Romani people

The Romani (also spelled Romany /ˈroʊmǝni/, /ˈrɒ-/), colloquially known as the Roma, are an
Indo-Aryan ethnic group, traditionally nomadic itinerants. Most of the Romani people live in
Europe, and diaspora populations also live in the Americas.

In the English language, the Romani people

Romani people
are widely known by the exonym Gypsies (or
Gipsies),[66] which is considered pejorative
by many Romani people due to its
connotations of illegality and irregularity as
well as its historical use as a racial
slur.[67][68][69] For cognates of the word in
many other languages (e.g., French: Tzigane,
Romani flag created in 1933 and accepted at
Spanish: gitano, Italian: zingaro, Portuguese:
the 1971 World Romani Congress
cigano, and Romanian: țigan), this perception
is either very small or non-existent.[70][71] At
the first World Romani Congress in 1971, its
attendees unanimously voted to reject the
use of all exonyms for the Romani people,
including Gypsy, due to their aforementioned
negative and stereotypical connotations.[68] Total population

2–20 million[1][2][3][4]
Linguistic and genetic evidence suggests
that the Roma originated in the northern  United States 1,000,000 estimated
regions of the Indian subcontinent; in with Romani
particular, the Rajasthan, Haryana, and ancestry[note 1][5][6]
Punjab regions of modern-day
 Brazil 800,000 (0.4%)[7]
India.[72][73][74] They are dispersed, but their
most concentrated populations are located in  Spain 750,000–1,500,000

Europe, especially Central, Eastern and (1.9–

3.7%)[8][9][10][11][12]
Southern Europe (including Southern
France), as well as Western Asia (mainly  Romania 619,007[note 2]–
Turkey). The Romani people arrived in West 1,850,000 (3.29–
Asia and Europe around the 14th century.[75] 8.3%)[13][14][15]

Since the 19th century, some Romani people  Turkey 500,000–2,750,000

have also migrated to the Americas. There (3.8%)[9][16][17][18]

are an estimated one million Roma in the  France 500,000–

United States[6] and 800,000 in Brazil, most 1,200,000[19][20]
of whose ancestors emigrated in the 19th
 Bulgaria 325,343[note 3]–
century from Eastern Europe. Brazil also
750,000 (4.9–
includes a notable Romani community
10.3%)[21][22]
descended from people deported by the
Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese  Hungary 309,632[note 4]–
870,000 (3.21–
Inquisition.[76] In migrations since the late
8.8%)[23][24]
19th century, Romani people have also moved
to other countries in South America and to  Argentina 300,000[note 5][25][26]
Canada. Though often confused with them,
 Czech Republic 250,000[27][28]
the Romani people are culturally different
from Irish Travellers and the Yenish people,  United Kingdom 225,000
two groups who may be related to each (0.4%)[29][9][30]

other.[77]  Russia 205,007[note 6]–

825,000 (0.6%)[9]
Romani is an Indo-Aryan language with
strong Balkan and Greek influence.[78] It is  Serbia 147,604[note 7]–
divided into several dialects, which together 600,000 (2.1–

are estimated to have more than two million 8.2%)[31][32][9]

speakers.[79] Because it has traditionally  Italy 120,000–180,000

been an oral language, many Romani people (0.3%)[33][9]
are native speakers of the dominant language
 Greece 111,000–300,000
in their country of residence or of mixed
(2.7%)[34][35]
languages combining the dominant language
with a dialect of Romani; those varieties are  Germany 105,000 (0.1%)[9][36]
sometimes called Para-Romani.[80]
 Slovakia 105,738[note 8]–
490,000 (2.1–
Population and subgroups 9.0%)[37][38][39]

 Iran 2,000–110,000[40][41]
Romani population  North 53,879[note 9]–
… Macedonia 197,000 (9.6%)[9][42]
For a variety of reasons, many Romanis
 Sweden 50,000–
choose not to register their ethnic identity in
100,000[9][43]
official censuses. There are an estimated 10
million Romani people in Europe (as of  Ukraine 47,587[note 10]–
260,000 (0.6%)[9][44]
2019),[81] although some Romani
organizations give estimates as high as 14  Portugal 40,000–52,000
[82]
million. Significant Romani populations are (0.5%)[9][45]
found in the Balkans, in some Central
 Austria 40,000–50,000
European states, in Spain, France, Russia and
(0.6%)
Ukraine. In the European Union, there are an
estimated 6 million Romanis.[83] Several  Kosovo[a] 36,000[note 11]

million more Romanis may live outside (2%)[9][46]

Europe, in particular in the Middle East and in  Netherlands 32,000–40,000

the Americas.[84] (0.2%)[9]

 Poland 17,049[note 6]–32,500

Romani subgroups …
(0.1%)[9][47]

 Croatia 16,975[note 6]–35,000

(0.8%)[9][48]

 Mexico 15,850[49]

 Chile 15,000–20,000[50]

 Moldova 12,778[note 6]–107,100

(3.0%)[9][51]

 Finland 10,000–12,000 est.

(0.2%)[52]

 Bosnia and 8,864[note 6]–58,000

Herzegovina (1.5%)[9][53]

 Colombia 2,649–8,000[25][54]

 Albania 8,301[note 12]–

 150,000[9][45][55]
 Belarus 7,316[note 6]–47,500
(0.5%)[56]

 Latvia 7,193[note 6]–12,500

(0.6%)[9]

 Canada 5,255–80,000[57][58]

 Montenegro 5,251[note 6]–20,000

(3.7%)[59]

 Czech Republic 5,199[note 13]–

40,370[note 14]
(Romani speakers)–
250,000
(1.9%)[60][61]

 Australia 5,000–25,000[62]

Languages

Romani language, Para-Romani varieties,

languages of native regions

Religion

Predominantly Christianity[63]
Islam[63]
Shaktism tradition of Hinduism[63]
Romani mythology
Buddhism (minority)[64][65]

Related ethnic groups

Dom, Lom, Domba; other Indo-Aryans

  

Three Finnish Romani women in

Helsinki, Finland, in 1930s

Like the Roma in general, many different ethnonyms are given to subgroups of Roma.
Sometimes a subgroup uses more than one endonym, is commonly known by an exonym or
erroneously by the endonym of another subgroup. The only name approaching an all-
encompassing self-description is Rom.[85] Even when subgroups do not use the name, they all
acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy between themselves and Gadjo (non-
Roma).[85] For instance, while the main group of Roma in German-speaking countries refer to
themselves as Sinti, their name for their original language is Romanes.

Subgroups have been described as, in part, a result of the castes and subcastes in India, which
the founding population of Rom almost certainly experienced in their South Asian
urheimat.[85][86]

Debret, Jean-Baptiste (c. 1820),

Interior of a gipsy's house in Brazil
  

Gypsies camping. Welsh Romanies

near Swansea, 1953

Many groups use names apparently derived from the Romani word kalo or calo, meaning
"black" or "absorbing all light". This closely resembles words for "black" or "dark" in Indo-
Aryan languages (e.g. Sanskrit काल kāla: "black", "of a dark colour").[85] Likewise, the name of
the Dom or Domba people of North India – to whom the Roma have genetic,[87] cultural and
linguistic links – has come to imply "dark-skinned", in some Indian languages.[88] Hence names
such as kale and calé may have originated as an exonym or a euphemism for Roma.

Other endonyms for Romani include, for example:

Ashkali – Albanian-speaking Muslim Roma communities in the Balkans[89]

Arlije (also Erlides, Yerli meaning local, from the Turkish word Yerli) in Balkans and Turkey to
describe sedentary Muslim roma.

Bashaldé – Hungarian-Slovak Roma diaspora in the US from the late 19th century.[90]

Çerge also Čergarja (Nomad), Nomadic Lifestyle Muslim Roma at Balkans and Turkey.

Calé is the endonym used by both the Spanish Roma (gitanos) and Portuguese Roma
ciganos;[91] Caló is "the language spoken by the calé".

Dasikane or Daskane, meaning slaves or servants, a Religionym and confessionym for

Orthodox Christian Roma in the Balkans.[85]

Sepečides meaning Basketmaker, Muslim roma in west thrace Greece.

Kaale, in Finland and Sweden.[91][85]

Garachi Shia Islam followers Roma people in Azerbaijan

Gurbeti Muslim Roma in Northern Cyprus, Turkey and Balkans.

Kale, Kalá, or Valshanange – Welsh English endonym used by some Roma clans in
Wales.[note 15] (Romanichal also live in Wales.) Romani in Spain are also attributed to the
Kale.[12]

Horahane or Xoraxai, also known as "Turkish Roma", Muslim Roma, a Religionym and
confessionym in the Balkans for Muslim Romani people. [85]

Lalleri, from Austria, Germany, and the western Czech Republic (including the former
Sudetenland).[92]

Lovari, from Hungary,[93] known in Serbia as Machvaya, Machavaya, Machwaya, or Macwaia.

[85]

Lyuli, in Central Asian countries.

Romanlar in Turkey, Turkish speaking Muslim roma in Turkey, also called Çingene or Şopar,
with all subgroups, who named after their professions, like:
Cambazı (Acrobatics and horse trading)

Sünnetçi (Circumciser), like a Mohel

Kuyumcu (Goldsmith)

Subaşı (Water carrier)

Çiçekçi (Flower seller)

Sepetçi (Basketmaker)

Ayıcı (Bear-leader)

Kalaycı (Tinsmith)

Müzisyen (Musician)

Şarkıcı (Singer)

Demirci (Blacksmith) etc., but the majority of Turkish Roma work as day laborers too.[85]

Rom in Italy.

Roma in Romania, commonly known by majority ethnic Romanians as Țigani, including many
subgroups defined by occupation:
Boyash, also known as Băieși, Lingurari, Ludar, Ludari, or Rudari, who coalesced in the
 Apuseni Mountains of Transylvania. Băieși is a Romanian word for "miners". Lingurari
means "spoon makers",[94] Ludar, Ludari, and Rudari may mean "woodworkers" or
"miners".[95] (There is a semantic overlap due to the homophony or merging of lemmas
with different meanings from at least two languages: the Serbian rudar miner, and ruda
stick, staff, rod, bar, pole (in Hungarian rúd,[96] and in Romanian rudă).[97])

Churari,[98] from Romanian Ciurari, "sieve makers", Zlătari "gold smiths"[85]

Ursari (bear trainers, from Moldovan/Romanian urs "bear"),[85]

Ungaritza blacksmiths and bladesmiths[99]

Argintari silversmiths.[99]

Aurari goldsmiths.[99]

Florari flower sellers.[99]

Lăutari singers.[99]

Kalderash, from Romanian căldărar, lit. bucketmaker, meaning kettlemaker, tinsmith,

tinker; also in Moldova and Ukraine.[99]

Roma or Romové, Czech Republic

Roma or Rómovia, Slovakia

Romanichal, in the United Kingdom,[91][85] emigrated also to the United States, Canada and
Australia[100]

Romanisæl, in Norway and Sweden.

Roms or Manouche (from manush "people" in Romani) in France.[85][101]

Romungro or Carpathian Romani from eastern Hungary and neighbouring parts of the
Carpathians[102]

Sinti or Zinti, predominantly in Germany,[91][85][103] and Northern Italy; Sinti do not refer to
themselves as Roma, although their language is called Romanes.[85]

Zargari people, Shia Muslim Roma in Iran, who once came from Rumelia/Southern Bulgaria
from the Maritsa Valley in Ottoman Time and settled in Persia.

Diaspora …
  

Countries with a significant Romani population

according to unofficial estimates.
   + 1,000,000
   + 100,000
   + 10,000

Romani girl

The Roma people have a number of distinct populations, the largest being the Roma who
reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century from a migration out of
northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier.[104][105] They settled in the areas that
are now Turkey, Greece, Serbia, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Hungary,
Slovakia and Spain, by order of volume. From the Balkans, they migrated throughout Europe
and Iberian Calé or Caló, and, in the nineteenth and later centuries, to the Americas. The
Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million.[106] Brazil has the
second largest Romani population in the Americas, estimated at 800,000 by the 2011 census.

The Romani people are mainly called ciganos by non-Romani ethnic Brazilians. Most of them
belong to the ethnic subgroup Calés (Kale), of the Iberian peninsula. Juscelino Kubitschek,
Brazilian president during 1956–1961 term, was 50% Czech Romani by his mother's bloodline,
and Washington Luís, last president of the First Brazilian Republic (1926–1930 term), had
Portuguese Kale ancestry.

There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide.[107] Many Romani
refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for fear of discrimination.[108] Others
are descendants of intermarriage with local populations, some who no longer identify only as
Romani and some who don't identify as Romani at all.

As of the early 2000s, an estimated 3.8[109] to 9 million Romani people lived in Europe and Asia
Minor,[110] although some Romani organizations estimate numbers as high as 14 million.[111]
Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkan peninsula, in some Central European
states, in Spain, France, Russia, and Ukraine. The total number of Romani living outside Europe
are primarily in the Middle East and North Africa and in the Americas and are estimated in total
at more than two million. Some countries do not collect data by ethnicity.

The Romani people identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial, cultural and
dialectal differences, and self-designation.[112][113][114][115]

Origin

Genetic findings suggest an Indian origin for Roma.[104][105][116] Because Romani groups did
not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it, most hypotheses about the
Romani migration's early history are based on linguistic theory.[117] There is also no known
record of a migration from India to Europe from medieval times that can be connected
indisputably to Roma.[118]

Shahnameh legend …

According to a legend reported in the Persian epic poem, the Shahnameh, from Iran and
repeated by several modern authors, the Sasanian king Bahrām V Gōr learned towards the end
of his reign (421–439) that the poor could not afford to enjoy music, and he asked the king of
India to send him ten thousand luris, lute-playing experts. When the luris arrived, Bahrām gave
each one an ox, a donkey, and a donkey-load of wheat so that they could live on agriculture
and play music for free for the poor. However, the luris ate the oxen and the wheat and came
back a year later with their cheeks hollowed with hunger. The king, angered with their having
wasted what he had given them, ordered them to pack up their bags and go wandering around
the world on their donkeys.[119]
Linguistic evidence …

The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in
India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them
a large part of the basic lexicon, for example, regarding body parts or daily routines.[120]

Romani and Domari share some similarities: agglutination of postpositions of the second layer
(or case marking clitics) to the nominal stem, concord markers for the past tense, the
neutralisation of gender marking in the plural, and the use of the oblique case as an
accusative.[121] This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two
languages. Domari was once thought to be a "sister language" of Romani, the two languages
having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent – but later research suggests that
the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages
within the Central zone (Hindustani) group of languages. The Dom and the Rom therefore likely
descend from two migration waves out of India, separated by several centuries.[122][123]

In phonology, the Romani language shares several isoglosses with the Central branch of Indo-
Aryan languages, especially in the realization of some sounds of the Old Indo-Aryan. However,
it also preserves several dental clusters. In regards to verb morphology, Romani follows exactly
the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption
of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers, lending credence to the theory of their Central
Indian origin and a subsequent migration to northwestern India. Though the retention of dental
clusters suggests a break from central languages during the transition from Old to Middle
Indo-Aryan, the overall morphology suggests that the language participated in some of the
significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages.[124]
The following table presents the numerals in the Romani, Domari and Lomavren languages,
with the corresponding terms in Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, and Sinhala to demonstrate the
similarities.[125]
 Languages
Romani Domari Lomavren Sanskrit Hindi Bengali Sinhala
Numbers
1 ekh, jekh yika yak, yek éka ek ek eka

2 duj dī lui dvá do dui deka

3 trin tærǝn tǝrin trí tīn tin thuna/thri

4 štar štar išdör catvā́raḥ cār char hathara/sathara

5 pandž pandž pendž páñca pā̃c panch paha

6 šov šaš šeš ṣáṭ chah chhoy haya/saya   

7 ifta xaut haft saptá sāt sāt hata/satha

8 oxto xaišt hašt aṣṭá āṭh āṭh ata

9 inja na nu náva nau noy nawaya

10 deš des las dáśa das dosh dahaya

20 biš wīs vist viṃśatí bīs bish wissa

100 šel saj saj śatá sau eksho siiya/shathakaya

Genetic evidence …

Two Gypsies by Francisco

Iturrino

Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as
a group.[104][105][126] According to the study, the ancestors of present scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the
Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.[127]

In December 2012, additional findings appeared to confirm the "Roma came from a single
group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago".[105] They reached the Balkans about
900 years ago[104] and then spread throughout Europe. The team also found the Roma to
display genetic isolation, as well as "differential gene flow in time and space with non-Romani
Europeans".[104][105]

Genetic research published in European Journal of Human Genetics "has revealed that over
70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma".[128]

Genetic evidence supports the medieval migration from India. The Romani have been
described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations",[103] while a number
of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common
origin and founder effect".[103] A 2020 whole-genome study confirmed the Northwest Indian
origins, and also confirmed substantial Balkan and Middle Eastern ancestry.[129]

A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders,
compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[130]
The same study found that "a single lineage... found across Romani populations, accounts for
almost one-third of Romani males".[130] A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the
Romani population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and
tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".[131]

Haplogroup H-M82 is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group, accounting for
approximately 60% of the total.[132] Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the
Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.

A study of 444 people representing three ethnic groups in North Macedonia found mtDNA
haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies (13.7% and 10.3%, respectively).[133]

Y-DNA composition of Muslim Romani people from Šuto Orizari Municipality in North
Macedonia, based on 57 samples:[134]

Haplogroup H – 59.6%
 Haplogroup E – 29.8%

Haplogroup I – 5.3%

Haplogroup R – 3.%, of which the half are R1b and many are R1a

Haplogroup G – 1.8%

A Roma makes a complaint to a

local magistrate in Hungary, by
Sándor Bihari, 1886

Y-DNA Haplogroup H1a occurs in Romani at frequencies 7–70%. Unlike ethnic Hungarians,
among Hungarian and Slovakian Romani subpopulations, Haplogroup E-M78 and I1 usually
occur above 10% and sometimes over 20%. While among Slovakian and Tiszavasvari Romani
the dominant haplogroup is H1a, among Tokaj Romani is Haplogroup J2a (23%), while among
Taktaharkány Romani is Haplogroup I2a (21%).[135] Five, rather consistent founder lineages
throughout the subpopulations, were found among Romani – J-M67 and J-M92 (J2), H-M52
(H1a1), and I-P259 (I1). Haplogroup I-P259 as H is not found at frequencies of over 3 percent
among host populations, while haplogroups E and I are absent in South Asia. The lineages E-
V13, I-P37 (I2a) and R-M17 (R1a) may represent gene flow from the host populations.
Bulgarian, Romanian and Greek Romani are dominated by Haplogroup H-M82 (H1a1), while
among Spanish Romani J2 is prevalent.[136] In Serbia among Kosovo[a] and Belgrade Romani
Haplogroup H prevails, while among Vojvodina Romani, H drops to 7 percent and E-V13 rises to
a prevailing level.[137]

Among non-Roma Europeans Haplogroup H is extremely rare, peaking at 7 percent among

Albanians from Tirana[138] and 11 percent among Bulgarian Turks. It occurs at 5 percent among
Hungarians,[135] although the carriers might be of Romani origin.[136] Among non Roma-
speaking Europeans at 2 percent among Slovaks,[139] 2 percent among Croats,[140] 1 percent
among Macedonians from Skopje, 3 percent among Macedonian Albanians,[141] 1 percent
among Serbs from Belgrade,[142] 3 percent among Bulgarians from Sofia,[143] 1 percent among
Austrians and Swiss,[144] 3 percent among Romanians from Ploiești, 1 percent among
Turks.[139]

The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left a significant genetic mark on the Y-DNA of
Romani people; creating a higher frequency of the haplogroups J and E3b in Roma populations
from the region.[145]

Possible migration route …

The migration of the Romanis through the

Middle East and Northern Africa to Europe

The Romani may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan,[146]
migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region, Sindh and Baluchistan of the Indian
subcontinent) around 250 BCE. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is
now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE.[105] It has also been suggested that
emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni.
As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine
Empire.[147] The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed
by a migration to Northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with Central
Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent
further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as
Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The
overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments
leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-
Romani did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first
millennium.[124][148]

In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, then Indian Minister of External
Affairs, Sushma Swaraj stated that the people of the Roma community were children of
India.[149] The conference ended with a recommendation to the government of India to
recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian
diaspora.[150]

Names

Endonyms …

Rom means husband in the Romani language. It has the variants dom and lom, which may be
related to the Sanskrit words dam-pati (lord of the house, husband), dama (to subdue), lom
(hair), lomaka (hairy), loman, roman (hairy), romaça (man with beard and long hair).[151]
Another possible origin is from Sanskrit डोम doma (member of a low caste of travelling
musicians and dancers). Despite their presence in the country and neighboring nations, the
word is not related in any way to the name of Romania.

Romani usage …

In the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning 'husband of the Roma ethnic
group', with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni
/Romli/Romnije or Romlije. However, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for
individuals regardless of gender.[152]

Romani is the feminine adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies
use Rom or Roma as an ethnic name, while others (such as the Sinti, or the Romanichal) do not
use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group.[153]

Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a double r, i.e., rrom and rromani. In this case rr is
used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/ (also written as ř and rh), which in some Romani dialects
has remained different from the one written with a single r. The rr spelling is common in certain
institutions (such as the INALCO Institute in Paris), or used in certain countries, e.g., Romania,
to distinguish from the endonym/homonym for Romanians (sg. român, pl. români).[154]

English usage …

A Romani wagon pictured in 2009

in Grandborough Fields in
Warwickshire. Grandborough
Fields Road is a popular spot for
travelling people.

In the English language (according to the Oxford English Dictionary), Rom is a noun (with the
plural Roma or Roms) and an adjective, while Romani (Romany) is also a noun (with the plural
Romani, the Romani, Romanies, or Romanis) and an adjective. Both Rom and Romani have
been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy.[155] Romani was
sometimes spelled Rommany, but more often Romany, while today Romani is the most popular
spelling. Occasionally, the double r spelling (e.g., Rroma, Rromani) mentioned above is also
encountered in English texts.

The term Roma is increasingly encountered[156][157] as a generic term for the Romani
people.[158][159][160]

Because not all Romani people use the word Romani as an adjective, the term became a noun
for the entire ethnic group.[161] Today, the term Romani is used by some organizations,
including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress.[154] However, the Council of
Europe and other organizations consider that Roma is the correct term referring to all related
groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend that Romani be restricted to the
language and culture: Romani language, Romani culture.[152] The United Kingdom government
uses the term "Roma" as a sub-group of "White" in its ethnic classification system.[162]
The standard assumption is that the demonyms of the Romani people, Lom and Dom, share
the same origin.[163][164]

Other designations …

The English term Gypsy (or Gipsy) originates from the Middle English gypcian, short for
Egipcien. The Spanish term Gitano and French Gitan have similar etymologies. They are
ultimately derived from the Greek Αιγύπτιοι (Aigyptioi), meaning Egyptian, via Latin. This
designation owes its existence to the belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Romani, or
some related group (such as the Middle Eastern Dom people), were itinerant
Egyptians.[165][166] This belief appears to be derived from verses in the Biblical Book of Ezekiel
(29: 6 and 12–13) which refer to the Egyptians being scattered among the nations by an angry
God. According to one narrative, they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for allegedly
harbouring the infant Jesus.[167] In his book The Zincali: an account of the Gypsies of Spain,
George Borrow notes that when they first appeared in Germany, it was under the character of
Egyptians doing penance for their having refused hospitality to Mary and her son. As described
in Victor Hugo's novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame, the medieval French referred to the
Romanies as Egyptiens.

This exonym is sometimes written with capital letter, to show that it designates an ethnic
group.[168] However, the word is sometimes considered derogatory because of its negative and
stereotypical associations.[159][169][170][171] The Council of Europe consider that "Gypsy" or
equivalent terms, as well as administrative terms such as "Gens du Voyage" are not in line with
European recommendations.[152] In Britain, many Romani proudly identify as "Gypsies".[172] In
North America, the word Gypsy is most commonly used as a reference to Romani ethnicity,
though lifestyle and fashion are at times also referenced by using this word.[173]

Another common designation of the Romani people is Cingane (alt. Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner,
Tschingaren), which likely derives from Athinganoi, the name of a Christian sect with whom the
Romani (or some related group) became associated in the Middle Ages.[166][174][175][176]

History

Arrival in Europe …
According to a 2012 genomic study, the Romani reached the Balkans as early as the 12th
century.[104] A document of 1068, describing an event in Constantinople, mentions "Atsingani",
probably referring to Romani.[177]

Later historical records of the Romani reaching south-eastern Europe are from the 14th
century: in 1322, after leaving Ireland on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, Irish Franciscan friar
Symon Semeonis encountered a migrant group of Romani outside the town of Candia (modern
Heraklion), in Crete, calling them "the descendants of Cain"; his account is the earliest
surviving description by a Western chronicler of the Romani in Europe.

In 1350, Ludolph of Saxony mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called
Mandapolos, a word possibly derived from the Greek word mantes (meaning prophet or
fortune teller).[178]

In the 14th century, Romani are recorded in Venetian territories, including Methoni and Nafplio
in the Peloponnese, and Corfu.[177] Around 1360, a fiefdom called the Feudum Acinganorum
was established in Corfu, which mainly used Romani serfs and to which the Romani on the
island were subservient.[179]

By the 1440s, they were recorded in Germany;[180] and by the 16th century, Scotland and
Sweden.[181] Some Romani migrated from Persia through North Africa, reaching the Iberian
Peninsula in the 15th century. The two currents met in France.[182]

First arrival of the

Romanies outside Bern in
the 15th century,
described by the
chronicler as getoufte
heiden ("baptized
 heathens") and drawn with
dark skin and wearing
Saracen-style clothing and
weapons[183]

Early modern history …

Gypsy Family in Prison,

1864 painting by Carl d
´Unker. An actual
imprisoned family in
Germany served as the
models. The reason for
their imprisonment
remains unknown.

Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded
transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia, they were issued safe conduct by Holy Roman
Emperor Sigismund in 1417. Romanis were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of
Germany in 1416, Lucerne in 1471, Milan in 1493, France in 1504, Catalonia in 1512, Sweden in
1525, England in 1530 (see Egyptians Act 1530), and Denmark in 1536. From 1510 onwards,
any Romani found in Switzerland were to be executed; while in England (beginning in 1554) and
Denmark (beginning of 1589) any Romani which did not leave within a month were to be
executed. Portugal began deportations of Romanis to its colonies in 1538.[184]

A 1596 English statute gave Romanis special privileges that other wanderers lacked. France
passed a similar law in 1683. Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Romanis "crown
slaves" (a status superior to serfs), but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital.[185] In
1595, Ștefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery, and became the Voivode (Prince) of
Moldavia.[184]
  

An 1852 Wallachian poster

advertising an auction of
Romani slaves in
Bucharest

Since a royal edict by Charles II in 1695, Spanish Romanis had been restricted to certain
towns.[186] An official edict in 1717 restricted them to only 75 towns and districts, so that they
would not be concentrated in any one region. In the Great Gypsy Round-up, Romani were
arrested and imprisoned by the Spanish Monarchy in 1749.

During the latter part of the 17th century, around the Franco-Dutch War, both France and
Holland needed thousands of men to fight. Some recruitment took the form of rounding up
vagrants and the poor to work the galleys and provide the armies' labour force. With this
background, Romanis were targets of both the French and the Dutch.

After the wars, and into the first decade of the 18th century, Romanis were slaughtered with
impunity throughout Holland. Romanis, called ‘heiden’ by the Dutch, wandered throughout the
rural areas of Europe and became the societal pariahs of the age. Heidenjachten, translated as
"heathen hunt" happened throughout Holland in an attempt to eradicate them.[187]

Although some Romani could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until abolition in
1856, the majority traveled as free nomads with their wagons, as alluded to in the spoked
wheel symbol in the Romani flag.[188] Elsewhere in Europe, they were subjected to ethnic
cleansing, abduction of their children, and forced labour. In England, Romani were sometimes
expelled from small communities or hanged; in France, they were branded, and their heads
were shaved; in Moravia and Bohemia, the women were marked by their ears being severed. As
a result, large groups of the Romani moved to the East, toward Poland, which was more
tolerant, and Russia, where the Romani were treated more fairly as long as they paid the annual
taxes.[189]

Modern history …

Romani began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small groups recorded in
Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale Roma emigration to the United States began in the
1860s, with Romanichal groups from Great Britain. The most significant number immigrated in
the early 20th century, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Romani also settled in
South America.

Sinti and other Romani about to be

deported from Germany, 22 May
1940

World War II
…
During World War II, the Nazis embarked on a systematic genocide of the Romani, a process
known in Romani as the Porajmos.[190] Romanies were marked for extermination and sentenced
to forced labor and imprisonment in concentration camps. They were often killed on sight,
especially by the Einsatzgruppen (paramilitary death squads) on the Eastern Front.[191] The
total number of victims has been variously estimated at between 220,000 and 1,500,000.[192]

The Romani people were also persecuted in Nazi puppet states. In the Independent State of
Croatia, the Ustaša killed almost the entire Roma population of 25,000. The concentration
camp system of Jasenovac, run by the Ustaša militia and the Croat political police, were
responsible for the deaths of between 15,000 and 20,000 Roma.[193]
Post-1945
…
In Czechoslovakia, they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum", and Romani women were
sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with
large financial incentives, threats of denying future welfare payments, with misinformation, or
after administering drugs.[194][195]

An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report (December 2005), concluded
that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Romanis, which
"included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community. The
problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic, either with improper
motivation or illegally, exists," said the Czech Public Defender of Rights, recommending state
compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991.[196] New cases were revealed up
until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Germany, Norway, Sweden and
Switzerland "all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups".[197]

Society and traditional culture

Münster, Sebastian (1552), "A

Gipsy Family", The Cosmographia
(facsimile of a woodcut), Basle

Nomadic Roma family traveling in

 Moldavia, 1837

The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in
unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in
several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage. Romani law establishes that the
man's family must pay a bride price to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still
follow it.

Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her
husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in-laws. The power structure in the
traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general,
have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young
wives begin gaining authority once they have children.

Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Roma men wear shoulder-length
hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Roma women generally have long hair, and
Xoraxane Roma women often dye it blonde with henna.

Romani social behavior is strictly regulated by Indian social customs[198] ("marime" or

"marhime"), still respected by most Roma (and by most older generations of Sinti). This
regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of the
human body are considered impure: the genital organs (because they produce emissions) and
the rest of the lower body. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of menstruating
women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place.
Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is
deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth.

Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a
period of time. In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead, Romani dead must be
buried.[199] Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda, and both are
widely practiced in Hinduism today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation,
though some communities in modern-day South India tend to bury their dead).[200] Animals
that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.[201]

Belonging and exclusion …

In Romani philosophy, Romanipen (also romanypen, romanipe, romanype, romanimos,
romaimos, romaniya) is the totality of the Romani spirit, Romani culture, Romani Law, being a
Romani, a set of Romani strains.

An ethnic Romani is considered a gadjo in the Romani society if they have no Romanipen.
Sometimes a non-Romani may be considered a Romani if they do have Romanipen. Usually this
is an adopted child. It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a framework of culture
than a simple adherence to historically received rules.[202]

Religion …

Christian Romanies during the

pilgrimage to Saintes-Maries-de-
la-Mer in France, 1980s

Two Orthodox Christian Romanies

in Cluj-Napoca, Romania
  

Romani and bear (Belgrade,

Banovo brdo, 1980s)

Most Romani people are Christian,[203] others Muslim; some retained their ancient faith of
Hinduism from their original homeland of India, while others have their own religion and
political organization.[204] Theravada Buddhism influenced by the Dalit Buddhist movement
have become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma.[64][65]

Beliefs
…
The ancestors of modern-day Romani people were Hindu, but adopted Christianity or Islam
depending on the regions through which they had migrated.[205] Muslim Roma are found in
Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Egypt, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria
and Iran, forming a very significant proportion of the Romani people. In neighboring countries
such as Romania and Greece, most Romani inhabitants follow the practice of Orthodoxy. It is
likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in
intermarriage.[206]

Members of the Cofradía de los

Gitanos parading the "throne" of
Mary of the O during the Holy
Week in Malaga, Spain
Deities and saints
…
Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla is recently considered a patron saint of the Romani people in
Roman Catholicism.[207] Saint Sarah, or Sara e Kali, has also been venerated as a patron saint
in her shrine at Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, France. Since the turn of the 21st century, Sara e
Kali is understood to have been Kali, an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee
ancestors of the Roma people; as the Roma became Christianized, she was absorbed in a
syncretic way and venerated as a saint.[208]

Gypsy fortune-teller in Poland, by Antoni

Kozakiewicz, 1884

Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as "a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the
Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India".[208][209]

Ceremonies and practices

…
Romanies often adopt the dominant religion of their host country in case a ceremony
associated with a formal religious institution is necessary, such as a baptism or funeral (their
particular belief systems and indigenous religion and worship remain preserved regardless of
such adoption processes). The Roma continue to practice Shaktism, a practice with origins in
India, whereby a female consort is required for the worship of a god. Adherence to this practice
means that for the Roma who worship the Christian God, prayer is conducted through the
Virgin Mary, or her mother, Saint Anne. Shaktism continues over one thousand years after the
people's separation from India.[210]

Aside from Roma elders (who serve as spiritual leaders), priests, churches, and Bibles do not
exist among the Romanies – the only exception is the Pentecostal Roma.[210]

Balkans
…
  

Costume of a Romani woman

For the Roma communities that have resided in the Balkans for numerous centuries, often
referred to as "Turkish Gypsies", the following histories apply for religious beliefs:

Albania – The majority of Albania's Roma people are Muslims.[211]

Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro – Islam is the dominant religion among the
Roma.[212]

Bulgaria – In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Christianity is the

dominant faith among Romani people (a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity
among Romani people has occurred). In southeastern Bulgaria, Islam is the dominant religion
among Romani people, with a smaller section of the Romani population declaring themselves
as "Turks", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.[212]

Croatia – Following the Second World War, a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to
Croatia (the majority moving from Kosovo). Their language differs from those living in
Međimurje and those who survived Ustaše genocide.[212]

Greece – The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja, Filipidži and
others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and Greek Macedonia are mostly
Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population. Following the
Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent
population exchange between Turkey and Greece.[212]
  

Muslim Romanies in
Bosnia and Herzegovina
(around 1900)

Kosovo – The vast majority of the Roma population in Kosovo is Muslim.[212]

North Macedonia – The majority of Roma people are followers of Islam.[212]

Romania – According to the 2002 census, the majority of the Romani minority living in
Romania are Orthodox Christians, while 6.4% are Pentecostals, 3.8% Roman Catholics, 3%
Reformed, 1.1% Greek Catholics, 0.9% Baptists, 0.8% Seventh-Day Adventists.[213] In
Dobruja, there is a small community that are Muslim and also speak Turkish.[212]

Serbia – Most Roma people in Serbia are Orthodox Christian, but there are some Muslim
Roma in Southern Serbia, who are mainly refugees from Kosovo.[212]
Other regions
…
In Ukraine and Russia, the Roma populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants
continue to live in these locations. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the
17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie
(along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align themselves
with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and
identity.[212]

In Poland and Slovakia, their populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and
following local, cultural Catholicism as a syncretic system of belief that incorporates distinct
Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding
due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a
virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage
is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't
ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the
Jasna Góra Monastery.[214]

Most Eastern European Romanies are Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or Muslim.[215] Those
in Western Europe and the United States are mostly Roman Catholic or Protestant – in
southern Spain, many Romanies are Pentecostal, but this is a small minority that has emerged
in contemporary times.[210] In Egypt, the Romanies are split into Christian and Muslim
populations.[216]

Music …

27 June 2009: Fanfare Ciocărlia

live in Athens, Greece

Street performance during the

Khamoro World Roma Festival in
Prague, 2007

Romani music plays an important role in Central and Eastern European countries such as
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Albania,
Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani
musicians have influenced European classical composers such as Franz Liszt and Johannes
Brahms. The lăutari who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.
Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the lăutari tradition
are Taraful Haiducilor. Bulgaria's popular "wedding music", too, is almost exclusively performed
by Romani musicians such as Ivo Papasov, a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this
genre and Bulgarian pop-folk singer Azis.

Many famous classical musicians, such as the Hungarian pianist Georges Cziffra, are Romani,
as are many prominent performers of manele. Zdob și Zdub, one of the most prominent rock
bands in Moldova, although not Romanies themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do
Spitalul de Urgență in Romania, Shantel in Germany, Goran Bregović in Serbia, Darko Rundek in
Croatia, Beirut and Gogol Bordello in the United States.

Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani brass band, with such notable
practitioners as Boban Marković of Serbia, and the brass lăutari groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and
Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.

The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, and flamenco
(especially cante jondo) in Spain.

Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influences by the Romani.[217] Antonio
Cansino blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern-day
Spanish dance.[218] The Dancing Cansinos popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the
United States. Famous dancer and actress, Rita Hayworth, is the granddaughter of Antonio
Cansino.

European-style gypsy jazz ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti jazz") is still widely practiced among the
original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist
Django Reinhardt. Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include Stochelo
Rosenberg, Biréli Lagrène, Jimmy Rosenberg, Paulus Schäfer and Tchavolo Schmitt.

The Romani people in Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences.
Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on
instruments such as the darbuka, gırnata and cümbüş.[219]

Cuisine
Contemporary art and culture

Romani contemporary art emerged at the climax of the process that began in Central and
Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, when the interpretation of the cultural practice of minorities
was enabled by a paradigm shift, commonly referred to in specialist literature as the Cultural
turn. The idea of the "cultural turn" was introduced; and this was also the time when the notion
of cultural democracy became crystallized in the debates carried on at various public forums.
Civil society gained strength, and civil politics appeared, which is a prerequisite for cultural
democracy. This shift of attitude in scholarly circles derived from concerns specific not only to
ethnicity but also to society, gender and class.[220]

Language

Most Romani speak one of several dialects of the Romani language,[221] an Indo-Aryan
language, with roots in Sanskrit. They also often speak the languages of the countries they live
in. Typically, they also incorporate loanwords and calques into Romani from the languages of
those countries and especially words for terms that the Romani language does not have. Most
of the Ciganos of Portugal, the Gitanos of Spain, the Romanichal of the UK, and Scandinavian
Travellers have lost their knowledge of pure Romani, and speak the mixed languages Caló,[222]
Angloromany, and Scandoromani, respectively. Most of the Romani language-speaking
communities in these regions consist of later immigrants from eastern or central Europe.[223]

There are no concrete statistics for the number of Romani speakers, both in Europe and
globally. However, a conservative estimate is 3.5 million speakers in Europe and a further
500,000 elsewhere,[223] though the actual number may be considerably higher. This makes
Romani the second-largest minority language in Europe, behind Catalan.[223]

In regards to the diversity of dialects, Romani works in the same way as most other European
languages.[224] Cross-dialect communication is dominated by the following features:

All Romani speakers are bilingual, accustomed to borrowing words or phrases from a second
language; this makes it difficult to communicate with Romanis from different countries

Romani was traditionally a language shared between extended family and a close-knit
community. This has resulted in the inability to comprehend dialects from other countries,
 and is why Romani is sometimes considered to be several different languages.

There is no tradition or literary standard for Romani speakers to use as a guideline for their
language use.[224]

Persecutions

Historical persecution …

One of the most enduring persecutions against the Romani people was their enslavement.
Slavery was widely practiced in medieval Europe, including the territory of present-day
Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in the 13th–
14th centuries.[225] Legislation decreed that all the Romani living in these states, as well as any
others who immigrated there, were classified as slaves.[226] Slavery was gradually abolished
during the 1840s and 1850s.[225]

The exact origins of slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known. There is some debate
over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or whether they
were brought there as slaves. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with
the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and he also considered their enslavement a vestige of that
era, in which the Romanians took the Roma from the Mongols and preserved their status as
slaves so they could use their labor. Other historians believe that the Romani were enslaved
while they were being captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving
prisoners of war may have also been adopted from the Mongols.[225]

Some Romani may have been slaves of the Mongols or the Tatars or they may have served as
auxiliary troops in the Mongol or Tatar armies, but most of them migrated from south of the
Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the founding of Wallachia. By then, the
institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and it was possibly established in
both principalities. After the Roma migrated into the area, slavery became a widespread
practice among the majority of the population. The Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were
eventually merged into the Roma population.[227]

Some branches of the Romani people reached Western Europe in the 15th century, fleeing
from the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans as refugees.[228] Although the Romani were
refugees from the conflicts in southeastern Europe, they were often suspected of being
associated with the Ottoman invasion by certain populations in the West because their physical
appearance was exotic. (The Imperial Diet at Landau and Freiburg in 1496–1498 declared that
the Romani were spies for the Turks). In Western Europe, such suspicions and discrimination
against people who constituted a visible minority resulted in persecution, often violent, with
attempts to commit ethnic cleansing until the modern era. In times of social tension, the
Romani suffered as scapegoats; for instance, they were accused of bringing the plague during
times of epidemics.[229]

On 30 July 1749, Spain conducted The Great Roundup of Romani (Gitanos) in its territory. The
Spanish Crown ordered a nationwide raid that led to the break-up of families because all able-
bodied men were interned in forced labor camps in an attempt to commit ethnic cleansing. The
measure was eventually reversed and the Romanis were freed as protests began to erupt in
different communities, sedentary Romanis were highly esteemed and protected in rural
Spain.[230][231]

Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside
Europe, mostly in the English-speaking world. In 1880, Argentina prohibited immigration by
Roma, as did the United States in 1885.[229]

Deportation of Roma from Asperg,

Germany, 1940 (photograph by
the Rassenhygienische
Forschungsstelle)

Forced assimilation …

In the Habsburg monarchy under Maria Theresa (1740–1780), a series of decrees tried to
integrate the Romanies in order to get them to permanently settle, removed their rights to
horse and wagon ownership (1754) in order to reduce citizen-mobility, renamed them "New
Citizens" and obliged Romani boys into military service just as any other citizens were if they
had no trade (1761, and Revision 1770), required them to register with the local authorities
(1767), and another decree prohibited marriages between Romanies (1773) in order to
integrate them into the local population. Her successor Josef II prohibited the wearing of
traditional Romani clothing along with the use of the Romani language, both of which were
punishable by flogging.[232] During this time, the schools were obliged to register and integrate
Romani children; this policy was the first of the modern policies of integration. In Spain,
attempts to assimilate the Gitanos were under way as early as 1619, when the Gitanos were
forcibly settled, the use of the Romani language was prohibited, Gitano men and women were
sent to separate workhouses and their children were sent to orphanages. King Charles III took
a more progressive approach to Gitano assimilation, proclaiming that they had the same rights
as Spanish citizens and ending the official denigration of them which was based on their race.
While he prohibited the nomadic lifestyle, the use of the Calo language, Romani clothing, their
trade in horses and other itinerant trades, he also forbade any form of discrimination against
them and forbade the guilds from barring them. The use of the word gitano was also forbidden
in order to further assimilation, it was replaced with "New Castilian", which was also applied to
former Jews and Muslims.[233][234]

Most historians agree that Charles III's pragmática failed for three main reasons, reasons which
were ultimately derived from its implementation outside major cities as well as in marginal
areas: The difficulty which the Gitano community faced in changing its nomadic lifestyle, the
marginal lifestyle to which the community had been driven by society and the serious
difficulties of applying the pragmática in the fields of education and work. One author ascribes
its failure to the overall rejection of the integration of the Gitanos by the wider
population.[232][235]

Other examples of forced assimilation include Norway, where a law was passed in 1896 which
permitted the state to remove children from their parents and place them in state
institutions.[236] This resulted in some 1,500 Romani children being taken from their parents in
the 20th century.[237]

Porajmos (Holocaust) …

During World War II, the persecution of the Romanies reached a peak in the Porajmos, the
genocide which was perpetrated against them by Nazi Germany. In 1935, the Romani people
who were living in Nazi Germany lost their citizenship when it was stripped from them by the
Nuremberg laws, after that, they were subjected to violence, imprisonment in concentration
camps and later, they were subjected to genocide in extermination camps. During the war, the
policy was extended to areas which were occupied by the Nazis, and it was also implemented
by their allies, most notably by the Independent State of Croatia, Romania, and Hungary.

Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Romanis, the actual number of
Romani victims who were killed in the Holocaust cannot be assessed. Most estimates of the
number of Romani victims who were killed in the Holocaust range from 200,000 to 500,000,
but other estimates range from 90,000 to 1.5 million. Lower estimates do not include those
Romani who were killed in all Axis-controlled countries. A detailed study by Sybil Milton,
formerly senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum contained an estimate of at
least 220,000, possibly closer to 500,000.[238] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani
Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at
Austin, argues in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000.[239]

In Central Europe, the extermination in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was so
thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became extinct.

Contemporary issues

Distribution of the Romani people in Europe

(2007 Council of Europe "average estimates",
totalling 9.8 million)[240]
  

Antiziganist protests in Sofia, 2011

In Europe, Romani people are associated with poverty and blamed for high crime rates, and
they are also accused of behaving in ways that are perceived as being antisocial or
inappropriate by the rest of the population.[241] Partly for this reason, discrimination against the
Romani people has continued to be practiced to the present day,[242][243] although efforts are
being made to address them.[244]

Amnesty International reports continued to document instances of Antizigan discrimination

during the late 20th century, particularly in Romania, Serbia,[245] Slovakia,[246] Hungary,[247]
Slovenia,[248] and Kosovo.[249] The European Union has recognized that discrimination against
Romani must be addressed, and with the national Roma integration strategy they encourage
member states to work towards greater Romani inclusion and upholding the rights of the
Romani in the European Union.[250]

*projections for Serbia also include up to 97.000 Roma IDPs in Serbia[252]

 Roma estimate percentage of population in European countries[251]
Country Percent
Bulgaria   10.33%
North Macedonia   9.59%
Slovakia   9.17%
Romania   8.32%
Serbia*   8.18%
Hungary   7.05%
Turkey   5.97%
Spain   3.21%
Albania   3.18%
Montenegro   2.95%
Moldova   2.49%
Greece   2.47%
Czech Republic   1.96%
Kosovo   1.47%

In Eastern Europe, Roma children often attend Roma Special Schools, separate from non-Roma
children, which puts them at an educational disadvantage.[253]: 83 

The Romanis of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by ethnic Albanians since the end of
the Kosovo War, and for the most part, the region's Romani community has been
annihilated.[254]

Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women, starting in 1973.[255] The
dissidents of the Charter 77 denounced it in 1977–78 as a genocide, but the practice continued
through the Velvet Revolution of 1989.[256] A 2005 report by the Czech Republic's
independent ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, identified dozens of cases of coercive sterilization
between 1979 and 2001, and called for criminal investigations and possible prosecution against
several health care workers and administrators.[257]

In 2008, following the rape and subsequent murder of an Italian woman in Rome at the hands
of a young man from a local Romani encampment,[258] the Italian government declared that
Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and it also declared that it was
required to take swift action in order to address the emergenza nomadi (nomad
emergency).[259] Specifically, officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being
responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas.

The 2008 deaths of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic, two Roma children who drowned while
Italian beach-goers remained unperturbed, brought international attention to the relationship
between Italians and the Roma people. Reviewing the situation in 2012, one Belgian magazine
observed:

On International Roma Day, which falls on 8 April, the significant

proportion of Europe's 12 million Roma who live in deplorable conditions
will not have much to celebrate. And poverty is not the only worry for the
community. Ethnic tensions are on the rise. In 2008, Roma camps came
under attack in Italy, intimidation by racist parliamentarians is the norm in
Hungary. Speaking in 1993, Václav Havel prophetically remarked that "the
treatment of the Roma is a Litmus test for democracy": and democracy has
been found wanting. The consequences of the transition to capitalism have
been disastrous for the Roma. Under communism they had jobs, free
housing and schooling. Now many are unemployed, many are losing their
homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with impunity.[260]

The 2016 Pew Research poll found that Italians, in particular, hold strong anti-Roma views, with
82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about Roma. In Greece, 67%, in Hungary 64%, in
France 61%, in Spain 49%, in Poland 47%, in the UK 45%, in Sweden 42%, in Germany 40%,
and in the Netherlands[261] 37% had an unfavourable view of Roma.[262] The 2019 Pew
Research poll found that 83% of Italians, 76% of Slovaks, 72% of Greeks, 68% of Bulgarians,
66% of Czechs, 61% of Lithuanians, 61% of Hungarians, 54% of Ukrainians, 52% of Russians,
51% of Poles, 44% of French, 40% of Spaniards, and 37% of Germans held unfavorable views
of Roma.[263] IRES published in 2020 a survey which revealed that 72% of Romanians have a
negative opinion about them.[264]

As of 2019, reports of anti-Roma incidents are increasing across Europe.[265] Discrimination

against Roma remains widespread in Kosovo,[266] Romania,[267] Slovakia,[268]
Bulgaria,[269][270] and the Czech Republic.[271][272] Roma communities across Ukraine have
been the target of violent attacks.[273][274]
Roma refugees fleeing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have faced discrimination in
Europe, including in Poland,[275] the Czech Republic,[276] and Moldova[277]

Concerning employment, on average, across the European states which were surveyed, 16% of
Roma women were in paid work in 2016 compared to a third of men.[278]

Forced repatriation …

In the summer of 2010, French authorities demolished at least 51 illegal Roma camps and
began the process of repatriating their residents to their countries of origin.[279] This followed
tensions between the French state and Roma communities, which had been heightened after a
traveller drove through a French police checkpoint, hit an officer, attempted to hit two more
officers, and was then shot and killed by the police. In retaliation a group of Roma, armed with
hatchets and iron bars, attacked the police station of Saint-Aignan, toppled traffic lights and
road signs and burned three cars.[280][281] The French government has been accused of
perpetrating these actions to pursue its political agenda.[282] EU Justice Commissioner Viviane
Reding stated that the European Commission should take legal action against France over the
issue, calling the deportations "a disgrace". A leaked file dated 5 August, sent from the Interior
Ministry to regional police chiefs, included the instruction: "Three hundred camps or illegal
settlements must be cleared within three months, Roma camps are a priority."[283]

Organizations and projects

World Romani Congress

European Roma Rights Centre

Gypsy Lore Society[284]

International Romani Union

Decade of Roma Inclusion, multinational project

International Romani Day (8 April)

Contact Point for Roma and Sinti Issues

National Advisory Board on Romani Affairs (Finland)

Artistic representations

Many depictions of Romani people in literature and art present romanticized narratives of
mystical powers of fortune telling or irascible or passionate temper paired with an indomitable
love of freedom and a habit of criminality. Romani were a popular subject in Venetian painting
from the time of Giorgione at the start of the 16th century; the inclusion of such a figure adds
an exotic oriental flavour to scenes. A Venetian Renaissance painting by Paris Bordone (ca.
1530, Strasbourg) of the Holy Family in Egypt makes Elizabeth a Romani fortune-teller; the
scene is otherwise located in a distinctly European landscape.[285]

Particularly notable are classics like the story Carmen by Prosper Mérimée and the opera
based on it by Georges Bizet, Victor Hugo's The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Herge's The
Castafiore Emerald and Miguel de Cervantes' La Gitanilla. The Romani were also depicted in A
Midsummer Night's Dream, As You Like It, Othello and The Tempest, all by William
Shakespeare.

The Romani were also heavily romanticized in the Soviet Union, a classic example being the
1975 film Tabor ukhodit v Nebo. A more realistic depiction of contemporary Romani in the
Balkans, featuring Romani lay actors speaking in their native dialects, although still playing with
established clichés of a Romani penchant for both magic and crime, was presented by Emir
Kusturica in his Time of the Gypsies (1988) and Black Cat, White Cat (1998). The films of Tony
Gatlif, a French director of Romani ethnicity, like Les Princes (1983), Latcho Drom (1993) and
Gadjo Dilo (1997) also portray Romani life.
      

Paris Bordone, The Rest on the August von Pettenkofen: Vincent van Gogh: The
Flight into Egypt c. 1530, Gypsy Children (1885), Caravans – Gypsy Camp
Elizabeth, at right, is shown as a Hermitage Museum near Arles (1888, oil on
Romani fortune-teller canvas)

     

Carmen Esméralda Nicolae

Grigorescu
Gypsy from
Boldu
(1897), Art
Museum of
Iași

See also

Anti-Indian sentiment

Environmental racism in Europe

Gitanos

Gypsy Scourge
 King of the Gypsies

R v Krymowski

Rajasthani people

Timeline of Romani history

Romani society and culture

Romani dress

Romani diaspora

Ethnic groups in Europe

Romani folklore

General

Traveler (disambiguation page)

Itinerant groups in Europe

Nomadic tribes in India

Dalit

Lists

List of Romani people

List of Romani settlements

Other

Indian people

Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin

Notes

1. 5,400 per 2000 census.

2. This is a census figure. Some 1,236,810 (6.1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There
was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.

3. This is a census figure. Some 736,981 (10% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was
 3. This is a census figure. Some 736,981 (10% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was
not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities. In a report (http://www.nsi.bg/bg/content/12
037/basic-page/%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%B
4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0
%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%
D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%
BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE-%D0%B8-%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%
D0%B8%D1%89%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20210225173324/https://www.nsi.bg/bg/content/12037/basic-page/%D0%BA
%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD-%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0
%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BF
%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%8
2%D0%BE-%D0%BD%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D
0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE-%D0%B8-%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B
D%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B4) 25 February 2021 at the Wayback
Machine of the census’ authors, the ethnic results of this census are identified as a "gross
manipulation".

4. This is a census figure. There was an option to declare multiple ethnicities, so this figure includes
Romani of multiple backgrounds. According to the 2016 microcensus 99.1% of Hungarian Romani
declared Hungarian ethnic identity also.

5. Approximate estimate

6. This is a census figure.

7. This is a census figure. Some 368,136 (5.1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There
was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.

8. This is a census figure. Some 408,777 (7.5% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There
was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.

9. This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any
option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.

10. This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.

11. This is a census figure including Romani, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians.

12. This is a census figure. There was an additional 3,368 Balkan Egyptians. 390,938 (1% of the
population) did not declare any ethnicity. The census is regarded as unreliable by the Council of
Europe

13. This is a census figure. Some 25% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.

14. This is a census figure.

14. This is a census figure.

15. The Welsh language alphabet lacks the letter "k".

Kosovo status

a. The political status of Kosovo is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Serbia in
2008, Kosovo is formally recognised as an independent state by 97 UN member states (with another
15 states recognising it at some point but then withdrawing their recognition), while Serbia continues
to claim it as part of its own sovereign territory.

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12. "Diagnóstico social de la comunidad gitana en España : Un análisis contrastado de la Encuesta del CIS
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14. 2011 census data, based on table 7 Population by ethnicity (http://www.recensamantromania.ro/rezulta

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at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in
Transylvania and Turkish in Dobruja). Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards [1] (
http://www.edrc.ro/docs/docs/Romii_din_Romania.pdf) . International sources give higher figures
than the official census(UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe (http://europeandcis.undp.org/uploads/pu
blic/File/rbec_web/vgr/chapter1.1.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20061007102931/http://
europeandcis.undp.org/uploads/public/File/rbec_web/vgr/chapter1.1.pdf) 7 October 2006 at the
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TROMA/0,,contentMDK:20333806~menuPK:615999~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:
615987,00.html) , International Association for Official Statistics (http://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/
publications/msd/journal/issue25/25-pages154-164.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200
80226202154/http://www.msd.govt.nz/documents/publications/msd/journal/issue25/25-pages154-164
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municipii, orașe, comune" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160118131243/http://www.recensamantroma
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(Romania). 5 July 2013. Archived from the original (http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/upl
oads/2013/07/sR_Tab_8.xls) (XLS) on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2013. However,
some organizations claim that there are many more Romanis in Romania (http://www.gandul.info/stiri/re
censamant-2011-doua-treimi-dintre-romi-se-declara-romani-700-000-2-000-000-3-000-000-cati-r
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16. Schleifer, Yigal (22 July 2005). "Roma rights organizations work to ease prejudice in Turkey" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20121010211734/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c2253b,4677ea9b2,46e
f87ab32,0.html) . Archived from the original (http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c2253b,4677e
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million."

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section (authorized since the Besson Act of 1990)."

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Lemon, Alaina (2000). Between Two Fires: Gypsy Performance and Romani Memory from
Pushkin to Post-Socialism. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2456-0.

Matras, Yaron; Popov, Vesselin (2001). Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire. Hatfield: University of
Hertfordshire Press.

Matras, Yaron (2005). Romani: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02330-6.

Matras, Yaron (2002). Romani: A Linguistic Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id

=D4IIi0Ha3V4C) . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63165-5. Retrieved 16 July
2009.

"Gypsies, The World's Outsiders", National Geographic, pp. 72–101, April 2001

Nemeth, David J. (2002). The Gypsy-American. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen.

Sutherland, Ann (1986). Gypsies: The Hidden Americans (https://books.google.com/books?i

d=XYQfAAAAQBAJ) . Waveland. ISBN 978-0-88133-235-3.

Silverman, Carol (1995). "Persecution and Politicization: Roma (Gypsies) of Eastern Europe".
Cultural Survival Quarterly.

Further reading

Radenez Julien (2014). Recherches sur l'histoire des Tsiganes (http://www.youscribe.com/cat

alogue/tous/savoirs/recherches-sur-l-histoire-des-tsiganes-2754759) .

Kalwant Bhopal; Martin Myers (2008). Insiders, Outsiders and Others: Gypsies and Identity (
https://books.google.com/books?id=YlqFBR50PPMC) . Univ of Hertfordshire Press.
ISBN 978-1-902806-71-6.
Auzias, Claire (2002), Les funambules de l'histoire (in French) (Éditions la Digitale ed.), Baye

Werner Cohn (1973). The Gypsies (http://www.wernercohn.com/Resources/The_Gypsies.pdf

) (PDF). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-11362-4.

De Soto, Hermine (2005). "Roma and Egyptians in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social
Inclusion". Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.

Fonseca, Isabel (1995). Bury me standing: the Gypsies and their journey (https://archive.org/
details/burymestandinggy00fons) . New York: AA Knopf. ISBN 978-0679406785.

V. Glajar; D. Radulescu (2008). Gypsies in European Literature and Culture (https://books.go

ogle.com/books?id=LZDFAAAAQBAJ) . Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 978-0-230-61163-4.

Gray, RD; Atkinson, QD (2003). "Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian
theory of Indo-European origin". Nature. 426 (6965): 435–439.
Bibcode:2003Natur.426..435G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.426..435G) .
doi:10.1038/nature02029 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature02029) . PMID 14647380 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14647380) . S2CID 42340 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Co
rpusID:42340) .

Gresham, David; Morar, Bharti; Underhill, Peter A.; Passarino, Giuseppe; Lin, Alice A.; Wise,
Cheryl; Angelicheva, Dora; Calafell, Francesc; Oefner, Peter J.; Shen, Peidong; Tournev,
Ivailo; de Pablo, Rosario; Kuĉinskas, Vaidutis; Perez-Lezaun, Anna; Marushiakova, Elena;
Popov, Vesselin; Kalaydjieva, Luba (December 2001). "Origins and Divergence of the Roma
(Gypsies)" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235543) . The American
Journal of Human Genetics. 69 (6): 1314–1331. doi:10.1086/324681 (https://doi.org/10.1086
%2F324681) . PMC 1235543 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235543) .
PMID 11704928 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11704928) .

Kalaydjieva, Luba; Calafell, Francesc; Jobling, Mark A; Angelicheva, Dora; de Knijff, Peter;
Rosser, ZoëH; Hurles, Matthew E; Underhill, Peter; Tournev, Ivailo; Marushiakova, Elena;
Popov, Vesselin (February 2001). "Patterns of inter- and intra-group genetic diversity in the
Vlax Roma as revealed by Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineages" (https://doi.org/1
0.1038%2Fsj.ejhg.5200597) . European Journal of Human Genetics. 9 (2): 97–104.
doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200597 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ejhg.5200597) . PMID 11313742
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11313742) . S2CID 21432405 (https://api.semanticscholar
.org/CorpusID:21432405) .
 Ringold, Dena (2000), Roma & the Transition in Central & Eastern Europe: Trends &
Challenges, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Turner, Ralph L (1926), "The Position of Romani in Indo-Aryan", Journal of the Gypsy Lore
Society, 3rd, 5 (4): 145–188

McDowell, Bart (1970). Gypsies, wanderers of the world (https://books.google.com/books?id

=0heTAAAAIAAJ) . National Geographic Society. Special Publications Division. ISBN 978-
0870440885.

Sancar Seckiner's comprehensible book South (Güney), 2013, consists of 12 article and
essays. One of them, Ikiçeşmelik, highlights Turkish Romani People's life. Ref. ISBN 978-
605-4579-45-7.

Sancar Seckiner' s new book Thilda's House (Thilda'nın Evi), 2017, underlines struggle of
Istanbul Romani People who have been swept away from nearby Kadikoy. Ref. ISBN 978-
605-4160-88-4.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Romani people.

European countries Roma links

History the Roma and Sinti in Germany (http://www.sintiundroma.de/en/sinti-roma.html) .

"General introduction" (http://romafacts.uni-graz.at/index.php/history/general-introduction/g

eneral-introduction) , History of the Roma in Austria, AT: Uni Graz.

"History of the Roma in Czech Republic" (https://archive.today/20131028133534/http://www.

rommuz.cz/en/history-and-language/) . CZ: Rommuz. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.rommuz.cz/en/history-and-language/) on 28 October 2013..

Deportation (http://www.romasinti.eu/#/ZoniWeisz/Deportation) , EU: Romas Inti. History of

some Roma Europeans

Gypsies in France, 1566–2011 (http://www.fyifrance.com/gypsybib.htm) , FYI France

The concentration, labor, ghetto camps that the Roma were persecuted in during
World War II
 Auschwitz (https://web.archive.org/web/20120506023540/http://en.auschwitz.org/h/index.p
hp?option=com_content&task=view&id=11&Itemid=3) , archived from the original (http://en.
auschwitz.org/h/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11&Itemid=3) on 6 May
2012, retrieved 28 October 2013.

"Hodonin" (http://www.holocaust.cz/en/history/camps/hodonin) , History: Camps, CZ:

Holocaus.

History (https://web.archive.org/web/20170326075119/http://www.lety-memorial.cz/history_e
n.aspx) , CZ: Lety memorial, archived from the original (http://www.lety-memorial.cz/history
_en.aspx) on 26 March 2017, retrieved 28 October 2013.

"The situation of the Roma in the European Union" (https://archive.today/20071226015809/h

ttp://www.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade3?SAME_LEVEL=1&LEVEL=5&NAV=X&DETAIL=&PUBRE
F=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2005-0151+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN) (resolution). European
Parliament. 28 April 2005. Archived from the original (http://www.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade
3?SAME_LEVEL=1&LEVEL=5&NAV=X&DETAIL=&PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2005-015
1+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN) on 26 December 2007..

"Final report on the human rights situation of the Roma, Sinti and travellers in Europe" (https:
//wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=962605&Site=COE) . The European Commissioner for
Human Rights (Council of Europe). 15 February 2006..

Shot in remote areas of the Thar desert in Northwest India, Jaisalmer Ayo: Gateway of the
Gypsies (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zirn1H4vE0Y) on YouTube captures the lives
of vanishing nomadic communities who are believed to share common ancestors with the
Roma people – released 2004

Non-governmental organisations

European Roma Rights Centre (http://www.errc.org/) .

The Gypsy Lore Society (http://www.gypsyloresociety.org/) . Beginning in 1888 (https://hist

orydaily.org/60-vintage-photos-from-forgotten-moments-in-history/24) , the Gypsy Lore
Society started to publish a journal that was meant to dispel rumors about their lifestyle.

Museums and libraries

Museum of Romani Culture (http://www.rommuz.cz/) (in Czech), Brno, CZ.

Studii romani (https://web.archive.org/web/20060821022409/http://www.studiiromani.org/)
(specialized library with archive), Sofia, BG, archived from the original (http://www.studiiroma
ni.org/) on 21 August 2006, retrieved 21 August 2006.

Documentation and Cultural Centre of German Sinti and Roma (http://www.sintiundroma.de/

content/index.php?sID=2&navID=0&tID=0&aID=0) , Heidelberg, DE.

Ethnographic Museum (http://www.muzeum.tarnow.pl/) (in Polish), Tarnów, PL.

"Who we Were, Who we Are: Kosovo Roma Oral History Collection" (http://www.balkanprojec
t.org/roma/index.shtml) . March 2004. The most comprehensive collection of information
on Kosovo's Roma in existence.