
which transmitted data to the
controller, which then
compensated for fluctuations
by adjusting the reading
accordingly. The need for the
external sensor was
eliminated when an ambient
air temperature sensor was
incorporated into the body of
the transducer. Making the sensor part of the transducer circuitry also
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allows the sensor to use the same wire set to transmit temperature data
to the controller. Siemens added to this convenience by placing the
temperature sensor in a pocket just behind the transducer face and by
improving the circuitry, enhancing sensor function by accelerating the
temperature processing.

Built-in temperature compensation improves the accuracy of the system and reduces
installation cost.

Sound and differential amplifiers

While noise can affect the system from outside, it may also occur within
the system itself. This influence is a consequence of the system's
electrical functionality and the cabling requirements that create or amplify
noise. Siemens has developed a differential receiver interface that
eliminates or greatly reduces induced noise on both the positive and
negative wires of a twisted pair cable.2
Transmission and receipt of both electrical and ultrasonic signals
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Figure 1: The electrical pulses received by the transceiver tend to be smaller than the initial
pulses output by the device.

Therefore, accurate distance measurement requires amplification of the

electrical signals.
For the device to calculate a distance accurately, it must amplify the
returning electrical pulses and analyze the returned data using echo
processing algorithms. Unfortunately, the amplification procedure used
on the returning signals is sensitive to the effects of noise and this is
where the differential receiver interface has a number of advantages over
the common single-ended receiver interface.

Single-ended receiver
The amplifier within the controller is responsible for magnifying the
returning electrical pulses existing between the amplifier’s positive and
negative inputs. For the common single-ended receiver interface (see
Figure 2), the positive input of the amplifier is connected to the positive
terminal of the transducer, and the negative input is connected to ground.
When the device receives signals from the transducer, it amplifies the
signal existing at the positive terminal with respect to ground. For now, if
the ground is assumed to be ideal, the output of the amplifier will simply
be a magnified version of the signal returning along the positive terminal.
Common single-ended receiver connection
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Figure 2: In a common single-ended receiver connection, the positive input of the amplifier is
connected to the positive terminal of the transducer and the negative input is connected to
ground.

In the event where the signal along the positive terminal is contaminated
by noise (i.e. environmental noise produced by motors, near-by
antennae, wireless devices, etc.), since the ground is assumed to be
ideal, the amplifier would magnify this noise (see Figure 3). This noise
could lead to inaccurate distance calculations by the device.
The effects of noise on a common single-ended connection

Figure 3: The effect of noise on a common single-ended connection is magnified and may lead to
inaccurate distance calculations by the transceiver.

Differential receiver
In the differential receiver connection, the voltage exists between the
positive and negative wires of the cable. The positive input of the
amplifier connects to the positive terminal of the transducer and the
negative input connects to the negative terminal.
Differential receiver connection
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Figure 4: In a differential receiver connection, the positive wire is connected to the positive
terminal of the transducers and the negative input is connected to the negative terminal.

Where the positive and negative wires are in very close proximity to each
other (common), any environmental noise occurring on one wire will also
exist on the other. Since a differential amplifier magnifies the difference
between the two wires, any noise common to both wires (hence the term
“common-mode” noise) will not appear at the output of the amplifier (see
Figure 5).
The effects of noise on a differential connection

Figure 5Because a differential amplifier magnifies the difference between the two wires, any noise
common to both wires will not appear at the output of the amplifier.

When a connection between a device with a differential receiver interface

like the SITRANS LUT400 and a transducer is to be made, a shielded
twisted-pair cable should be used. In this case, the positive wire connects
to the positive terminal of the transducer, the negative wire connects to
the negative terminal, and the shield connects to ground. Note that
neither the positive nor the negative terminals are linked to ground. Since
the positive and negative wires are twisted together, there is a high
likelihood that the environmental noise existing on both wires will be
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essentially the same. Therefore, environmental noise will be present in

the form of common-mode noise, which the amplifier will be able to
effectively remove. Also voltages induced on the shield due to ground
loops will have no effect, since the signal exists across the positive and
negative wires.
Differential interface combined with the physical twisting of the wires in
the twisted shielded-pair cable enhances the common-mode noise
rejection ability, helping to negate noise interference.

Application temperature3
Ultrasonic instruments have a high temperature tolerance. For most
applications, high temperature is not an issue, but in hot process
applications where the material comes from a kiln or dryer, the transducer
requires a high temperature tolerance. To meet these demands, design
advances have extended the maximum temperature range of many
transducers to 150 °C (300 °F).
Ultrasonic transducers remain extremely stable over their operating
range because of their on-board sensors and two-wire data transmission,
even during extreme temperature fluctuations common to many
operations.

Housing material
Chemical compatibility is an important application consideration; the
transducer has to be compatible with the material being measured.
Transducers are available in a variety of materials, including PTFE,
ETFE, PVDF, CPVC, and CFM, and can be matched with a variety of
application material conditions.

Attenuation is the decrease in the sound signal as it passes through various media and the
initial power/vibration of the sound is absorbed by other influences.
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The user should always verify material suitability by contacting the

transducer manufacturer or by using a chemical compatibility chart
provided by the transducer material manufacturer. Chemical compatibility
charts are also readily available on the Internet.

Range and power

The maximum range of a transducer is normally proportional to the
amount of power available and the frequency of transmission. The higher
the initial transmit power, the better the chance of getting an echo. The
thicker the medium through which the sound travels, the more force is
required to push the sound through it. Lower frequencies are less
attenuated when they pass through air, which is why foghorns are so low-
pitched.

Ranges quoted in the specification sheets and instruction books should be taken as a
maximum. Do not exceed!
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The materials present in the medium absorb (attenuate) the sound and
affect performance. This graph4 shows the attenuation in decibels of
various sound frequencies when the temperature and humidity levels are
constant:
So at 41 kHz, the round trip attenuation is approximately 55 dB at a
range of 15 meters (50 ft). An echo of 30 dB at the maximum rated range
of a transducer is strong enough to process and exceed the noise levels
inherent in many applications; however, in some instances, echoes as
weak as 5 dB can be processed with high confidence. Knowing this, the
controller must send out a pulse to the transducer that is strong enough
so that in the after-round-trip attenuation of 55 dB at 41 KHz at a 15
meter range, there is sufficient return echo strength to process the signal.
Long-range transducers are designed to operate at lower frequencies to
take advantage of lower attenuation rates that provide a stronger echo to
the transceiver for processing. In exchange for the extra power, however,
some resolution is lost. But in long-range applications of grains, powders,
or pellets, this generally does not present a problem as accuracy
requirements may not be as stringent.

Conditions
Conditions affect performance because the sound waves need to go
through the medium and are influenced by other occupants of that space.
Dust, steam, and high humidity attenuate sound and the required
distance for measurement may not be met. Without an echo, there is
nothing for the electronics to work with. Conversely, with a very small
stainless tank, it may be better to go to a lower power transducer
because multiple echoes may require changing the algorithm, an
inconvenience to the customer.

Rule: if the application is on the limit of the transducer’s range, step up to the next transducer
for better reliability!

Dust
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Most solid applications are dusty. In areas where dust is extremely heavy,
keeping the transducer clean is critical because material buildup reduces
the transducer’s ability to transmit and receive. Siemens transducers use
materials with good release characteristics which, combined with
pulsating displacement, often prevent build-up from beginning.

Stilling wells
If an application is very agitated, dusty, or has a lot of surface foam,
these conditions may be neutralized using a stilling well. The stilling well
is a secondary pipe accessing the tank contents and reflecting the same
content level.

In a very small stainless tank, go to a lower power transducer because multiple echoes may
require changing the algorithm.

With stilling wells, lower power may be better since there is no spreading
loss because the sonic energy is contained within the pipe. In laboratory
conditions equivalent to an empty warehouse, or outside on a calm day,
echoes have been obtained at much greater distances than the nominal
rating of the transducers. However, in real-world applications, use the
guidelines detailed above.

Foam facing
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Impedance matching foam facing can improve a transducer’s power and

range. Impedance matching provides greater acoustic power output and
is very useful in dusty situations where the particles in the air cause
attenuation.
An impedance matching polypropylene closed-cell foam face is designed
for Echomax XPS transducers. The closed cell polypropylene has a high
temperature rating of 95 °C (203 °F) and is not bothered by dust or
moisture getting into the foam.

Moisture on transducer face

The face of the XPS transducers is active and will ultrasonically
evaporate the droplets. If there is a bit of a slope to the transducer
(mount a degree or two off vertical), the extra vibration will cause the
droplets to move to the edge and fall off.

Transducer selection
Selecting the right transducer affects performance, and the criteria should
be based on range (distance) and power. For example, in some powder
and plastic pellet applications, a shorter range Echomax XPS-15
(operating at 44 KHz) is more appropriate than a long-range Echomax
XPS-40 (operating at 21 KHz) because the higher frequency yields a
better reflection from the material surface. All the application conditions
need to be considered, not just distance.

Blanking distance and height placement

The location of the transducer also
influences performance. The heart of a
transducer is a piezoelectric crystal;
when a transducer is sent a transmit
pulse, the piezoelectric crystal expands
and contracts lengthwise to produce the
ultrasonic sound signal. When the
transmit pulse stops, the crystal is no longer excited and its mechanical
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vibration begins to decay. This decay has a finite time period and is often
referred to as “transducer ringdown” during which the transducer cannot
receive an echo.

Proper aiming, location, and mounting are other important factors.

The time of the ringing is then converted to distance (D=VT) and

represents the space in front of the transducer face where measurement
is not possible. This space, also known as the “blanking distance” or
“dead zone,” has decreased dramatically over the years as technology
and research advanced ultrasonic measurement technology. Initially, the
blanking distance was a meter or even more, but it has been reduced to
25 centimeters (0.82 ft) in the most recent systems.
Other factors like temperature and installation techniques also affect the
blanking distance:

The ringdown quantity depends on the crystal itself as well as the materials and construction of
the entire transducer.

Temperature
High temperature transducers have a longer blanking distance. While
ringdown takes the same amount of time regardless of the transducer’s
temperature, the speed of sound increases with temperature. Therefore
when using D=VT, a greater velocity results in an increased distance.
The blanking distance is stated at the maximum transducer temperature
rating.

Installation
If the transducer is connected directly to a metal coupler or if the
mounting threads are torqued too tightly, the mounting arrangement acts
as part of the transducer and will “ring” with each transmit pulse. To
reduce ringing only, hand-tighten the transducer into a blind flange or
onto a conduit adapter. If possible, use a plastic conduit adapter rather
than a metal one.
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For a flanged transducer, use the supplied plastic bolts and do not over-
tighten. Use a gasket between the vessel flange and the transducer
flange.

Transducer design: the heart of the matter

The physical design of today’s transducer houses decades of research
and enhancements, distinguishing Siemens from the rest of the players.
These transducer developments have made Siemens the best in the
business and the world leader in the field.
Measuring distance is not as simple as timing the sound when it bounces
back. It also requires intelligence because sound is indiscriminate. It
bounces from anything and everything, and since most applications are
filled with obstructions and other clutter that interferes with the path of
sound, it requires sophisticated equipment to distinguish the real level
echo from the rest of the bouncebacks.
Siemens ultrasonic instrumentation has the sophisticated technology that
evaluates the echoes and determines which ones are true and which are
false.

Summary
The theoretical principle of sonic level measurement is simple. A
transducer located at the top of a bin or well transmits a pulse of sound
energy. The sound reflects from the material surface and travels back to
the transducer where it is converted into an electrical pulse. The time
delay from transmission to received echo is converted into distance and
the material level is determined.
In practice, sonic level measurement is a bit more complicated as there is
not just a single echo from the material, but many echoes reflecting from
bin walls, beams, pipes, and wires in the sound path. Furthermore, the
actual echo qualities can vary greatly for the following reasons:
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sound attenuates with distance; thus, the desired echo from the
material surface may be weaker than the undesired echoes
the material surface of solids is usually inclined, and this spreads
and weakens the echo
electrical noise from motors or controllers can interfere or be
stronger than the echo
Distinguishing among the many echoes can thus be very difficult, but it is
crucial for the system to be effective and the real echo needs to be found.
The historical progression of the technology is based on this search for
the true echo.

1 Deep Purple, "Pictures of Home." Machine Head, 1972.

2 This section was first published as, Aus der “Klemme” Füllstandmessung - intelligente
Schaltungstechnik vergrößert Rauschabstand. Gordon Li. MSR Magazin (Messen, Steuern,
Regeln und Automatisieren). Issue 1-2 (January/February 2005) pages: 16-17.
3 Doug Duncan. “Ultrasonic sensors: Now an even better choice for solid material detection,”
Instrumentation and Control Systems. November 1998.
4 From “The Theory of Ultrasonics and Echo Ranging.”
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Chapter Four

Echo processing
Making good decisions is a crucial skill at any level.1
Ultrasonics technology has been used for industrial bin level
measurement since the 1940s. Since then, the tools have evolved to
overcome the acoustic problems faced in real world applications.
Complex circuitry with time varying gain, automatic gain control, range
tracking gates, near and far blanking, noise suppression filters, phase
locked loops, and other advances have expanded the capabilities of
sonic level measurement. These developments all have one thing in
common: real-time analog processing of the signal as it was received.

While analog processing greatly advanced ultrasonic technology as level

measurement instrumentation, it also had two main disadvantages:
First, a skilled technician with a screwdriver and an oscilloscope
would carefully adjust the installed electronics for each application,
and this had to be done while the bin level was cycled up and down
several times. This is a costly and time-consuming process.
Second, since the signal is processed as it is received, there is no
opportunity to analyze and compare the information statistically to
see if it is even possible or correct. Thus data logging was not
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possible.
Siemens recognized that analog-based instruments would never be
sufficient and focused its efforts on moving away from real-time
processing. Engineers soon realized that placing the entire stream of
echoes into a stored echo profile in a computer’s memory gave the unit
the opportunity to examine its shots. The computer then processes and
analyzes the stored echo profile to select the true echo in a more reliable
fashion. The first product to use this revolutionary technique was the
Milltronics AiRanger IV, introduced in 1984, and this system has been in
every instrument since then, including SITRANS LUT400 and SITRANS
Probe LU. As a result, echo-processing adjustments are not generally
required in most applications.
This chapter presents Sonic Intelligence functionality and how it refines
the analytic process determining true echo and level.

Topics
Echo processing
Shots and profiles
Filters
Time varying threshold (TVT)
Echo selection
Figure of merit
Echo profiles
Echo processing parameters
Noise

Echo processing - intelligence

The patented echo-processing technology embedded in ultrasonic level
measurement products from Siemens is known as Sonic Intelligence™2.
Sonic Intelligence differentiates between true echoes from the material
being measured and false echoes generated by obstructions or electrical
noise. The result is repeatable, fast, and reliable measurement.
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Sonic Intelligence is field-proven in over 1,000,000 applications worldwide.

This technological advancement was developed in consultation with field

service engineers and supported by field data gained from decades of
experience with applications in many industries and continues to evolve
today. Using higher order mathematical techniques and algorithms to
provide intelligent processing of echo profiles, this “knowledge-based”
technique produces superior performance and reliability.
SITRANS LUT400 uses next generation Sonic Intelligence for echo
processing, providing adaptive digital filtering of the transducer signal.
For example, when noise levels are high, filters are adjusted to maximize
the signal to noise ratio. This advanced Sonic Intelligence not only allows
for better filtering, but provides improved tracking of echoes, and more
sophisticated echo positioning algorithms.

Understanding echo processing

Echo processing is a simple concept and a complex reality as the
instrument looks at each grouping of echoes (a shot) and processes the
return to determine the true echo.
The short shot uses a narrow transmit pulse which reduces transducer
ringing to provide improved reliability for the detection of near targets.
The long shot uses a wide transmit pulse to provide a stronger return
echo to detect more distant targets. Both short and long shots are
processed, and then the best is selected with a bias in favor of the short
shot. Once an echo is selected, various filters are applied to stabilize the
reading.
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Even though Sonic Intelligence will select the correct echo after every
measurement, the reading itself may fluctuate as a result of changing
conditions within the bin. Averaging the readings reduces the fluctuations
but causes a lag in response when the material level changes. Sonic
Intelligence uses powerful statistical techniques, to give stable readings
while still allowing rapid response to actual changes in the material level.

Shots and profiles

So let’s look at how the software reads the shots and what it sees as the
following are implemented:
filters
Time Varying Threshold (TVT) application
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echo analysis

The echo profile

The complete profile including transmit and ringdown is displayed and the
amount of blanking indexed in the software is shown on the bottom trace.
The echo lock window (or window) locks on to the selected echo in order
to ignore spurious echoes from agitator blades or random electrical
interference. A Time Varying Threshold (TVT) curve provides a reference
for comparing echoes.

SITRANS LUT400 uses next generation Sonic Intelligence for echo

processing, providing adaptive digital filtering of the transducer signal.
For example, if noise levels are high, filters are adjusted to maximize the
signal to noise ratio. This advanced Sonic Intelligence not only allows for
better filtering, but provides improved tracking of echoes and more
sophisticated echo positioning algorithms.
What the LUT400 sees (or, more accurately, “hears”) from a transmit
pulse in an application is stored in a digital format and is referred to as an
“echo profile.” This profile is a digital representation of the returned echo
energy versus time.

Finding the true echo

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As the echoes bounce back from the surface, Sonic Intelligence software
parses the information in its goal to find the true echo. The process
comprises three active components working together in the selection
process:
1. Filters: enhancing the echoes and using Time Varying Threshold
(TVT) to select.
2. True echo: selection.
3. Selected echo: verification.

One: Filters
Filters are algorithm processes in the software that tune out outside
interferences and enhance the echoes returned from the application.

Clipping filter
Removes the high spikes in the time domain, resulting in less ringing in
the filter and reducing the impact of high noise on the probability of
picking the right echo.

Digital band pass filter

This method permits the design of the optimum matched filter, creating
the highest probability of selecting the right echo over noise. Each
transducer has a band pass filter based on its transmission frequency.

Kalman filter
This algorithm smoothes and applies damping to readings, removing jitter
and instability.

Temperature filter
A Kalman filter algorithm that removes jitter of the reported temperature
value contributes to accurate calculation of the sound velocity.

Spike filter
Electrical noise produces false echoes which are narrow and high
compared to wider echoes from the material being measured. The spike
filter in Sonic Intelligence uses this difference to identify and remove
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electrical noise.

The spike filter measures the width of each spike and cuts off any spike
too narrow to be an echo. The echo lock window is the first line of
defense against random electrical noise, but the spike filter effectively
corrects for electrical interference from machinery such as variable
frequency drives (VFDs). The spike filter will never remove a valid echo.

Narrow echo filter

Many bins have targets in the path of the sound wave that produce false
echoes that could interfere with the measurement. These may be pipes,
cables, or even seams in the bin wall. In a narrow bin, it may be
impossible to move the transducer far enough away to avoid these
targets. These targets produce echoes which make it difficult to select the
correct echo from the material surface in a reliable manner.
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In solids, the Narrow Echo Filter can remove undesired echoes from hard
targets such as pipes, beams, windows, or seams. That’s because these
echoes are narrower than the true echo from an inclined solid material
surface. In use, the filter is increased by small amounts until the
undesired echoes are eliminated. It is advisable to monitor operation over
a complete fill and empty cycle to avoid setting too high a filter value that
could wipe out the true echo as well. This technique does not apply to
liquid measurement where the true echo is as narrow as the undesired
echo.

Reform echo
In deep bins, the sound wave faces many obstacles in its journey from
transducer to material surface and back again. These obstacles include
reflection from the bin wall, dust, air currents, changes in air density, and
irregularities at the material surface. All these obstructions combine to
create a fragmented or splintered echo. Reform echo builds the
fragmented echo back into a single, strong, well-defined echo pulse.
By increasing reform in small amounts, the operator can join the peaks of
a fragmented echo to produce a large, smooth echo. Use this feature
with caution because if the reform is too large, the peaks of unrelated
echoes will be joined together.
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Echo selection algorithms

After the echo profile has been enhanced, the final task is selecting the
best echo, a task determined by the bin conditions.

Two: True echo selection (selection of echo reflected by the

intended target)
This selection occurs when the portion of the echo profile above the Time
Varying Threshold meets the evaluation criteria of Sonic Intelligence.
Insignificant portions of the echo profile outside of the measurement
range (e.g. Far Range) and below the TVT curve are automatically
disregarded. The remaining portions of the echo profile are evaluated
using the echo select algorithm and the echo profile portion providing the
best echo (confidence) is selected.

NOTE: A confidence value is a static test of a single snapshot profile to

maintain a valid reading; it requires that each individual profile
maintains its peak above the threshold. The window may be locked on
the profile for hours or even days, so if the profile drops below the TVT
curve just once, loss of echo may occur.

Time Varying Threshold (TVT)

The time varying threshold (TVT) is used as a reference to compare
echoes at different positions in time. A far echo will be weaker because
the sound has traveled a greater distance, but near and far echoes must
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be compared in order to select the true echo.

For a given condition of dust, temperature, or humidity, the attenuation of

sound is usually uniform throughout the bin; therefore, the ideal TVT is a
line with a slope equal to the attenuation of sound in dB/m. This slope is
calculated from the declining portion of the echo profile.

TVT shaper (manual adjustment)

The shaper divides the TVT curve into equal segments, each of which
can be adjusted up or down. An undesired echo can be ignored by lifting
the TVT curve at the position of the echo. If the TVT curve is raised too
much, however, the true echo will not be detected when it is in this
region. It is not necessary for the TVT to clear the undesired echo, just
cutting it in half is usually enough to de-emphasize the undesired echo.
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The adjustments ride up and down with the TVT and move horizontally
when the velocity changes. All calibration points and ranges should be
set before using the shaper.
The shaper cannot be used on echoes from reflections of material hang-
ups because the false echo position will change if the material falls out of
its hung up position.

Auto false-echo suppression (automatic TVT shaping)

This feature automatically detects and suppresses echoes from vessel
obstructions. Prior to activating the Auto False-Echo Suppression, empty
the tank as much as possible. If there is an agitator, it should be
operating. During the TVT Learn session, the controller fires pulses and
shapes the TVT around any echo from an obstruction like the agitator.
This shaping is easy to perform and does not require a PC.
The TVT will then not drop lower than the learned position.
SITRANS LUT400 has advanced tracking ability and can find the real
echo amongst stationary clutter echoes. Therefore, even if the echo
drops below the TVT curve, it can be identified with near certainty for
approximately 30 seconds. This capability is measured by the Figure of
Merit (FoM) setting.
There are four selection methods:
measure the area of each echo
measure the height of each echo
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measure the first moving echo

select the first significant echo

For the MultiRanger, Largest or First are the preferred algorithms. For the AiRanger, together
it’s ALF.

These methods can be referred to as Area, Largest, and First algorithms

(ALF). Another method uses Tracker where the user selects/deselects
the algorithm standard settings. Sonic Intelligence uses all four
algorithms on each measurement. For each algorithm, a score or
confidence is calculated for each echo that crosses the TVT curve, then
the scores are added up to give a total score for each echo. The echo
with the highest total score is deemed to be the true echo from the
material surface. The net echo confidence is the confidence of the
chosen echo minus the confidence of the echo with the next highest
confidence level; i.e. net confidence of the first choice is first choice
minus second choice.
Occasionally, one algorithm will give a low score to the true echo and a
better score to a false echo, but the other algorithms will pull the total
score of the true echo up, and push the total score of the false echo
down. The final selected echo is correct because Sonic Intelligence
incorporates a diversified portfolio of application experience. For a given
bin condition, a single algorithm will give higher echo confidence but, as
bin conditions change, another algorithm may be required. Generally,
using all four algorithms provides for more reliable operation over time.
However, trained operators can adjust the device parameters and fine-
tune the algorithms to suit their application.
Siemens Milltronics equipment also contains an echo processing
algorithm call “bLF,” also known as “Best of Largest at First.” This
algorithm runs the Largest algorithm and First algorithm and selects the
echo with the highest confidence value. It does not sum the values as in
the ALF algorithm. bLF is the best choice for short range liquid
applications.
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Another algorithm is True First (TF). This algorithm selects the first echo
that crosses the TVT curve. Use in liquids applications free of
obstructions when confidence of first echo is high.
The TR (TR) Tracker algorithm selects the echo that closest to the
transducer and is moving. An echo that is below the TVT line and moving
can be detected by this algorithm and when it is not tracking an echo, it
behaves the same as bLF.

NOTE: Only use TR algorithm in process applications with either of

these two conditions:
continuous level changes
a risk of fixed obstructions that could interfere with true level
resulting in low confidence.

Three: Selected echo verification

This verification is automatic. The position (relation in time after transmit)
of the new echo is compared to that of the previously accepted echo.
When the new echo is within the Echo Lock Window, it is accepted,
updating displays, outputs, and relays. If the new echo is outside of the
window, it is not accepted until echo lock requirements are satisfied.
These three processes work away in the background as the Sonic
Intelligence software determines the best echo. However, the echoes can
be further tuned should it be necessary.

Echo quality
Echo quality and confidence can be further tuned using the information
provided by the device from the following features.

Figure of merit
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Figure of Merit (FOM) measures the quality of the reported process

value: higher values represent better quality. Even when a low
confidence value exists, a high FOM will ensure the true echo has been
selected. Approximately 20 readings are used to support the FOM value.
EXAMPLE
FOM greater than 75% = good qualityFOM less than 50% = poor quality
Contributions to the FoM:
success of the tracking (how closely can the next level versus the
actual next level be predicted)
level of noise
confidence of the last echo time interval since last valid echo
speed at which the process is moving
quality of the echo shape and how it helps the calculation of the echo
position

NOTE: If FoM is low, reduce the noise in the process, or check the
installation to increase signal quality.
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Echo parameter fine tuning

Sonic Intelligence software eliminates the need for echo-processing
adjustments in all but the most difficult applications (less than 1%). If fine
tuning is required, operators can use the more advanced adjustment
parameters available in Siemens transceivers.
Only one or two echo-tuning parameters should be adjusted at a time, so
that the impact of each adjustment can be carefully monitored for a
complete fill and empty cycle. Adjustments made to reach a confidence
figure at a certain bin level may not hold under changing bin levels. Do
not rely solely on the confidence figure, but look at the echo profile and
decide if the echo is well defined under various conditions and will
provide reliable tracking of levels from empty to full. This is especially
important during aiming and mounting.

Echo profiles
The echo profile, a graphic representation of the reflected echo received
by the transducer, is an important diagnostic tool. Digitally generated, the
profile is stored by the transceiver and can be viewed using several types
of configuration software, including SIMATIC PDM (Process Device
Manager), AMS, FDTs, Dolphin Plus, and Super Sonex.
The echo starts out as an analog signal:

This signal is digitized by the transceiver’s A/D converter and changed

into an echo profile, which is a measurement of the echo energy versus
time.
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To read the profile, start at the left side, which represents the tank top,
and move across. The farther right, the farther down into the tank the
shot goes, reading the distance. The upward spikes indicate echoes and
the strength in decibels.

Profile components
There are several components to an echo profile, each revealing a
significant aspect of the echo. The echo profile components are shown in
the following diagrams:

Echo profile
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Ringdown
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The leading edge of the echo profile is the decay of the transmit pulse,
also known as the “transducer ringdown.” This is the portion of the echo
profile showing the gradual recovery of the crystal after a shot has been
taken.

TVT curve (Time Varying Threshold)

The TVT curve is a digitally generated threshold level that acts as a

validation point for the received echoes. It is a dynamic threshold level;
any part of the profile above the curve will be included in the echo
validation process.

Echo marker
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The echo marker represents what the controller has processed as the
correct echo (or material level) for that particular echo profile. It may or
may not present this as the level reading. The Echo Lock Window
controls the level reading output. The height of the marker represents the
echo confidence; the larger the height, the better the confidence that this
is the echo that most represents the true level for this particular profile.

Echo lock window

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The Echo Lock Window (or simply the Window) controls how far the level
can change between shots. From shot to shot, the level change cannot
exceed the width of the echo lock window. If the echo marker falls within
the width of the window, the controller will output the level as indicated by
the echo marker and re-center the window on the echo. If the echo
marker falls outside the window (e.g. marks an echo from a blade of an
agitator), then the controller will ignore the marked echo and output a
level represented by the window (which also represents the last valid
reading).
The width of the window is set by the measurement response (or
damping) parameter. If the application level changes rapidly (a process
vessel), program a fast measurement response and the window width will
be quite wide. If the application has a slow moving level (a storage
vessel), then set the measurement response parameter to slow and the
window width will be quite narrow.
If there is a sudden change in level and the echo marker (this time
representing the true level and not a false echo from an agitator blade) is
outside the width of the window, the controller maintains the level output
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at the level represented by the window, the last valid reading. It also
begins to widen the window at the measurement response rate. If the
echo marker points at the same echo outside the window for five shots in
a row, the controller accepts that this is now true level and changes the
level output (the display, mA output, or digital output) at the measurement
response rate in the direction of the true level. The window continues to
widen at the measurement response rate and once the true echo is within
the window width, the window will shrink back to its normal size and re-
center itself on the true echo.

Echo processing parameters

The values of some of the advanced echo processing parameters are

placed on the echo profile as a convenience and can be used as a
reference when subsequently viewing the profiles.
Included are the values for the following:
echo algorithm
spike filter
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narrow echo filter

echo reform
TVT type
confidence threshold
short shot range
short shot bias
window sill percentage
near TVT dB

Echo confidence

Echo confidence represents the certainty, or confidence, that the chosen

echo is the correct echo. The value is generated from one of the echo
processing algorithms like ALF or bLF (see Sonic Intelligence).
Confidence is shown in two areas: at the selected echo and beside the
echo marker. The values beside the echo show the confidence values
generated by individual algorithms. In the above profile it shows L:20 and
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F:20 – meaning that the Largest algorithm and the First algorithm each
generated a confidence value of 20. The confidence value beside the
echo marker is shown as:

This indicates the short shot confidence is 0, the net long shot confidence
is 20, and the brackets around the 20 indicate that the long shot was
used to process and output the level measurement reading.

The echo

This graph shows an echo, with spikes that are sharp or gradual
(depending on the material) rising in the echo profile. Sharp echoes arise
from flat material surfaces like liquids, as in the above profile. Gradual,
wider echoes come from solid material; clinker, coal, or grains, are more
gradual in their rise, and often look like the echo below from plastic
pellets:
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Echo strength
The strength of the selected echo in dB above 1 microvolt RMS is
calculated as echo strength.
The echo profiles are an invaluable asset when troubleshooting, and a
technician can determine the following from the profile based on the
echoes:
good echo strength and low confidence means multiple echoes to
get the level reading
low echo strength and low confidence can mean the echo is weak,
the result of poor aiming, or high attenuation from dust, steam, or
C02. The surface may also be foamy or poorly reflective from
extreme turbulence.
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Noise
Noise in an ultrasonic system can also be generated by electrical
interference received from the transducer cables. This interferes with the
echo reading and enters the controller from many sources:
main power
mA output
external temperature sensor (if used)
radiated from nearby electrical devices

The electrical noise is picked up on the profile. The two lines at the
bottom left represent the noise parameter. The top of the bold vertical line
is the peak noise in dB; the small horizontal line indicates the average
noise. In this example, the peak noise is 5 dB and the average noise is -
3 dB.
The best method for ensuring the lowest noise possible is to use the
recommended transducer cable. The newer Siemens Milltronics
controllers (SITRANS LUT400, MultiRanger 100/200, HydroRanger 200)
use shielded twisted pair cable while established models (SITRANS LU)
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use RG62 A/U coaxial cable. The shields must be properly connected,
and use grounded metal conduit to shield the cable from electrical noise
and to physically protect the cable from damage.

In general, average noise levels above 30 dB are cause for concern and noise should be
reduced.

The levels of noise present at the receiver input can be viewed on the
device Local User Interface as the average noise and the peak noise. In
general, the most useful value is the average noise because the peak
noise is a spike that can be filtered out. Average noise, however, is the
overall baseline noise. If the echo strength does not exceed the baseline
noise, there will be problems discerning the echo from the ambient noise.

Adaptive profile blending

When not in a high noise application, the LUT400 processes every shot
individually. If noise levels increase above a threshold of 35 dB, the
SITRANS LUT400 blends multiple profiles together, increasing the
reliability of echo selection and position detection. This replaces the
previous process of averaging a number of shots and responds more
quickly to fast changing material levels.

Noise interference
With no transducer attached, the noise is under 5 dB, which is called the
noise floor. If the value with a transducer attached is greater than 5 dB,
then signal processing problems can occur because the greater the
noise, the less the distance that can be measured. Any average noise
level greater than 30 dB is generally cause for concern unless the
distance is much shorter than the maximum specified for the transducer
and it powers its way through the noise.

Determining the noise source

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Noise can be from either electrical interference or from an acoustic

obstruction that intervenes and distorts the intended echo. Thus, the first
step is to determine the noise source.
Start by disconnecting the transducer from the transceiver. If the
measured noise is above 5 dB, go to Non-transducer noise sources
below. For noise levels below 5 dB, proceed with the following:
1. Connect only the shield wire of the transducer to the controller. If the
measured noise is below 5 dB, continue with the next step. If the
noise is above 5 dB, go to Common wiring problems.
2. Connect the white and black transducer wires to the controller.
Record the average noise.
3. Remove the positive wire of the transducer. Record the average
noise.
4. Reconnect the positive wire and remove the negative wire. Record
the average noise.
Use the Noise Modification table to determine the appropriate next step.
The terms higher, lower, and unchanged refer to the noise recorded in
the previous steps.

Noise modification table

noise - removed + removed Go to:
higher higher Reducing electrical noise
unchanged Common wiring problems
lower Reducing acoustic noise

unchanged higher Reducing electrical noise

unchanged Contact Siemens
lower Reducing acoustic noise

lower higher Common wiring problems

unchanged Common wiring problems
lower Reducing acoustic noise
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Non-transducer noise sources

Remove all input and output cables from the controller individually while
monitoring the noise. If removing a cable reduces the noise, that cable
may be picking up noise from adjacent electrical equipment. Although
controllers are designed to work near heavy industrial equipment such as
variable speed drives, do not locate them near high voltage wires or
switch gear.

Because of high costs, filtering cables are not recommended unless all other options have been
exhausted.

Ensure that low voltage cables are not being run adjacent to high voltage
cables or near to electrical noise generators such as variable speed
drives.
Moving the electronics a few meters away from the source of noise will fix
the problem. Shielding the electronics is another option, albeit expensive
and difficult to install properly; the shielding box must enclose the
controller electronics completely, and all wires must be brought to the box
through grounded metal conduit.

Common wiring problems

The installation wiring can also present noise problems.
make sure that the transducer shield wire is connected at the
electronics end only. Do not ground it at any other location.
do not connect the transducer shield wire to the white wire. (Applies
only to the SITRANS LUT400, MultiRanger 100/200, HydroRanger
200, and SITRANS LUC500)
the exposed transducer shield wire must be as short as possible.
connections between the wire supplied with the transducer, and any
customer installed extension wire should be done in grounded metal
junction boxes.
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For SITRANS LUT400, LUC500, MultiRanger 100/200, and Hydro-

Ranger 200, the transducer extension wire must be shielded twisted pair.
For SITRANS LU series, AiRanger series, HydroRanger Plus, and
MiniRanger Plus, use RG-62A/U co-axial cable for noise reduction
purposes. See the installation section of the controller manual for correct
cable specifications.

NOTE: On Siemens transducers, the white wire is negative and the

black wire is positive. If the extension wire is colored differently, make
sure that it is wired consistently.

Reducing electrical noise

ensure that the transducer cable does not run parallel to other cables
carrying high voltage or current
move the transducer cable away from noise generators such as
variable speed drives
put the transducer cable in grounded metal conduit
filter the noise source

Acoustic noise
To confirm that the problem is acoustical, place several layers of
cardboard over the face of the transducer. If the noise is reduced, the
noise is definitely acoustical.

Reducing acoustic noise

move the transducer away from the noise source
use a stilling well
install a rubber or foam bushing or gasket between the transducer
and the mounting surface
relocate or insulate the noise source
change the frequency of the noise. The controller is only sensitive to
noise between 25 KHz and 65 KHz
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Summary
Sonic intelligence beats at the heart of Siemens ultrasonic technology.
Derived from the cumulative experience of over a million ultrasonic
applications, this sophisticated echo processing focuses a laser sharp
eye on the true level in the application.

1 Drucker, Peter. 1909-2005.

2 ™Sonic Intelligence is a trademark of Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments.
 Ives Equipment | 877-768-1600 | www.ivesequipment.com

Chapter Five

Installation
There is joy in repetition,
there is joy in repetition, there is joy in repetition.1

Ultrasonic level measurement instrumentation offers non-contacting

technology that is virtually maintenance free and cost effective in many
applications, from the water and wastewater industries to solids and
liquids measurement in a variety of industrial settings.

Ultrasonic systems use a transducer to send electronic pulses to a

controller which interprets them and determines level distance. Integrated
systems like the SITRANS Probe LU house the transducer and controller
together and can also function as transmitters within a network, using the
latest in communication hardware and software to transmit data back to
its source for immediate processing. They can operate pumps and
alarms directly or send data through communication systems.
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Other systems separate the transducer from the controller, and only the
transducer is actually at the application. The controller can be as far as
365 meters (1200 ft) away. The application can be configured and
managed from a distance; thus in dangerous or awkward situations, no
one needs to return to the site after the initial installation.
Ultrasonic transducers are very easy to install and maintain, ensuring
many years of reliable operation. This chapter discusses installation
requirements and best practices to maximize the benefits of an ultrasonic
application.

Topics
transducer selection
location and obstructions
vessels
tanks and access
nozzles, standpipes, stillpipes
cabling
open vessels, flumes, weirs
lift stations
position control
approvals
Installation conditions are the same for the transducer sensors only or for
transmitters like the SITRANS Probe LU. The controllers are generally
mounted away from the applications where they can be configured in
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comfort and safety.

Select the right transducer

The Echomax XRS-5 is a popular
transducer choice. With a measurement
range of 0.3 meters (one ft) to eight
meters (26 ft) on liquids and slurries, it
is suitable for most short to mid-range
applications in the water and
wastewater industries.

For short-range solids applications, the

Echomax XPS-10 provides a high
power output suitable for dusty
applications.
For applications beyond eight meters (26 ft) and up to 15 meters (50 ft),
Echomax XPS-15 transducer offers the most accurate performance for
solids, liquids, and slurry applications.
Applications beyond 15 meters (50 ft)
require the XPS-30 or XPS-40
transducers with lower frequencies and
more powerful output.

Many conditions can affect the

performance of your ultrasonic system,
and they need to be noted when
choosing a transducer. The application
environment also influences the
performance, and in this chapter we
discuss the actual installation criteria for
the transducers after you have decided
which transducer is appropriate for your
application and is compatible with the
controller.
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Location
The actual physical location of the transducer is very important for
optimal performance, and there are a number of factors that must be
considered depending on the application type. Thus the transducer
mounting for measuring open channel flow is different from measuring
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liquids in a vessel and different again from measuring solids. However,

regardless of the application type, the one common condition to avoid in
any application is the obstruction.

Keep objects out of the ultrasonic cone to reduce false echoes.

Obstructions
Obstructions are the most important application elements to be aware of
as they block the sound signal path. Typical vessel obstructions include
ladders, pumps, braces, lights, agitators, walkways, and loading chutes.
If obstructions are unavoidable, choose the location where there are the
least number of obstructions. The transducer must be able to “see” the
material being measured, and a beam, pipe, or structural brace will block
the view and affect the reading. Obviously, the clearer the access to the
material, the better the performance.
Because the ultrasonic pulse radiates in a cone shape from the face of
the transducer, keeping objects outside of this signal cone reduces the
chance of false echoes being recorded. The transducer beam angle
specifies the degree of the cone (see illustration below) where the
ultrasonic pulse’s power is lower by three dB (decibels).
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Closed vessels
In closed vessels, locate the transducer on a standpipe or stillpipe, or any
access port or nozzle that offers an unobstructed view of the surface to
be monitored. The standpipe or stillpipe can negate the blanking
requirements by distancing the transducer from the material.

Tanks
The variety of vessels measured by ultrasonics is extensive, from small
one meter high (3.3 ft) plastic containers of wood glue resins to three
meter high (10 ft) stainless steel tanks full of ice cream base to 60 meter
(200 ft) concrete grain silos. Ultrasonic measurement has very few
limitations when it comes to vessel size or geometry; it simply needs a
clear path for the sound to travel to the material being measured. The
shape of the tank matters little.
Although tank or vessel sizes can vary, the majority are variations on only
a few standard shapes. Transducer location can change slightly
depending upon the shape of the vessel.
These shapes include:

Flat bottom tanks

Common applications include wastewater wet wells. Locate the
transducer as close to the center as possible and away from obstructions
in the beam path. If mounting in the center is not possible, maintain a
10:1 ratio when mounting close to the side of the vessel.

NOTE: For every ten meters vertical measurement, locate the

transducer one meter from the side to prevent any interfering echoes.
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Cone bottom/parabolic bottom tanks

For tanks used in liquid material applications, mount the transducer in the
center so that measurement to the bottom of the cone is possible. If this
is not possible, program the controller so that the bottom of the tank is
the top of the cone.

If the material is a solid (i.e. grain), then a transducer with an aiming

device should be used and the transducer aimed towards the bottom of
the cone to ensure measurement into the draw point.

Horizontal tanks
Mount the transducer as close to the top center of the vessel as possible
to make use of all the available span.

NOTE: Echo processing software can ignore reflections from support

beams, weld beads, ladder, or material buildup along the vessel sides.
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Tank access
There are many ways to access a sealed tank or vessel:
cut hole and/or Easy Aimer
nozzles
standpipes
stillpipes
sidepipes
Cut hole/Easy Aimer: some tanks or
vessels have no entry routes, but can
be accessed by cutting a hole or using
an existing trap door to mount that
transducer. The Siemens Milltronics
Easy Aimer assists in aiming the
transducer through an access port into
the vessel at an angle required to get
the accurate reading. Attach the
transducer to the aiming kit using the
coupling provided with the kit and then
aim past the transducer so that the
sound path is perpendicular to the
material surface.

NOTE: Be sure to locate the access

port so that no obstructions are in the beam path.

The Easy Aimer aims the transducer to the low level draw point. The
transducer can be revolved through 360° and angled at 0 to 27° off
vertical. It can withstand 100 kPa (one bar or 15 psi gauge) pressure with
aggressive environments.
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Nozzles: a protruding access pipe located on the surface of the vessel. A

short outlet, or inlet, pipe projecting from the end or side of a hollow
vessel.
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Standpipe: an access pipe that protrudes through a vessel wall and is

present on both the outside and the inside of the tank, and may be used
as a mounting platform.
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Be aware of the following when using a nozzle or standpipe. When

mounting flanged transducers to closed top vessels:
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be sure no buildup forms inside the standpipe (may create false

readings)
eliminate welds and seams as they have the same effect as buildup
height should be less than three multiples of the diameter (H < 3 D)
minimum diameter is 76 millimeters (3")
if height is less than 150 millimeters (6"), factory blanking can be
used. If height is greater than 150 millimeters, increase blanking to
150 millimeters beyond the bottom of standpipe, or extend standpipe
into tank and cut the end at a 45° angle.

Standpipe installation
Cut the end of the standpipe on a 45° angle and remove any burrs from
cutting. This angle will help match the impedance of the air inside the
pipe with the rest of the application environment. A 90° cut could create
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an interfering echo at the end of the standpipe and reduce the confidence
value of the real echo.
For standpipe installations, use a factory bonded flanged transducer or
split flange kit that will readily mate to the flanged standpipe. Another
option is to hang the transducer from a blind flange.
The standpipe should be as short, and the diameter as large, as possible.
The -3 dB cone of the sound beam should not intersect the standpipe
wall in applications opening into a vessel or larger area. Otherwise,
additional blanking will be required to compensate for the interference
zone created by the opening.

Stillpipes/Stilling tubes
A stillpipe (essentially an extended standpipe) may be used for turbulent
liquid applications as it extends further down into the vessel, and is also
helpful in foamy conditions by isolating the surface.
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A stillpipe is simply a smooth walled pipe that extends from the top of the
vessel to the bottom. The lower end of the pipe is open to allow the clean
free flowing liquid to move up the pipe. In an application where the vessel
is emptied completely, it may be possible for the foam to enter the bottom
of the stillpipe. In this case, a J-tube is recommended. The J-tube is a
stillpipe with an 180 ° elbow at the bottom. When the vessel is emptied
there will always be a small amount of liquid in the elbow, and it will not
allow any of the foam to pass into the stillpipe.
The same considerations for a standpipe should be applied to stillpipe:
do not perforate or drill holes along the length of the stilling well
welds and couplings can affect the reliability of level measurement
avoid buildup or other debris on the inside of the well wall
ensure there is a vent hole at the top of the stilling well

Sidepipes
Sidepipes are similar to stillpipes but are on the outside of the vessel and
is comparable to a sight glass. The level is reflected in the joined pipe.
Sidepipes eliminate false echoes from obstructions and fill streams, and
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are often used in sumps and wells. The following must be noted:

pipes should be seamless with a minimum 150 millimeter (6")

diameter
pipe should be vented at the top
pipe must be kept clean of buildup

Flanges
Transducers can be mounted with a variety of flanges:
bonded flanges for non-corrosive applications
PTFE–faced flanges for corrosive applications
split flanges for field retrofit for mounting on a flanged standpipe

Over tightening the mounting hardware can lead to transducer ringing.

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Tighten the flange bolts evenly to ensure a good seal between the mating
flanges, but do not over tighten. This can adversely affect performance.
Hand tightening should be sufficient.

Liquid applications
For best results in liquid level measurement, the transducer must be
perpendicular to the material surface. Whether it is through a standpipe,
nozzle, or positioned in the vessel using an existing opening or a newly
cut one.
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Solids applications
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Note the following when installing the transducer on a tank:

In most tanks, the transducer should be centered as much as

possible (without interference from inlet) for optimum reading range.
Whether the tank is empty or full, it must contain its normal vapor
conditions.
Whether the tank is empty or full, it should be at its normal
temperature.
The transducer should be perpendicular to the angle of repose of the
material, which usually means mounting it to one side and at an
angle.
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In cone bottom tanks, aim the transducer at the draw point at the
center of the cone.
Aim the transducer away from seams, structures and irregularities in
the bin wall.
Locate the transducer away from the material inflow.
On fluid-like solids, aim the transducer perpendicular to the material
surface.
On dual discharge bins, aim the transducer at the draw or discharge
point to ensure accurate readings on emptying. Use Easy Aimer.
Keep transducer away from fill points, as the material entering the
vessel could reflect the sound pulse and give an incorrect level
reading.
Look out for rat holing where the discharge has created a drain hole
that can give incorrect level readings. Bridging, where the
discharged material does not show, also leads to incorrect level
readings.

Protection
For solids applications where the transducer can come in contact with
material, such as in a rock box or crusher, protect the transducer from
flying rocks by surrounding it with a wire cage. Secure the installation by
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connecting a safety chain from the transducer to the mounting surface.

Use proper cabling

Cable selection is a very important to ensure proper functioning of the
transducer. All wiring, conduit, and junction boxes are to be installed
according to all local laws, rules, and regulations and/or insurance
company requirements. Refer to product manuals for wire type and
connections for specific transducer models.

Install a metal junction box and two conductor terminal strips at an

easily accessible location.
Terminate cables per the transducer installation manual.
Ensure that the cable shields are isolated from the ground.
Failure to properly insulate the transducer shield can cause a short
to the ground.
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Grounded metal conduit is required between the transducer and the

metal junction box.
Grounded flex conduit is acceptable.
Rigid metal conduit should be installed from the junction box to the
electronics package.
In the case of multiple point systems like the SITRANS LU10, a
single conduit can be used for all transducer cables.
If transducer cables run in the same conduit or in close proximity to
each other, be sure to synchronize the transceivers (see device
instruction manual) to prevent cross interference.
Transducers all have integral cables with “pigtail” leads at the end. The
length of integral cable can be selected when ordering and are available
in lengths of up to 100 meters (328 ft); however, the five meter (16.5 ft)
and ten meter (32 ft) lengths are most popular.
The pigtail ends can be directly connected to the controller’s terminal
blocks, or the cable can be extended using a field-mounted junction box
and additional cable, up to a total length of 365 meters (1200 ft). The
additional cable type depends on the controller, not the transducer. For
extended runs beyond the transducer’s integral cable always check the
product manual for recommended cable type. Some controllers, like the
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SITRANS LUT400 and MultiRanger 200, use 18 AWG shielded, twisted

pair cable; other models, like the SITRANS LU10, use RG62U coax cable
to extend the length of the transducer cable.
All transducer cable should be mounted in grounded metal conduit to
provide the best electromagnetic noise shielding and physical protection
of the cable itself. Do not run cables near high voltage or current runs,
contractors, or SCR control drives.

Diagnostic software
For difficult installations involving excessive dust, turbulence,
obstructions, or very narrow wells, diagnostic software is available to help
fine-tune the transducer’s aim and to set parameters. Siemens Milltronics
uses SIMATIC PDM for viewing echo profiles and to diagnose echo
properties. Support for DTMs and other types of configuration software is
available for some models.

Match environment temperature

If a transducer becomes significantly warmer or cooler than the average
air temperature in the application environment, it may affect accuracy
because the speed of sound changes with temperature. Although some
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transducers have built-in temperature compensation features, it’s always

best to mount a transducer where it will share the same air temperature
as the rest of the application environment.
For transducers mounted outdoors in direct sunlight, provide a sun
shield. If there is a significant temperature difference between the
medium and the sensor surface, connect an external temperature sensor
to the controller for increased accuracy.

Open vessels
Locate the transducer as close as possible to the maximum height of the
material being measured without infringing on the blanking distance. The
blanking distance varies among models, so check the product manual for
blanking distance instructions related to your transducer.

Mounting brackets
These versatile brackets provide sturdy platforms for open vessels and
for open channel monitoring. Manufactured from 304 stainless steel
(1.4301), these brackets come in a variety of shapes to fit any
application.

Open channel meters: weirs and flumes

Open channel flow occurs when liquid flows in a channel with a free
surface open to atmosphere such as streams, rivers, irrigation canals,
and ditches. Non-pressurized partially filled pipes, including storm
sewers, sanitary sewers, and culverts also qualify. Open channel flow
conditions are commonly found in wastewater treatment systems,
industrial waste systems, and irrigation systems.
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In an open channel, pressure is not transmitted from one end to the other
end of the fluid like that in a fully flowing pipe, and only the force of
gravity on the fluid causes the open channel flow.
One of the time-proven and common methods of measuring flow uses a
primary device to restrict the flow of liquid so that a mathematical
relationship exists between the liquid depth (head level) and the flow rate
or velocity of the water.
There are two types of primary devices: weirs and flumes.

Weirs
Weirs are the most common type of primary devices used to measure
open channel flow. A weir is a dam built across a channel and the liquid
flows over it, often there is a cutout or notch, and the weir is generally
named for the shape of the notch. A weir is the simplest and oldest type
of channel flow measuring device.
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A mathematical relationship can be derived to calculate the discharge

through the sharp-crested weirs.
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Flumes
A flume is a venturi device2 placed within a channel to restrict the flow
and produce a head (level)/flowrate relationship. The flow induced is
between critical and super critical flow levels so only one head
measurement is required to measure flow Q.
Most flumes are designed to pass the flows through a critical state for a
specified head range, provided flumes are installed, maintained, and
operated within the specified range.
Common flumes include:
Parshall flume
Rectangular flume
Palmer-Bowlus flume

Ultrasonic level measurement devices are ideally suited to measuring

water level in primary devices. The non-contacting nature of ultrasonics
allows for measurement without disrupting the flow; contact devices used
for measuring head level would actually disrupt the laminar flow and
affect the head/flow relationship and the overall accuracy of the flow
measurement. The surface of the water is smooth (ideally there is no
turbulence) and this provides a perfect reflecting surface for sound
waves. Ultrasonic devices can also provide integration of the
instantaneous flow rate to a totalized amount.
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The overall accuracy of open channel flow measurement is dependent on

the following:
the primary element selection and design
proper installation of the primary device
the effect of the approach flow
the effects of the discharge flow
the liquid being measured
the secondary measuring device
field calibration of the primary element (proving that it does perform
as intended)
field calibration of the secondary device
This section focuses on the secondary device, the ultrasonic open
channel meter, and the field-mounted transducer. Many texts and
guidelines are available that focus on the primary device and its
installation criteria; please refer to these for selecting and installing a
flume or weir properly (see ISCO Handbook) or
www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/wmm/cover.html
The primary requirement for accurate measurement is that the
approaching flow into a flume or over a weir must be tranquil and non-
turbulent. This is perhaps the most important criteria when installing a
primary device and also has an effect on the accuracy of the secondary
device. If the flow is turbulent in the approach channel then the level will
not be stable, causing difficulties for the secondary device to lock onto a
level that is representative of the actual flow rate.

Transducer location
The location of the transducer, even if the flow is smooth and tranquil, is
important if the head versus flow relationship is to be maintained. For
standard weirs, the transducer should be located upstream minimum
three times the maximum head level as shown below:
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BS-3680 V-notch weir

ISO 1438/1 (BS-3680) thin plate V-notch weir requires that the transducer
be located four to five times the maximum head level back from the weir
plate:
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Parshall flumes
For flumes, the location of the transducer depends upon the flume type.
Common in North America, Parshall flumes have the head measured at
2/3 the length of the converging section from the beginning of the throat
section:
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BS-3680/ISO 4359 rectangular flume

An ISO 4359 (BS-3680) rectangular flume head level measures four to
five times the maximum head level upstream as shown in the following
diagram:
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Pipeline flumes
Two types of flumes are designed to fit directly in pipelines in manholes:
Palmer-Bowlus flumes and Leopold Lagco flumes, and they are sized
according to the pipe diameter. The transducer locations differ between
these types; however, both depend upon the pipe diameter. The
upstream location of the transducer in a Palmer-Bowlus flume is the pipe
diameter ‘D’ divided by two, as shown:
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The Leopold Lagco Flume head level measurement requires the

transducer to be located as shown in the following table:
Flume size Point measurement
(pipe diameter
in inches) centimeters inches

12 2.5 1
15 3.2 1.25
18 4.4 1.75
21 5.1 2
24 6.4 2.5
30 7.6 3
42 8.9 3.5
48 10.2 4
54 11.4 4.5
60 12.7 5
66 14.0 5.5
72 15.2 6
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Tips for effective open channel flow measurement

Ensure the primary device (weir or flume) is the right type and size
for the expected flow rate, and ensure it is installed properly.
Discrepancies from the standard design, dimensions, or setup will
adversely affect the accuracy of flow measurement devices.
Ensure that it is properly cleaned and maintained. Any buildup of
sediment or vegetation can influence flow and flow measurement.
Check upstream conditions that may create waves or surging.
Hydraulic jumps, flow pipes, or drops in approach pipes located
close to the flume can interfere with measurement.
When installing flow measurement devices, follow the installation
guidelines in the instruction manual to ensure correct setup and to
be aware of any limitations.
Field calibration of the primary element will tell you if the actual head
corresponds to the head-to-flow calibration information supplied by
the manufacturer. If not, a new curve can be determined through
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field testing. This is essential on special applications or non-standard

weirs and flumes.
Install the head measuring device in a relatively calm, stable portion
of the channel. It should not be positioned in a channel approach
that has high velocity of water, turbulence, gates, valves, pumps, or
a sudden change in section.
Make sure the measurement device has been properly zeroed in
reference to the primary device. When the flume is empty, your level
sensor should read zero.

Maintenance
If significant performance changes are observed, shut down the level
measurement system and inspect it, starting with the transducer. Ensure
the transducer is still firmly mounted, wipe the face if it has become
soiled, and check the wiring conduit to ensure it is all sound. If the
transducer works properly, check the vessel sides for new obstructions or
material buildup.
If the sound path is clear, perform diagnostics at the controller.
Troubleshooting information is clearly marked in the instruction manual,
and other procedures include analyzing the echo profile for echo quality
(strength, confidence, and noise).
Generally, low maintenance is a key advantage of ultrasonic transducers.
The powerful pulsing action makes the face self-cleaning. Because
transducers are non-contacting, there is no material buildup, avoiding the
nuisance, danger, and expense involved in cleaning, adjusting, and
repairing contacting devices.

Lift stations
Lift stations, also known as pump stations or wet wells, are essentially
vertically mounted, flat bottom vessels that happen to be built into the
ground. They are part of gravity fed sewage collection systems and are
used to collect sewage at one point and then pump it (or lift it) to a higher
elevation to eventually end up at the wastewater treatment facility.
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Lift stations are also found at the inlet to the wastewater treatment facility
itself. The wet well differs from a simple vertically mounted flat bottom
vessel by the presence of equipment inside the well: pumps, chains, inlet
and discharge pipes, back-up floats, power lines to the pumps, and
ladder rungs. Lift station environments are also very corrosive and dirty,
and the water can contain solids; thus contact devices, like floats, can
prove to be unreliable over time as material buildup and constant contact
wears on these devices. Ultrasonic transducers, a non-contacting
technology, are mounted above the sewage and only come in contact
with sewage during abnormal flood conditions. Thus ultrasonic level
measurement provides near maintenance-free operation for many years.
Install the transducer on a sturdy bracket or hang from metal conduit. The
mounting height should at least 30 centimeters (12”) above the expected
maximum level; locate the transducer as far away as possible from the
inlet pipe, pumps, ladder rungs, floats, the wet well wall, and other
obstructions. If extremely turbulent or foamy, use a stilling well and follow
the installation guidelines.
Wet well transducer selection:
short range wet wells [0 to 8 m (0 to 26 ft)]: XRS-5
short range wells with obstructed beam path: XPS-15
deeper wells: XPS-15
very narrow wet wells: XPS-30

Flood alert
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If the transducer is submerged,

especially in applications such as a
flooded wet well, use a transducer with
a submergence shield that maintains an
air pocket in front of the transducer. The
controller recognizes the unique echo
created by the air pocket, and the
controller outputs a high level reading.

When installing a submergence shield,

ensure it is properly seated and even
across the transducer. Check for leaks
by placing the assembled unit in a
bucket of water and see if any bubbles
leak out. Leaks indicate the shield has not been pulled down far enough
to properly seat the pressure clips.

NOTE: As you select the transducer, you also need to select a

compatible controller to process the signal from the transducer to
provide the following:
level monitoring
data logging
advanced echo-processing technology
pump control functions
remote monitoring
All controller models offer backlit displays for easy readability and
other advanced features that can improve plant efficiency. Consider
your specific application needs against the many features that are
available.

Position control
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Ultrasonic sensing technology has other uses that are outside of level
measurement but that operate on similar principles. The transducers act
as distance sensors, indicating proximity and activating alarms or motors
or switches. This ultrasonic positioning control requires the transducer to
be mounted horizontally and is very effective in the shipping industry for
operating overhead cargo cranes and in the mining industry for managing
coal loading conveyors.

Hazardous approvals
Transducer and transmitters are installed in potentially explosive
environments. Great care and effort is taken during the development of
transducers to ensure they are safe for use and meet or exceed the
approval requirements necessary for installation in these environments.
Not only must they perform to the distance and temperature ranges
specified, they must also do so safely in hazardous or explosive
environments.

Under most governing electrical codes, it is up to the user to ensure that

the transducer or transmitter being installed has the necessary approvals
to meet the minimum area classification of the application. Transducers
from Siemens Milltronics come with a wide range of approvals to meet
the demands of the applications that have explosive environments. They
vary slightly from country to country as the world has not adopted a
scheme for global approvals.

Approvals
Siemens ultrasonic transducers are designed to meet the requirements to
be used in both gas and dust atmospheres and are certified by various
agencies around the world. It is important when specifying and installing
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any equipment in a location that is classified as hazardous to follow all

local electrical codes and guidelines and to pay particular attention to the
specified ratings.

NOTES: The fire triangle or combustion triangle illustrates the

conditions required for most fires. Three elements are needed: heat or
spark, fuel, and an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen). Fire is prevented
or extinguished when any of the conditions are removed.
In the world of electrical engineering, a hazardous location is when
concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, or dusts occur. Electrical
equipment installed in these locations is especially designed and
tested to ensure it does not initiate an explosion through arcing
contacts or high surface temperature.

Controller installation
While the transducer/compound instrument installation must be carefully
planned because of its proximity to the application, the controller
installation can be determined by the operator’s requirements. Thus, if
the operator is near the application, the controller can be placed close by.
However, because the controller can be installed as far away as 365
meters (1200 ft), it can also be placed indoors and away from the
elements where it may be installed independently or in a rack as one of a
number of instruments.
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Whether the unit is wall mounted or installed in a rack or panel with other
instruments does not affect performance. They are the same, regardless
of mounting designs.

Mounting instructions
The wall mount and panel mount units install differently and the manuals
contain the specific instructions.
Wall mounted units must be mounted directly to a wall or to electrical
cabinet back panel. Alternate surfaces must be strong enough to support
four times the weight of the unit.
Rack and panel mounted units will fit into existing slots or, as with the
SITRANS LUT400, will require making a cutout to accommodate the unit.
A full size cutout template is provided with your unit or may be
downloaded from www.siemens.com/level.

Wiring
Cable is brought in either directly through the cable glands or through
conduit, depending on the installation requirements:
Cable glands: if the purchased unit does not have pre-drilled cable gland
holes or knockout, you need to drill the entry holes. Make sure you
remove the mainboard, being careful not to damage the electronics with
static electricity. Make sure cable gland holes do not interfere with the
lower areas on the terminal block, circuit board, or communication card.
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After loosely attaching the glands to the enclosure, thread the cables
through, keeping the power cable separate from the signal cables. Then
tighten gland to a ensure waterproof seal when wiring is completed.
Conduit: you need to drill the entry holes or remove the knockouts, so
make sure you remove the main board, being careful not to damage the
electronics with static electricity. Make sure conduit holes do not interfere
with the lower areas on the terminal block, circuit board, or
communications card. Attach the conduit to the enclosure using only
approved suitable size hubs for watertight application. Reinstall the
mainboard with the mounting screws.

NOTES:
Perform installation only by qualified personnel and in accordance
with local governing regulations
Follow proper grounding procedures. This product is susceptible
to electrostatic shock. All field wiring must have insulation suitable
for at least 250 V. Hazardous voltage is present on transducer
terminals during operation
Supply AC and DC terminals from approved sources
Use grounding type bushings and jumpers so the non-metallic
enclosure does not provide grounding between conduit
connections
Ensure ambient temperature is always within its approved range.
Typically -20 to 50 °C (-5 to 122 °F)
Mount unit so display window is at shoulder level and easy access
for programming is provided. Make sure mounting surface is free
from vibration
Leave sufficient room to swing unit lid open for clear access
Avoid exposure to direct sunlight (Provide a sun shield to avoid
direct sunlight.)
Avoid proximity to high voltage/current runs, contacts, SCR, or
variable frequency motor speed controllers
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Summary
Ultrasonics is a versatile and friendly technology for many level
applications, but the installation requirements must be met for optimal
performance. Situating the sensor or transducer in the proper vessel
location, following all the safety regulations and approval requirements,
and accounting for temperature and pressure conditions will all ensure
reliable, accurate performance. Always account for the conditions when
choosing a level technology, and those which are more problematic for
ultrasonics – dust, vacuum, interference – can be handled by the
SITRANS radar line.

1 Prince, “Joy In Repetition.” Graffiti Bridge, 1990.

2 Any device that restricts the flow and regulates it through a measurable point.
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Chapter Six

Applications
I’m a cosmopolitan sophisticate of culture
and intelligence.The culmination of technology
and civilized experience.1
Ultrasonic level instruments are not exclusive to any one industry and are
widely used across many businesses and applications. However, there
are certain applications where Siemens Milltronics ultrasonic level
instruments operate particularly effectively and accurately. Across the
globe and over a million strong, these ultrasonic level devices are found
in the water/wastewater (W/WW) industry; in mining, aggregate, and
cement (MAC) applications; and in the chemical markets.

Regardless of the type of application, however, the primary requirement

for all industries is to be able to measure level accurately, consistently,
and cost effectively. Ultrasonic level measurement meets these needs
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and has become the selected solution for many industries since the
1970s.

Applications
Markets like water/wastewater and mining, aggregate, and cement
employ level measurement for many different purposes, including
process control and inventory monitoring. Each industry has a rich history
of instrumentation development. As competition grows and resources are
strained, controlling processes and inventories is increasingly crucial to
the bottom line. Accuracy and reliability become paramount and closer
attention is paid to the instruments used to measure inventory and control
processes. Measuring and controlling the level of materials contained in
storage and process vessels, such as tanks, wells, reservoirs, ponds,
bins, and hoppers is one of the most common procedures of industrial
instrumentation.
In all these applications, ultrasonics provides two types of level
measurement:
point measurement
continuous
The point level can also be combined with the continuous level to provide
safety redundancy.
Not that long ago, bins and silos were measured by knotted ropes or by
sight lines, with employees climbing to the top of the container or in some
cases into the container itself. This type of measurement became
impractical, and occasionally dangerous, and companies sought out
instrumentation which was accurate and reliable, and could be monitored
in control rooms or activated from remote locations. Plumb bobs and
contact switches could not stand up to the strenuous demands of many
of the applications, so non-contacting ultrasonic level measurement as
developed by Siemens Milltronics in the 1970s and 1980s was introduced
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to the market. The rugged reliability of Siemens Milltronics instruments

like The Probe and the MultiRanger quickly proved itself invaluable for
the following:
reduce spillage (overflow) – environmental, loss control, legislation
cost accounting – inventory
quality control – process control by level
reduction of inventory in process – smaller vessels
pump protection – protect from running dry

Topics
This chapter discusses these applications, focusing on the following
industries:
cement
mining
water/wastewater
food
chemical

Cement
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The cement industry, similar to mining, relied on rudimentary level

measurement systems for many years. Plumb bobs or yo-yos, tilt
switches, and manual dips provided most of the inventory and process
information. In the 1970s and 1980s, ultrasonic measurement appeared
on the scene with some of the early Milltronics AiRangers and LR
transducers, finding many uses in the cement industry.
The production of finished cement requires numerous level instruments
along the way, operating in two capacities:
as process controllers, activating pumps, belts, alarms, and other
actions
as inventory managers, monitoring material levels in silos and bins
The cement process chart indicates the many areas where ultrasonic
instruments operate in the cement production process. Other Siemens
Milltronics equipment, like belt scales, weighfeeders, and process
protection instruments also play vital roles in the production of cement,
reinforcing Siemens’ role as a total solution provider.

Primary crushers
Gyratory cone crushers are the most common, and there are generally
two main applications at the primary crusher.
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Truck positioning – the transducer is horizontally mounted in the path

of the reversing truck and is wired into a circuit which controls red
and green lights. As the truck approaches, the ultrasonic system
continuously monitors its position. When it is the proper position for
dumping, an alarm relay closes and the green light is activated,
signaling to the driver that the load may be safely dumped into the
crusher.
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Rock box – located below the crusher, the ultrasonic system

monitors the level of the crushed rock. Alarms are set to indicate a
clog in the out feed and to indicate when a load can be safely
dumped into the crusher. A low level alarm can be programmed to
maintain a protective layer of ore in the rock box to prevent feeder
damage.
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Quarry stock piles

The crushed limestone is transported from the crusher to a stockpile by a
stacker conveyor. The ultrasonic transducer monitors stackout profiles
and provides inventory estimates in stockpiles to ensure uniform
stackout.
An ultrasonic transducer mounted on the head of the conveyor monitors
the distance from the discharge to the top of the stockpile. When the
distance between the two reaches the programmed set point, an alarm
triggers, signaling the need to raise or rotate the conveyor to a new
position. This inventory management is a common application for
ultrasonics systems where the rugged design and remote positioning of
the controller make it an ideal technology for these conditions.

Secondary crusher
In these typically noisy, wet, and dirty applications, ultrasonic transducers
sense the level of material in the surge bins. Ultrasonic systems are also
used at in-feed chutes to crushers, monitoring for plugged chutes.
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Here, the Pointek ULS 200 monitors the chute at the end of a conveyor. If
the chute plugs, a relay in the ULS 200 closes immediately, notifying the
user that a problem exists and shutting down the conveyor.

Raw mill feed silos

Crushed ore is transported from the secondary crushers to the raw mill
feed storage silo. Here an ultrasonic system monitors the level of ore in
the silo.
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This application is strictly inventory management, as the ultrasonic

system monitors the content levels only.

Raw mill
The raw mill is typically a roller mill that pulverizes raw material, including
additives, into a fine powder which is then transported to the kiln feed.
Blended raw materials are continuously fed into the raw mill.
The ultrasonic system monitors the height of the mill rollers above the
table, essentially monitoring bed depth. Operators integrate material feed
rate with the roller height to maintain a consistent bed depth, improving
milling efficiency and preventing the rollers from striking the mill table.

Kiln feed silo

Crushed material from the raw mill is transported to the kiln feed silo
(sometimes called Continuous Feed Silo as material is constantly fed in
and out of this silo) where it is stored and preheated in preparation for
delivery into the kiln itself. Ultrasonics monitors the level within these
silos, but with only a limited range due to the extremely dusty and
turbulent environment.
In recent years, many kiln feed silos have been outfitted with Siemens
SITRANS LR560 radar level transmitters with great success at
overcoming the harsh environments. Ultrasonics may work, however,
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depending on the dust levels, and is a cost-effective alternative to radar

in appropriate applications.

Clinker storage
The material leaving the hot kiln is
called clinker. Ranging in size from dust
to fist sized clumps, the clinker is stored
in silos before being ground into a fine
powder. Because it has come out of the
kiln, the clinker is quite hot.

To work effectively, powerful high

temperature transducers like the XLT-60
measure the level in the clinker silos.
Because clinker applications, although
dusty, are not as dusty as kiln feed silos or finished cement silos,
ultrasonics is a viable choice for this application; however, more users
are switching to SITRANS LR560 radar because of its improved
performance.
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Additive bins and coal storage silos

These bins contain materials that are added to the raw mill process and
are mixed with the crushed limestone before the kiln. They also hold the
materials that are added during the final grinding of the clinker. These
bins contain sand, iron ore, fly ash, gypsum, plaster, or other materials
used to adjust the composition of the cement.
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The coal silos store the coal that is burned in the kiln – the heat from the
burning coal is responsible for the chemical changes of the raw feed into
clinker. Ultrasonic systems monitor the level in these bins for inventory
purposes.

Finished cement silos

These silos contain finished cement. Once the clinker and other additives
have gone through the ball mills, the material is reduced to a very fine
powder and is conveyed to storage silos where it waits for bulk shipping
via train or trucking, or for further production into bagged, finished
cement.
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Finished cement is extremely fine and there is very little moisture, which
makes this application very dusty. The performance of ultrasonic systems
on this application is inconsistent – it depends on many factors including
silo height, dust collection system, transducer location, transducer
aiming, and method of filling. Like the kiln feed silos, this application was
traditionally monitored by an ultrasonic level system. In cases where the
dust is too great, a SITRANS LR560 radar level transmitter operates with
great success.

Mining
Inventory management and process control in the mining industry was a
rough business. The nature of the product made it difficult to assess
volume accurately and most of the control was done manually.
Mechanical measurement relied on yo-yos, or occasionally nuclear
measurement for point level control. However, nuclear technology is very
expensive and has its own safety concerns and yo-yos are prone to
breakdown. Processes were also visually monitored but often broke
down when the monitor was not watching or away from his post.
Crushers jammed up from too much load or ran empty when bins drained
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early. Efficiency was thus difficult to maintain. Safety was also a problem
as workers often had to enter storage bins to check levels or to repair
jammed equipment.
The implementation of ultrasonic measurement has greatly improved
operational efficiency and safety in mining. The non-contacting
technology allows for inventory and process management from the safety
of a control booth. Crushers and feed belts operate without interruption
and loads are accurately and efficiently processed. Ultrasonic level
measurement operates in various locations throughout mining. Some of
them, like the primary and secondary crushers, are identical to those
used in the cement industry. Other applications, as shown in the process
diagram below, require the use of ultrasonic level equipment for process
control and inventory management.
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Crusher
Ore levels in surge bins are measured by ultrasonic systems to monitor
the feed into a crusher. The transducers, although rugged industrial
devices, must be mounted far enough away from the feed to reduce
repeated collisions from the ore itself.

The crusher reduces the ore to a much finer consistency so it can be

added to another process.

Fine ore bins

The XPS transducer series are ideal for measuring fine ore levels, a
typically dusty environment. The multipoint SITRANS LU10 controller can
monitor level in the bins and can be programmed for priority scanning to
monitor bins that are filling at a higher rate than static bins.
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Flotation cells
The flotation process used in mineral processing begins by injecting a
frothing agent into mineral slurry, then it pumps the material into an
agitated open tank or an aerated flotation cell.
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The valuable minerals cling to the froth, which is then scraped from the
top of the slurry, after which the frothing agent is removed from the
mineral-rich concentrate. The concentrates are dewatered and the waste
is discarded as tailings. For an efficient extraction process, it is essential
to monitor the level of the slurry and the level of froth.
During the flotation process both the height and thickness of the froth
must be calculated to determine the dosage of the expensive chemical
reagents. Accuracy is important as it saves money by using only the
required amount of reagents and by removing the maximum amount of
minerals from the froth.
Two transducers or SITRANS Probe LUs are mounted over the flotation
cell. The first measures the level of the froth; the second measures the
level of the pulp. The pulp level is determined by using a float ball/target
plate assembly: the float ball floats on top of the pulp, a rod with a target
plate is attached to the ball and the transducer monitors the level of the
target plate. The level of the target plate is directly proportional to the
level of the pulp. The signals from the transducers are sent to a process
control system which calculates the froth thickness and controls the
dosage of the chemical reagents accordingly.
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Chemical storage
Many chemicals are used as part of mineral processing and are stored
onsite. Ultrasonic systems are used for inventory monitoring of these
chemicals. Non-contacting measurement is ideal for this type of inventory
monitoring, as the aggressive nature of many chemicals make contact
dangerous or impossible.
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Slurry tanks
Short range ultrasonic transducers are
flange-mounted above slurry tanks to
measure the amount of liquid. The
PVDF enclosures protect the
transducers from most chemicals found
in slurry tanks.

Sump pump wells

Many sump wells at a mining site can
be measured by short range ultrasonic
transducers for more reliable
performance, especially when
compared to simple floats or other
contact switches. The management of
water, whether it be to control flooding
or as part of the refinement process, is
crucial to the mine operation.

Ore storage bins or stockpiles

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Often ore is stored in bins or stockpiles between primary and secondary

crushing stages. Ultrasonic systems monitor level in the bins or
stockpiles. This application is similar to the quarry stockpiling of material
used for cement production.

Disk filters
After the concentrate has passed from the flotation cells and the
thickeners, disk filters dewater the concentrate before it proceeds to the
smelter processing. Ultrasonic systems monitor the level within the filters
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and activate alarms if the filtered cake (the dewatered concentrate) backs
up, thus preventing a spill.

Application one: measuring level in flotation cells

One of the world’s leading producers of copper and molybdenum
operates a copper mine in the western USA. The operation uses a series
of cone crushers and ball mills to reduce copper ore to very fine particles
which are pulped (mixed with water) to create a slurry. Small amounts of
special reagents are added, including a frother and a collector chemical
that causes the copper minerals to stick to the bubbles. This material is
pumped to a series of froth flotation cells to concentrate the copper
where air is blown into the flotation cell tank, and the pulp mixture is
vigorously agitated like in a high-speed blender. Rising bubbles carry the
copper particles up and over the edge of the flotation tank where the
bubbles break soon after they flow over the edge. The copper is then
ground even finer and purified by additional flotation processes.

Conditions
need to measure the level of both the pulp and the froth to ensure
optimum copper concentrate production. Those levels provide
feedback to the plant’s process control system so operators can
make appropriate changes to variables like pulp and air flow as well
as the addition of chemical reagents
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difficult for level measurement because of material build-up and

plugging that occurs on most types of level technologies
narrow measurement requirements: span for the pulp measurement
(using the Probe LU with target and float assembly) is 25.5
centimeters (10") and the froth level Probe uses a span of only five
centimeters (2")
harsh conditions require a very robust device

Solution
The SITRANS Probe LU ultrasonic level monitor combines sensor and
electronics in a single package for effective liquid level measurement in
open or closed vessels. The patented Sonic Intelligence echo-processing
filters out false echoes from acoustical or electrical noises and agitator
blades in motion, giving superior measurement reliability.
Each flotation cell is equipped with a Probe LU to monitor the froth level
while a second Probe LU measures the pulp level based on a metal
target attached to a mechanical float assembly. The 4 to 20 mA analog
output from the Probe LU feeds flotation cell level information into the
plant’s control system.

Benefits
The SITRANS Probe LUs are very easy to program and they require no
maintenance. The only setup required is programming the span for the
analog output which is readily accomplished in the instrument shop or
during installation.
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Aggregate
The aggregate industry is similar to cement and mining in that it involves
many of the same processes and much of the same material. The
difference is that it occupies the medium stage, and while there are some
processes involved (see diagram), much of the requirement is for
inventory management and transfer control. Applications requiring
primary and secondary crushers, as well as ore storage bins or
stockpiles, are very similar, if not identical, to the applications in the
cement industry. Others, like the tertiary crusher, are the same as those
found in the mining industry. There are some applications unique to the
aggregate industry, and these are shown in the process diagram.

Blending silos and storage bunkers

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These large bunkers store the crushed ore. Long range transducers with
Easy Aimers provide maximum performance. Loading is often done by
tripper cars, unmanned devices that move along a track over the
bunkers. The tripper cars position themselves over empty bunkers and
load the ore.

Screening station
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At the screening station, a multipoint ultrasonic level device like the

SITRANS LU10 measures the individual inventory of bins based on
material size.

Summary
Ultrasonic level instruments play an important role in the Mining,
Aggregate, and Cement (MAC) industries. The rugged, non-contacting
technology is cost-effective, accurate, and reliable; and can be used for
process control, inventory management, and even as distance locators
for crane operators.

Environmental
The environmental industry is the biggest market for ultrasonic sensors.
From water/wastewater systems to clean water systems, sensors
measure flow, run pumps, activate alarms, and control additive
inventories.

Collection system: lift station/pump station/wet well

In municipalities and cities with water treatment facilities, an
underground, gravity-fed collection system transports raw sewage from
residential and industrial users to the sewage treatment plant. Pump
stations (aka: lift stations) are distributed throughout the system in places
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where gravity needs a helping hand. Inside the pump station, sewage is
collected in the wet well, a transition point from which it is pumped out, or
lifted, until it reaches the treatment facility.
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Ultrasonic systems monitor and control the level of sewage within the lift
station. As you can see from the photos of the inside of a lift station, there
are many obstructions in the wells – the narrow beam angle and the non-
contacting nature of ultrasonics make it an ideal technology for
monitoring wet well levels.
Advanced features incorporated into Siemens Milltronics controllers
provide more than simple pump control. The SITRANS LUT400 can
monitor pump run time, pump faults, pump starts, and rotate pumps to
even the wear on the pumps or wear one pump preferentially.

The LUT400 has unique timing features that add up to great benefits.
Pump ON/OFF setpoints can be changed automatically based on the
time of day, avoiding pumping during peak electricity price periods and
generating energy savings. The LUT400 real time clock control allows
pump set points to alter according to the time of day. In a typical wet well
installation, this could mean pumping out the well before peak rate and
then deferring pumping until after the expensive period. Penalties
imposed by electricity suppliers for usage during peak hours can be
avoided in most instances.
The LUT400 pump control and level measurement system provides the
optimum solution to manage collection networks. Pump status and
pumped volume are monitored using the primary level device. Digital
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inputs capture site and pump data providing a completely integrated

system.
Pumping stations are designed to handle specific flow rates – established
by population served – but demographic changes alter requirements over
time so design volume cannot be assumed. Pumped volume provides
real trending data for collection system efficiency monitoring.
It is impossible to maintain completely sealed pipe work from pumping
station to treatment works. Groundwater infiltration is inevitable. Pumped
volume monitoring can provide network information to determine
infiltration locations.
Network capacity can be effectively used by monitoring collection flows
and transmitting data via telemetry to a SCADA system. This allows
effective asset management and helps to diagnose structural problems.

Combined sewer overflows (CSO)

Combined sewage systems collect industrial, residential, and storm
(rainwater) in the same sewer network. Under normal conditions, all of
the sewage is piped to the sewage treatment facility for treatment and
discharged back into the environment. However, during storm conditions,
flows increase dramatically due to runoff and overflows often occur.
When this happens, the sewage and rainwater overflows are discharged
without treatment into the environment – stream, ponds, or rivers. These
overflow events must be logged for regulatory compliance with the time,
amount, and location recorded. Ultrasonic systems, like the LUT400, can
monitor CSOs and record overflows which can be used for regulatory
compliance.

Storm water ponds

In some cases where overflows often occur, storm water retention ponds
are installed to collect the sewage and rainwater and prevent runoff to
neighboring streams. Once the storm has subsided, the water is pumped
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back into the collection system for treatment. Ultrasonic systems are
installed to monitor the level in these ponds and alert users to the
presence of storm water and of possible overfilling of the pond.

Wastewater treatment plant

Main lift station

The main station is a large lift station located at the sewage treatment
facility – all the remote lift stations within a city eventually pump their
sewage to this central station. This application is similar to the remote lift
station; however, the wetwell is much larger and there are generally
fewer obstacles or obstructions. Ultrasonic systems monitor the level and
control the pumps that convey the sewage into the plant as well as the
sewage holdings and processes in the plant itself.

Overflow/storm tank
This overflow tank located at the sewage treatment facility provides the
same function as storm water ponds. Acting as holding facilities, they
collect the combined sewage and storm rainwater when the treatment
plant is working at its maximum capacity. Once the incoming flow to the
plant drops below maximum capacity, the overflow is pumped into the
treatment works for processing.
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Intake flow (influent flume)

Flow to the facility needs to be monitored and controlled to maintain plant
efficiency. If inlet flow exceeds the rated capacity, it is diverted to storm
holding tanks (see above) and later pumped back through the inlet once
flows return to normal.

Inlet flow is often monitored using an open channel primary measuring

device like a flume or weir and SITRANS LUT400, a secondary
measuring device providing high accuracy level measurement using
ultrasonic technology.
Flow data must be logged to ensure the following:
that the treatment plant operates within tolerances
compliance reporting for local environmental regulations is accurate

Bar screen
Inorganic debris and material is kept from entering the treatment plant by
bar screens placed in the inlet channel. A buildup of debris on the
upstream side causes a reduced level on the downstream side of the
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screen. When enough debris accumulates, a rake is activated to clear the

screen and maintain flow. The debris is macerated and dried before
disposal.

A Siemens HydroRanger 200 uses two ultrasonic transducers located at

either side of the screen to measure the upstream and downstream
levels. A relay onboard the HydroRanger 200 activates the rake at a
user-defined differential level to clear debris. The use of non-contacting
ultrasonic transducers ensures years of maintenance free operation.

Solids level measurement

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Sand and debris removed by the rake and grit chambers is collected in a
vessel (or a garbage dumpster) monitored by an ultrasonic system. Once
full, the ultrasonic system provides an alarm to the user so that the vessel
can be replaced with an empty one.

Chemical tanks
Chemicals, like the alum used as a flocculent in clarifiers or the chlorine
that disinfects the water before final discharge, are stored on-site for daily
use. Ultrasonic systems monitor the level in these vessels for inventory
purposes.

Final effluent/discharge flow

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All treatment plant discharges to the environment must conform to district

legislation regarding quantity and quality, so accuracy is critical at this
stage. Primary devices such as weirs or flumes through which the flow is
channeled provide high accuracy measurement and are often used. The
quality of the discharge must be monitored and is typically done with a
sampler.

To achieve accurate flow monitoring and comply with legislation

requirements, a primary measuring device combined with the LUT400
open channel monitor can be used. The LUT400 converts high accuracy
ultrasonic level measurement to a flow value using known head versus
flow formula or British and ISO Standards. Full data logging capabilities
are available to log daily flow totals and flow rates.

Sludge treatment
The sludge that is left after the water has been removed is a toxic soup of
waste products that must be treated very carefully. Its handling is highly
regulated and all processes are carefully scrutinized. Measurement of
inventory thus plays an important role in sludge management.

Digester gas
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Biogases (methane) from the digester are often stored in a gas holder
with a “floating” roof. These gases are re-used to provide heating for the
plant or for local power generation. Ultrasonic systems are applied to
monitor the height of the roof and thus the amount of gas present.

Digester level
This application was often done with ultrasonics with limited accuracy
due the effects of methane on the speed of sound. Currently, radar
devices like the SITRANS LR200 and Probe LR provide a more accurate,
cost-effective reading and are replacing ultrasonics as the first choice
technology for this application.

Dewatering/vacuum filter
The level of sludge in the vacuum filter is monitored by ultrasonics and
controls a pump that will call for more sludge to the filter from the sludge
tank when the level is too low.
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Environmental applications

Application one: lift station control

A municipal district in Europe needed to upgrade its water treatment
system and turned to Siemens to renew the local measurement devices,
and control equipment and automation system. They also wanted to
increase remote monitoring capacity.

Conditions
The project needed to integrate existing level measurement solutions
such as hydrostatic pressure sensors with a new ultrasonic level
measurement systems, lift pump control monitoring, and data acquisition.
116 pumping stations
18 associated communities
population of 140,000

Solution
Siemens installed the following system:
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SITRANS LUT400 – the highly accurate ultrasonic controller from

Siemens was chosen for the pump station monitoring and equipment
control.
Echomax XRS-5 ultrasonic transducers were installed to measure
level.
With patented Sonic Intelligence echo-processing techniques, the
LUT400 monitors and controls liquid levels in wells and/or liquid flow in
flumes, weirs, or open channels. Its three relays control alarms or pumps
The system monitors lift stations and collects data such as state of
operation and pump run time. At each lift station, an LUT400 controller
processes signals received from level measurement transducers.
Data is transmitted via landline using SITRANS RD500 to the control
room at the district head office. The SITRANS RD500 has a built-in web
server, FTP, and email client which allows the process to be monitored
remotely. Alarm notifications are communicated through email and SMS
text messages to one or more recipients to ensure that appropriate
actions are taken by personnel.

Benefits
The SITRANS LUT400 proved a reliable and cost-effective solution for
pump control, requiring less maintenance than the pressure sensors.
SITRANS LUT400 increased efficiency and reduced maintenance costs.
Installing SITRANS LUT400 also optimized space in the electrical cabinet
by rationalizing components and reducing wiring times. Existing
equipment was easily integrated with LUT400 and it hooks seamlessly
into the central control system.

Application two: wastewater plant control

A major Canadian city with a population exceeding 300,000 needed to
upgrade its wastewater plants and pump stations.
All the locations were to link into a new high-speed data communications
network, integrating them into a SCADA system. To ensure accurate data
gathering, the city required reliable field instruments that could integrate
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into the network. After conducting a series of rigorous tests on ultrasonic

level technologies from several suppliers, the city chose SITRANS
LUT400 with its one millimeter accuracy and Siemens reliability.

Conditions
six wastewater treatment plants handling a total of 208 million liters
(55 million gallons) per day
thirty-eight pumping stations with capacities ranging from 0.75 – 21
million liters (0.2 million to 21 million gallons) per day.
twenty-five of the 38 are duplex pumping stations; the rest are
complex pumping stations with huge variable frequency drive (VFD)
pumps

Solution
Siemens installed the LUT400 in the 25 duplex pumping stations for
continuous level monitoring and pump control and put Siemens Echomax
transducers©2 into the wet wells.

The unique panel mount design of the SITRANS LUT400 made for quick
installation, and for easy access. The controllers were networked into a
PROFIBUS communication system. The SCADA system receives
information from all stations, as well as other plant information, on the
network. At the more complex pumping stations employing VFD pumps,
the LUT400 measures level, and the analog output is fed into a PLC for
pump control and remote telemetry.
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Benefits
The ultrasonic systems perform reliably, and data collection from the
many sites is now fast and accurate. Operators can monitor and control
the plant sites from the central location. The automated system is more
efficient, and has generated savings in energy and maintenance costs.
Standardizing on LUT400 simplified installation and training, saving staff
time and money.

Application three: small city operates at a high level

A small but growing Canadian city needed to increase its fresh water
output due to a steadily growing population. This need was combined
with a requirement to control costs and improve efficiency, all the while
implementing new regulations requiring enhanced safety, training, and
environmental protection.

Conditions
Population of 74,000 and growing
The system brings water from a river, cleans and treats it, then
distributes it to residents
Approximately 400 kilometers (250 miles) of water mains
Pumps an average of 45 million liters (12 million US gallons) of water
a day

Solution
The water plant embraces fully automated operations. All process points
are integrated fully into a central SCADA system for continuous
monitoring and control. Level monitoring is a critical need for a water
plant, and Siemens installed more than 40 points of level in the main
plant over the years. They monitor the river level, gate position in the
river, as well as level in the flocculation tanks, sedimentation basins,
settled water trough, filter beds, finished water storage reservoirs,
chemical tanks, and other applications. An ultrasonic device monitors the
floor as a safeguard to detect any spillage from a leak or ruptured pipe.
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At the city’s various stations, reservoirs, and elevated water tanks, there
are another 20 points of level being constantly monitored. Signals from
remote sites are transmitted by radio link to the plant control center.

Benefits
The accurate and responsive Siemens sensors constantly monitor the
river rate of change, a critical measurement. They also proved their
preventative value when one of the interior tanks developed a leak and
an alarm was immediately triggered, preventing a serious problem.
Because Siemens has been the vendor of choice for quite some time, the
plant actually has a number of older instrument models operating. These
instruments still perform reliably and accurately, keeping maintenance
costs down. The plant operators credit Siemens ultrasonic systems with
helping them in their efforts to deliver quality water efficiently to city
residents.

Application four: protecting water quality

A UK water company operates a large submerged microfiltration plant
that services an entire city with potable water:
The plant capacity is 84 megalitres a day
Six filtration cells that remove particles as small as 0.2 microns,
including bacteria, algae, and microorganisms.

Conditions
Two types of level monitoring is required:
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monitoring water levels is crucial because the flters require periodic

backwashing with filtrate and air, and with chemicals when the
maximum transmembrane pressure is reached. A filter blockage
makes the water level rise, signaling the need for a backwash.
monitoring the levels of the chemicals onsite, including sodium
hypochlorite, sulphuric acid, sodium bisulphate, and sodium
hydroxide (caustic soda). Reliable level measurement of the
chemical storage tanks is crucial to successful process control,
inventory management, and overflow prevention. Levels must also
be measured in the clean-in-place tank (CIP) and the wash water
tank.

Solution
Siemens Echomax XRS-5 ultrasonic transducers are installed on a “top
hat” section of each chemical tank using a flange mounting. These
transducers are hermetically sealed in chemically resistant enclosures for
reliable operation in harsh environments or chemical applications. The
transducers are wired to the SITRANS LUT400 controllers which feed the
4 to 20 mA output directly into the SCADA control system.

Operators can now effectively monitor the level in each of the storage
tanks. The ultrasonic systems work effectively without the complexity of
higher priced solutions and without the problems of contacting and
mechanical devices. Patented Sonic Intelligence advanced echo-
processing technology is built-in to provide superior reliability.

Benefits
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Non-contacting ultrasonic technology requires almost no maintenance,

and eliminates worries about chemical compatibility. There is no drift from
mechanical wear, and they are not affected by density changes so there
is no need for recalibration.
They are easy to install and replace, with no need to drain the tank. Top
mounting eliminates the need for isolation valves required for side-
mounted pressure transmitters.

Food industry
Like many other industries, food applications can be divided into two
types, storage and process. Furthermore, storage can be divided into
solids and liquids. These applications are quite different and each
presents its own unique, but not insurmountable, challenges for level
measurement. For example, a 30 meter (100 ft) silo full of cornstarch is
very different than a 1.5 meter (5 ft) stainless steel cooker vessel full of
spaghetti sauce.

Solids
Solid storage applications are common; most food factories need to store
a large supply of raw materials. Cereal milling companies, grain shipping,
pet food, and breweries store raw grains (wheat, corn/maize, barley) in
large tall silos or concrete bunkers; an XPS-30 mounted with an Easy
Aimer II measuring grain at a brewing company is shown here.
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Generally, longer range transducers are used as the applications are

usually greater than 15 meters (50 ft) and the extra power of long range
transducers overcomes attenuation due to dust (even on dusty
applications that may be less than 15 meters (50 ft)). Easy Aimers are
recommend so the transducers are mounted perpendicular to the
material surfaces that often have a steep angle of repose. On excessively
dusty applications, the SITRANS LR560 radar is the recommended
instrument.
Often, many of the same type of vessels are found together, a cereal
manufacturer storing a large inventory of grain, for example, and it is
beneficial to use a multi-point system like the ten-point SITRANS LU10 to
measure inventory of ten vessels with one controller.

Sanitary connection
Food processing vessels, whether blending fruit juices, cooking sauces,
or mixing ice cream flavours, are much smaller, are made of stainless
steel, and are cleaned regularly. A sanitary mounting process connection
is required to ensure cleanliness. The Probe level transmitter and the
XCT-8 transducer are available with a 4-inch sanitary clamp style process
connection.

Temperature
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The transducer has to be able to withstand the cleaning temperatures

during the sanitizing process. In most cases the temperature is in the
range of 80 °C and a mild caustic solution is sprayed on the inside of the
tank. If the level device cannot withstand the cleaning temperature then it
must be removed and sanitized separately; if the cleaning temperature is
within the range of the transducer then it can be cleaned in place (often
referred to as CIP).

Obstacles
The inside of a process tank has numerous obstacles that the level
system has to take into account. The round ball is a cleaning ball and the
sanitizing solution is sprayed into the tank from this ball. When mounting
a transducer on a food process vessel, make sure that the cleaning ball
is not within the beam path.

Liquids
Liquid storage vessels are the most straightforward measurements for
ultrasonic systems in the food industry. The vessels are generally less
than five meters (16.5 ft) in height and have little or no agitation. They
contain food oils (vegetable oils), sugar syrups (glucose, molasses),
cleaning solutions, water, acids, or fats.

Chemical industry
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Applications with the chemical industry are generally limited to raw

material storage vessels or finished goods storage – the process/reactor
vessels are usually too hot or too high pressure for ultrasonic technology.
However, other ancillary applications in the chemical industry require
ultrasonic technology. For example, these may be the vessels storing
lube oils for on-site machinery maintenance or containing the pre-
treatment wastewater before flowing it into the municipal wastewater
treatment system.
Storage vessels are typically bulk storage
of liquid chemicals, hydrochloric acid, or
sulfuric acid. Stored in vessels ten meters
(33 ft) or less, they present no challenges
to the ultrasonic system other than
requiring that the wetted material of the
transducer housing is compatible with the
material in the vessel.
Ultrasonics is also used for inventory
control on finished goods storage silos. A popular application is the
containment of plastic pellets in silos. The SITRANS LR560 is also very
suitable for this application.
The silos are tall and narrow and the pellets are pneumatically fed.
Aiming is required because the pellets have a slight angle of repose and
proper aiming increases the received echo strength and provides a more
reliable signal.

Application one: monitoring fluid level of drilling mud pits and tanks
A supplier of control and information systems for high quality oil and gas
drilling equipment was looking for a technology to monitor fluid levels in
drilling rig mud pits or tanks. Drilling mud is an essential component in
drilling, and precise monitoring of the total mud volume in a rig’s drilling
fluid circulating system is essential for safe, efficient operation. Various
technologies, including mechanical floats, had failed.
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Drilling fluid or “mud” is pumped down through the drill pipe where it
blows out through nozzles in the drill bit. The mud then flows back up the
hole to the surface, clearing the hole by carrying the formation cuttings
along with it. The mud lubricates the drill pipe and cools the drill bit. The
weight of the mud column prevents formation fluids from entering the
wellbore, preventing a “blowout.” Through hydrostatic pressure, it also
helps prevent caving. An increase in fluid levels may indicate gas, oil, or
other fluids have entered the wellbore. If drilling fluid levels decrease,
circulation is being lost to the formation. Left unchecked, either situation
could result in a blowout.

Conditions
Mud tanks are generally square or rectangular interconnected steel
tanks used on offshore oil rigs to contain the large volumes of drilling
mud flowing through the drilling fluid circulating system.
On land rigs, these tanks are called mud pits, a throw back to the
days when earthen pits were dug to contain drilling mud.

Solution
The company installed SITRANS Probe LUs. The non-contacting
ultrasonic technology does not become fouled with material nor are there
moving parts to wear out, making it practically maintenance free. The
Probe LU’s advanced echo processing ignores moving agitator blades
and locks onto the targeted material level instead of obstructions. With its
2-inch NPT connection, it is simple to mount. It can be installed and
calibrated regardless of material levels within a vessel. One unit works
with all vessel sizes. Its range goes from less than 30 centimeters (one ft)
to more than five meters (16 ft). There is an Intrinsically Safe version
available for FM Class I, Division 1 applications.

Benefits
The company now has a reliable non-contact level measurement,
avoiding electromechanical devices that are subject to wear and tear.
The savings from reduced maintenance or replacement costs are
significant.
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Both safety and drilling efficiency are also increased as the company
provides precise monitoring of a critical drilling variable.

Application two: inventory control

One of the largest by-products recovery firms in North America needed to
measure level in their holding tanks. The tanks, indoor and outdoor, hold
a variety of chemical and oil waste products ready for treatment.
Government environmental regulations in such a facility are necessarily
very stringent.
Before contacting Siemens, the company used floats with external sight
board indicators. These mechanisms often stuck or froze, and the
malfunctions made measurement unreliable. Plant personnel had to
conduct frequent visual checks to verify that the readings were accurate,
and to detect and fix equipment problems. Unreliable readings also made
inventory management problematic.

Conditions
Outdoor tanks for treating and storing solvents, waste oils, and
caustics
Indoor tanks for hazardous process water
Mandatory high-level alarms to guard against spills

Solution
Siemens installed a complete ultrasonic level measurement system that
offers both continuous level monitoring as well as high-point level
detection. Each of the 19 tanks is equipped with an Echomax ultrasonic
transducer, connected to one of three SITRANS LU10 transceivers. The
system uses patented Sonic Intelligence software for enhanced reliability.
Level data is fed to an HMI (Human-Machine Interface) located inside the
testing lab. A SmartLinx interface card converts the signals to Modbus
RTU protocol used by the HMI. Material level data is routed to three
SAM-20 devices that control the high-level alarm indicators, identify the
tanks, and connect to a PLC that triggers both light and sound alarms if
high levels occur.
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Benefits
With automated, reliable level measurement in place, personnel no
longer need to waste time with frequent manual inspections. Non-
contacting ultrasonic technology requires almost no maintenance and,
with no more float mechanical problems, the company has greatly
reduced its maintenance costs.
Tank levels are monitored directly in real time. With exact content and
storage data always available at the click of a button, the lab can
schedule deliveries knowing storage space is available. Reliable
continuous monitoring allows for effective scheduling and accurate
inventory control. The high-point level alarms eliminate the risk of
spillage, and help enhance plant safety.

Other industries

Application one: ultrasonic system for Peterborough Lift Lock

The Peterborough Lift Lock National Historic Site of Canada is one of 40
locks on the Trent-Severn Waterway, a national historic canal operated
by Parks Canada.
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Originally built for marine commerce, the waterway stretches 386 km

from Lake Ontario’s Bay of Quinte to Georgian Bay. Today, it is a world-
famous tourist destination for recreational boaters and is regarded as one
of the finest interconnected systems of navigation in the world. The
historic lock stations of the Trent-Severn are central to numerous towns
and villages in the waterway corridor. The Peterborough Lift Lock (150
km northeast of Toronto, Canada) is the world’s highest hydraulic lift lock
and an engineering marvel that attracts 160,000 visitors annually.

Conditions
The Lift Lock is a massive concrete structure supporting two chambers
with rams connected in a closed water hydraulic system with a crossover
valve. Operators flood the upper chamber with an extra 30 centimeters
(12") of water, then open the crossover valve so that the heavy upper
chamber pushes down, forcing the lower chamber up. Boats in the
chambers are lifted or lowered a breathtaking 19.8 m (65 ft) in only
minutes. Smooth operation depends on ensuring a differential of 30
centimeters of water. The weight differential of the extra water in the
upper chamber drives the system that raises and lowers boats.
Throughout its history, the Lift Lock has relied on manual water level
measurement but, when the Lift Lock celebrated its 100th anniversary in
July 2004, it received a high tech birthday present from Siemens
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Milltronics who provided a new ultrasonic level measurement system.

“The level measurement system is our birthday present to the Lift Lock as
it turns 100 and our gift to the community as Siemens Milltronics
celebrates its 50th anniversary this year,” said Dave Bignell, President
and CEO of Siemens Milltronics in 2004. “We’re proud to have our
technology installed in this landmark structure.”

Solution
Echomax XRS-5 transducers are now mounted upstream and
downstream in ABS tubes and enclosed in aluminum pipe. This protects
the ultrasonic devices from being bumped or damaged by boats in the
lock. The transducers are wired into a MultiRanger transceiver located in
the control tower and it processes the signals and provides a digital
readout of the water levels. MultiRanger is known for its reliable, accurate
continuous level measurement. It’s also compact, which is important in
the tight quarters of the Lift Lock’s small control tower.

Benefits
“The new system helps ensure proper operation of the lock,” says Bruce
Kitchen, Water Control Engineer for the Trent-Severn Waterway. “The
ultrasonic level system enables the lockmaster to tell at a glance the
elevations of the water upstream and downstream. Accurately monitoring
and coordinating these levels help our staff achieve the optimum
elevation differential for the working of this heritage machine.”

1 Billy Joel, “Running on Ice.” The Bridge, 1986.

2 ©Copyright 2004 Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments. Echomax and SITRANS LUT400 are
registered trademarks of Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments.
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Chapter Seven

Best in class – the ultrasonic product line

You’re simply the best, better than all the rest.1
The Siemens Milltronics line of sophisticated ultrasonic instruments is
designed to meet level measurement challenges with accuracy, reliability,
and longevity. The instruments represent the experience gathered from
an excess of a million applications2 and reflect the collected dedication
and innovation of over a half a century of service by our enthusiastic and
imaginative people.
From transistors to chips, from milliamps to PROFIBUS, from metal to
PVDF, from a converted garage to a multinational company, Siemens
Milltronics has pushed the boundaries of ultrasonic technology to take a
leadership role in the water/wastewater industry on a global scale.
Our ultrasonic instruments meet the challenge of many types of
applications, and the Siemens Milltronics catalog contains instruments for
them all. In the following pages, we offer brief descriptions of both our
latest and greatest, as well as the tried and true. Combined, they form a
group ready to take on the measurement challenge, at any level.

SITRANS LUT400
SITRANS LUT400 is a high accuracy system that excels at continuous
level monitoring and control in liquid, solid, or slurry applications in a wide
range of industries.
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Three models make up the series:

SITRANS LUT420 Level Controller
SITRANS LUT430 Level, Pump, and Flow Controller
SITRANS LUT440 High Accuracy Open Channel Monitor (OCM),
which also provides a full suite of advanced level, volume, and pump
controls
These controllers are a flexible solution for a world of applications:
water/wastewater monitoring and pumping, inventory management,
crusher control, truck load-outs, or anything in between.
The system is effective in wet wells, weirs, and flumes where buildup and
turbulence are typical operating conditions. It can be customized to meet
your specific application needs — from measuring flow rate in a narrow
flume to volume in a ferric chloride storage bank.
In addition to monitoring flowrate in sewage works, SITRANS LUT400
can monitor industrial discharge and provide rainfall/storm water studies,
inflow/infiltration studies, and sewer system evaluations. The
programmable head versus flow curve accurately defines flow rate on
unique or non-standard weirs and flumes.
The LUT400 has data logging and is adjustable, ranging from once per
minute to once a day as it records the average flow rate for that time
period. Daily recording includes min/max of temperature and flow rates,
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the time they occurred, and the daily total. Advanced functions include
variable rate logging. It can be pre-programmed to log at a higher rate
when needed.
The SITRANS LUT400 features a wall, pipe, or DIN rail mounted
enclosure, housing electronics with a hermetically sealed, corrosion-
resistant Echomax transducer. Components can be separated as far as
365 meters (1200 ft).

Key benefits
industry-leading accuracy of ±1 mm (0.04") gives you confidence in
your measurements
easy to use – local user interface with four-button programming,
menu-driven parameters, and Wizard support for key applications
optional submergence shields to protect the transducer during
flooding. Patented detection software can differentiate between a
submerged condition and a high level.
wall, pipe, and DIN rail mounting configurations with ¼-turn fasteners
for quick access and hassle-free wiring with removable terminal
strips
outputs for alarms, chart recorders, controllers, and integration of
existing systems
energy saving functions with built-in real-time clock
real-time clock control allows pump set points to alter according to
the time of day. In a typical wet well installation, this could mean
pumping out the well before peak rate and then deferring pumping
during the expensive period. Penalties imposed by ‘triads’ and
similar electric company incentives can be avoided automatically in
most instances.
special control mode to reduce grease rings and other deposits
with a pump volume system using patented algorithms, the LUT400
continuously monitors inflow prior to a pump starting, thus calculating
an accurate and timely inflow rate. When each pump starts, its
current capacity is calculated and stored, giving accurate calculation
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of pumped volume throughput, unaffected by variable inflow. The

unit does not require any discrete inputs from the pumps, or any
form of in-line flow monitoring.
Key applications
wet wells
flumes/weirs
chemical storage
liquid storage
bulk solids storage (gravel, flour bins, grains, cereals)
plastic pellets
crusher control

SITRANS Probe LU
SITRANS Probe LU is a 2-wire loop
powered ultrasonic transmitter for level,
volume, and flow monitoring of liquids in
storage vessels, simple process
vessels, and in open channels.
SITRANS Probe LU is designed to
monitor level in the water and
wastewater industry and in chemical
storage vessels.

SITRANS Probe LU features field-

proven Sonic Intelligence signal processing that incorporates new echo
processing capabilities and the latest micro-processor and
communications technology, providing a continuous level measurement
range of either six or twelve meters (20 or 40 feet), depending on
application requirements.
SITRANS Probe LU occupies a unique place in the ultrasonic landscape.
With its Auto False-Echo Suppression, it effectively eliminates vessel
obstructions, negating any interference caused by extraneous vessel
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clutter. Furthermore, its advanced signal-to-noise ratio allows for clear

echoes and a market-leading accuracy for transmitters of 0.15% of
range.
Other application conditions like chemical contents and process
temperature variations are easily dealt with because the transducer is
available as ETFE3 or PVDF4, and an internal temperature sensor
compensates for temperature changes.

Key benefits
easy installation and simple startup
programmable using infrared intrinsically-safe handheld programmer,
SIMATIC PDM, or HART® Communicator
communication using HART or PROFIBUS PA
patented Sonic Intelligence signal processing
extremely high signal-to-noise ratio
Auto False-Echo Suppression for fixed obstruction avoidance
Key applications
Storage vessels Water industry
acid charcoal filters
lube oils flocculants
juices storm water holding tanks
vegetable oils chlorine storage
resins
clean water towers
liquid sugars/corn syrup
fuel oils
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Sulfuric acid storage Water storage

The Probe
The Probe is a short-range integrated
ultrasonic level transmitter, ideal for
liquids and slurries in open or closed
vessels. The transducer is available in
PVDF, making the device suitable for
use in a wide variety of applications
from water/wastewater to pizza sauce. It
is ideal for the food and pharmaceutical
industries as it can be quickly removed
for cleaning.

The Probe is a workhorse, providing

reliable level data based on Sonic Intelligence echo processing
algorithms. It has an onboard filter that discriminates between true and
false echoes from acoustical or electrical noises and agitator blades in
motion, as well as temperature compensation. It also provides distance
readings converted for display, analog output, and relay actuation.

Key benefits
easy to install, program, and maintain
accurate and reliable
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transducers available in PVDF

sanitary model available
patented Sonic Intelligence® echo-processing
integral temperature compensation
up to five meter (16.5 ft) measurement range
Key applications
chemical storage vessels mud pits
filter beds liquid storage vessels

MultiRanger 100/200
MultiRanger is a versatile, short to
medium-range ultrasonic single and
multi-vessel level controller.
MultiRanger offers true dual-point
monitoring, digital communications with
built-in Modbus® RTU via RS-485, as
well as compatibility with SIMATIC
PDM, allowing PC configuration and
setup. MultiRanger contains Sonic
Intelligence advanced echo-processing
software for increased reading reliability.

MultiRanger features the following:

cost-effective level alarming
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ON/OFF and alternating pump control

up to 15 meters (50 ft) measuring range
monitors open channel flow
converts level reading to volume
measures differential level over a bar screen
advanced relay alarming
advanced pump control functions
MultiRanger is compatible with chemical-resistant Echomax transducers
that can be used in hostile environments at temperatures as high as 145
°C (293 °F).

Key benefits
digital input for back-up level override from point level device
communication using built-in Modbus RTU via RS-485
compatible with SmartLinx system and SIMATIC PDM configuration
software
single or dual-point level monitoring
Auto False-Echo Suppression for fixed obstruction avoidance
differential amplifier transceiver for common mode noise reduction
and improved signal-to-noise ratio
wall and panel mounting options
Key applications
water/wastewater woodchips
fuel oil materials with high angles of repose
municipal waste bulk solids storage
acids
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MultiRanger monitoring and storage Two MultiRangers measuring ammonia

vessel tanks

MultiRanger measuring canal levels

at Peterborough Lift Lock, Ontario, Canada

SITRANS LU10
SITRANS LU10 is a long-range level monitoring system for liquids and
solids, offering ten-point monitoring in a single unit for a wide range of
applications to scan liquids, solids, or a combination of both contained in
vessels of differing sizes, shapes, and configurations.
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Using the patented Sonic Intelligence echo-processing software to

measure level, space, distance, volume, or average/differential, the LU10
provides superior reliability and accurate measurement in vessels up to
60 meters in height (200 ft). Furthermore, transducers can be mounted
up to 365 meters (1200 ft) from the monitor. Readings are displayed in
user-selectable linear engineering units on the backlit LCD.

Key benefits
connection to a DCS or PLC using Siemens Milltronics Smart-Linx®
interface modules for remote two-way communication and full
parameter access5
ten-point, long-range level monitoring
automatic level-to-volume conversion for standard or custom tank
shapes
Dolphin Plus compatible
easy to install, easy to program with removable infrared keypad
ten mA outputs are available through external module SITRANS LU
AO
twenty relays for alarms are available through external module
SITRANS LU SAM
Key applications
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chemical storage
liquid storage
bulk solids storage (sugar, flour bins, grains, cereals)
plastic pellets
tank farms

SITRANS LU10 monitoring coal bunkers

HydroRanger 200
HydroRanger 200 is a level controller for up to six pumps, and provides
control, differential control, and open channel flow monitoring.
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For water authorities, municipal water, and wastewater plants,

HydroRanger 200 is an economical, low-maintenance solution delivering
control efficiency and productivity needed to meet today’s exacting
standards.
HydroRanger 200 uses proven continuous ultrasonic echo ranging
technology to monitor water and wastewater of any consistency up to 15
meters (50 ft) in depth. Achievable resolution is 0.1% with accuracy to
0.25% of range. Unlike contacting devices, HydroRanger 200 is immune
to problems caused by suspended solids, harsh corrosives, grease or silt
in the effluent, reducing downtime.

Key benefits
single or dual-point monitoring
digital communications with built-in Modbus RTU via RS-485
SIMATIC PDM compatible, allowing for PC configuration and set-up.
Sonic Intelligence advanced echo-processing software provides
increased reading reliability
wall or panel mounting versions
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six relays on board as standard

monitors wet wells, weirs, and flumes
compatible with SmartLinx system
anti-grease ring function
differential amplifier transceiver for common mode noise rejection
and improved signal-to-noise ratio
MCERTS approved for open channel flow
Key applications
wet wells flumes/weirs bar screen control

Echomax Transducers
Echomax transducers fire ultrasonic pulses and measure the return
echoes to determine the distance from the transducer to the material,
whether it be a wide range of liquids or bulk solids applications. Designs
are available with different measuring ranges, process connections, and
ambient temperature specifications. The transducers are suitable for use
in many applications from the benign clean water facilities to the
aggressive chemical plants or dusty grain applications.
To select the proper transducer for the application, choose according to
application requirements that include distance, temperature, and vessel
configuration. The chart below indicates which transducers are suitable
for the applications.
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XRS-5
Echomax XRS-5 ultrasonic transducer
provides reliable, continuous non-
contacting level monitoring of liquids
and slurries in narrow lift
stations/wetwells, flumes, weirs, and
filter beds. With a beam angle of just
10° and a CSM rubber face, it has a
measuring range from 0.3 to 8 meters
(1 to 26 ft). Advanced echo processing
ensures reliable data even in conditions
with obstructions, turbulence, and foam.

The pre-molded, hermetically sealed rubber face and the PVDF

enclosure are designed for maximum resistance to methane, salt water,
caustics, and harsh chemicals common to wastewater installations. With
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an IP68 degree of protection, this rugged sensor is fully submersible in

the event of flood conditions. If full submergence is possible in the
application, use a submergence shield to maintain a high level reading
output during submerged conditions.

Key benefits
basic system for high/low alarm or dual pump control
low-cost transducer compatible with a full range of Siemens
Milltronics transceivers
connects to advanced control systems with communications,
telemetry, and SCADA integration capabilities
chemically resistant PVDF copolymer enclosure and CSM rubber
face
measuring range: eight meters for measurement of liquids and
slurries
fully submersible: IP68 degree of protection
easy installation with 1" NPT or 1" BSP connection

Monitoring level in sewage wet well

XPS/XCT Series
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Echomax XPS/XCT transducers measure level in a wide range of liquids

and solids. The transducers can be fully immersed, are resistant to steam
and corrosive chemicals, and can be installed without flanges.

The XPS series offers versions for various measuring ranges up to 40

meters (130 ft), and up to a maximum temperature of 95 °C (203 °F). Two
models have FM Class 1, Div. 1 approvals for applications with a
measuring range up to fifteen meters (50 ft).
The XCT series can be used in applications at higher temperatures to
measure level up to a distance of twelve meters (40 ft) and at a maximum
temperature of 145 °C (293 °F).
During operation, Echomax transducers emit acoustic pulses in a narrow
beam, so they are ideal transducers for dusty applications and for those
with a lot of obstructions.

Key benefits
integral temperature compensation
low ringing effect reduces blanking distance
self-cleaning and low maintenance
connect using only two wires
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chemically resistant PVDF enclosure

CSA, FM, ATEX and other global approvals
hermetically sealed

XPS-15 measuring aggregate XPS-30s measuring mining silos

XLT Series
Echomax XLT transducers operate in a
wide range of bulk solids. Using a
Siemens Milltronics controller, they
measure from 0.9 to 60 meters (1.8 to
200 ft) in condition temperatures up to
150 °C (300 °F). A beam angle of just 5°
provides accurate readings in deep,
narrow tanks.

With its highly developed signal

sensitivity, the XLT transducer operates in a variety of difficult
applications including limestone, cement clinker, and hot stone. All
models have a sealed aluminum face to withstand harshest
environments, and temperature variations are automatically
compensated for by the integral temperature sensor.

Key benefits
sealed aluminum face
integral temperature sensor
self-cleaning and low maintenance
two-wire connection
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easy-to-install 1” threaded connection

ST-H
ST-H transducers measure level in
chemical storage and liquid tanks. The
narrow design of the ST-H allows the
transducer to be mounted on a 2"
standpipe. When mounted correctly, it is
completely protected from the process,
and can even be used in harsh,
corrosive environments.

Key benefits
can be mounted on a 2" standpipe
immune to corrosive and harsh
environments
easy to install
integral temperature sensor

ST-H monitoring a small ammonia tank

Conclusion
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The Siemens Milltronics ultrasonic instruments offer customers a

thorough level measurement solution, regardless of application. From
small food tanks to ten-storey silos, ultrasonic measurement is reliable
and cost-effective. It remains a vibrant measurement partner, along with
a growing number of technologies offered by Siemens. Once the center
of the industry, it is now joined by radar, frequency based capacitance,
and TDR to offer a full complement of level application solutions. Level
measurement in turn is an integral component of the Siemens Totally
Integrated Solutions approach to customer requirements for process
instruments, promoting a unified instrumentation strategy. Flow meters,
valve positioners, temperature transmitters, pressure transmitters, and
gas analyzers open up possibilities for application solutions other than
those requiring ultrasonic level measurement.
This full armament of instruments and technologies is the strength of
what Siemens can offer its customers, and ultrasonics beats strongly at
its core. The technology has been hard at work for several decades and
shows little sign of losing its popularity. Industrial developments like
digital communications, trending, data logging, and software
configuration packages keep it current and viable, alongside the whole of
the instrumentation catalog.
Siemens Milltronics is determined to develop ultrasonic technology to its
utmost capacity, and recent products like the SITRANS LUT400 illustrate
the deployment of the technology to its maximum benefit by combining
the best of the old with the best of the new.
The simplicity and precision of the SITRANS LUT400 exemplifies how
ultrasonic technology is still a viable and vibrant player in the level
measurement field. While other technologies like radar, capacitance, and
TDR have their place, ultrasonics remains a cost-effective workhorse that
offers reliable and long term service. When coupled with the latest
advances in communications and software configuration, ultrasonic
instrumentation remains made of sterner stuff and a significant player on
the level measurement stage.

1 Tina Turner, Simply the Best. 1989 (originally done by Bonnie Tyler, 1988).
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2 Siemens Milltronics has installed over a million total applications, combining all technologies,
including ultrasonics, radar, capacitance, and mechanical level measurement. All of this expertise
is incorporated in every product designed and produced.
3 Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene
4 Polyvinylidene Flouride
5 Modules for popular industrial buses can be factory installed or added later to meet changing
needs. No external gateway is required, reducing hardware and cabling costs.
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Glossary
Entries in this glossary are from the Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants text book, from the IEEE
definition book, and from the contributions provided by Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments product and application
specialists.

A
Accuracy The absolute nearness to the truth. In physical measurements, it is the degree of agreement between
the quantity measured and the actual quantity.

Aeration 1) The bringing about of intimate contact between air and a liquid by one or more of the following
methods: a) spraying the liquid in the air b) bubbling air through the liquid c) agitating the liquid to
promote surface absorption of air.

2) The supplying of the air to confined spaces under nappes, downstream from gates in conduits, and
so on, to relieve low pressures and to replenish air entrained and removed from such confined spaces
by flowing water.

3) Relief of the effects of cavitation by admitting air to the affected section.

Aeration Tank A tank in which wastewater or other liquid is aerated.

Aerobic The breakdown of suspended and dissolved organic matter in the presence of dissolved oxygen. An
Digestion extension of the activated-sludge process, waste sludge is stored in an aerated tank where aerobic
micro-organisms break down the material.

Agitator Mechanical apparatus for mixing or aerating. A device for creating turbulence.

Algorithm A prescribed set of well-defined rules or processes for the solution of a problem in a finite number of
steps.

Allen-Bradley® Allen-Bradley RIO protocol is an old protocol for communicating to remote I/O. It is only used by Allen-
RIO or AB® Rio Bradley PLCs.

Alum, Used as a coagulant in filtration. Dissolved in water, it hydrolyses into Al(OH)2 Sulfate and sulfuric acid
Aluminum (H2SO4). To precipitate the hydroxide, as needed for [Al2(SO4)3•18H2O] coagulation, the water must
be alkaline.

Ambient Generally refers to the prevailing dynamic environmental conditions in a given area.

Ambient The temperature of the surrounding air that comes in contact with the equipment.
Temperature

Anaerobic The degradation of concentrated wastewater solids, during which anaerobic bacteria break down the
Digestion organic material into inert solids, water, carbon dioxide, and methane.

Analog Signal A signal where the value can be in a range of values (example: from 4 mA to 20 mA).

Antenna An aerial which sends out and receives a signal in a specific direction. There are four basic types of
antenna in radar level measurement. See Horn, Parabolic, Rod, and Waveguide.

Attenuation A term used to denote a decrease in signal magnitude in transmission from one point to another.
Attenuation may be expressed as a scalar ratio of the input magnitude to the output magnitude or in
decibels.

Auto False- A technique used to adjust the level of a TVT curve to avoid the reading of false echoes. (See TVT).
Echo
Suppression
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Auto False- Defines the endpoint of the TVT distance (See TVT). This is used in conjunction with auto false-echo
Echo suppression.
Suppression
Distance

Automatic Collecting of samples of prescribed volume over a defined time period by an apparatus designed to
Sampling operate remotely without direct manual control. See composite sample.

Average Flow Arithmetic average of flows measured at a given point.

Average The average velocity of a stream flowing in a channel or conduit at a given cross section or in a given
Velocity reach. It is equal to the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area of the section or the average
cross-sectional area of the reach. Also called mean velocity.

B
Bar Screen A screen composed of parallel bars, either vertical or inclined, placed in a waterway to catch debris.
The screenings are raked from it either manually or automatically. Also called bar rack, rack.

Beam Angle Angle diametrically subtended by the one-half power limits (-3 dB) of the sound beam.

Beam The divergence of a beam as it travels through a medium. (http:// www.ndt.net/article/az/ut_idx.htm)

Spreading

Bias In Siemens level equipment, there is a confidence bias value added in dB to the short shot confidence
value. This is for comparison only. It allows the short distance to be chosen over the long shot distance
with the same confidence value. Preset Milltronics equipment to 20 dB.

Biosolids The organic product of municipal wastewater treatment that can be beneficially used.

Blanking Zone extending downward from the transducer face in which it is received.

Bus Network.

Bypass Pipe A pipe that is mounted perpendicular to a vessel wall and is open to the vessel at the top and bottom.
This is typically used on vessels that have a lot of turbulence or foam. The bypass pipe provides a calm
liquid surface level equal to the level in the vessel.

C
Cavitation 1) The action, resulting from forcing a flow stream to change direction, in which reduced internal
pressure causes dissolved gases to expand, creating negative pressure. Cavitation frequently causes
pitting of the hydraulic structure affected.

2) The formation of a cavity between the downstream surface of a moving body (for example, the blade
of a propeller) and a liquid normally in contact with it.

3) Describing the action of an operating centrifugal pump when it is attempting to discharge more water
than suction can provide.

Centrifugal A pump consisting of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft and enclosed in a casing having an inlet and
Pump a discharge connection. The rotating impeller creates pressure in the liquid by the velocity derived from
centrifugal force.

cfs (cu ft./sec.) The rate of flow of a material in cubic feet per second; used for measurement of water, wastewater, or
gas; equals 2.832 x 10-2 m3/s.

Chlorination The application of chlorine or chlorine compounds to water or wastewater, generally for the purpose of
disinfection, but frequently for chemical oxidation and odor control.

Chlorinator Any metering device used to add chlorine to water or wastewater.

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Chlorine A detention basin provided to diffuse chlorine through water or wastewater and to provide adequate
Contact contact time for disinfection. Also called a chlorination chamber or chlorination basin.
Chamber

Clarification Any process or combination of processes whose primary purpose is to reduce the concentration of
suspended matter in a liquid; formerly used as a synonym for settling or sedimentation. In recent years,
the latter terms are preferable when describing settling processes.

Clarifier Any large circular or rectangular sedimentation tank used to remove settleable solids in water or
wastewater. A special type of clarifier, called an upflow clarifier, uses flotation rather than sedimentation
to remove solids.

Collection In wastewater, a system of conduits, generally underground pipes, that receives and conveys sanitary
System wastewater or stormwater; in water supply, a system of conduits or canals used to capture a water
supply and convey it to a common point.

Combined A sewer intended to receive both wastewater and storm or surface water.
Sewer

CONF. CONF. is the confidence of signal value generated by the computer. It is based on all of the echo
processing algorithms. It can be read in Run (key # 8) and program mode P805.

Confidence Describes the quality of an echo. The echo confidence is based on how well the transducer is mounted
and aimed, and the noise floor associated with the echo profile. Transceivers display both the short and
long echo confidence. If an echo is below a specific confidence threshold it is ignored by the Sonic
Intelligence® software routines.

Confidence This is the minimum confidence value of an echo to be recognized as a valid echo (Parameter 805).
Threshold

D
Daisy Chained Connected in series, one after the other. Cable is connected to the first device, then comes out of the
first device and is connected to the second device and so on.

Damping Term applied to the performance of an instrument to denote the manner in which the measurement
settles to its steady indication after a change in the value of the level.

dB (decibel) A unit used to measure the level of sound.

Dechlorination The partial or complete reduction of residual chlorine by any chemical or physical process. Sulfur
dioxide is frequently used for this purpose.

Defoamer A material having low compatibility with foam and a low surface tension. Defoamers are used to control,
prevent, or destroy various types of foam, the most widely used being silicone defoamers. A droplet of
silicone defoamer contacting a bubble of foam will cause the bubble to undergo a local and drastic
reduction in film strength, thereby breaking the film. Unchanged, the defoamer continues to contact
other bubbles, thus breaking up the foam. A valuable property of most defoamers is their effectiveness
in extremely low concentration. In addition to silicones, defoamers for special purposes are based on
polyamides, vegetable oils, and stearic acid.

Device A program file written in the HART or PROFIBUS Device Description Language
Description

(DD) (DDL) that contains an electronic description of all of a device’s parameters and functions needed by a
host application to communicate with the device.

DeviceNetTM A protocol developed by a group of companies as an open standard, used to establish master-
slave/client-server communications between intelligent devices. It is based on the CAN (Control Area
Network) protocol and is designed for connecting up intelligent devices such as limit switches and
photo-electric sensors. See www.odva.org.

Dewater To extract a portion of the water present in a sludge or slurry.

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Differential The frequency determined by calculating the difference between the transmitted and received
Frequency frequency of the FMCW radar.

Digested Sludge digested under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions until the volatile content has been
Sludge reduced to the point at which the solids are relatively nonputrescible and inoffensive.

Digester A tank or other vessel for the storage and anaerobic or aerobic decomposition of organic matter
present in the sludge. See also Aerobic Digestion.

Digital Signal A signal where the value can either be a logical 1 or a logical 0.

Dissolved The oxygen dissolved in liquid, usually expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/L) or percent saturation.
Oxygen (DO)

Domestic Wastewater derived principally from dwellings, business buildings, institutions and the link. It may or
Wastewater may not contain groundwater, surface water, or stormwater.

Doppler Beat The frequency determined during the process of bouncing a continuous wave radar signal from a
Frequency moving target.

“Dumb” Analog An input or output card that does not have HART communication protocol on it.
Input/Output
Card

E
Echo A signal that has been reflected with sufficient magnitude and delay to be perceived in some manner as
a signal distinct from that directly transmitted. Echoes are frequently measured in decibels relative to
the directly transmitted signal.

Echo The recognition of the validity of the echo as industry level. A measure of echo reliability.
Confidence

Echo Lock A window centered on an echo in order to locate and display the echo’s position and true reading.
Window

Echo Marker A marker that points to the processed echo.

Echo The process by which the radar unit determines the echo.
Processing

Echo Profile A graphical display of a processed echo.

Echo Strength Describes the strength of the selected echo in dB above 1 mV rms.

Electronic Another name for Device Description (DD). See definition for Device Description.
Device
Description
(EDD)

Electronic The language that the Device Description (DD) is written in.
Device
Descriptor
Language
(EDDL)

F
False Echo An echo caused by the internal structure of a container. Obstructions and incorrect unit placement will
return echoes that do not reflect level.
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Figure of Merit A quantity characterizing performance of a device, system, or method in relation or comparison to
similar alternatives. Engineering frequently defines figures of merit for materials or devices to determine
their relative utility.

Float Switch An electrical switch operated by a float in a tank or reservoir and usually controlling the motor of a
pump.

Flocculant Water-soluble organic polyelectrolytes that are used alone or in conjunction with inorganic coagulants,
such as aluminum or iron salts, to agglomerate the solids present to form large, dense floc particles
that settle rapidly.

Flocculating A tank used for the formation of floc by the gentle agitation of liquid suspensions, with or without the aid
tank of chemicals.

Flotation 1) Separation of suspended particles, or oil and grease, from solution by naturally or artificially raising
them to the surface, usually with air.

2) Thickening of waste activated sludge by injecting air into it and introducing the mixture into a tank
where the air buoys the sludge to the surface.

Flow 1) The movement of a stream of water or other fluid from place to place; the movement of silt, water,
sand, or other material.

2) The fluid that is in motion.

3) The quantity or rate of movement of a fluid discharge; the total quantity carried by a stream.

4) To ensure forth or discharge.

5) The liquid or amount of liquid per unit time passing a given point.

Flow Rate The volume or mass of a gas, liquid, or solids material that passes through a cross section of conduit in
a given time; measured in such units as kilograms per hour (kg/h), cubic metres per second (m3/s),
litres per day (L/d), or gallons per day (gpd).

Flume A primary measuring device used to measure liquid flow (For example, see Parshall flume).

FMCW Indirect radar level measurement technique in which the radar device modulates the frequency of the
(Frequency transmitted signal. Level is measured by calculating the difference between the transmitted signal and
modulated the return signal.
continuous
wave)

Frequency The number of periods occurring per unit time. Frequency may be stated in cycles per second.

G
Gain Measures of the ability of a circuit to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the
output.

Grit Chamber A detention chamber or an enlargement of a sewer designed to reduce the velocity of flow of the liquid
to permit the separation of mineral (grit) from organic solids by differential sedimentation.

H
HART® Highway Addressable Remote Transducer. An open communication protocol used to address field
instruments. HART is a registered trademark of HART Communication Foundation. See
www.hartcomm.org for more details.

Head The height of the free surface of fluid above any point in a hydraulic system; a measure of the pressure
or force exerted by the fluid.

Head Level The term used for the level of water in a weir.
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I
Industrial Wastewater derived from industrial sources or processes.
Wastewater

Influent Water, wastewater, or other liquid flowing into a reservoir, basin, treatment plant, or treatment process

Inlet 1) A surface connection to a drain pipe.

2) A structure a the diversion end of a conduit.

3) The upstream end of any structure through which water may flow.

4) A form of connection between the surface of the ground and a drain or sewer for the admission of
surface or stormwater.

5) An intake.

Intermediate A frequency to which a signal wave is shifted locally as an intermediate step in transmission or
Frequency reception.

Intrinsically Intrinsic Safety is a protection method, used for certifying electrical equipment to be used explosive
Safe atmospheres (flammable gas or combustible dust), in which any spark or thermal effect produced by
the equipment is not capable of causing ignition.

J,K,L
Laminar Flow Non-turbulent flow.

Long Shot Describes a length of measurement beyond 1 m (3 ft.).

M
Manning A formula for open-channel flow published by Robert Manning in 1890.
formula

Margin The difference calculated between the confidence and the threshold.

Master Device A device in a master-slave system that initiates all transactions and commands (e.g. central controller).

Master Slave Communication system in which all transactions are initiated by a master device and are received and
Protocol responded to by a slave device.

Measurement Each time a transmit pulse or set number of pulses is sent to the transducer.

Microwaves The term for the electomagnetic frequencies occupying the portion of the radio frequency spectrum
above 1 GHz.

Microwave Microwave radar beams range in frequency between 5.8 GHz and 26 GHz.
Frequency

Modbus® A protocol used to establish master-slave/client-server communication between intelligent devices. It is

a truly open, de facto standard, and the most widely used network protocol in the industrial
manufacturing environment. Modbus is a registered trademark of Schneider Electric. See
www.modbus.org.

Modem A device that transmits data over a phone line by modulating the digital signals into analog signals at
one side and transmitting that analog signal over a phone line. At the receiving end, it demodulates the
analog signal back into a digital signal.

Motor A specialized type of controller whose typical functions performed by a motor controller include:
Controller starting, accelerating, stopping, reversing, and protecting motors.
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Multi-master More than one master device on the bus.

Multiple Echoes caused by the parabolic effect of radar transmission inside a dished top vessel or a horizontal
Echoes cylindrical tank. These types of echoes surpass the real level within a tank.

Multi-slave More than one slave device on the bus.

N
Nappe The sheet or curtain of water overflowing a weir or dam. When freely overflowing any given structure, it
has a well-defined upper and lower surface.

Near Blanking A blind zone that is created in front of a transducer or antenna to block the unit from reading false
echoes.

Nozzle A length of pipe mounted onto a vessel that supports the flange.

O
Open Channel Any natural or artificial water conduit in which water flows with a free surface.

Open Channel Flow of a fluid with its surface exposed to the atmosphere. The conduit may be an open channel or a
Flow closed conduit flowing partly full.

P
Parameters In programming, variables that are given constant values for specific purposes or processes.

Parshall Flume A calibrated device developed by Ralph Parshall for measuring the flow of liquid in an open conduit
consisting essentially of a contracting length, a throat, and an expanding length. At the throat is a sill
over which the flow passes at Belanger’s critical depth. The upper and lower heads are each measured
at a definite distance from the sill. The lower head need not be measured unless the sill is submerged
more than 67%.

Peer-to-Peer Communication system in which all transactions can be initiated by any device on the network to any
Protocol other device on the network.

Primary The liquid portion of wastewater leaving the primary treatment process.
effluent

Primary The first settling tank for the removal of settleable solids through which wastewater is passed in a
Sedimentation treatment works. Sometimes called a primary clarifier.
Tank

Primary Sludge Sludge obtained from a primary sedimentation tank.

Primary 1) The first major treatment in a wastewater treatment facility, used for the purpose of sedimentation.
Treatment

2) The removal of a substantial amount of suspended matter, but little or no colloidal and dissolved
matter.

3) Wastewater treatment processes usually consisting of clarification with or without chemical treatment
to accomplish solid-liquid separation.

Process Device A program made by Siemens that is used to configure, maintain, and trouble-shoot field devices on
Manager (PDM) HART and PROFIBUS networks.

Process The temperature of the gas, vapour, or air located above the material being processed.
Temperature
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PROFIBUS A communication protocol used to address field instruments. Different types include FMS (Fieldbus
Messaging System), DP (Decentralized Periphery), PA (Process Automation). See www.profibus.com
for more details.

Profile See “Echo Profile.”

Programmable An industrial computer that accepts inputs from the real world, runs a program, then generates outputs
Logic to the real world that is used to control processes.
Controller
(PLC)

Protocol A set of rules that govern the exchange of information between two or more devices.

Pumping 1) A facility housing relatively large pumps and their appurtenances. Pump houses is the usual term for
Station shelters for small water pumps.

2) A facility containing lift pumps to facilitate wastewater collection or reclaimed water distribution.

PTFE An acronym for Polytetrafluoroethylene.

Q, R
Radar Radar is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. A device that radiates electromagnetic waves
and uses the reflection of such waves from distant objects to determine their existence or position.

Range Distance between a transmitter and a target.

Range The distance below the zero percent or empty point in a vessel.
Extension

Relay An electrical device that is designed to interpret input conditions in a prescribed manner and after a
specified conditions are met, to respond to cause electrical operation or similar abrupt change in
associated control circuits. The most common form of relay uses a coil and set of contacts. When
current flows in the coil, contacts are opened or closed, depending on their arrangement. Relays are
said to be normally closed.

Ringing The inherent nature of the transducer to continue vibrating after the transmit pulse has ceased. See
Blanking.

S
Sampler A device used with or without flow measurement to obtain a portion of liquid for analytical purposes.
May be designed for taking single samples (grab), composite samples, continuous samples, or periodic
samples.

Scum 1) The extraneous or foreign matter that rises to the surface of a liquid and forms a layer or film there.

2) A residue deposited on a container or channel at the water surface.

3) A mass of solid matter that floats on the surface.

Secondary 1) The liquid portion of wastewater leaving secondary treatment.

Effluent

2) An effluent that, with some exceptions, contains not more than 30 mg/L each (on a 30-day average
basis) of BOD5 and suspended solids.

Secondary A settling tank following secondary treatment designed to remove by gravity part of the suspended
Sedimentation matter. Also called a secondary clarifier.
Tank

Secondary 1) Generally, a level of treatment that produces secondary effluent.

Treatment
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2) Sometimes used interchangeably with the concept of biological wastewater treatment, particularly
the activated-sludge process. Commonly applied to treatment that consists chiefly of clarification
followed by a biological process with separate sludge collection and handling.

Sedimentation 1) The process of subsidence and decomposition of suspended matter or other liquids by gravity. It is
usually accomplished by reducing the velocity of the liquid below the point at which it can transport the
suspended material. Also called settling. It may be enhanced by coagulation and flocculation.

2) Solid-liquid separation resulting from the application of an external force, usually settling in a clarifier
under the force of gravity. It can be variously classed as discrete, flocculent, hindered, and zone
sedimentation.

Sedimentation A basin or tank in which wastewater containing settleable solids is retained for removal of the
Tank suspended matter by gravity. Also called a sedimentation basin, settling basin, settling tank, or clarifier.

Settling Tank A tank or basin in which water, wastewater, or other liquids containing settleable solids are retained for
a sufficient time, and in which the velocity of flow is sufficiently low to remove by gravity a part of the
suspended matter.

Short Shot Describes a length of measurement within 1 m (3 ft.).

Shot One transmit pulse or measurement.

Slave Device A device (e.g. transmitter or valve) in a master-slave system that receives commands from a master
device; a slave device cannot initiate a transaction.

Sludge 1) The accumulated solids separated from liquids during the treatment process that have not
undergone a stabilization process.

2) The removed material resulting from chemical treatment, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation,
flotation, or biological oxidation of water or wastewater.

3) Any solid material containing large amounts of entrained water collected during water or wastewater
treatment.

Sludge Blanket Accumulation of sludge hydrodynamically suspended within and enclosed body of water or wastewater.

Slurry A thick watery mud or any substance resembling it, such as lime slurry.

Smart Process Microprocessor-based instrumentation that can be programmed. It has memory, and is capable of
Instrumentation performing calculations and self-diagnostics and reporting faults, and can be communicated with from a
remote location.

Stillpipe A pipe that is mounted inside a vessel perpendicular to the vessel wall, and is open to the vessel at the
bottom. This is typically used on vessels that have a lot of turbulence or foam. The stillpipe provides a
calm liquid surface equal to the level in the vessel.

Submergence 1) The condition of a weir when the elevation of the water surface on the downstream side is equal to
or higher than that of the weir crest.

2) The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the height of the water surface downstream from a weir
above the weir crest to the height of the water surface upstream above the weir crest. The distances
upstream or downstream from the crest at which such elevations are measured are important, but have
not been standardized.

3) In water power engineering, the ratio of tailwater elevation to the headwater elevation when both are
higher than the crest. The overflow crest of the structure is the datum of reference. The distances
upstream or downstream from the crest at which headwater and tailwater elevations are measured are
important, but have not been standardized.

4) The depth of flooding over a pump suction inlet.

Suppressed A weir with one or both sides flush with the channel approach. This prevents contraction of the nappe
Weir adjacent to the flush side. The suppression may occur on one end or both ends.
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T
Timed Relay A relay whose opening or closing is delayed for a specified amount of time after the occurrence of a
trigger event.

Totalizer A device used to count pulses. Typically used to count the number of relay closures.

Totally A Siemens concept for having all components of an automation system tied together using advanced
Integrated communication protocols and totally integrated together.
Automation
(TIA)

Turbidity 1) A condition in water or wastewater caused by the presence of suspended matter and resulting in the
scattering and absorption of light.

2) Any suspended solids imparting a visible haze or cloudiness to water that can be removed by
filtration.

3) An analytical quantity usually reported in turbidity units determined by measurements of light

scattering.

Turbulence 1) The fluid property that is characterized by irregular variation in the speed and direction of movement
of individual particles or elements of the flow.

2) A state of flow of water in which the water is agitated by cross currents and eddies, as opposed to
laminar, streamline, or viscous flow.

TVT (time A time-varying curve that determines the threshold level at which the echo is processed.
varying
threshold)

U, V, W, X, Y,
Z
Ullage Amount of space left in a vessel in order for it to be filled. As opposed to the volume of material in a
vessel.
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Works Cited
Boyes, Wait. “The Changing State of the Art of Level measurement,” Flow Control Magazine, February 1999.
Carlson, Al. “Open Channel Flowmetering,” June 1998.
Carlson, Al. “The Right Transducer for the Job,” June 1999.
Crabtree, Mick. Pressure and Level, Crown Publications (Pty) Ltd., 1998, pg 39–48.
Duncan, Doug. “Ultrasonic Sensors: Now an even better choice for solid material level detection,” Instrumentation &
Control Systems. November 1998.
Evans, Jack. “Ultrasonics comes of age for solids and liquids,” inTech. April 1997, pg 39–42.
Felton, Bob. “Level measurement: Ancient Chore, modern tools,” InTech, August 2001.
Grant, Douglas M. and Brian D. Dawson. Isco Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook. Fifth Edition, ISCO Inc.,
1997.
Hughes, Thomas A. Level Measurement and Control, ISA Press, 2002.
Li, Gordon. “Advanced Circuitry Improves Signal-to-Noise Ratio,” 2003.
Massa, Frank. “Some personal recollections of early experiences on the new frontier of electroacoustics during the late
1920s and early 1930s,” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. April 1985. pg 1296–1302.
Massa Products Corp. “Fundamentals of Electroacoustics,”
www.massa.com/fundamentals.htm
Milligan, Stephen. “How to Install Ultrasonic Transducers,” 2003.
Sirlty, Paul A. “An Introduction to Ultrasonic Sensing,” Sensors, Nov. 1989.
 Ives Equipment | 877-768-1600 | www.ivesequipment.com

Copyright© Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments 2012.

All rights reserved.
No portion of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher.
First Edition, 2006. Second Edition, 2008. Third Edition, 2012
ISBN-10: ISBN 0-9782495-0-X
ISBN-13: ISBN 978-0-9782495-0-2
Printed and bound in Canada for Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments Peterborough, ON K9J 7B2
www.siemens.com/processautomation