energies

Review
Power Quality Phenomena in Electric Railway Power
Supply Systems: An Exhaustive Framework
and Classification
Hamed Jafari Kaleybar 1, * , Morris Brenna 1 , Federica Foiadelli 1 , Seyed Saeed Fazel 2
and Dario Zaninelli 1
1 Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy; morris.brenna@polimi.it (M.B.);
federica.foiadelli@polimi.it (F.F.); dario.zaninelli@polimi.it (D.Z.)
2 School of Railway Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran 16844, Iran;
fazel@iust.ac.ir
* Correspondence: hamed.jafari@polimi.it




Received: 14 November 2020; Accepted: 14 December 2020; Published: 17 December 2020


Abstract: Electric railway power systems (ERPS) as one of the most critical and high-power end-user
loads of utility grids are characterized by outlandish power quality (PQ) problems all over the world.
The extension and evolution of different supply topologies for these systems has resulted in significant
and various forms of distortions in network voltage and current in all ERPS, the connected power
system, and adjacent consumers. During the last years, numerous studies have been offered to
investigate various aspects of PQs in a specific supplying topology. Variation in the supply structure of
the ERPS and different types of locomotives has propelled the observation of different PQ phenomena.
This versatility and development have led to confront considerable types of two-way interactive
interfaces as well as reliability and PQ problems in ERPS. In addition, the lack of standards explicitly
dedicated to ERPS has added to the ambiguity and complexity of this issue. In this paper, an extensive
review of PQ distortions and phenomena in different configurations of ERPS is proposed and a
systematic classification is presented. More than 140 scientific papers and publications are studied
and categorized which can provide a fast review and a perfect perspective on the status of PQ indexes
for researchers and experts.

Keywords: power quality; electric railway system; harmonics; unbalance; resonance; voltage
distortions; reactive power; EMI

1. Introduction
The outstanding characteristics of electric railway power systems (ERPS) such as safe transport,
high-power/capacity, high-speed, great reliability and resilience, and environment-friendly manner
make them one of the popular and promising transport systems [1]. These systems have experienced
considerable improvement and evolution during the last decades. Historical, geographical,
and economical reasons have led to the establishment of different ERPSs structures in various
countries [2]. This development and diversity have resulted in facing different forms of distortions
and power quality (PQ) issues not only in ERPSs, but also in the supplier utility grid and other
adjacent loads. Generally, PQ issues in ERPSs have been investigated individually by dividing the
systems into three areas of DC, 16.67/25 Hz AC and 50/60 Hz AC. The DC type ERPSs introduced
as the primary technology with lower requirements and capacity in transportation electrification.
Urban railway systems including subways, trams, and light-rails are the most popular types of DC
systems. Voltage/current harmonics, waveform transients, system imbalance, and low power factor

Energies 2020, 13, 6662; doi:10.3390/en13246662 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 6662 2 of 35

are the foremost phenomena which are reported in the so-far published researches related to these
systems [3–5]. The hardness and complexity of AC motors to supply the high-power traction loads
with the industrial frequency caused to establishment of 16.67/25 Hz system taking advantage of
rotary frequency converters. The frequency transient, stability problems driven by electromechanical
transients, and amplification of negative sequence current or imbalance in synchronous generators are
the main PQ issues of these systems [6–8]. With the subsequent developments of technologies and
high demands for transportation, industrial frequency-based ERPSs have become promoted and more
popular. Primary systems in this context are established based on 1 × 25 kV ERPSs, which can be found in
different forms of without return conductor, with return feeder, and with booster transformer. The most
important PQ phenomena reported in these systems include imbalance, harmonics, low-frequency
oscillations, low power factor, voltage drops, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) based issues
due to the return currents and arcing [9–11]. The next-generation AC ERPSs were adopted based on
autotransformer based 2 × 25 kV systems concentrating on mitigation of EMI issues, voltage drops,
and arcing problems [12–14]. The PQ problems related to AC ERPSs are so crucial that different
configurations of passive and active compensation technologies [15–18] are proposed to mitigate them
in the literature. Meanwhile, extensive studies are underway regarding replacing existing systems with
modern power electronics (PE)-based ERPSs as co-phase, advanced co-phase, and different types of
VSC and MMCs [19–23]. These ERPSs are recognized as green types because the VSCs can control their
output voltage and currents matching with the desired PQ. During the last years, multiple studies have
been addressed some of PQ indexes in a specific supplying ERPS. In [24,25] PQ analysis in high-speed
railways (HSR) and 1 × 25 kV ERPSs have been carried out. Mariscotti has analyzed PQ issues in
16.67 Hz and DC ERPSs specifically in terms of conditioning and measurement in [26,27]. The analysis
in 2 × 25 kV ERPSs emphasizing EMI phenomena has been carried out in [28]. In [29] an inclusive study
of harmonic problems in ERPSs has been studied. However, there is still a lack of a comprehensive study
and framework that addresses all PQ phenomena and classifies them based on ERPS types. In addition,
unlike the power systems, for which multiple standards and resources have been developed, the ERPS
suffers from a deficiency of a comprehensive and all-encompassing resource. This has been reinforced
the ambiguity and complexity of PQ analysis in ERPSs. Meanwhile, selecting a suitable method to
relieve PQ issues needs a complete knowledge and identification of main sources, features, influencing
factors, and occurrence environment. Motivated by the above-mentioned shortcomings, this paper
presents an exhaustive definition and classification of PQ indexes and distortions together with a
brief review of various ERPSs configuration and the classified reported PQ phenomena in literature
based on each ERPS type. The rest parts of the paper are structured as follows: Section 2 describes
and portrays all the PQ phenomena and influencing factors in ERPS. In Section 3 the investigation of
phenomena based on the classified ERPS type is presented. In Section 4 the classification of reported
PQ phenomena in literature is discussed. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper.

2. Power Quality Phenomena in ERPS

PQ issues, disturbances, or phenomena are terms used to characterize voltage or current deviations
from its ideal waveform. Different forms of PQ phenomena have been occurred all around the world
according to the designed and operating structure of ERPS. In this section, the reported PQ indexes
in EPRSs together with originated and influencing factors are described and categorized based on
their type.

2.1. System Unbalance

One of the most important and common PQ phenomena in EPRSs is system unbalance which
emanated from single-phase power supplying AC EPRS [30]. In normal conditions, when the network
is balanced, the three-phase voltages/currents are identical in magnitude and the phase differences are
120◦ . When the system is gotten imbalanced, the three-phase voltages/currents are not the same in
magnitude and the phases are unsymmetrical.
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 3 of 35

So far, different definitions of unbalance have been proposed in a three-phase system. The issue of
unbalance can be categorized into two subjects: voltage unbalance and current unbalance. These voltage
and current unbalances may cause extra losses, communication interference, motor overheating,
and malfunction of relays [30–37]. The degree of these unbalances depends on the train’s movement,
the tractive profile of electric locomotives, the type of traction substation transformer (TST) [35], and the
power-supply scheme. Numerous problems due to imbalance motivated experts to look at it with a
more specialized view and to propose standards for measuring the imbalance. The three key definitions
of imbalance are provided by the IEEE [38], IEC [39], and NEMA [40] over the years.
• IEEE std 112-1991
In 1991, the IEEE introduced its second definition of voltage imbalance under standard 112 to
define an indicator for voltage imbalance, in which the maximum deviation of the effective value of
the phase voltage from the mean effective value of the phase voltage, relative to the average value of
the phase voltage according to Equation (1) [38]. Where PVUR denotes phase voltage unbalance rate.
n     o
max Va − Vavg , Vb − Vavg , Vc − Vavg 
%PVUR = × 100 (1)
Vavg

Va + Vb + Vc
Vavg = (2)
3
• IEC 60034-26
The IEC standard defines voltage imbalance as the ratio of the negative or zero sequence component
to the positive sequence component. In simple words, it is a voltage variation in a power system in
which the voltage amplitudes or the phase angle differences between them are not equal. The negative
and positive sequence of line voltage can be calculated using the Fortescue matrix as Equation (4) [39].
Where εV denotes voltage imbalance ratio.
−
Vab
V−
%εV = × 100 = × 100 (3)
V+ +
Vab

 Vab ◦
    
  1 1 1  Vab 
 Vab +
  1
 =  1 a a2
 
 Vbc

 (4)
  3   
Vab − 1 a2 a Vca
   


 Vab = Va − Vb

Vbc = Vb − Vc (5)




 V = V −V
ca c a

• ANSI/NEMA Standard MG1-1993

In 1993, NEMA introduced a standard for unbalance that included only the effective magnitude of
line-by-line voltages. In this definition, the maximum deviation of the effective value of line voltages
from the average effective value of line voltages, compared to the average value of line voltages as
follows [40]. Where LVUR denotes line voltage unbalance rate.
n     o
max Vab − Vavg , Vbc − Vavg , Vca − Vavg 
%LVUR = × 100 (6)
Vavg

In general, the voltage/currents unbalance factor (VUF/CUF) is defined to measure the intensity of
the system unbalance as given in Equations (7) and (8).

V−
%VUF = × 100 (7)
V+
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 4 of 35

I−
%CUF = × 100 (8)
I+
where V− and I− are the negative sequence voltage and currents, and V+ and I+ present the positive
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 34
sequence voltage and currents. A higher amount of factors declare a high value of negative-sequence
current (NSC) injected to the ERPS. Depending on the adopted TST type in ERPS, the factors are
current (NSC) injected to the ERPS. Depending on the adopted TST type in ERPS, the factors are
changed. Figure 1 illustrates the measured real imbalance situation of Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed
changed. Figure 1 illustrates the measured real imbalance situation of Wuhan–Guangzhou high-
electrified railway [41].
speed electrified railway [41].

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 1.
1. The
Themeasured
measured unbalance
unbalance ratio in Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speedelectrified
Wuhan–Guangzhou high-speed electrifiedrailway
railwaysystem:
system:
(a)
(a) Current
Current unbalance factor;
factor; (b)
(b) Voltage
Voltageunbalance
unbalancefactor
factor[41].
[41].

2.2. Harmonics
2.2. Harmonics
The ERPS is one of the main harmonic provenances in the public power grid. Depending on the
The ERPS is one of the main harmonic provenances in the public power grid. Depending on the
supplying topology type, different forms of harmonic phenomena can emerge.
supplying topology type, different forms of harmonic phenomena can emerge.
2.2.1. Low Order Harmonics
2.2.1. Low Order Harmonics
Low order harmonics (LOH) known also as main harmonics are the most critical kind of harmonics
Low order
in ERPS. They harmonics
have (LOH)
been noticed known
as the also of
motivation asnumerous
main harmonics
functioningareobstacles
the most critical
both to the kind
powerof
harmonics in ERPS.
grid and ERPS. They haveofbeen
The amplitude noticed
the LOH as the than
is greater motivation of harmonic
the other numerousspectrum
functioning obstacles
ingredients.
both to the power grid and ERPS. The amplitude of the LOH is greater than the other
Accordingly, the negative efficacy of LOH can decline the fundamental signal amplitude impressively. harmonic
spectrum
Intensive ingredients.
shaking andAccordingly, the negative
noises in motors efficacyexceeding
and generators, of LOH can of decline
heat and the fundamental
loss signal
in transformers
amplitude impressively. Intensive shaking and noises in motors and generators, exceeding
and transmission lines, harmful impacts and destructions in relays and other protection systems, of heat
and
andloss in transformers
instability of powerand transmission
network are somelines, harmful
of their main impacts
adverselyand destructions
effects in relaysthe
[42]. In general, andmain
other
protection systems, and instability of power network are
LOH in ERPS can be classified into three categories as follows. some of their main adversely effects [42]. In
general, the main LOH in ERPS can be classified into three categories as follows.
• Background Harmonics
 Background Harmonics
This category
This category also
also known
known asas internal
internal harmonics
harmonics of ofERPS
ERPSisisgenerated
generatedbybythe
thepower
powersupplying
supplying
system in the absence of operational trains. In addition, they can be turned out by adjacent contiguous
system in the absence of operational trains. In addition, they can be turned out by adjacent contiguous
nonlinear loads
nonlinear loads linked
linked to
to the
the joint
joint busbar
busbar asasaapoint
pointofofcommon
commoncoupling.
coupling.The
Theharmonic
harmonicspectrum
spectrum
ranges for background harmonics are pretty much odd inherent harmonics like 3rd, 5th, 7th,7th,
ranges for background harmonics are pretty much odd inherent harmonics like 3rd, 5th, …,.19th
.. ,
19th [43,44].
[43,44].
• Train Internal Harmonics
Train Harmonics
In
In AC
AC ERPS,
ERPS,trains
trainsand
andtheir
theirPE
PEconverter
converterbased
basedinterior
interiordriving
driving systems
systems areare
assumed
assumed in in
the
guise of basic
the guise harmonic
of basic harmonic origination.
origination.Most
Most functioning
functioningtrains
trainsinin the
the world even now
world even nowcontain
contain
thyristor/diode-based PE converters in their configuration, which turn out current
thyristor/diode-based PE converters in their configuration, which turn out current harmonics and harmonics and
accordingly voltage harmonic and distortion [24,45–47]. The low order ingredients as 3rd, 5th,
accordingly voltage harmonic and distortion [24,45–47]. The low order ingredients as 3rd, 5th, 7th, . . . , 7th,…,
21st, and23rd
21st, and 23rdareare
the the
mostmost highlighted
highlighted ones measured
ones measured in these
in these kinds kinds
of trains. of trains.
Figure Figure 2a
2a demonstrates
demonstrates the harmonic content of conventional thyristor/diode-based trains measured in the
ERPS. Conversely, the modern trains equipped with four-quadrant converters (4QCs) evolve less
harmonic pollution thanks to the adoption of high switching frequency (pulse-width modulation)
(PWM). However, as shown in Figure 2b even the amplitude of LOH has declined significantly (the
vertical axes scale has been decreased), the high order components around switching frequency are
 Energies 2020, 13, 6662 5 of 35

the harmonic content of conventional thyristor/diode-based trains measured in the ERPS. Conversely,
the modern trains equipped with four-quadrant converters (4QCs) evolve less harmonic pollution
thanks to the adoption of high switching frequency (pulse-width modulation) (PWM). However,
as shown in Figure 2b even the amplitude of LOH has declined significantly (the vertical axes scale
has been decreased), the high order components around switching frequency are considered as a
substantial problem. These components are known as the characteristic harmonics which will be
Energiesexplained
2020, 13, xin
FOR
thePEER REVIEW
next sections. 5 of 34

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 2. Theharmonic
2. The harmonic spectrum
spectrum of the
of traditional and modern
the traditional andtrains. (a) Traditional
modern trains. SS4
(a)locomotives.
Traditional SS4
(b) High-speed modern CRH2 locomotives [24].
locomotives. (b) High-speed modern CRH2 locomotives [24].
• DC Substation Harmonics
 DC Substation Harmonics
In addition to the trains, the internal structure of ERPS is considered as the foremost and significant
Inharmonic
addition to the trains,
origination the internal
in the power structure
grid. Contingent on theof AC
ERPS
or DC is type
considered
supplyingas the foremost
system, type of and
significant harmonic
converter origination
in traction in the
power substation power
(TPSS) and grid.
voltageContingent
level, variouson theofAC
forms or DCphenomena
harmonic type supplying
system, type of converter in traction power substation (TPSS) and voltage level, various
can arise. Metro (subway) EPRSs which are fed by multi-pulse conventional rectification substations are forms of
harmonica pivotal reason for LOH
phenomena distortion
can arise. in the(subway)
Metro primary side of the which
EPRSs grid [48–51].
are fedMoreover, DC tractionconventional
by multi-pulse motor
based traditional locomotives functioning in AC systems are massive harmonic
rectification substations are a pivotal reason for LOH distortion in the primary side of the contamination loads
grid [48–
regarding the high-power utilization of nonlinear rectification converter. The harmonic ingredients in
51]. Moreover, DC traction motor based traditional locomotives functioning in AC systems are
the primary-side current of AC/DC substations can be defined as the function of pulse number:
massive harmonic contamination loads regarding the high-power utilization of nonlinear
rectification converter. The harmonic ingredients h = kp ± in
1 k the
∈ N primary-side current of AC/DC substations (9)
can be defined as the function of pulse number:
where p is the pulse number of converter and h expresses the harmonic order. The popular n-pulse
h  kp  1 k  (9)
rectifier based traditional substations in EPRSs is 6, 12, 18, and 24 pulses. The primary-side current
waveforms and fast Fourier transform (FFT) investigation for these types of TPSSs are simulated
where p is the pulse number of converter and h expresses the harmonic order. The popular n-pulse
and demonstrated on a small scale in Figure 3. As can be seen from the figures, by increasing the
rectifier based
number of traditional substations
pulses, the total in EPRSs
harmonic distortion is 6,percentage
(THD) 12, 18, and
has24 pulses.
been Theand
decreased primary-side
the harmoniccurrent
waveforms and fast
components Fourierfrom
are shifted transform (FFT)
low orders investigation
to high orders. for these types of TPSSs are simulated and
demonstrated on a small scale in Figure 3. As can be seen from the figures, by increasing the number
of pulses, the total harmonic distortion (THD) percentage has been decreased and the harmonic
components are shifted from low orders to high orders.
AC-side current (A) AC-side current (A)
6
6
4
4
2 6 pulse
2
0
Rectifier
0
-2 6 pulse
-2
-4 Rectifier
-4
-6
-6 100
Mag (% of fundamental)

100
Mag (% of fundamental)

60
60
50 12 pulse
50
6 pulse 40 Rectifier
40 Rectifier 30
30
6 pulse 20
12 pulse
20 10
10 Rectifier Rectifier

(a) (b) 18 pulse

AC-side current (A)
12 pulse AC-side current (A) Rectifier
6 Rectifier 6

4 4
12 pulse 2
18 pulse
2
where p is the pulse number of converter and h expresses the harmonic order. The popular n-pulse
rectifier based traditional substations in EPRSs is 6, 12, 18, and 24 pulses. The primary-side current
waveforms and fast Fourier transform (FFT) investigation for these types of TPSSs are simulated and
demonstrated on a small scale in Figure 3. As can be seen from the figures, by increasing the number
Energiesthe
of pulses, 13, 6662
2020,total harmonic distortion (THD) percentage has been decreased and the6 ofharmonic
35

components are shifted from low orders to high orders.

AC-side current (A) AC-side current (A)
6
6
4
4
2 6 pulse
2
0
Rectifier
0
-2 6 pulse
-2
-4 Rectifier
-4
-6
-6 100

Mag (% of fundamental)
100
Mag (% of fundamental)

60
60
50 12 pulse
50
6 pulse 40 Rectifier
40 Rectifier 30
30
6 pulse 20
12 pulse
20 10
10 Rectifier Rectifier

(a) (b) 18 pulse

AC-side current (A)
12 pulse AC-side current (A) Rectifier
6 Rectifier 6

4 4
12 pulse 2
18 pulse
2
Rectifier Rectifier
0 0

-2 -2
24 pulse
-4
-4 18 pulse Rectifier
-6
-6 Rectifier 100
100

Mag (% of fundamental)
Mag (% of fundamental)

60
60
18 pulse 50
24 pulse
50
Rectifier 40 Rectifier
40
30
30
20
20 10
10 24 pulse
Rectifier

(c) (d)
24 pulse
FigureFigure The primary-side
3. The3.primary-side Rectifier
current
current of n-pulse
of n-pulse AC/DC
AC/DC converterswith
converters withFFT
FFTanalysis.
analysis. (a)
(a)6-pulse
6-pulse (b) 12-
(b) 12-pulse
pulse (c) 18-pulse(c)(d)
18-pulse (d) 24-pulse.
24-pulse.
2.2.2. Inter-Harmonics
In ERPS inter-harmonics (InH) are emerged by AC motors controlled by variable frequency drives
(VFDs). They are related to the fundamental main frequency (fo ) and the input AC frequency (fi )
which supplies VFD. These kinds of harmonics are realized between the typical and characterized
harmonics of the VFDs. The main reason for occurrence is the compilation among the switching tasks
applied to invert the DC-link voltage to the three-phase AC voltage with the DC current ripple [52–55].
The frequency of the inter-harmonics can be characterized as
 
fIh = npi fi ± mpo fo  n, m ∈ Z (10)

where pi and po denote the number of pulses in the rectification and inversion process.
The inter-harmonics afford pulsating torque harmonics, stimulate a linked traction motor and torsional
resonance path, wheel wear, and a critical impact on the torsional behavior of the entire train.

2.2.3. Low Frequency Oscillation

The low frequency oscillation (LFO) is an impermanent phenomenon and a vehicle-grid
interlinkage issue situated by the impedance inconsistency between the ERPS and the modern
trains particularly those equipped with 4QCs. Furthermore, LFO can be produced by the rotary
frequency converter (RFC) used in several European ERPS [56,57]. In LFO circumstances the voltage
and current demonstrate a magnitude and phase oscillation. It can lead to several significant problems,
such as the conservation system breakdown, over voltage and current, damage to the onboard devices,
and even divergence oscillation of voltage and current leading to railway accidents and obstruction or
 erter (RFC) used in several European ERPS [56,57]. In LFO circumstances the voltage and cu
onstrate a magnitude and phase oscillation. It can lead to several significant problems, suc
onservation system breakdown, over voltage and current, damage to the onboard devices,
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 7 of 35
divergence oscillation of voltage and current leading to railway accidents and obstructio
nsistency issues [56–65].
inconsistency Three
issues [56–65].types of LFO
Three types of LFOscenarios are defined
scenarios are defined in the
in the literature literature
depending on dependin
ructure of ERPS type.ofFigure
the structure ERPS type.4.Figure
demonstrates
4. demonstratesthe LFOin in
the LFO catenary
catenary voltage voltage and currents.
and currents.

Figure 4. The overhead catenary voltage and current with low frequency oscillation (LFO)
Figure 4. The overhead [59,60].
phenomenon catenary voltage and current with low frequency oscillation (LFO)
phenomenon •[59,60].
LFO in RFC based ERPS

In the age of starting railway electrification, based on the low requests, existing low-capacity power
LFO in RFC based
grids, and ERPS
consequences regarding using of powerful motors in industrial frequency, the low-frequency
systems got more attention. These kinds of ERPS are established in several countries as Austria,
In the age ofGermany,
starting railway
Switzerland, electrification,
Norway, Sweden, and the USA based on the
functioning with low requests,
a frequency of 16.67 orexisting
25 Hz. low-cap
The frequency below the power grid frequency demonstrates the urgency of the requirement for RFC.
er grids, andThe
consequences regarding
LFO is primarily measured using
in these kinds ofofERPS.
powerful
The usualmotors
oscillation in industrial
content frequency,
in this group is the
uency systems got inmore
reported attention.
the range These
of (0.1–0.3) p.u [56–58].kinds of ERPS are established in several countri

ria, Germany, • Switzerland, Norway,

LFO in ERPS without RFC Sweden, and the USA functioning with a frequency of 1
5 Hz. The frequency below
The consistently the power
incremental request for grid
passenger frequency demonstrates
and mass transfer the urgency of
as well as subsequent
rement for RFC. The ofLFO
advancement is primarily
technologies and powermeasured
networks promote in these kinds and
the construction of ERPS. Theof usual oscilla
development
transformer-based AC systems operating with industrial frequency and without RFCs. The conventional
ent in this group
1 × 25 is
kV reported
and 2 × 25 kV inautotransformer
the range of (0.1–0.3)
based ERPS are p.u [56–58].
the most popular embraced structures.
Notwithstanding, LFO in such a network often occurs by concurrent functioning of multiple
LFO in ERPStrains.
without RFC quantity of operating trains which leads to the LFO occurrence is reported
The ultra-critical
approximately 6–8. The usual oscillation content in this group of LFO is reported in the range of
The consistently incremental
(0.01–0.12) p.u [59–63]. request for passenger and mass transfer as well as subseq
ncement of •technologies
Irregular LFO and power networks promote the construction and developme
former-based AC systems
The latter category of operating with
LFO is non-periodic industrial
and immethodical frequency
oscillations and current
that can enhance without RFCs.
and voltage magnitude unfavorably. The irregular LFO has been reported mostly in China [64,65]. It is
not possible to assign a special frequency oscillation range for this type of LFO. Figure 5 shows the
measured voltage and current waveforms including various types of LFO. As shown in the figure,
the most undesirable type is related to irregular LFO with higher current magnitude reinforcement.
 5]. It is not possible to assign a special frequency oscillation range for this type of LFO. Fig
ws the measured voltage and current waveforms including various types of LFO. As show
igure, the most undesirable type is related to irregular LFO with higher current magni
orcement. Energies 2020, 13, 6662 8 of 35

Figure 5. Measured various types of LFO phenomena [64].

Figure 5. Measured various types of LFO phenomena [64].
2.2.4. Harmonic Resonance
The current LOH produced by trains mainly in modern ERPS can spread all around the power
Harmonic Resonance
supply networks. Contrarily, the inductance and capacitive specifications of the overhead catenary
system (OCS), may make a distributed LC circuit that can lead to parallels or series resonance at the
The current specific
LOHfrequencies.
produced Theby trainsofmainly
interaction in harmonics
these current modernand ERPS can
internal spread
resonance mayall around the p
cause
ly networks.theContrarily,
harmonic resonance the (HR) phenomenon
inductance andat some characteristicspecifications
capacitive frequencies in ERPS.ofBythewayoverhead
of cate
explanation, some harmonic ingredients are strengthened by the resonance. The HR can create serious
m (OCS), may make
issues such as a distributed
drastic LC circuit
voltage distortion, that interference
electromagnetic can leadinto parallels and
communication or signaling
series resonance a
system,
fic frequencies. The overheating
interaction and losses,
ofand misdeed
these of protection
current equipmentand
harmonics [66–79].
internal resonance may caus
Figure 6 illustrates the harmonic spectrums for measured OCS currents/voltages reported in two
monic resonance
main HSR (HR) lines inphenomenon at some
China and Italy containing characteristic
HR phenomenon. frequencies
This phenomenon in ERPS. By wa
which is reported
anation, some in many countries can
harmonic be divided intoare
ingredients parallel and series scenarios.
strengthened byGenerally, the composition
the resonance. of HR can c
The
inductive and capacitive features of OCS can lead to either a series resonance (when L and C are in
us issues such asordrastic
series)
Energiesa2020,
parallel voltage
resonance
13, x FOR distortion,
(when
PEER REVIEW L and C areelectromagnetic
in parallel). interference in communication
8 of 34

aling system, overheating and losses, and misdeed of protection equipment [66–79].
Figure 6 illustrates the harmonic spectrums for measured OCS currents/voltages reported in
HSR lines in China and Italy containing HR phenomenon. This phenomenon which is repo
any countries can be divided into parallel and series scenarios. Generally, the compositio
ctive and capacitive features of OCS can lead to either a series resonance (when L and C a
s) or a parallel resonance (when L and C are in parallel).

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Distorted
Figure pantograph
6. Distorted voltage/current
pantograph under the
voltage/current high-frequency
under resonance with
the high-frequency FFT analysis
resonance with FFT
in China andinItaly.
analysis China(a)and
JingHu
Italy.high-speed
(a) JingHurailways (HSR)
high-speed [64] (b)
railways Italy [64]
(HSR) HSR(b)[79].
Italy HSR [79].

 Parallel HR
The parallel HR (PHR) is most likely HR scenario in ERPS due to the inductive and capacitive
specification of multi-conductor OCS. The specified frequency oscillation range for PHR based on
measurements is between 10 and 55 p.u. The critical HR incidents correlate with the parallel
resonance which is the basic concern in TPSS. The PHR has been reported in some countries which
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 9 of 35

• Parallel HR

The parallel HR (PHR) is most likely HR scenario in ERPS due to the inductive and capacitive
specification of multi-conductor OCS. The specified frequency oscillation range for PHR based on
measurements is between 10 and 55 p.u. The critical HR incidents correlate with the parallel resonance
which is the basic concern in TPSS. The PHR has been reported in some countries which are classified
based on the order in Table 1.

Table 1. Different types of reported harmonic resonance (HR) in the literature.

No. Type of HR Frequency Period (p.u) Location

1 Parallel 15–20, 45–55, 35–59, 50–64 China [66–69]
2 Parallel 24–30 Korea [43]
3 Parallel 21–29,39,121,139 Italy [28,70]
4 Parallel 20–60 United Kingdom [71]
5 Parallel 49–51 Thailand [72]
6 Parallel 29–41 Japan [73]
7 Parallel Up to 63 Zimbabwe [74]
8 Parallel 13–20 Czech Republic [75]
9 Parallel 21,81 Iran [76]
10 Parallel <25 Germany [77]
11 Series 3–7 Spain [78]
12 Series 64, 72, 80 Italy [79]

• Series HR

The series HR (SHR) is an infrequent HR phenomenon in EPRSs. Functioning of FACT device or

conditioners as static VAR compensators, STATCOM and Steinmetz theory may interact with ERPS
impedance and create SHR. The specified oscillation content in this group is reported in the range of
(3–9) p.u. The SHR has been reported in some countries which are mentioned in Table 1.

2.2.5. Harmonic Instabilities

The most basic factor of harmonic instabilities (HI) genesis is the higher switching frequency of
PWM based 4QCs in recent and modern trains. The interplay among the multiple switching frequency
and ERPS interior resonance frequency reinforce an intense oscillation with a sort of insignificant
damping termed as HI [80–87]. In addition, the high-frequency features of the closed-loop control
system for 4QCs including voltage and the current controller can interact with ERPS and originate
HI. Accordingly, HI may amplify the voltage and current harmonics and cause the system to be
instable. Compared with HR as a stable phenomenon and harmonic reinforcement, the HI is an
unstable phenomenon. The specified oscillation content for this phenomenon is dependent on the
resonance frequencies.
Nevertheless, according to the measurements and reports, the resonance orders can be in the
range of 2nd to 100th with field test intensifications of 23rd to 24th and 47th to 55th [64]. It can lead
to critical issues such as overvoltage problems, stimulate some harmonic ingredients, explosion or
malfunction of protection devices together with overheating and loss problems. HI phenomenon has
been stated in China [64], Switzerland [81], and Italy [82]. Figure 7 demonstrates a measured OCS
voltage waveform including HI. For the purpose of having a rapid review and a suitable classification,
the harmonic phenomena organization chart together with the frequency range is presented in Figure 8.
This figure illustrates an epitome of the harmonic indexes with their different types in ERPS. Meanwhile,
the possible per unit range for each phenomenon has been determined and demonstrated. A schematic
based comparison together with a technical discussion between harmonic phenomena can be found
in [64,80].
andpresented in FigureA8.schematic
demonstrated. This figure based
illustrates an epitometogether
comparison of the harmonic
with aindexes withdiscussion
technical their different
between
types in ERPS. Meanwhile, the possible
harmonic phenomena can be found in [64,80]. per unit range for each phenomenon has been determined
and demonstrated. A schematic based comparison together with a technical discussion between
harmonic phenomena can be found in [64,80].
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 10 of 35

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Measured overhead catenary system (OCS) voltage and experiment waveform with
Figure7.
Figure Measured overhead
7. Measured overheadcatenary system
catenary (OCS)
system voltage
(OCS) and experiment
voltage waveform
and experiment with harmonic
waveform with
harmonic instabilities (HI). (a) Traction power substation (TPSS) voltage in electric railway power
instabilities
harmonic (HI). (a) (HI).
instabilities Traction power substation
(a) Traction (TPSS) voltage
power substation in electric
(TPSS) voltage railway railway
in electric power systems
power
systems (ERPS)
(ERPS) [64].
[64]. (b) (b) Phase-to-phase
Phase-to-phase unstableunstable voltage [83].
voltage [83].
systems (ERPS) [64]. (b) Phase-to-phase unstable voltage [83].

Harmonic
Harmonic
Phenomena
Phenomena

Low Order
Order Inter-harmonics
Low Oscillation
Low Oscillation
Harmonics Harmonic
Harmonic Harmonic Inter-harmonics
Harmonic
Frequency(LOF)
(LOF) Harmonics Resonance (HR)
Frequency (LOH) Resonance (HR) Instabilities (HI) (HI) (InH) (InH)
Instabilities
(LOH)

Regular
Regular Background
Background Parallel
Parallel
without RFC harmonics
without RFC harmonics

Regular with Train internal

Regular with Train internal Series
RFC harmonics Series
RFC harmonics
Rectification
Irregular
substation
Rectification
Irregular
substation
(a)
(a)

(b)

(b)

Figure 8. Classification of harmonic indexes in ERPS. (a) Organization chart. (b) Occurrence
frequency range.

2.3. Reactive Power and Low Power Factor

Notwithstanding the application of advanced PWM based trains, the majority of working trains
in ERPS all over the world are still based on AC/DC rectifiers using thyristor or diode. This can cause
the current distortion in the primary-side of the substation and overlap commutation angle. Therefore,
it can reduce the power factor (PF) of the system substantially. On the other side, considering the
impacts of ERPS impedance including the inductive reactance features of the OCS, the PF will be
reduced by about 1–5%. The low PF in the system can be the origination of many problems including,
lower efficiency, high power losses, heating of devices, and high voltage drops across the line [45,88–95].
This is so serious for power grids that fine subscribers with a low power factor of 0.9 in PCC. However,
the average amount of PF in ERPS depending on the type of supply is measured in the range of
0.70–0.84 [93]. Figure 9 demonstrates the measurements of PF for three different popular HST trains
operating in the world. According to these figures, for the light-loading situation and coasting mode,
the amount of PF is proportionally lower and rapidly when the train current/power increase PF reaches
close to unity. Power factor is commonly specified by a particular description assuming a balanced
situation without harmonics on the system. However, in a real practical system, the PF can be affected
by the harmonic components and imbalance condition in the ERPS. Accordingly, the type of traction
transformer and its loading characteristics will play an important role to determine the PF in AC
different popular HST trains operating in the world. According to these figures, for the light-loading
situation and coasting mode, the amount of PF is proportionally lower and rapidly when the train
current/power increase PF reaches close to unity. Power factor is commonly specified by a particular
description assuming a balanced situation without harmonics on the system. However, in a real
practical
Energies system,
2020, 13, 6662the PF can be affected by the harmonic components and imbalance condition11 inofthe
35
ERPS. Accordingly, the type of traction transformer and its loading characteristics will play an
important role to determine the PF in AC ERPS [95]. The performance of popular traction
ERPS [95]. The
transformers in performance
ERPS is basedofon popular tractionPFtransformers
the different in fundamental
definitions as ERPS is based PFon the
(PF 1), different
effective PF PF
definitions as fundamental PF
(PFE), vector PF (PFV), and arithmetic(PF 1 ), effective PF (PF ), vector PF (PF
PF (PFE) [95] inE IEEE Std-1459 is ), and arithmetic PF
V demonstrated in Table (PFE2.) [95]
The
in IEEE Std-1459
practical measurement is demonstrated
in this tableinreveals
Table 2.theThe practical
better measurement
performance in this
of Y/d and table
Scott reveals the
transformer in
better performance of Y/d and Scott transformer in
presence of harmonics for both balanced and imbalanced conditions.presence of harmonics for both balanced and
imbalanced conditions.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 9. Measured
Figure 9. Measuredpower
powerfactor
factor(PF) range
(PF) forfor
range different kinds
different of modern
kinds trains.
of modern (a) CRH2A-China
trains. [94],
(a) CRH2A-China
(b) TGV-France
[94], [12], (c)
(b) TGV-France ETR500-Italy
[12], [12]. [12].
(c) ETR500-Italy

Table 2. Performance of different traction transformers based on PF definitions in the harmonic presence.

Transformer Type Load Condition PF1 PFE PFV PFA Overall

Balanced high very low medium very low
Single-phase very low
Unbalanced high very low medium very low
Balanced low low high low
V/V medium
Unbalanced medium low high medium
Balanced very high medium very high medium very
Y/d high
Unbalanced very high medium very high low
Balanced medium very high low very high
Scott high
Unbalanced low high low very high
Balanced very low high very low high
Le-Blanc low
Unbalanced very low very high very low high

2.4. Transient Events

PQ phenomena in ERPS includes a wide range of disturbances and different types of deviations
in voltage amplitude or waveform. The PQ deviation events/disturbances can be classified based on
the disposition of the waveform distortion, duration, rate of rising, and amplitude for each category of
electromagnetic disturbances. A comprehensive classification of PQ electromagnetic phenomena for
 Balanced high very low medium very low
Single-phase very low
Unbalanced high very low medium very low
Balanced low low high low
V/V medium
Unbalanced medium low high medium
Balanced very high medium very high medium
Y/d6662
Energies 2020, 13, very high12 of 35
Unbalanced very high medium very high low
Balanced medium very high low very high
Scott high
Unbalanced low high low very high
power systems can be found in [96]. However, due to the specific and different features, a specific
Balanced very low high very low high
Le-Blanc
classification based on the characteristics of ERPS has been carried out. The transientlow
events are
Unbalanced very low very high very low high
unwelcome and momentary in nature. Generally, transient events can be classified into two groups of
impulsive
2.4.1. and oscillatory
Impulsive Transientswhich
(ImT) comprised the waveshape of both current and voltage transient.
2.4.1.The
Impulsive
ImT is anTransients (ImT)
abrupt, frequency variation from the nominal condition of voltage/current, which
is usually unidirectional in polarity. It is specified by the peak value, rate of rising or decay, and
The ImT is an abrupt, frequency variation from the nominal condition of voltage/current, which is
duration times. The most popular reason for the occurrence of impulsive transients in ERPS are as
usually unidirectional in polarity. It is specified by the peak value, rate of rising or decay, and duration
follow:
times. The most popular reason for the occurrence of impulsive transients in ERPS are as follow:
 Lightning
• Lightning
Every time thunderstorms happen, ERPS has exposed to impulses transients of lightning. The
Every time thunderstorms happen, ERPS has exposed to impulses transients of lightning.
strikes can be direct lightning to any conductor which is in the upper of the ground or indirect form
The strikes can be direct lightning to any conductor which is in the upper of the ground or indirect form
as the induced voltage in a part of the system caused by close lightning [97–100]. The lightning energy
as the induced voltage in a part of the system caused by close lightning [97–100]. The lightning energy
can damage and completely destroy the equipment. Figure 10 illustrates the measured waveforms
can damage and completely destroy the equipment. Figure 10 illustrates the measured waveforms
during lightning occurrence in four position distance of Swedish railway
during lightning occurrence in four position distance of Swedish railway

(a) (b)

Figure 10.
Figure Measured waveforms
10. Measured waveformsduring
duringlightning
lightningoccurrence in 4 in
occurrence position distance
4 position of Swedish
distance railway
of Swedish
facility facility
railway [98]. (a)[98].
Line-to-neutral voltagevoltage
(a) Line-to-neutral (b) Local(b)ground to rail current
Local ground waveforms.
to rail current waveforms.

Energies 2020, 13, x of

FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 34
• Switching
Switching circuit
of circuit breakers
breakers
Some remarkable voltage transients are measured during the operating switching of circuit
breakers the ERPS. This type of transients can be classified in the impulsive group because of the
sudden rise and duration of of occurrence.
occurrence. The
The two
two possible
possible switchings
switchings inin ERPS
ERPS can be defined as
switching of the
the main
mainhigh-voltage
high-voltagebusbar
busbarfor
formaintenance
maintenancepurposes
purposesandandswitching of of
switching converters in
converters
TPSS
in forfor
TPSS daily operations
daily operations[101].
[101].The
Themeasured
measuredvoltage
voltagetransient
transientfor
for the
the mentioned
mentioned switching of
breakers in Rome subway is shown in Figure
Figure 11.
11.

(a) (b)

Figure Measuredtwo
11. Measured
Figure 11. twotypes
typesofoftransient
transientvoltage
voltagein in
MV MV busbar
busbar of Rome
of Rome subway
subway system
system [101].
[101]. (a)
(a) Recorded type 1 transient voltage. (b) Recorded type 2 transient
Recorded type 1 transient voltage. (b) Recorded type 2 transient voltage.voltage.

 Abnormal changes in tractive efforts

During the train movement in the route, several situations may cause sudden changes in the
driving of traction motors and consequently sudden changes in voltage or currents. Some of these
 (a) (b)
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 13 of 35
Figure 11. Measured two types of transient voltage in MV busbar of Rome subway system [101]. (a)
Recorded type 1 transient voltage. (b) Recorded type 2 transient voltage.

• Abnormal changes in tractive efforts

 Abnormal changes in tractive efforts
During the train movement in the route, several situations may cause sudden changes in the
During the train movement in the route, several situations may cause sudden changes in the
drivingdriving
of traction motors
of traction and and
motors consequently
consequentlysudden
suddenchanges
changes in
in voltage
voltage ororcurrents.
currents. Some
Some of these
of these
factorsfactors
and conditions are abnormal
and conditions abruptly
are abnormal generated
abruptly tractive
generated effort
tractive by by
effort passing neutral
passing neutralsections
sectionsand
high current absorption which can make step-change in pantograph voltage. In addition,
and high current absorption which can make step-change in pantograph voltage. In addition, thethe
other
type ofother
transient cantransient
type of be measured
can be during
measuredtheduring
passing
theneutral
passingzone in changing
neutral over theover
zone in changing supplying
the
supplying
substation substation
of sections of sections
[27,102]. [27,102]. The
The measured measured
voltage voltage
transients fortransients
the two for the two mentioned
mentioned situations in
Italian situations
ERPS arein Italianin
shown ERPS are shown
Figure 12. in Figure 12.

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 34

 Changing in operational condition and modulation patterns

During the train movement in the route, some circumstances may lead to having changes in the
operation of locomotives or modulation patterns of drive converters related to traction motors and
(a) (b)
consequently changes in voltage or currents. Some of these factors and conditions are as sudden
braking,
Figure 12.train
Figure 12.wheel
Measured slide/slip,
transient
Measured change
voltage
transient inin3inkV
voltage driving
DC
3 kV DC pattern,
Italian and[102].
ItalianERPS
ERPS extra(a)
[102]. torque.
(a) The
Caused
Caused bybyfield measurement
sudden
sudden generated
generated
of thistractive
tractive phenomenon
effort. effort. is Caused
(b)
(b) Caused demonstrated
by passing in Figure
by passing neutral
neutral 13a.
section
section andchanging
and changing supplying
supplying TPSS.
TPSS.

2.4.2. Oscillatory
Sliding contact and pantograph
Transients
2.4.2. Oscillatory (OsT)
Transients (OsT)
jump over OCS
Due to the sliding contact between the OCS and suspended pantograph on top of trains during
The OsTThe isOsTanis abrupt, and
an abrupt, andnon-power
non-power frequency variation
frequency variation of of
the the steady-state
steady-state situation
situation of
their movement, the electromagnetic transient events which are a very common phenomenon can
voltage/current,which
of voltage/current, whichisisusually
usually bidirectional
bidirectional in polarity.
polarity. OsTOsTincludes
includesa awaveform
waveform withwith
reduce the effective voltage and continuity of train operation. By increasing the operational speed of
instantaneous
instantaneous amount amount changes
changes of polarity
of polarity quicklyquickly for several times and commonly declining within
trains especially in HSR and high-power lines the for several
related timeswill
problems andget
commonly declining
worse. Moreover, within a
during
a fundamental-frequency
fundamental-frequency period. It is specified byamplitude,
the amplitude, spectral content, and duration
this interaction, the arcing issue can appear which is detrimental for the signaling system [103].times.
period. It is specified by the spectral content, and duration
times. They can be classified into three groups of low (<5 kHz), medium (5–500 kHz), and high (0.5–
They However,
can be classified
based onintothe
three groups
ERPS of low
features we(<5
havekHz), medium
classified this(5–500 kHz), and
phenomenon in high (0.5–5 MHz)
the radiated
5 MHz) frequency oscillations [96]. The most popular reason for the occurrence of OsT in ERPS are
frequency oscillations
interference indices[96]. The most
category which popular
will be reason for in
discussed thethe
occurrence of OsT
next sessions. in ERPS
Field are as follows:
measurement of
as follows:
voltage/current transient caused by sliding contact for 3kV DC ERPS is illustrated in Figure 13b.
• Changing in operational condition and modulation patterns
 Inrush current of the locomotive transformer
During the train movement in the route, some circumstances may lead to having changes in the
operationThe very low frequency
of locomotives OsT with
or modulation less than
patterns hundreds
of drive Hz typically
converters is traction
related to connected with and
motors
ferroresonance and energization of a power transformer. In the power system, this phenomenon
consequently changes in voltage or currents. Some of these factors and conditions are as sudden
happens when the system resonance leads to the amplification of low-frequency ingredients of
braking, train wheel slide/slip, change in driving pattern, and extra torque. The field measurement of
transformer inrush current [96].
this phenomenon is demonstrated in Figure 13a.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 13. Measured

13. Measured transient
transient voltageand
voltage andcurrents
currents in
in 33 kV
kVDCDCERPS.
ERPS. (a)(a)
Pantograph
Pantographvoltage and and
voltage
rippleripple
indexindex caused
caused by changes
by changes in in operationalconditions
operational conditions [104].
[104].(b)
(b)Pantograph
Pantograph voltage and and
voltage current
current
duringduring oscillatory
oscillatory transients
transients (OsT)
(OsT) causedby
caused bysliding/jump
sliding/jump effect
effect[103].
[103].

In ERPS especially AC type, this can occur when the unmagnetized transformer of the
locomotive is connected to the OCS. When the onboard train’s transformer is connected to the OCS,
an inrush current issue arises because of the nonlinear conditions caused by a saturated transformer
[105,106]. A measured inrush current transient in Switzerland is shown in Figure 14. This
phenomenon can be mitigated by suitably sizing and designing transformers and filters.
 Energies 2020, 13, 6662 14 of 35

• Sliding contact and pantograph jump over OCS

Due to the sliding contact between the OCS and suspended pantograph on top of trains during
their movement, the electromagnetic transient events which are a very common phenomenon can
reduce the effective voltage and continuity of train operation. By increasing the operational speed
of trains especially in HSR and high-power lines the related problems will get worse. Moreover,
during this interaction, the arcing issue can appear which is detrimental for the signaling system [103].
However, based on the ERPS features we have classified this phenomenon in the radiated interference
indices category which will be discussed in the next sessions. Field measurement of voltage/current
transient caused by sliding contact for 3 kV DC ERPS is illustrated in Figure 13b.

• Inrush current of the locomotive transformer

The very low frequency OsT with less than hundreds Hz typically is connected with ferroresonance
and energization of a power transformer. In the power system, this phenomenon happens when
the system resonance leads to the amplification of low-frequency ingredients of transformer inrush
current [96].
In ERPS especially AC type, this can occur when the unmagnetized transformer of the locomotive
is connected to the OCS. When the onboard train’s transformer is connected to the OCS, an inrush
current issue arises because of the nonlinear conditions caused by a saturated transformer [105,106].
es 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
A measured inrush current transient in Switzerland is shown in Figure 14. This phenomenon can be 1
mitigated by suitably sizing and designing transformers and filters.

Figure 14. Measured inrush current transient in Switzerland BLS Re465 locomotive [105].
Figure• 14.Capacitor
Measured inrush current transient in Switzerland BLS Re465 locomotive [105].
bank energization

The capacitor bank energization can arise both in low and medium frequency OsT. The low
Capacitor bank energization
frequency OsT in ERPS is more common due to the energization and switching of capacitor
banks [104–106]. Due to the low PF and voltage drop in railway systems, reactive power compensation
The capacitor bank
using energization
capacitors can arise
is prevalent in terms both
of different in low asand
compensators medium
capacitor frequency
bank, passive filters, OsT. The
uency OsT inthyristor-switched
ERPS is more capacitor (TSC), static VAR compensator (SVC), and railway power conditioner
common due to the energization and switching of capacitor b
(RPC) [107].
–106]. Due to the low PF and voltage drop in railway systems, reactive power compens
2.5. Short Duration rms Variations
g capacitors is prevalent in terms of different compensators as capacitor bank, passive fi
These kinds of variations are characterized as the variations in voltage/current for a period
stor-switched
not capacitor
exceeding one(TSC),
minute. static VAR
According compensator
to occurrence duration, (SVC),
it can be and railway
in three forms of power
an condit
C) [107]. instantaneous, momentary, or temporary phenomenon. Meanwhile, depending on the reason of
appearance, the variations can be classified into three formats of voltage dips, voltage surge/rises,

Short Duration rms Variations

These kinds of variations are characterized as the variations in voltage/current for a period
exceeding one minute. According to occurrence duration, it can be in three forms of an instantaneous,
momentary, or temporary phenomenon. Meanwhile, depending on the reason of appearance, the
variations can be classified into three formats of voltage dips, voltage surge/rises, and interruptions
[96]. However, the13,duration
Energies 2020, 6662 of the variations does not meet all the time the values assigned 15 of 35 for the
power grid standard due to the special features of ERPS. The measured voltage dip in Korea and
Rome metro lines are represented in Figure 15.
and interruptions [96]. However, the duration of the variations does not meet all the time the values
assigned for the power grid standard due to the special features of ERPS. The measured voltage dip in
2.5.1. Voltage Dips
Korea and (Sag)
Rome metro lines are represented in Figure 15.

Voltage
2.5.1. dip is aDips
Voltage kind of phenomenon when a short duration decrement occurs in rms value of
(Sag)
voltage. ThisVoltage
decrement is defined in the range of 10%–90% of nominal amplitude. It can be measured
dip is a kind of phenomenon when a short duration decrement occurs in rms value
in TPSS and on-board.
of voltage. This The reasons
decrement for andininfluencing
is defined the range of factors of nominal
10–90% of occurrence in ERPS
amplitude. are be
It can as follows
[108–112]:
measured in TPSS and on-board. The reasons for and influencing factors of occurrence in ERPS are as
follows [108–112]:
 During the fault occurrence in the line.
 The•highDuring
valuetheoffault occurrence
starting in the
current line.
absorbed by traction motors.
• The high value of starting current absorbed by traction motors.
 Sudden load changes or supplying high-power locomotives.
• Sudden load changes or supplying high-power locomotives.
 TPSS transformers energization.
• TPSS transformers energization.
 The•motor blocking caused by the segregation of pantograph and OCS in the vibration situations
The motor blocking caused by the segregation of pantograph and OCS in the vibration situations
or neutral sections.
or neutral sections.
 TPSS• equipment triggering
TPSS equipment such
triggering asaslightning,
such escalator,
lightning, escalator, air-conditioners,
air-conditioners, heaters,
heaters, etc. etc.

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Measured voltage dip in Korea. (a) 4-cycle voltage sag signal without a noise [111]; (b) 63%
voltage sag recorded in Rome metro line [101].

2.5.2. Voltage Rises (Swell)

The voltage rises known also as swell are characterized in IEEE 1159-2019 standard as the 10–80%
increment in the rms value of voltage in a short duration of less than one minute [96]. It is infrequent
in comparison to the voltage sag. This phenomenon can be caused in ERPS by different factors like:

• Sudden load changing or supplying high-power locomotives.

• TPSS transformers de-energization.
• The motor blocking caused by the segregation of pantograph and OCD in the vibration situations
or neutral sections.
• TPSS equipment ceasing such as lightning, escalator, air-conditioners, heaters, etc.
• De-energization or disconnecting of high-power loads.

It is worth mentioning that the impacts of voltage swell to the ERPS in comparison to voltage sag
are more hazardous. They can destruct equipment, leading to overheating and loss issues together
with a malfunction on protection devices [108–112]. Figure 16 demonstrates the examples of reported
voltage swell in Korean HSR.
 It is worth mentioning that the impacts of voltage swell to the ERPS in comparison to voltage
sag are more hazardous. They can destruct equipment, leading to overheating and loss issues
together with a malfunction on protection devices [108–112]. Figure 16 demonstrates the examples of
reported voltage
Energies 2020, 13,swell
6662 in Korean HSR. 16 of 35

50000
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
-30000
-35000
-40000
-45000
-50000

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 16. Measured
16. Measured voltage
voltage swell
swell in ERPS.
in ERPS. (a)(a) 3 kV
3 kV DCDC line
line inin Italy[109].
Italy [109].(b)
(b)Korea
KoreaHSR
HSR(G7)
(G7) [108].
[108].

2.5.3. Interruption (InR)

2.5.3. Interruption (InR)
Interruptions have been defined by IEEE 1159-2019 as a short-duration in which the rms voltage
Interruptions
amplitude is less have
thanbeen
10% ofdefined
nominal byvoltage
IEEE 1159-2019 as a short-duration
[96]. The impressive in which the
external determinants in rms voltage
interruption
amplitude
occurrenceis less
are than 10% of
the cutting nominal
of the voltage
fuse, the [96]. ofThe
operating the impressive external
circuit breaker, failuredeterminants
and fault in the in
interruption occurrence are the cutting of the fuse, the operating of the circuit
power system equipment, etc. The foremost reason for the short interruption in ERPS is the abruptbreaker, failure and
faultdisconnection
in the power systembetweenequipment,
the contactetc. The
wire and foremost reasonLosing
pantograph. for theofshort
data,interruption in ERPS is
ruining of susceptible
the abrupt
equipment, disconnection
unwelcome between
tripping of the contact devices,
protective wire and andpantograph. Losing of ofdata,
relays and malfunction data ruining
processing of
susceptible
equipment equipment, unwelcome
are substantial tripping
ruinous impactsof [3,109,112–114].
protective devices, and17
Figure relays and malfunction
demonstrates of data
the example of
Energies
measured
processing 2020, 13, x FOR PEER
interruption
equipment are inREVIEW
25 kV AC ERPS
substantial lineimpacts
ruinous of Italy. [3,109,112–114]. Figure 17 demonstrates 16 ofthe
34

example of measured interruption in 25 kV AC ERPS line of Italy.

(a) (b)

17. The
Figure 17.
Figure The measured
measuredinterruption
interruptionininERPS.
ERPS.(a)(a)
Uncontrolled
UncontrolledInRInR
in 25
inkV
25 AC
kV ERPS line of
AC ERPS Italy
line of [112];
Italy
(b) Controlled
[112]; 10 ms 10
(b) Controlled InRms
with
InRsmart electricelectric
with smart neutralneutral
sectionsection
executer [113]. [113].
executer
2.6. Long Duration rms
2.6. Long Duration rms
These kinds of variations are characterized as the variations in voltage/current for a period longer
These kinds of variations are characterized as the variations in voltage/current for a period
than one minute. However, due to the instantaneous variation of loads and time-varying features of
longer than one minute. However, due to the instantaneous variation of loads and time-varying
ERPS, the duration can be lower in such a system. Depending on the creating factors of the variation,
features of ERPS, the duration can be lower in such a system. Depending on the creating factors of
this phenomenon can be classified into three formats of overvoltage, undervoltage, and sustained
the variation, this phenomenon can be classified into three formats of overvoltage, undervoltage, and
interruption [96].
sustained interruption [96].
2.6.1. Overvoltage (OvG)
2.6.1. Overvoltage (OvG)
When the system voltage increments and exceeds the higher limit of the designed nominal rate,
When the
it is known system
as an voltagesituation.
overvoltage increments and
This exceeds the is
phenomenon higher
in thelimit of of
range thea designed nominal
10–20% increase inrate,
rms
it is known
voltage lessas an overvoltage
with situation.
a duration longer thanThis phenomenon
1 min is in it
[96]. However, the rangebe
should of noted
a 10–20%
thatincrease in rms
the maximum
voltage
allowedless with a duration
overvoltage in ERPSlonger
is 20%.than 1 min
Based [96]. more
on [99], However,
than it16%should be noted that
of malfunctions in the maximum
electric power
allowed overvoltage in ERPS is 20%. Based on [99], more than 16% of malfunctions in electric power
systems are originated from overvoltage. However, the time/location-varying traction load in ERPS
has made it more prone to accept such a phenomenon. Figure 18a illustrates the overvoltage situation
during the braking of trains in Metro de Medellin. Various influencing factors can lead to overvoltage
occurrence in ERPS as [6,12,115–119]:
 Energies 2020, 13, 6662 17 of 35

systems are originated from overvoltage. However, the time/location-varying traction load in ERPS
has made it more prone to accept such a phenomenon. Figure 18a illustrates the overvoltage situation
during the braking of trains in Metro de Medellin. Various influencing factors can lead to overvoltage
occurrence in ERPS as [6,12,115–119]:
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 34
• Voltage increase in the OCS in the case of regenerative braking and lack of consumer trains in
the network.
the voltage at the pantograph satisfies the related standards [120–123]. In DC ERPS, voltage drops
• The interlinkage of system harmonics and pantograph impedance and created resonances.
are assigned just by the resistive component of the line, omitting the transient phenomena. On the
• System instabilities.
other hand, the AC ERPS lines are affected not only by the resistive component but also by the
• Oscillations happening in the onboard controllers.
inductive voltage drop and the reactive power included in the system. Meanwhile, the type of DC
• Automatic passing of neutral zones.
power supply including unilateral, bilateral, single-point parallel, and multi-parallel connections can
• Impedance unconformity at the inverter and traction motor terminals.
influence the voltage drops [1]. Figure 18b,c show the voltage drop situation over the distance from
• Lightening overvoltage.
TPSS in 25 kV AC and 3 kV DC ERPS, respectively.
• Switching or other atmospheric phenomena.
• Functioning of split-phase breakers in case of phase changing procedure.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 18. The measured overvoltage and under voltage in ERPS. (a) Overvoltage situation during
Figure 18. The measured overvoltage and under voltage in ERPS. (a) Overvoltage situation during
braking of trains in Metro de Medellin without dissipating resistance [117] (b) Voltage drop/undervoltage
braking of trains in Metro de Medellin without dissipating resistance [117] (b) Voltage
in 25 kV ERPS [120]. (c) Simulated voltage drop across the Rome–Florence HSR line.
drop/undervoltage in 25 kV ERPS [120]. (c) Simulated voltage drop across the Rome–Florence HSR
line. The overvoltage can damage electronic equipment, traction, and compressor motors located in
the trains and the insulators. It can also cause malfunction and failure on protection and relays.
2.6.3. Interruption Sustained (InRS)
2.6.2. Undervoltage (UvG)
The decrement of the voltage to less than 10% of the nominal value for a duration of more than
When the system voltage decrements and exceeds the lower limit of the designed nominal rate,
one minute is characterized as sustained interruption [96]. Like short interruption, this phenomenon
it is known as undervoltage (UvG) situation. According to IEEE 1159-2019, this phenomenon is in
can be
thecaused
range ofby some
a 10% to influencing
20% decreasefactors
in rms like operating
voltage less withofa the fuseslonger
duration or circuit
thanbreaker, failure, and
1 min. However,
faultitinshould
the line
be equipment
noted that theundesirable trippingvoltage
minimum allowed of protective
drop ordevices and relays
undervoltage [101,109,112–114].
situation in ERPS is
In Figure 19 sustained
−33% [1]. interruption
Therefore, ERPS with
can tolerate periods
most ofUvG
of these about 3.5 min,The
situations. which hasofbeen
analysis occurred
voltage drops inat the
substation
ERPS isofimportant
Rome subway is demonstrated.
for all rating, design, and planning stages to confirm that even under the worst
situation, the voltage at the pantograph satisfies the related standards [120–123]. In DC ERPS, voltage
 (c)

ure 18. The measured overvoltage and under voltage in ERPS. (a) Overvoltage situation dur
king of trains in 13,Metro
Energies 2020, 6662 de Medellin without dissipating resistance 18[117] of 35 (b) Volta
op/undervoltage in 25 kV ERPS [120]. (c) Simulated voltage drop across the Rome–Florence H
e. drops are assigned just by the resistive component of the line, omitting the transient phenomena.
On the other hand, the AC ERPS lines are affected not only by the resistive component but also by the
inductive voltage drop and the reactive power included in the system. Meanwhile, the type of DC
terruption Sustained
power (InRS)unilateral, bilateral, single-point parallel, and multi-parallel connections can
supply including
influence the voltage drops [1]. Figure 18b,c show the voltage drop situation over the distance from
TPSS in 25 kV AC and 3 kV DC ERPS, respectively.
e decrement of the voltage to less than 10% of the nominal value for a duration of mo
2.6.3. Interruption Sustained (InRS)
nute is characterized as sustained interruption [96]. Like short interruption, this pheno
The decrement of the voltage to less than 10% of the nominal value for a duration of more than one
caused by some influencing factors like operating of the fuses or circuit breaker, failu
minute is characterized as sustained interruption [96]. Like short interruption, this phenomenon can be
the line equipment
caused by someundesirable
influencing factors tripping oftheprotective
like operating of devices
fuses or circuit breaker, and
failure, relays
and fault in the [101,109,11
line equipment undesirable tripping of protective devices and relays [101,109,112–114]. In Figure 19
re 19 sustained
sustainedinterruption
interruption with with
periods periods of about
of about 3.5 min, which has3.5been min,
occurredwhich has been
at the substation of occurre
on of RomeRome
subwaysubway isisdemonstrated.
demonstrated.

Figure 19. The measured sustained interruption with 3.5 min duration in Rome metro line [101].

2.7. Voltage Fluctuation (Flicker)

Voltage Fluctuations are characterized as the change in nominal voltage in the range from 0.1 to
7% with frequencies less than 25 Hz. The time-varying specification and abrupt load changes in ERPS
can lead to a fast variation of the traction current results in sudden changes of OCS voltage known
as voltage flicker. The voltage flicker can have resulted in light flickering, destruct the equipment,
unwanted triggering of relays, and protection devices. The currents flowing in ERPS equipment may
lead to pulsating forces with high amplitude and which can be potentially harmful to TPSS equipment.
Static frequency converters (SFC), the operation of high-power traction motors, and arcing equipment
are the main reasons for flicker occurrence [41,124–126]. Figure 20 demonstrates the examples of
measured short and long duration voltage flicker in ERPS TPSS.
as voltage flicker. The voltage flicker can have resulted in light flickering, destruct the equipment,
unwanted triggering of relays, and protection devices. The currents flowing in ERPS equipment may
lead to pulsating forces with high amplitude and which can be potentially harmful to TPSS
equipment. Static frequency converters (SFC), the operation of high-power traction motors, and
arcing 2020,
Energies equipment
13, 6662 are the main reasons for flicker occurrence [41,124–126]. Figure 20 demonstrates
19 of 35
the examples of measured short and long duration voltage flicker in ERPS TPSS.
1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Time

(a) (b)

20. Measured voltage flicker in railway

Figure 20. railway substation.
substation. (a) Short duration flicker [124]. (b) Long
three-phase high-voltage
duration flicker in three-phase high-voltage busbar
busbar [41].
[41].

2.8. Waveform Distortion

2.8. Waveform Distortion
Waveform
Waveform distortions
distortions are
are characterized
characterized asas aa steady-state
steady-state deflection
deflection from
from an
an ideal
ideal fundamental
fundamental
power frequency sinusoidal. According to IEEE 1159-2019, there are five different
power frequency sinusoidal. According to IEEE 1159-2019, there are five different forms of forms of waveform
waveform
distortion
distortion as harmonics, inter-harmonics, DC offset, notch, and noise. Due to the importance of
as harmonics, inter-harmonics, DC offset, notch, and noise. Due to the importance of the
the
harmonic
harmonic issue
issueininERPS,
ERPS,wewe
classified andand
classified discussed
discussedthe first
thetwo
firstforms
two separately in harmonic
forms separately sections.
in harmonic
sections.
2.8.1. DC offset
2.8.1.The
DC existence
offset of a dc component in voltage or current in the AC side is characterized as dc
offset. In ERPS, the most popular time to occurrence of this phenomenon is controlling 4QCs with
The existence of a dc component in voltage or current in the AC side is characterized as dc offset.
indirect current control methods [127,128]. Meanwhile, in the six-step mode control of permanent
In ERPS, the most popular time to occurrence of this phenomenon is controlling 4QCs with indirect
magnet machines, the difference between the positive and negative half-cycle length can lead to this
current control methods [127,128]. Meanwhile, in the six-step mode control of permanent magnet
phenomenon on the AC side [129]. DC offset can cause DC magnetization of magnetic equipment,
machines, the difference between the positive and negative half-cycle length can lead to this
saturate the transformers, enhance heating problems, stressing of insulation. It can also impact the
phenomenon on the AC side [129]. DC offset can cause DC magnetization of magnetic equipment,
stability of 4QCs.
saturate the transformers, enhance heating problems, stressing of insulation. It can also impact the
stability
2.8.2. of 4QCs.
Notch

2.8.2.The notch is a kind of voltage disturbance which can be occurred mostly by power electronics
Notch
devices. Technically, it can be generated by the synchronous transition of two semiconductors
The notch
persisting on theis equal
a kinddc ofoutput
voltageterminal
disturbance
for awhich can be
short time occurred
period, whenmostly by power
two out electronics
of three of the ac
devices. Technically, it can be generated by the synchronous transition of two semiconductors
inputs are short-circuited. This can be found especially in voltage source converters controlling by SVM
persisting ontechnique
modulation the equalwhich
dc output
drivesterminal
tractionfor a short
motors. time period,
Meanwhile, thiswhen two out of
phenomenon canthree of the ac
be originated
inputs are short-circuited. This can be found especially in voltage source converters controlling by
in 4QC drives [3,71,111]. Based on its specification, this phenomenon can be found in both transient
and oscillation forms. In addition, due to the periodic situation and frequency oscillation features it
can be classified as harmonic distortions. However, implementing high capacitors or batteries can
mitigate this phenomenon.

2.8.3. Noise
According to IEEE 1159-2019, noise is characterized as an undesirable electric signal with contents
lower than 200 kHz which can be imposed on the voltage/current of conductors [96]. In ERPS, it can be
occurred by power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing equipment, and traction locomotives with
onboard rectifiers. Meanwhile, impulsive noise and radio frequency (RF) noises have been addressed
in some papers [100,130–132] as electromagnetic transients caused by the sliding contact between the
2.9. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is characterized as a phenomenon in which an
Energies 2020, 13, 6662
electromagnetic field (EF) interposes with another, cause to the contortion of both20fields. of 35
In other
words, electromagnetic coupling between a source of interference and a general sufferer system is
demonstratedOCSwhenever
and the pantograph. The commonhappens
an interlinkage amplitude between
of the noisetheis lower
EF than 0.01 p.u of
produced bythethe
voltage
source and the
magnitude. The communication and signaling systems in ERPS are the most vulnerable parts which
sufferer system. As a consequence, initiating a transfer of energy between them unfavorably modifies
are at risk and damage. Utilizing filters and isolation systems, this phenomenon can be mitigated.
the physicalDue
features
to the highand performance
potential of the system.
of ERPS associated EMI andnoises,
with electromagnetic electromagnetic
this phenomenon compatibility
has been (EMC)
covered and categorized in the conductive electromagnetic interference group.
issues play a significant role in the generic performance of the ERPS and signaling systems. The EMI
disturbances2.9.in ERPS canInterference
Electromagnetic be manifested
(EMI) by formations of current/voltage, electric/magnetic field
coupling and they can be classified
Electromagnetic into
interference theisfour
(EMI) types of
characterized as conduct,
a phenomenon inducted,
in which anelectrostatic,
electromagnetic and radiated
[1,131–145].field
The(EF) different
interposes withimpacts of EMI
another, cause between
to the contortion ERPS,
of both fields.infrastructure, and circumambient
In other words, electromagnetic
environment coupling between a sourcein
are demonstrated of Figure
interference
21. and a general
These EMIssufferer system isas
are known demonstrated whenever
an interlinkage happens between the EF produced by the source and the sufferer system. As a
 The induced interference
consequence, initiating a voltage
transfer ofbecause of thethem
energy between inductive/capacitive
unfavorably modifies thecoupling of three-phase
physical features ac
and performance of the system. EMI and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) issues play a significant
power grid transmission lines nearby to the OCS and TPSS.
role in the generic performance of the ERPS and signaling systems. The EMI disturbances in ERPS
 The induced interference
can be manifested voltageofby
by formations inductive/capacitive
current/voltage, coupling
electric/magnetic of OCS
field coupling and conductors.
they can be
 The conducted interference
classified into the four types between
of conduct, rails andelectrostatic,
inducted, signalingand systems/track circuits.
radiated [1,131–145]. The different
 impacts of EMI between
The inducted/radiated ERPS, infrastructure,
interference and circumambient
originated by pantograph environment
arcing.are demonstrated in
Figure 21. These EMIs are known as

Figure 21. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) occurrence places in ERPS [134].

Figure 21. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) occurrence places in ERPS [134].
•The induced interference voltage because of the inductive/capacitive coupling of three-phase ac
power grid transmission lines nearby to the OCS and TPSS.
2.9.1. Conducted EMI
• The induced interference voltage by inductive/capacitive coupling of OCS conductors.
• The conducted interference between rails and signaling systems/track circuits.
• The inducted/radiated interference originated by pantograph arcing.

2.9.1. Conducted EMI

Conducted EMI (CEMI) phenomenon occurs when a source and sufferer system share one or
more conductors. CEMI can be produced by injection of distorted current or harmonics into the power
lines from devices with nonlinear features, or by transient overvoltage originated by switching and
atmospheric phenomena [1]. In most ERPS, the running rail conductors are utilized simultaneously as
a return circuit and as the conductors for locomotive detection and signaling systems. In this situation,
the trains and TPSSs which are the source of harmonic currents can interfere with the signaling
system and disrupt the signal of track circuits [1]. The frequency analysis and separation for power
systems and signaling systems together with designing frequency filters are the main procedures
to mitigate this phenomenon. The earth current or known as the stray current is the other type of
foremost conductive coupling that returns currents flow through the earth and re-enter to the rails
 and atmospheric phenomena [1]. In most ERPS, the running rail conductors are utilized
simultaneously as a return circuit and as the conductors for locomotive detection and signaling
systems. In this situation, the trains and TPSSs which are the source of harmonic currents can interfere
with the signaling system and disrupt the signal of track circuits [1]. The frequency analysis and
separation for power systems and signaling systems together with designing frequency filters are the
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 21 of 35
main procedures to mitigate this phenomenon. The earth current or known as the stray current is the
other type of foremost conductive coupling that returns currents flow through the earth and re-enter
to the rails
nearby nearby
the TPSS the TPSSinespecially
especially DC ERPS.inTheDChigh
ERPS. The high
amount amount injected
of currents of currents
intoinjected
the soilinto
can the
leadsoil
to
can lead to electrochemical
electrochemical corrosion incorrosion in metal
metal devices devices
buried in theburied
earth.in the earth. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, it can result itincan
highresult in
rail to
high rail to earth or touch voltage [103,131–136]. Figure 22a shows a simple diagram
earth or touch voltage [103,131–136]. Figure 22a shows a simple diagram of stray current phenomena of stray current
phenomena
in DC ERPS. in TheDC ERPS.
other The
form ofother form of
conducted conducted
EMI mentioned EMI inmentioned in are
the literature the emissions
literature are emissions
related to the
relatedconverters
PWM to the PWM converters
which which
drive the drive
train’s the train’s
induction induction
motors motors
[137]. They can[137]. They can be
be stimulated andstimulated
generate
andnoises.
RF generate RF noises.
Figure Figure
22b shows 22b shows
an example an example
of measured of measured
CEMI in PWM 4QC CEMI in PWM
with power4QCfactorwith power
correction
factor unit.
(PFC) correction (PFC) unit.

PFC
PFC & inverter

PFC
PFC & inverter

(a) (b)
Figure 22. Different
Figure forms
Different of conducted
forms EMIEMI
of conducted (CEMI) in ERPS.
(CEMI) (a) Simple
in ERPS. diagram
(a) Simple of strayofcurrent
diagram stray
phenomena
current in DC ERPS.
phenomena (b) Output
in DC ERPS. measured EMImeasured
(b) Output in 4QC without
EMI in filter
4QC(output frequency
without filter =(output
15 Hz)
[137].
frequency = 15 Hz) [137].

2.9.2.
2.9.2. Inducted
Inducted EMI
EMI
Inductive
Inductive EMI EMI (IEMI)
(IEMI) happens
happens whenwhen the
the magnetic
magnetic flux
flux is
is related
related to
to the
the source
source current
current interface
interface
with
with a secondary system. ERPS’s lines especially AC types are known as a source of
a secondary system. ERPS’s lines especially AC types are known as a source of such
such EMI
EMI
phenomenon
phenomenon since since they
they can
can induce
induce the
the electromotive
electromotiveforce
force(emf)
(emf)on onthe
theclose
closeparalleled
paralleledconductors.
conductors.
This
This longitudinal
longitudinal emf emf and
and the
the induced
induced voltage
voltage is
is one
one of
of IEMI
IEMI impacts.
impacts. The
The other
other type
type is
is related
related
to
to physical positioning, cause transverse emf to generate considerable audio frequency noise
physical positioning, cause transverse emf to generate considerable audio frequency noise in
in
communication circuits and power controlling cable networks [131–142].
communication circuits and power controlling cable networks [131–142]. The measured induced The measured induced
voltages
Energies
voltages on
on13,aaxconductor
2020, FOR PEER parallel
conductor parallel to
REVIEW to ERPS
ERPS for both11×× 25
forboth 25 kV and 22 ×
kV and 25 kV
× 25 kV are
are shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 23.
23. 21 of 34

(a) (b)

Figure23.
Figure Theinduced
23.The induced and touch
touch voltage
voltageon onaaconductor
conductorparallel to to
parallel ERPS
ERPStrack. (a) (a)
track. Induced
Inducedvoltage
voltage
basedon
based on the
the distance
distanceofofthe
theconductor
conductor[138].
[131(b) Induced
]. (b) voltage
Induced based
voltage on frequency
based for both
on frequency × 25 kV
for1 both 1 × 25
and 2 × 25 kV ERPSs [139].
kV and 2 × 25 kV ERPSs [132].

2.9.3. Electrostatic/Capacitance EMI

Electrostatic EMI (EEMI) can be caused by the production of electrostatic electric fields (EF) and
happens when an EF source (primary system) has a considerable parasitic capacitance against the
victim circuit (secondary system), leading to undesirable interference and induced voltage on the
 (a) (b)

Figure 23. The induced and touch voltage on a conductor parallel to ERPS track. (a) Induced voltage
based
Energies 2020,on 6662distance of the conductor [131]. (b) Induced voltage based on frequency for both 1 × 25
13, the 22 of 35
kV and 2 × 25 kV ERPSs [132].

2.9.3. Electrostatic/Capacitance EMI

Electrostatic
Electrostatic EMI
EMI (EEMI)
(EEMI) can
can be
be caused
caused by the production
by the production of of electrostatic
electrostatic electric
electric fields
fields (EF)
(EF) and
and
happens when an EF source (primary (primary system) has a considerable parasitic
a considerable parasitic capacitance against the
victim
victim circuit
circuit (secondary
(secondary system),
system), leading
leading to
to undesirable
undesirable interference
interference and
and induced
induced voltage
voltage onon the
the
secondary system [1]. EEMI is executed when the railway lines are close to the interfering OCS lines
(inducing EF source) and the conductors in the line (rails, signaling and telecommunication cables,
metal objects)
objects) receiving
receivinginterference.
interference.TheThenoise
noisegenerated
generatedbybyEEMI
EEMIbecomes
becomes more
morecritical in in
critical thethe
case of
case
aofhigh voltage supply. EEMI has been reported mostly during the regenerative braking
a high voltage supply. EEMI has been reported mostly during the regenerative braking of trains of trains in
field test measurements
measurements with frequencies ranged 8–20 kHz and the maximum transient rail current
amount of 10 A [131,132]. It can be categorized in static type, where the conductors of a system with
high-voltage
high-voltagemake
makea apotential divider
potential toward
divider the capacitors
toward to earth
the capacitors to or other
earth ormetal
otherobjects,
metal and dynamic
objects, and
type,
dynamicwhere a sudden
type, where change
a sudden in voltage
change orin inherent track
voltage or admittance
inherent track like charginglike
admittance andcharging
discharging
and
of capacitorsoforcapacitors
discharging switching or
semiconductors may cause CdV/dt
switching semiconductors currents
may cause [131,132].
CdV/dt currentsThe[131,132].
diagramsTheof
both static and dynamic EEMI are displayed in Figure 24 marking capacitor coupling
diagrams of both static and dynamic EEMI are displayed in Figure 24 marking capacitor coupling between wires,
ground,
betweenand metal
wires, subjects
ground, andclosed.
metal subjects closed.

F
M

G C

MF

M R R

Metal fence

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 24. The static
24. The static and
and dynamic
dynamic electrostatic
electrostatic (EEMI)
(EEMI) in
in ERPS.
ERPS. (a)
(a) Static
Static EEMI.
EEMI. (b)
(b) Dynamic
Dynamic EEMI.
EEMI.

2.9.4. Radiated EMI

2.9.4. Radiated EMI
One of the foremost common phenomena in ERPS especially in HSR is radiated EMI (REMI)
One of the foremost common phenomena in ERPS especially in HSR is radiated EMI (REMI)
known also as arcing. The interlinkage between the pantograph and contact wire or between the
known also as arcing. The interlinkage between the pantograph and contact wire or between the
train’s brushes and the third or fourth rail in ERPS and neutral intersection points are the main
train’s brushes and the third or fourth rail in ERPS and neutral intersection points are the main
influencing factors and environments in creating REMI. To put it another way, loss of mechanical
touch between a train and supplying wires because of excessive shaking and disturbances at ERPS
tracks, the electric arc can occur. Even though the duration of this phenomenon is so short, it is
highly nonlinear features lead to distorted currents with RF spectra that makes radiated emissions.
The arcing issue can distort voltages and currents of ERPS and produce different kinds of transient
problems [131–145]. Meanwhile, they can create DC components in AC points which may breakdown
of dielectrics. However, the foremost issue caused by REMI is an intervention in the wireless or
radio-based telecommunication systems, traction power, and signaling system. Various factors like
train speed, absorbed current, inductance feature of OCS, network power factor, etc., can impact the
arcing phenomenon. Figure 25a,b show examples of pantograph and brush-based arcing phenomenon
in ERS.
of dielectrics. However, the foremost issue caused by REMI is an intervention in the wireless or radio-
based telecommunication systems, traction power, and signaling system. Various factors like train
speed, absorbed current, inductance feature of OCS, network power factor, etc., can impact the arcing
phenomenon. Figure 25a,b show examples of pantograph and brush-based arcing phenomenon in
ERS. Energies 2020, 13, 6662 23 of 35

(a) (b)

(c)

FigureFigure 25. Arcing

25. Arcing phenomenon
phenomenon and and measured
measured radiated
radiated emission
emission in in ERPS.
ERPS. (a)(a)Pantograph
Pantographarcing.
arcing. (b)
(b) Brush arcing. (c) The measured electric field emission in the range frequency of 30 MHz to 1 GHz
Brush arcing. (c) The measured electric field emission in the range frequency of 30 MHz to 1 GHz
with train positions on ground and viaduct [145].
with train positions on ground and viaduct [145].
The impact of arc in ERPS can be either as radiated or inducted. The radiated EMI type which
The impact of
is discussed in arc
thisin ERPSiscan
section be either
related to theas radiated or inducted.
high-frequency part of theThe radiatedcurrent
pantograph EMI type which is
transient.
discussed in this section
The inducted is related
type which to the
is related to high-frequency
the low-frequency part
partofofthe
thepantograph
pantographcurrent transient.isThe
current transient
inducted type in
discussed which is related
OsT section. to 25c
Figure the illustrates
low-frequency part ofradiated
the measured the pantograph current
electric field transient
emission by the is
pantograph-catenary
discussed in OsT section.interaction
Figure 25c in the two trainthe
illustrates positions (viaduct
measured and ground)
radiated at field
electric 10 m position.
emissionAsbyit the
is obvious in the figure, the frequency band of REMI, in this case, is in the
pantograph–catenary interaction in the two train positions (viaduct and ground) at 10 m position. range of 30 MHz to 1 GHz. As
it is obvious in the figure, the frequency band of REMI, in this case, is in the range of 30 the
To have a comprehensive review and appropriate categorization of all mentioned phenomena, MHz PQto 1
phenomena organized chart is presented in Figure 26. This figure illustrates the overview of the main
GHz. To have
Energies a 13,
2020, comprehensive
x FOR PEER REVIEW review and appropriate categorization of all mentioned phenomena, 23 of 34
PQ phenomena together with their different types in ERPS.
the PQ phenomena organized chart is presented in Figure 26. This figure illustrates the overview of
the main PQ phenomena together with their different types in ERPS.
PQ Phenomena

Transient Waveform Waveform

Unbalance Harmonics Low PF Flicker EMI
events variations distortions

Short Long
VUF LOH ImT variations DC offset CIF
varations

CUF InH OsT Sag OvG Notch IIF

LFO Swell UvG Noise RIF

HR InR InRs

HI

Figure 26. Classification and organization chart of power quality (PQ) phenomena in ERPS.
Figure 26. Classification and organization chart of power quality (PQ) phenomena in ERPS.

3. Investigation of PQ Phenomena Occurrence Based on ERPS Type

Railway electrification has experienced a significant modification and evolution process over
time. A sharp increase in population growth and enhanced demand for high-power and high-speed
transport together with historical, geographical, and economic policies and features of the countries,
have led to different structures of ERPSs all around the world. Depending on the configuration of
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 24 of 35

3. Investigation of PQ Phenomena Occurrence Based on ERPS Type

Railway electrification has experienced a significant modification and evolution process over
time. A sharp increase in population growth and enhanced demand for high-power and high-speed
transport together with historical, geographical, and economic policies and features of the countries,
have led to different structures of ERPSs all around the world. Depending on the configuration of
each ERPS, PQ characteristics and influencing parameters are different. In this section, a brief review
of various ERPSs configurations together with the classified reported PQ phenomena in literature
based on supplying system type are presented. As mentioned, at the beginning of the ERPS the
transformer-based TPSS were prevalent and popular. They were based on the DC supplying system
which feeds DC motors directly. The TPSSs in such an ERPS is resourced with the three-phase
multiple pulse rectifiers to cover the locomotive’s energy. They lead to a wide spectrum of harmonics.
However, in addition to the harmonic problems, voltage fluctuations, voltage imbalance, voltage
drops, and other transient events are reported in different DC TPSS around the world. Meanwhile,
the brush-based arcs and the EMI based problems due to the stray currents are the other issues of DC
ERPS. Inventing advanced PE-based DC TPSS and taking benefits of bidirectional switches, the DC
voltage regulation, allowing the regenerative braking energy harvesting of trains, reduction of voltage
drop and voltage fluctuation has occurred. With the growing developments of power technologies and
electrical motors, the AC transformer-based TPSS were appeared and got popular. The 1 × 25 kV simple
and back feeder based structures are initial configurations have been adopted. The main problem of
these systems is voltage and current imbalance due to the single-phase feeding systems. Furthermore,
the LPF, harmonics, transient problems, and EMI issues, and telecommunication interfaces regarding
the return currents are other forms of PQ indices that have been reported in the literature. To decrease
the return current of rail and mitigate EMI issues, the booster transformer (BT) based 1 × 25 kV ERPS
was presented. However, the large arcing and voltage drops in BT sections could cause essential
damage to the OCS. Further, the BT sections reduce the operating speed of trains. Motivated by
these problems, the autotransformer based 2 × 25 kV ERPS has been employed. Reducing inductive
and telecommunication interfaces, voltage drops, and arcing problems are the foremost features of
these systems. Nonetheless, LFO and HI issues regarding the high-speed 4QC based locomotives
and impedance interplay among the system and trains are the fundamental obstacles of these ERPS.
To decrease the arcing problems and enhance the functioning speed of trains close the TPSSs the
specialists provided a new ERPS topology with a lower number of neutral sections and insulating
areas. They are known as co-phase system. Disregarding the converter performance in the co-phase
ERPS configuration, the PQ issues are like other traditional ERPS except arcing and related problems
which have been reduced. During the development of AC industrial frequency-based ERPS, several
countries like Germany, Norway, Sweden, Austria, and Switzerland employed the 16.67 Hz ERPS
using RFC. The main critical issues of such an ERPS are stability and transient problems owing to the
synchronously coupled motor and generators. Furthermore, the modern kind of frequency converter
termed the static frequency converter (SFC) comprises high-frequency harmonics and HR and HI
phenomena. In addition, a wide range of perturbation among SFC and RFC manifest during their
parallel functioning. However, as a consequence of the PE-based equipment, SFC can mitigate the
system imbalance, control power factor, and regulate voltage.
With the rapid developments of power electronics and high-voltage switches, a new ERPS
structure called advanced co-phase system is presented. Due to the three-phase to single-phase
converter and their capability in controlling output voltage and currents, these types of ERPS can
compensate harmonics, imbalance, and PF. Meanwhile, with the elimination of neutral zones, the arcing
problems and other related voltage variation can be suppressed. In some cases, the three-phase to
single-phase converters are based on the modular multilevel converter either direct (AC/AC) or indirect
(AC/DC/AC). The MMC based ERPS is connected directly to the utility grid via the three-phase side of
MMC. These systems symmetrically transfer active power from the three-phase grid to the single-phase
OCS which leads to compensate NSC and harmonics and improve PF simultaneously. Eliminating
 compensate harmonics, imbalance, and PF. Meanwhile, with the elimination of neutral zones, the
arcing problems and other related voltage variation can be suppressed. In some cases, the three-phase
to single-phase converters are based on the modular multilevel converter either direct (AC/AC) or
indirect (AC/DC/AC). The MMC based ERPS is connected directly to the utility grid via the three-
Energies side 13,
phase 2020, 6662
of MMC. These systems symmetrically transfer active power from the three-phase grid 25 of
to35
the single-phase OCS which leads to compensate NSC and harmonics and improve PF
simultaneously. Eliminating bulky traction transformers, integrating of OCS, and removing the
bulky traction transformers, integrating of OCS, and removing the neutral sections which lead to obviate
neutral sections which lead to obviate the arcing problems and voltage fluctuation and transients are
the arcing problems and voltage fluctuation and transients are the advantages of mentioned ERPS.
the advantages of mentioned ERPS. To have a quick review and appropriate classification of all
To have a quick review and appropriate classification of all mentioned ERPS structures, the related
mentioned ERPS structures, the related organized chart is provided in Figure 27. This figure
organized chart is provided in Figure 27. This figure illustrates a comprehensive classification of ERPS
illustrates a comprehensive classification of ERPS types based on internal configuration.
types based on internal configuration.

ERPS Type

Conventional and transformer

Modern PE converter based
based

DC AC DC AC

LVDC Rotary converter Transformer based SFC

LVDC MVDC 50/60 Hz
(0.6-1.5) kV based 16.67/25 Hz 50/60 Hz 16.67/25 Hz

MVDC Advanced MMC based Direct MMC based

1×15 kV 2×15 kV 1×25 kV 2×25 kV monovoltage RPC based Co-phase
3 kV AC/DC (AC/AC) AC/AC
(AC/DC)

Advanced Indirect Direct

Simple Simple Simple
bi-voltage (AC/DC/AC) (AC/AC)
(AC/DC-DC/DC)
With return With return Hybrid co- Indirect
conductor conductor phase (AC/DC/AC)

With Booster With Booster

Advanced
transformet transformet

Structures with high power quality problems Structures with low power quality problems

Figure 27. Classification

Classificationand
andorganization
organizationchart
chartofofdifferent
differentERPS
ERPSconfiguration.
configuration.

4.
4. Discussion
Discussion and Classification
Choosing
Choosing the right method method to to mitigate
mitigate PQ PQ issues
issues requires
requirescomprehensive
comprehensiveknowledge
knowledgeand and
identification
identification of main sources, the characteristics, influencing factors, and occurrence
the characteristics, influencing factors, and occurrence environment.environment.
Unlike
Unlike the
the power
power grid, for which
which numerous
numerousstandards
standardsand andresources
resourceshavehavebeen
beendeveloped,
developed,thetheERPS
ERPS
suffers
suffers from
from aa lack
lack of
of aa comprehensive
comprehensive and all-encompassing
all-encompassingresource.
resource.As Asdiscussed
discussedbefore,
before,bybythe
the
proliferation and development
proliferation and development of ERPSs, different forms
forms of PQ phenomena emerge.
phenomena emerge. GenerallyGenerally
speaking,
speaking, all
allkinds
kindsofofERPS cancan
ERPS be categorized
be categorizedaccording to their
according internal
to their configuration
internal in twoingroups,
configuration two
groups, transformer-based
transformer-based and modern
and modern power electronic
power electronic converterconverter
based.based. Thecategory
The first first category
knownknown
as the
as thepopular
most most popular and predominant
and predominant systemsystem
is the is the preference
preference of experts
of experts in theindesigning
the designing
stagestage
due toduethe
to theexpenditure
lower lower expenditure
costs andcosts and effortless
effortless operation.operation.
However,However,
as evaluatedas evaluated in framework,
in a specific a specific
framework,
these systemsthese
dealsystems
with manydealPQ
with manywhich
issues PQ issues
evenwhich even may
may enhance enhance
their their costs remarkably.
costs remarkably. Meanwhile,
as a perspective view and compatibility evaluation with future smart grid-based ERPS, power flow
control in these ERPSs contain many complexities and difficulties.
On the contrary, the second group ERPSs taking advantage of the modern converter have not
only admirable performance in terms of power quality but also significant potential to achieve future
smart grid-based networks. However, the high cost of PE converters is still a basic weak point for
this type which has led them to remain in the theoretical stage for the time being and prevents the
developments and implementation of these systems. The overall classification of PQ phenomena based
on the sources, ERPS system structure, and the probability of occurrence together with an overview of
some main studies which have been carried out in each index are provided in Table 3.
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 26 of 35

Table 3. Reported classified PQ indexes in different ERPS.

Phenomena Type Causes and Sources System Type & References

VUF single-phase power supply, asymmetric faults AC 1 × 25 kV [30], AC 2 × 25 kV [37,41]
Unbalance AC 2 × 25 kV [31,41], AC 1 × 25 kV [33],
CUF single-phase power supply, asymmetric faults
AC 15 kV-16.67 Hz [36]
background harmonics, train internal AC 1 × 25 kV [24,44–47], AC 2 × 25 kV
LOH
harmonics, DC rectifier substation [42,43], LVDC [29,48,50], MVDC [49,51]
AC motors controlled by variable frequency AC 1 × 25 kV [54,55], 2 × 25 kV [53],
InH
drives, onboard PWM converters 15 kV-16.67 Hz [52], MVDC [53]
impedance mismatch between the railway AC 1 × 25 kV [59–62], 2 × 25 kV [64,65]
LFO
Harmonics network and PWM trains, rotary converter 15 kV-16.67 Hz [56–58], MVDC [63]
interaction of current harmonics and internal AC 1 × 25 kV [71–75], 2 × 25 kV
HR
resonance of LC circuit of OCS [66–70,76,79], 15 kV-16.67 Hz [77]
interaction between high switching frequency
of PWM converters in modern trains and
AC 1 × 25 kV [85,86], 2 × 25 kV [80,82,84],
HI internal resonance of OCS, high-frequency
15 kV-16.67 Hz [81,87], MVDC [82]
specifications of the closed-loop control system
for 4QC
overlap commutation angel in conventional AC 1 × 25 kV [89,90,95], 2 × 25 kV [92–94],
Low Power
LPF rectifier, inductive reactance features of the 15 kV-16.67 Hz [88], MVDC [12],
Factor
OCS, supplying sections with different phase LVDC [12,51]
lightening, switching of circuit breakers,
AC 1 × 25 kV [99,100], 2 × 25 kV [97],
abnormal changing in tractive efforts, sliding
ImT 15 kV-16.67 Hz [98], MVDC [99,102],
contact between pantograph and OCS, passing
LVDC [101,102]
neutral zone
Transient events
changing in operational condition and
modulation patterns, sliding contact and AC 1 × 25 kV [106,111], 2 × 25 kV [1],
OsT pantograph jump over OCS, inrush current of 15 kV-16.67 Hz [105], MVDC [103,104],
locomotive transformer, capacitor bank LVDC [103,104]
energization

fault occurrence, high current absorbed by AC 1 × 25 kV [108,111,112], 2 × 25 kV [110],

Sag
traction motors, sudden load changes or 15 kV-16.67 Hz [105,109], MVDC [109]
supplying high-power locomotives, AC 1 × 25 kV [108,111,112], 2 × 25 kV [110],
TPSS transformers 15 kV-16.67 Hz [105,109], MVDC [109]
Short duration Swell energization/de-energization, motor blocking
rms variation caused by the segregation of pantograph and
OCS, neutral sections,
TPSS equipment triggering AC 1 × 25 kV [108,109,112,113], 2 × 25 kV
train passes NZ, pantograph bounce operating
[108,113], 15 kV-16.67 Hz [109],
of the circuit breaker, failure, and fault,
InR MVDC [109], LVDC [3,114]
abruptly disconnection between the contact
wire and pantograph

regenerative braking and lack of consumer

trains, resonance, system instabilities, passing AC 1 × 25 kV [99,115], 2 × 25 kV [12,116],
OvG of neutral zones, lightning, switching or other 15 kV-16.67 Hz [6], MVDC [117],
atmospheric phenomena, functioning of LVDC [117,118]
split-phase breakers
Long duration
Type of line (unilateral, bilateral, . . . ), AC 1 × 25 kV [122], 2 × 25 kV [120,121],
rms variation
UvG high traffic of line, resonance, system 15 kV-16.67 Hz [123], MVDC [1,122],
instabilities, passing of neutral zones, LVDC [1,117,122]
Train passes NZ, pantograph bounce operating
AC 1 × 25 kV [108,109,112,113], 2 × 25 kV
of the circuit breaker, failure, and fault,
InRS [108,113], 15 kV-16.67 Hz [109],
abruptly disconnection between the contact
MVDC [109], LVDC [3,114]
wire and pantograph
time-varying specification, abrupt load changes
Voltage
in ERPS, static frequency converters, operation AC 1 × 25 kV [41,108,124,125], 2 × 25 kV
fluctuation FlK
of high-power traction motors, [108], 15 kV-16.67 Hz [124], LVDC [124]
(Flicker)
arcing equipment
indirect current control method of 4QCs, AC 1 × 25 kV [127,129], 2 × 25 kV [127,129],
DC offset inequality of the positive and negative 15 kV-16.67 Hz [127], MVDC [127],
half-cycle length in six-step mode control LVDC [128]
power electronics devices, 4QC drives,
Waveform
Notch abruptly disconnection between the contact AC 1 × 25 kV [45,71,111], 2 × 25 kV [18,111],
distortion
wire and pantograph
power electronic devices, control circuits,
AC 1 × 25 kV [100,131,132], 2 × 25 kV [100],
arcing equipment and traction locomotives
Noise 15 kV-16.67 Hz [131,132], MVDC [130],
with onboard rectifiers, sliding contact between
LVDC [130–132]
the OCS and the pantograph
Energies 2020, 13, 6662 27 of 35

Table 3. Cont.

Phenomena Type Causes and Sources System Type & References

injection of distorted current or harmonics into
the power lines from devices with nonlinear AC 1 × 25 kV [1,134,137], 2 × 25 kV
CEMI features, transient overvoltage originated by [1,134,137], 15 kV-16.67 Hz [1,137,140],
switching and atmospheric phenomena, return MVDC [1,135,136,145], LVDC [1,135,145]
current flowing through earth
Interfacing of magnetic flux related to the AC 1 × 25 kV [1,134,138,139,143,144],
IEMI source current with a secondary closed system, 2 × 25 kV [1,138,139,142–144],
Electromagnetic physical positioning causing transverse emf 15 kV-16.7 Hz [1,138,140]
Interference production of electrostatic electric fields,
capacitive interference between closed
conductors and earth, the sudden change in AC 1 × 25 kV [1,133], 2 × 25 kV [1,133],
EEMI
voltage or inherent track admittance causing 15 kV-16.7 Hz [1,133]
charging and discharging of capacitors or
switching semiconductors
The interlinkage between the pantograph and
AC 1 × 25 kV [1,143], 2 × 25 kV [1,143],
contact wire or between the train’s brushes and
REMI 15 kV-16.7 Hz [1], MVDC [103,136,145],
the third or fourth rail, neutral
LVDC [103,145]
intersection points

5. Conclusions
Since the start of railway electrification, ERPSs have experienced substantial modifications
and developments. This diversity including the types of railway power supply systems, AC or
DC-based power supply, the types of converters adopted in trains and TPSS, controlling and drive
systems, and the dedicated frequency has led to various power quality issues reported all around
the world. Furthermore, the lack of specific standards and encompassing resources dedicated to
ERPS has increased the obscurity and complexity of its PQ. In this paper, a comprehensive review of
PQ phenomena in terms of characteristics, influencing factors, and occurrence sources in different
configurations of ERPSs is proposed and a systematic classification is presented. Meanwhile, a detailed
review of the reported PQ phenomena in the literature is classified. Unbalance of system, various
types of harmonics, low power factor, different aspects of transients events, and waveform deviations,
with EMI are addressed with details as the outstanding indexes. Classifying and assessing of diverse
transformer-based and PE modern converter based ERPS exposed that the latter types are more
efficient and have good performance regarding the PQ issues. Moreover, due to the suitable power
flow capability and possible connection to the weak utility networks, which can mitigate and reduce
the PQ issues significantly, the converter based ERPS are realized as an appropriate option for smart
grid-based future studies of ERPS.

Author Contributions: In preparation of this paper, H.J.K. did the methodology, data curation, software-based
simulations, and writing—original draft, M.B., F.F., and D.Z. did the validation, visualization, and the resources
and funding acquisition; S.S.F. did the editing, and supervision; All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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