Cognitive Psychology Definition

It is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information.
(Cognitive Psychology 7th Edition, Robert Sternberg, Karin Stern Berg, 2017)
A cognitive Psychologist might study how people perceive various shapes, why they
remember some facts but forget others, or how they learn language
It is the area of psychology that focuses on internal mental processes. Such processes
include thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, language, attention, and memory.
This field is often considered part of the larger field of cognitive science. (Updated
Definition: July 2018 retrieved https://www.explorepsychology.com/cognitive-
psychology/)
 

ACCORDING TO AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL

ASSOCIATION
 
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
            The branch of psychology that explores the operation of mental processes
related to perceiving, attending, thinking, language, and memory, mainly through
inferences from behavior. The cognitive approach, which developed in the 1940s and
1950s, diverged sharply from contemporary behaviorism in (a) emphasizing unseen
knowledge processes instead of directly observable behaviors and (b) arguing that the
relationship between stimulus and response was complex and mediated rather than
simple and direct. Its concentration on the higher mental processes also contrasted with
the focus on instincts and other unconscious forces typical of psychoanalysis. More
recently, cognitive psychology has been influenced by approaches to information
processing and information theory developed in computer science and artificial
intelligence. See also cognitive science.
 
 
 AVAILABILITY HEURISTICS
It is a cognitive shortcut that occurs when we make judgments on the basis of how
easily we can call to mind what we perceive as relevant instances of a phenomenon.
HEURISTICS
Are Mental Shortcuts we use to come to mind. (Rules of Thumb). It is a mental process
that help humans solve problems and learn new concepts. This make problems less
complex by ignoring some of the information that’s coming into the brain, either
consciously or unconsciously.
 
Why do we study Cognitive Psychology and its History?
First, if we know where we came from, we may have a better understanding of where
we are heading. Secondly, we can learn from past mistakes. Lastly, to learn how people
think by studying how people have thoughts about thinking and for progression of ideas.
In cognitive psychology, the ways of addressing fundamental issues have changed, but
many of the fundamental questions remain much the same. Ultimately, cognitive
psychologists hope to learn how people think by studying how people have thoughts
about thinking.
 
  

“DIALECTIC” - It is
a developmental process where ideas evolve over time through a pattern of
transformation.
 
  
A thesis is proposed.
A thesis is a statement of belief. For example, some people believe that human nature
governs many aspects of human behavior (e.g., intelligence or personality; Sternberg,
1999). After a while, however, certain individuals notice apparent flaws in the thesis.
 
An antithesis emerges. 
Eventually, or perhaps even quite soon, an antithesis emerges. An antithesis is a
statement that counters a previous statement of belief. For example, an alternative view
is that our nurture (the environmental contexts in which we are reared) almost entirely
determines many aspects of human behavior.
 
A synthesis integrates the viewpoints.
Sooner or later, the debate between the thesis and the antithesis leads to a synthesis. A
synthesis integrates the most credible features of each of two (or more) views. For
example, in the debate over nature versus nurture, the interaction between our innate
(inborn) nature and environmental nurture may govern human nature.

PHILOSOPHICAL ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY: RATIONALISM VERSUS

EMPIRICISM
The field of Philosophy seeks to understand the general nature of many aspects of the
world, in part through introspection, the examination of inner ideas and experiences
(from intro-, “inward, within,” and -spect, “look”); while the field of Physiology seeks a
scientific study of life-sustaining functions in living matter, primarily through empirical
(observation-based) methods.
Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism versus Empiricism
Two Greek philosophers, Plato (ca. 428–348 B.C.) and his student Aristotle(384–322
B.C.), have profoundly affected modern thinking in psychology and many other fields.
Plato and Aristotle disagreed regarding how to investigate ideas.
Plato was a rationalist. A rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through
thinking and logical analysis. That is, a rationalist does not need any experiments to
develop new knowledge. A rationalist who is interested in cognitive processes would
appeal to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.
           In contrast, Aristotle (a naturalist and biologist as well as a philosopher) was an
empiricist. An empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence—
that is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation.

            In order to explore how the human mind works, empiricists would design
experiments and conduct studies in which they could observe the behavior and
processes of interest to them. Empiricism therefore leads directly to empirical
investigations of psychology.
Cognitive psychology, like other sciences, depends on the work of both rationalists and
empiricists.
  to the rationalist, the only route to truth is reasoned contemplation;

French rationalist René Descartes (1596–1650)

Descartes viewed the introspective, reflective method as being superior to empirical
methods for finding truth.
 The famous expression “cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) stems from
Descartes. He maintained that the only proof of his existence is that he was thinking
and doubting.
Descartes felt that one could not rely on one’s senses because those very senses have
often proven to be deceptive (think of optical illusions, for example).
 
The contrasting ideas of rationalism and empiricism became prominent to…
British empiricist John Locke (1632–1704)
Locke, in contrast, had more enthusiasm for empirical observation (Leahey, 2003).
Locke believed that humans are born without knowledge and therefore must seek
knowledge through empirical observation. Locke’s term for this view was tabula rasa
(meaning “blank slate” in Latin). The idea is that life and experience “write” knowledge
on us. For Locke, then, the study of learning was the key to understanding the human
mind. He believed that there are no innate ideas.
 
 
German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
Who dialectically synthesized the views of Descartes and Locke, arguing that both
rationalism and empiricism have their place.
Both must work together in the quest for truth. Most 21st century psychologists today
accept Kant’s synthesis.
 Psychological Origins of Cognitive Psychology
Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Structuralism
 
Structuralism seeks to understand the structure (configuration of elements) of the mind
and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components
(affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.). (Kardas, 2013, Leahey, 2003; Morawski,
2000)
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German psychologist whose ideas contributed to
the development of structuralism.
Wundt is often viewed as the founder of structuralism in psychology. (Structuralism,
2009) Wundt used a variety of methods in his research. One of these methods was
introspection.

Methods  To Gain Knowledge How Knowledge is Gained

Rationalism  Through Reflective Thinking and Analysis
Empiricism Through Observation
Through the use of observation as well as
 Synthesis
thinking and logical Analysis
 Introspection is a deliberate looking inward at pieces of information passing through
consciousness. The aim of introspection is to look at the elementary components of an
object or process. The introduction of introspection as an experimental.
TABLE SUMMARY
 
 
 
 

Approaches to
Studying the Methods Used What is Studied
Mind
Content/Structure of the
Structuralism Introspection
Mind
Various: depends on question Processes of how the mind
Functionalism
asked works
Various observations and Research that can be
Pragmatism
researches applied to the real world
Experiments: Ebbinghaus used How learning takes place by
Synthesis:
himself as a subject; Thorndike associating things with each
Associationism
used cats as well as humans. other
Behaviorism
(Extreme form Use of animals in research in Relations between
of addition to humans observable behavior and
Associationism  Quantitative Analysis environmental events/stimuli
)
 Gestalt Psychological phenomena
Introspection, experiments
Psychology studied as organized wholes
Understands the behavior
Synthesis: Experiments, computer simulation,
through the ways people
Cognitivism protocol analysis
think.
 
Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Functionalism
William James (1842–1910). Principles of Psychology (1890/1970)
Functionalism seeks to understand what people do and why they do it. This principal
question about processes was in contrast to that of the structuralists, who had asked
what the elementary contents (structures) of the human mind are.
Functionalists held that the key to understanding the human mind and behavior was
to study the processes of how and why the mind works as it does.
John Dewey (1859–1952) early pragmatist who profoundly influenced contemporary
thinking in cognitive psychology. Dewey is remembered primarily for his pragmatic
approach to thinking and schooling.
Attention, consciousness, and perception. (Research and expand the discussion
regarding the core topics of William James)
Pragmatists believe that knowledge is validated by its usefulness: What can you do
with it? Pragmatists are concerned not only with knowing what people do; they also
want to know what we can do with our knowledge of what people do.
An Integrative Synthesis: Associationism
Associationism examines how elements of the mind, like events or ideas, can
become associated with one another in the mind to result in a form of learning.
Contiguity (associating things that tend to occur together at about the same time);
Similarity (associating things with similar features or properties); or
Contrast (associating things that show polarities, such as hot/cold, light/dark,
day/ night).
In the late 1800s, associationist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) was the first
experimenter to apply associationist principles systematically. Specifically, Ebbinghaus
studied his own mental processes.
Ebbinghaus studied how people learn and remember material through Rehearsal, the
conscious repetition of material to be learned.
 
 
 
He found that frequent repetition can fix mental associations more firmly in memory.
Thus, repetition aids in learning.

 
 
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949), held that the role of “satisfaction” is the key to
forming associations.
Law of effect (1905): A stimulus will tend to produce a certain response over time if an
organism is rewarded for that response.
 Thorndike believed that an organism learns to respond in a given way (the effect) in a
given situation if it is rewarded repeatedly for doing so (the satisfaction, which serves as
a stimulus to future actions).
Thus, a child given treats for solving arithmetic problems learns to solve arithmetic
problems accurately because the child forms associations between valid solutions and
treats. These ideas were the predecessors of the development of behaviorism.
The “father” of radical behaviorism is John Watson (1878–1958).
Behaviorism focuses only on the relation between observable behavior and
environmental events or stimuli. The idea was to make physical whatever others
might have called “mental” (Lycan,2003)
Studied responses that were voluntary (although perhaps lacking any conscious
thought, as in Thorndike’s work). Other researchers studied responses that were
involuntarily triggered in response to what appear to be unrelated external events.
 
Ivan Pavlov studied involuntary learning behavior of this sort.
He began with the observation that dogs salivated in response to the sight of the lab
technician who fed them. This response occurred before the dogs even saw whether
the technician had food.
 To Pavlov, this response indicated a form of learning (classically conditioned learning),
over which the dogs had no conscious control. In the dogs’ minds, some type of
involuntary learning linked the technician to the food (Pavlov, 1955).
His ideas were made known in the United States especially through the work of John B.
Watson. Classical conditioning involves more than just an association based on
temporal contiguity. Effective conditioning requires contingency. Contingencies in the
form of reward and punishment are still used today, for example, in the treatment of
substance abuse (Cameron & Ritter, 2007).
Classical conditioning (Pavlovian or respondent conditioning), a response is drawn
out of the organism by a specific, identifiable stimulus.
Operant conditioning (also called Skinnerian conditioning), a behavior is made more
likely to recur when it is immediately reinforced. (Reinforcement or Punishment)
 
 
Ivan Pavlov – (Classical Conditioning)

Unconditioned Response- The dogs’ natural salivation in response to seeing or

smelling their food
Unconditioned stimulus – Sight or smell of the food itself
Conditioned Stimulus- Ringing a Bell, which previously had no association of the
food
Conditioned Response- Salivation of the dog in response to the ringing of the bell,
even when no food was present

John B. Watson – Demonstrated that classical conditioning- the association of the

particular  stimulus or behavior with an unrelated stimulus works in human beings.
The Little Albert Experiment
Unconditioned Response- Little albert cried because of the noise (Banged hammer
on a metal Bar)
Unconditioned Stimulus- Banging of a hammer on a metal bar
Conditioned Stimulus- Seeing and Touching the rat
Conditioned Response- Albert manifested fear of rats
Skinner- the idea that behavior is determine by its consequences Reinforcement and
Punishment Operant Conditioning
 
Image online source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/little-albert.html
 
 
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY -The Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts”
States that we best understand psychological phenomenon when we view them
organized, structured wholes. What one can do; many can do better. (Association of
Ideas)
E.g. HUMAN MIND= Cells and Tissues – Atoms – But can we ever explain our
personality, perceptions, or even likes and dislikes by just studying the behavior of our
atoms or by studying ourselves?
EMERGENCE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitivism is the belief that much of human behavior can be understood in terms of
how people think.
EARLY ROLE OF COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the attempt by humans to construct systems that show
intelligence and, particularly, the intelligent processing of information (Merriam
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2003). Chess-playing programs, which now can beat
most humans, are examples of artificial intelligence. However, experts greatly
underestimated how difficult it would be to develop a computer that can think like a
human being. Even today, computers have trouble reading handwriting and
understanding and responding to spoken language with the ease that humans do. Many
of the early cognitive psychologists became interested in cognitive psychology through
applied problems. For example, according to Berry (2002), Donald Broadbent (1926–
1993) claimed to have developed an interest in cognitive psychology through a puzzle
regarding AT6 aircraft. The planes had two almost identical levers under the seat.
            One lever was to pull up the wheels and the other to pull up the flaps. Pilots
apparently regularly mistook one for the other, thereby crashing expensive planes upon
take-off. During World War II, many cognitive psychologists, including one of the senior
author’s advisors, Wendell Garner, consulted with the military in solving practical
problems of aviation and other fields that arose out of warfare against enemy forces.
Information theory, which sought to understand people’s behavior in terms of how they
process the kinds of bits of information processed by computers (Shannon & Weaver,
1963), also grew out of problems in engineering and informatics. Applied cognitive
psychology also has had great use in advertising. John Watson, after he left Johns
Hopkins University as a professor, became an extremely successful executive in an
advertising firm and applied his knowledge of psychology to reach his success. Indeed,
much of advertising has directly used principles from cognitive psychology to attract
customers to products (Benjamin & Baker, 2004).
Cognition and Intelligence
Human intelligence can be viewed as an integrating, or “umbrella” psychological
construct for a great deal of theory and research in cognitive psychology. Intelligence is
the capacity to learn from experience, using metacognitive processes to enhance
learning, and the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment. It may require different
adaptations within different social and cultural contexts. People who are more intelligent
tend to be superior in processes such as divided and selective attention, working
memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, and concept formation. So when
we come to understand the mental processes involved in each of these cognitive
functions, we also better understand the bases of individual differences in human
intelligence.
Ulric Neisser
Known for his book in Cognitive Psychology (Neisser, 1967) was especially critical in
bringing cognitivism to prominence by informing undergraduates, graduate students,
and academics about the newly developing field.
Neisser defined cognitive psychology as the study of how people learn, structure, store,
and use knowledge.

Introduction:
            Our brain is a central processing unit for everything we do. But how does our
brain relate to our body? Are they connected or separated? Does our brain define who
we are?
 
            The mind - body issue has long interested philosophers and scientists. Where is
the mind located in the body, if at all? How do the mind and body interact? How are we
able to think, speak, plan, reason, learn, and remember? What are the physical bases
for our cognitive abilities? These questions all probe the relationship between cognitive
psychology and neurobiology. Some cognitive psychologists seek to answer such
questions by studying the biological bases of cognition. Cognitive psychologists are
especially concerned with how the anatomy (physical structures of the body) and the
physiology (functions and processes of the body) of the nervous system affect and are
affected by human cognition.
 
Lesson Proper:
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
Cognitive neuroscience is the field of study linking the brain and other aspects of the
nervous system to cognitive processing and, ultimately, to behavior. The brain is the
organ in our bodies that most directly controls our thoughts, emotions, and motivations.
We usually think of the brain as being at the top of the body’s hierarchy as the boss,
with various other organs responding to it. Like any good boss, however, it listens to
and is influenced by its subordinates, the other organs of the body. Thus, the brain is
reactive as well as directive.
 
What does a brain actually look like?

SIDE VIEW
 TOP VIEW

 
A major goal of present research on the brain is to study localization of
function. Localization of function refers to the specific areas of the brain that control
specific skills or behaviors.
 
COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain
 
 The NERVOUS SYSTEM is the basis for our ability to
perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world around us. Through this system we
receive, process, and then respond to information from the environment.
            As we go along with our discussion, we will focus on the supreme organ of the
nervous system - the brain - paying special attention to the cerebral cortex, which
controls many of our thought processes. In a later section, we consider the basic
building block of the nervous system - the neuron. We will examine in detail how
information moves through the nervous system at the cellular level. Then we will
consider the various levels of organization within the nervous system and how drugs
interact with the nervous system. For now, let’s look at the structure of the brain.
 
Let’s have a break!
            Think of how the human being developed. From an embryo a few weeks after
conception to a fetus of seven months of age until birth. What happened to the
development of the brain? How could all of these be possible? Try to think and refresh
your mind from what you have learned when you were in your high school.
 
Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain
            What have scientists discovered about the human brain? The brain has three
major regions: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. These labels do not correspond
exactly to locations of regions in an adult or even a child’s head. Rather, the terms
come from the front-to-back physical arrangement of these parts in the nervous system
of a developing embryo. Initially, the forebrain is generally the farthest forward, toward
what becomes the face.
            The midbrain is next in line. And the hindbrain is generally farthest from the
forebrain, near the back of the neck. In development, the relative orientations change so
that the forebrain is almost a cap on top of the midbrain and hindbrain.
            Nonetheless, the terms still are used to designate areas of the fully developed
brain. This shows the changing locations and relationships of the forebrain, the
midbrain, and the hindbrain over the course of development of the brain. You can see
how they develop, from an embryo a few weeks after conception to a fetus of seven
months of age. (For better appreciation, please see the picture below.)
All Image References retrieved from: Sternberg R., 2017, Karin Stern Berg Cognitive
Psychology 7th Edition Sternberg R., 2012, Karin Stern Berg Cognitive Psychology 6th
Edition from Getty Images; Noel Hendrickson/Blend Images/Corbis; background:
IngramPublishing/Getty Images.
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The brain has three major regions: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
            The FOREBRAIN is the region of the brain located toward the top and front of
the brain. It comprises the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, the limbic system, the
thalamus, and the hypothalamus.
 Th
e CEREBRAL CORTEX is the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres. It plays a vital
role in our thinking and other mental processes.
Directs the brain's higher cognitive and emotional functions. It is divided into two almost
symmetrical halves called the cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere contains four
lobes. Areas within these lobes oversee all forms of conscious experience, including
perception, emotion, thought, and planning, as well as many unconscious cognitive and
emotional processes.
 
            It plays an extremely important role in human cognition. It enables us to think.
The surface of the cerebral cortex is grayish. It is sometimes referred to as gray matter.
This is because it primarily comprises the grayish neural-cell bodies that process the
information that the brain receives and sends. In contrast, the underlying white matter of
the brain’s interior comprises mostly white, myelinated axons.
Note: Because of cerebral cortex we can plan, coordinate thoughts and actions,
perceive visual and sound patterns, and use language.
Cerebral Cortex
Functions: Consciousness, initiative, judgment,
 It controls emotional response, controls our
expressive language and word association. (Memory for habits and motor activities)
Involves in higher mental functions of perceptual awareness where recognition and
interpretation of sensory stimuli is based chiefly on memory which results in new
insights, intuition or knowledge gained by the simple act of perceiving life.
Observed problems:
Paralysis, inability to plan (sequencing), loss of spontaneity and flexibility in thinking,
persistence of single thought (perseveration), inability to focus on task (attending),
mood changes (emotional labile), changes in social behavior, personality and difficulty
in problem solving, inability to express language (Broca’s aphasia), inability to
comprehend (Wernicke’s aphasia)
Prefrontal Cortex

Functions:
Location for visual attention, touch perception, Goal directed voluntary movements,
manipulation of objects.
-Integration of different senses that allows for understanding a single concept
-Involved in conscious thinking process, especially making choices
 
 Observed Problems:
Inability to attend object one at a time, inability to name object (anomia), inability to
locate words for writing (agraphia), problems with reading (alexia), difficulty with drawing
objects, distinguish from left to right and doing mathematics (dyscalculia), lack of
awareness of certain body parts and/surrounding space (apraxia) that leads to
difficulties in self-care, inability to focus visual attention, difficulties with eye and hand
coordination
The BASAL GANGLIA (singular: ganglion) are collections of neurons crucial to motor
function. Dysfunction of the basal ganglia can result in motor deficits. These deficits
include tremors, involuntary movements, changes in posture and muscle tone, and
slowness of movement. Deficits are observed in Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s
disease. Both these diseases entail severe motor symptoms.
Note: Parkinson’s disease is neurodegenerative disorder that affects the nervous
system and causes people’s muscles to become weak and their arms and legs to
shake. Huntington’s disease is a hereditary disorder with mental and physical
deterioration leading to death (death of brain cells).
Depression, irritability, mood swings, deficits in memory and concentration, dementia,
difficulty in swallowing, loss of coordination.
Dopamine- producing neurons (neurotransmitter in the brain) -“Substantia Nigra” are
damaged and die over time that leads to motor problems and mental disabilities.
Limbic System
Functions:

It is involved in the expression of your instincts

and feeling process, including your many moods.
 Part of the brain where primal urges reside. Here lies the amygdala and hippocampus
which handles many of our emotions and aggressive tendencies.
 Men has larger amygdala. The later, is the memory center of the brain and is larger in
women than men. Women tend to remember more physical and emotional details of an
experience.
           
It is important to emotion, motivation, memory, and learning. Our limbic systems help us
to adapt our behaviors flexibly in response to our changing environment.
The SEPTUM is involved in anger and fear. The AMYGDALA plays an important role in
emotion as well, especially in anger and aggression. The HIPPOCAMPUS plays an
essential role in memory formation. It comes from the Greek word for “seahorse,” its
approximate shape. It is essential for flexible learning and for seeing the relations
among items learned as well as for spatial memory.
Note: People who have suffered damage to or removal of the hippocampus still can
recall existing memories, for example, they can recognize old friends and places, but
they are unable to form new memories (relative to the time of the brain damage). New
information—new situations, people, and places will remain forever new.  A disease that
produces loss of memory function is Korsakoff’s syndrome. Other symptoms include
apathy, paralysis of muscles controlling the eye, and tremor.
            The THALAMUS relays incoming sensory information through groups of
neurons that project to the appropriate region in the cortex.
The HYPOTHALAMUS regulates behavior related to species survival: fighting, feeding,
fleeing, and mating. The hypothalamus also is active in regulating emotions and
reactions to stress. The small size of the hypothalamus (from Greek hypo-, “under”;
located at the base of the forebrain, beneath the thalamus) belies its importance in
controlling many bodily functions.
Note: The hypothalamus plays a role in sleep. The hypothalamus also is important for
the functioning of the endocrine system. It is involved in the stimulation of the pituitary
glands, through which a range of hormones are produced and released. These
hormones include growth hormones and oxytocin (which is involved in bonding
processes and sexual arousal. The MIDBRAIN helps to control eye movement and
coordination. The midbrain is more important in non-mammals where it is the main
source of control for visual and auditory information.
Reticular Activating System (RAS; also called the “reticular formation”), a network of
neurons essential to the regulation of consciousness (sleep; wakefulness; arousal;
attention to some extent; and vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing. The RAS
also extends into the hindbrain. Both the RAS and the thalamus are essential to our
having any conscious awareness of or control over our existence.
 
Brainstem
Functions:
Breathing heat rate, swallowing reflexes to seeing and hearing (Startle Response),

controls sweating, blood pressure, digestion, 

temperature (ANS), affects level of alertness and inability to sleep. Sense of balance
(vestibular Function). Control body’s most basic unconscious life-sustaining functions,
including your breathing and heart rate.
It connects the forebrain to the spinal cord. It comprises the hypothalamus, the
thalamus, the midbrain, and the hindbrain. A structure called the periaqueductal gray
(PAG) is in the brainstem.
Observes problems:
Decreased vital capacity in breathing, important for speech. Swallowing food and water
(Dysphagia). Difficulty with organization/perception of the environment. Problems with
balance and movements, dizziness and nausea(vertigo). Sleeping difficulties (Insomnia,
sleep apnea)
            All Image References retrieved from: Sternberg R., 2017, Karin Stern Berg Cognitive
Psychology 7th Edition Sternberg R., 2012, Karin Stern Berg Cognitive Psychology 6th Edition from Getty
Images; Noel Hendrickson/Blend Images/Corbis; background: IngramPublishing/Getty Images.
 

 
 T
he HINDBRAIN comprises the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the cerebellum.
The MEDULLA OBLONGATA controls heart activity and largely controls breathing,
swallowing, and digestion. This is the base of the brain stem connected with the spinal
cord. It controls heartbeat, waking, sleeping and breathing.
            The medulla oblongata is an elongated interior structure located at the point
where the spinal cord enters the skull and joins with the brain. The medulla oblongata,
which contains part of the RAS, helps to keep us alive.
            The PONS serves as a kind of relay station because it contains neural fibers
that pass signals from one part of the brain to another. Its name derives from the Latin
for “bridge,” as it serves a bridging function. The pons also contains a portion of the
RAS and nerves serving parts of the head and face.
Cerebellum (from Latin, “little brain”)
 Functions:
Coordination of voluntary movement, balance, and equilibrium. Some memory for motor
acts. Involved in your posture and many coordinated movements
 
 
 
Observed problems:
Loss of ability to coordinate fine movements, inability to walk, reach and grab objects,
tremors, dizziness (vertigo), slurred speech (scanning speech), inability to make rapid
movements.
It controls bodily coordination, balance, and muscle tone, as well as some aspects of
memory involving procedure-related movements.
 
 
Hemispheric Specialization
           

 
French scientist Paul Broca: The specific part of the brain that Broca identified, now
called Broca’s area, contributes to speech. German neurologist Carl Wernicke, studied
language-deficient patients who could speak but whose speech made no
sense. Wernicke’s area, which contributes to language comprehension
 
Note: Aphasia means loss of speech - as a result of brain damage.
 
                        The left hemisphere is important not only in language but also in
movement. People with apraxia -disorders of skilled movements - often have had
damage to the left hemisphere. For better appreciation, please see the
picture.) Note: Karl Spencer Lashley often described as the father of neuropsychology.

LOBES OF THE BRAIN

(Frontal Lobe)
 Functions:
The frontal lobes are involved in motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory,
language, initiation, judgement, impulse control, and social and sexual behavior.
 
Observed problems:
Frontal lobe disorders often present with psychiatric effects. The cause is usually a
tumor, inability to plan and solve issues, dementia (such as loss of memory, language,
problem-solving and other thinking abilities that are severe enough to interfere with daily
life.)
 
Damage to the neurons or tissue of the frontal lobe can lead to personality changes,
difficulty concentrating or planning, and impulsivity.
 
 
 (Parietal Lobe)
Functions:
The parietal lobes can be divided into two functional regions. One involves sensation
and perception and the other is concerned with integrating sensory input, primarily with
the visual system. The first function integrates sensory information to form a single
perception (cognition).
 
Observed Problems:
Damage to the right parietal lobe can result in neglecting part of the body or space
(contralateral neglect), which can impair many self-care skills such as dressing and
washing. Right side damage can also cause difficulty in making things (constructional
apraxia), denial of deficits (anosagnosia) and drawing ability.
 
(Occipital Lobe)
Functions:
The occipital lobe is the visual processing area of the brain. It is associated with
visuospatial processing, distance and depth perception, color determination, object and
face recognition, and memory formation.
 
Observed problems:
Defects in vision (Visual Field Cuts). Difficulty with locating objects in environment.
Difficulty with identifying colors (Color Agnosia). Production with hallucination. Visual
illusion – inaccuracy seeing objects. Word blindness – inability to recognize words.
Difficulty in recognizing the movement of an object (Movement Agnosia). Difficulty in
recognizing drawn objects. Difficulty with reading and writing.
 
(Temporal Lobe)
Functions:
The temporal lobe is involved in primary auditory perception, such as hearing, and holds
the primary auditory cortex. The primary auditory cortex receives sensory information
from the ears and secondary areas process the information into meaningful units such
as speech and words.
 
Observed problems:
Difficulty in recognizing faces (Prosopagnosia). Difficulty in spoken words (wernicke’s
Aphasia). Disturbance with selective attention to what we see and hear. Difficulty with
identification of, and verbalization about objects. Short term memory loss, interference
with long term memory increased or decreased interest in sexual behavior. Inability to
categorize objects (categorization). Right lobe damage can cause persistent talking,
increased aggressive behavior.
 
(All Image References retrieved from: Sternberg R., 2017, Karin Stern Berg Cognitive Psychology 7th
Edition Sternberg R., 2012, Karin Stern Berg Cognitive Psychology 6th Edition from Getty Images; Noel
Hendrickson/Blend Images/Corbis; background: IngramPublishing/Getty Images.)
 

Let’s Have a break by reading this article:

The Anatomy of the Brain: The brain controls your thoughts, feelings, and
physical movements
By Heidi Moawad, MD  Medically reviewed by Keri Peterson, MD on March 17, 2020
            The brain has a number of functions, including motor function (controlling the
body’s movements), coordination, sensory functions (being aware of sensations),
hormone control, regulation of the heart and lungs, emotions, memory, behavior, and
creativity.
These functions often rely on each other and interact with each other. For example, you
might experience an emotion based on something that you see and/or hear. Or you
might try to solve a problem with the help of your memory. Messages travel very quickly
between the different regions in the brain, which makes the interactions almost
instantaneous.
Functions of the brain include:
Motor function: Motor function is initiated in an area at the back of the frontal lobe, the
motor homunculus. This region controls movement on the opposite side of the body by
sending messages through the internal capsule, to the brainstem, then to the spinal
cord and finally to a spinal nerve through a pathway described as the corticospinal tract.
Coordination and balance: Your body maintains balance and coordination through a
number of pathways in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and brainstem.
Sensation: The brain receives sensory messages through a pathway that travels from
the nerves in the skin and organs to the spine, then to the brainstem, up through the
thalamus and finally to an area of the parietal lobe2 called the sensory homunculus—
directly behind the motor homunculus. Each hemisphere receives sensory input from
the opposite side of the body. This pathway is called the spinothalamic tract.
Vision: Your optic nerves in your eyes can detect whatever you see, sending messages
through your optic tract (pathway) to your occipital lobes. The occipital lobes put those
messages together so that you can perceive what you are seeing in the world around
you.
Taste and smell: Your olfactory nerve detects smell, while several of your cranial
nerves work together to detect taste. These nerves send messages to your brain. The
sensations of smell and taste often interact, as smell amplifies your experience of taste.
Hearing: You can detect sounds when a series of vibrations in your ear stimulate your
vestibulocochlear nerve. The message is sent to your brainstem and then to your
temporal cortex so that you can make sense of the sounds that you hear.
Language: Speaking and understanding language is a specialized brain function that
involves several regions of your dominant hemisphere (the side of the brain opposite
your dominant hand). The two major areas that control speech are Wernicke’s area,
which controls the understanding of speech, and Broca’s area, which controls the
fluency of your speech.
Emotions and memory: Your amygdala and hippocampus play important roles in
storing memory, as well as associating certain memories with emotion.
Hormones: Your hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and medulla all respond to the
conditions of your body—such as your temperature, carbon dioxide level, and hormone
levels—by releasing hormones and other chemicals that help regulate your body’s
functions. Emotions, such as fear, can also have an influence on these functions.
Behavior and judgment: The frontal lobes control reasoning, planning, and maintaining
social interactions. This area of the brain is also involved in judgment and in maintaining
appropriate behavior.
Analytical thinking: Mathematical problem solving is located in the dominant
hemisphere. Often, this type of reasoning involves interaction with the decision-making
regions of the frontal lobes.
Creativity: There are many types of creativity, including the production of visual art,
music, and creative writing. These skills can involve three-dimensional thinking, also
described and visual-spatial skills. Creativity also involves analytical reasoning, and
usually requires a balance between traditional ways of thinking (which occurs in the
frontal lobes) and “thinking outside the box."
Associated Conditions
There are many conditions that can affect the brain. You may experience self-limited
issues, such as the pain of a headache, or more lasting effects of brain disease, such
as paralysis due to a stroke. The diagnosis of brain illnesses may be complex and can
involve a variety of medical examinations and tests, including a physical examination,
imaging tests, neuropsychological testing, electroencephalography (EEG) and/or lumbar
puncture.
Common conditions that involve the brain include:
Headaches: Head pain can occur due to chronic migraines or tension headaches. You
can also have a headache when you feel sleepy, stressed, or due to an infection like
meningitis (an infection of the meninges).
Traumatic brain injury: An injury to the head can cause damage such as bleeding in
the brain, a skull fracture, a bruise in the brain, or, in severe cases, death. These
injuries may cause vision loss, paralysis, or severe cognitive (thinking) problems.
Concussion: Head trauma can cause issues like loss of consciousness, memory
impairment, and mood changes. These problems may develop even in the absence of
bleeding or a skull fracture. Often, symptoms of a concussion resolve over time, but
recurrent head trauma can cause serious and persistent problems with brain function,
described as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).
Transient ischemic attack (TIA): A temporary interruption in the blood supply to the
brain can cause the affected areas to temporarily lose function. This can happen due to
a blood clot, usually coming from the heart or carotid arteries.
If the interruption in blood flow resolves before permanent brain damage occurs, this is
called a TIA. Generally, a TIA is considered a warning that a person is at risk of having
a stroke, so a search for stroke causes is usually necessary—and stroke prevention
often needs to be initiated.
Stroke: A stroke is brain damage that occurs due to an interruption of blood flow to the
brain. This can occur due to a blood clot (ischemic stroke) or a bleed in the brain
(hemorrhagic stroke).There are a number of causes of ischemic and hemorrhagic
stroke, including heart disease, hypertension, and brain aneurysms.
Brain aneurysm: An aneurysm is an outpouching of a blood vessel. A brain aneurysm
can cause symptoms due to pressure on nearby structures. An aneurysm can also
bleed or rupture, causing a hemorrhage in the brain. Sometimes an aneurysm can be
surgically repaired before it ruptures, preventing serious consequences.
Dementia: Degenerative disease of the regions in the brain that control memory and
behavior can cause a loss of independence. This can occur in several conditions, such
as Alzheimer’s disease, Lewy body dementia, Pick’s disease, and vascular dementia
(caused by having many small strokes).
Multiple sclerosis (MS): This is a condition characterized by demyelination (loss of the
protective fatty coating around nerves) in the brain and spine. MS can cause a variety of
effects, such as vision loss, muscle weakness, and sensory changes. The disease
course can be characterized by exacerbations and remissions, a progressive decline, or
a combination of these processes.
Parkinson’s disease: This condition is a progressive movement disorder that causes
tremors of the body (especially the arms), stiffness of movements, and a slow, shuffling
pattern of walking. There are treatments for this condition, but it is not curable.
Epilepsy: Recurrent seizures can occur due to brain damage or congenital (from birth)
epilepsy. These episodes may involve involuntary movements, diminished
consciousness, or both. Seizures usually last for a few seconds at a time, but prolonged
seizures (status epilepticus) can occur as well. Anti-epileptic medications can help
prevent seizures, and some emergency anti-epileptic medications can be used to stop a
seizure while it is happening.
Meningitis or encephalitis: An infection or inflammation of the meninges (meningitis)
or the brain (encephalitis) can cause symptoms such as a fever, stiff neck, headache, or
seizures. With treatment, meningitis usually improves without lasting effects, but
encephalitis can cause brain damage, with long-term neurological impairment.
             A primary brain tumor starts in the brain, and brain tumors from the body can
metastasize (spread) to the brain as well. These tumors can cause symptoms that
correlate to the affected area of the brain. Brain tumors also may cause swelling in the
brain, and hydrocephalus (a disruption of the CSF flow in the ventricular system).
Treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
***For more information***
 
Biological versus behavioral methods. The mechanisms and methods described in this
chapter are primarily biological. And yet, a major goal of biological researchers is to
discover how cognition and behavior relate to these biological mechanisms. For
example, they study how the hippocampus enables learning. Thus, biology, cognition,
and behavior work together. They are not in any way mutually exclusive.
 
Nature versus nurture. One comes into the world with many biological structures and
mechanisms in place. But nurture acts to develop them and enable them to reach their
potential. The existence of the cerebral cortex is a result of nature, but the memories
stored in it derive from nurture. Nature does not act alone. Rather, its marvels unfold
through the interventions of nurture.
 
Applied versus basic research. Much of the research in biological approaches to
cognition is basic. But this basic research later enables us, as cognitive psychologists,
to make applied discoveries. For example, to understand how to treat and, hopefully,
help individuals with brain damage, cognitive neuropsychologists first must understand
the nature of the damage and its pervasiveness. Many modern antidepressants, for
example, affect the reuptake of serotonin in the nervous system. By inhibiting reuptake,
they increase serotonin concentrations and ultimately increase feelings of well-being.
Interestingly, applied research can help basic research as much as basic research can
help applied research. In the case of antidepressants, scientists knew the drugs worked
before they knew exactly how they worked. Applied research in creating the drugs
helped the scientists understand the biological mechanisms underlying the success of
the drugs in relieving symptoms of depression.