GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

A Technical Seminar report submitted in the partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of the
degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY

GUNDALA. HARITHA (19L65A0117)

Under the guidance of

Ms. A.UMA MAHESWARI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CHAITANYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Kakinada) VISAKHAPTNAM-53004

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the internship entitled “GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE”

has been submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering, Chaitanya
Engineering College Visakhapatnam, by G.HARITHA (19L65A0117) In
partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Civil
Engineering.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Ms. A.UMA MAHESWARI

Asst. professor

Dept. of Civil Engineering.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my gratitude to Ms. A.UMA MAHESWARI Assistant
Professor and Head of the Department of Civil Engineering for
encouraging us to take up this topic.

I am thankful to and fortunate enough to get constant

encouragement, support and guidance from all teaching staffs of
[Civil department] which helped us in successfully completing my
Technical Seminar.

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 ABSTRACT

Concrete made up of cement, aggregates ,water & additives is the world’s most
consumed construction material since it is found to be more versatile, durable and
reliable concrete is the second most consumed material after water which required
large quantities of Portland cement. The production of ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) causes have to the environment due to the emission of Co2 as well mining
also results in unrecoverable loss to nature. Geopolymer concrete is an innovative
construction material which shall be produced by he chemical action of in organic
molecules . fly ash, aby product of coal obtained from the thermal power plant is
plenty available world wide. It is an excellent alternative construction material to
plain cement concrete without using any amount of ordinary Portland cement .

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 Certificate 2

Acknowledgement 3

Abstract 4

Contents 5

List of figures 6
INTRODUCTION 8-12
CHAPTER 1

1.1 General 8

1.2

1.2 Importance of Using Geopolymer Concrete 9

Constituents of geopolymer concrete 10

1.3

APPLICATIONS OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE 11

1.4
MATERIALS REQUIRED 12
1.5
TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER 13 -15
CHAPTER 2
CONCRETE

TYPES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE 13-14

2.1

PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE 15

2.2

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 16-17

CHAPTER 3

Advantages and Disadvantages of Geopolymer Concrete 16

3.1

3.2 Disadvantages of Geopolymer Concrete 17

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CHAPTER 4 Geopolymer for underwater concreting 18-20

4.1 Washout resistance of geopolymer

18

4.2 Self-Compacting geopolymer 19

4.3 Durability of geopolymer 20

METHODOLOGY OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE 21-22
CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE 21

5.1

5.2 METHODOLOGY 22

CONCLUSION 23
CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION 23
6.1

REFERENCES 24

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO DISCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 Ingredients of Geopolymer Concrete 12

2 Advantages of Geopolymer Concrete 17

3 Self-Compacting geopolymer 19

4 Methodology manufacture geopolymer 22

motor

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 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Geopolymer concrete is an innovative, eco-friendly construction material. It is used as
replacement of cement concrete. In geopolymer concrete cement is not used as a binding
material. Fly ash, silica-fume, or GGBS, along with alkali solution are used as binders.

Geopolymer was the name given by Daido its in 1978 to materials which are characterized by
chains or networks or inorganic molecules. Geopolymer cement concrete is made from
utilization of waste materials such as fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS).
Fly ash is the waste product generated from thermal power plant and ground granulate blast
furnace slag is generated as waste material in steel plant. Both fly ash and GGBS are processed
by appropriate technology and used for concrete works in the form of geopolymer concrete.
The use of this concrete helps to reduce the stock of wastes and also reduces carbon emission
by reducing Portland cement demand.

The name geopolymer was given by “Joseph Davidovits” in 1978. Geopolymer concrete (GPC)
is an eco friendly product which uses industrial waste by-products such as fly ash (waste from
thermal power plants) and ground granulated Blast Furnace Slag (waste from Iron production)
as complete replacement for cement in concrete. As a result of this geopolymer concrete
reduces CO2 emissions by 80%. Geopolymer is gaining importance and acceptance as it
ensures sustainability. Fly ash and GGBS are rich sources of silicon and aluminium which are
polymerized by alkali activating solution to form molecular chains and networks to create
hardened binder.

The main constituent of geopolymers source of silicon and aluminium which are provided by
thermally activated natural materials (e.g. kaolinite) or industrial by-products (e.g. fly ash or
slab) and an alkaline activating solution which polymerizes these materials into molecular
chains and networks to create hardened binder. It is also called as alkali-activated cement or
inorganic polymer cement.

Geopolymer concrete is more resistant to corrosion and fire, has high compressive and tensile
strengths, and it gains its full strength quickly (cures fully faster). It also shrinks less than
standard concrete.

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1.2 Importance of Using Geopolymer Concrete

This type of concrete is starting to revolutionize concrete. It is being used more and more in
highway construction projects and offshore applications. It is still a little too pricey for the do-
it-yourself projects that abound, but contractors are starting to use it more and more in other
construction projects.

Ordinary Portland Cement, results from the calcination of limestone (calcium carbonate) at
very high temperatures of about 1450-1500°C, and silico-aluminous material as given in the
equation below.

5CaCO3 + 2SiO2 —> (3CaO,SiO2) + (2CaO,SiO2) + 5CO2

which means that, production of every 1 metric tonne of cement generates 1 metric tonne of
CO2.With increasing consumption of cement, the world’s atmosphere gets destroyed. Cement
industry is one of the worst source of atmospheric pollution than any other industry. Thus the
necessity for an alternative material arose and soon Geopolymer emerged as an alternative
material which is eco friendly with reduced carbon dioxide emissions.

Geopolymers are chains or networks of mineral molecules linked with co -valent bonds.
They have following basic characteristics:

a) Nature of the hardened material:

• X-ray amorphous at ambient and medium temperatures

• X-ray crystalline at temperatures > 500°C

b) Synthesis Routes:

• alkaline medium (Na, K, Ca) hydroxides and alkali-silicates yielding

poly(silicates) – poly(siloxo) type or poly(silico-aluminates) – poly(sialate) type
• acidic medium (Phosphoric acid) yielding poly(phospho-siloxo) and
poly(alumina- phosphor) types

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As an example, one of the geopolymer Ric precursors, MK-750 (metakaolin) with its
alumoxyl group –Si-O-Al=O, reacts in both systems, alkaline and acidic. Same for
siloxo-based and organo-siloxo-based geopolymeric species that also react in both
alkaline and acidic medium.

1.3 CONSTITUENTS OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregates used in case of cement concrete can be used in case of Geopolymer
concrete (GPC) also where the coarse aggregate should conform to IS-383- 1970.

Fine Aggregate
In place of sand we can also use bottom ash which can be a replacement of sand. Up to
a level of 20% replacement of sand gives a good compressive strength.

Admixtures
To improve the workability of fresh concrete, a commercially available naphthaline
based superplasticizer was used. Lignin based first generation plasticizer shows better
performance in terms of workability over third generation superplasticizer. High range water
reducing naphthalene based super plasticiser, naphthalene sulphonate based superplasticizer
etc was also use.

Alkaline Activators
According to Prof. J. Davidovits the alkaline liquid should be made prior to one day
before mixing because at the time of mixing of Na2SiO3 with NaOH solution it generates a
huge amount of heat and the polymerization takes place by reacting with one another, which
will act as a binder in the geopolymer concrete. Common activators include NaOH, Na2SO4,
waterglass, Na2CO3, K2CO3, KOH, K2SO4 and cement clinker, the most utilized alkaline
activators are a mixture of sodium or potassium hydroxides (NaOH, KOH) and sodium
waterglass (nSiO2 Na2O) or potassium waterglass (nSiO2 K2O).

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

NaOH is also commonly used as an alkaline activator in geopolymer production.

Generally NaOH is available in market in the form of pellets or flakes form with 96% to 98%
purity where the cost of the product depends on the purity of the material. The solution of
NaOH was formed by dissolving it in water with different molarity. It is recommended that the
NaOH solution should be made 24 hours before casting and should be used with 36 hours of
mixing the pellets with water as after that it is converted to semi-solid state.

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 The concentration and molarity of this activating solution determines the resulting paste
properties. While high NaOH additions accelerate chemical dissolution, it depresses ettringite
and CH (carbon-hydrogen) formation during binder formation. Furthermore, higher
concentrations of NaOH promote higher strengths at early stages of reaction, but the strength
of aged materials were compromised due to excessive OH in solution causing undesirable
morphology and non-uniformity of the final products. It is found that geopolymers activated
with sodium hydroxide develop greater crystallinity thus improving stability in aggressive
environments of sulphates and acids.

Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)

KOH has been found to produce high compressive strengths and improved porosity in
geopolymer cements. Since K+ is more basic than other activating ions, it possesses a greater
potential for polymeric ionization in solution resulting in high reactivity of the prime pozzolan,
a denser final product and a matrix formation capable of achieving increased compressive
strength values. NaOH actually possesses a greater capacity to liberate silicate and aluminate
monomer.

Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) and potassium silicate

Sodium silicate is also known as waterglass which is available in the market in gel form.
The ratio of SiO2 and Na2O in sodium silicate gel highly affects the strength of geopolymer
concrete. Mainly it is seen that a ratio ranging from 2 to 2.5 gives a satisfactory result.

Sodium or potassium silicates are manufactured by using sand (SiO2) with sodium or
potassium carbonate (Na2CO3 or K2CO3) at temperatures in excess of 1100 °C and dissolving
the product with high pressure steam into a semi-viscous liquid referred to as waterglass.
Waterglass is rarely used as an independent activating unit, because it does not possess enough
activation potential to initiate pozzolanic reaction alone. It is commonly mixed with NaOH or
KOH as a strengthening agent to enhance alkalinity and increase overall specimen strength.
The most common alkaline liquid used in geo polymerization is a combination of sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide and sodium silicate or potassium silicate.

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1.4 APPLICATIONS OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

(a) Pavements

For protection against drying aliphatic alcohol-based spray are used, no chances for bleeding
of water above the surface and also, geopolymer concrete based pavements are light in weight.

(b) Water Tank

Leaking in the tank is prevented due to gel swelling mechanism and in geopolymer concrete,
there are less chances of generation of calcium hydroxide and also are more durable as GPC
shows more resistance against chemical attacks.

(c) Precast Beams

Nowadays DMRC uses the geopolymer concrete based precast beams and also GPC beams
formed three suspended floor levels of buildings, for temperature-controlled hydraulic heating
of building spaces above and below water pipes were placed inside them.

1.5. MATERIALS REQUIRED

1. Fly ash - A byproduct of thermal power plant

2. GGBS - A byproduct of steel plant
3. Fine aggregates and coarse aggregates as required for normal concrete.
4. Alkaline activator solution for GPCC as explained above. Catalytic liquid system is used
as alkaline activator solution. It is a combination of solutions of alkali silicates and
hydroxides, besides distilled water. The role of alkaline activator solution is to activate
the geopolymer source materials containing Si and Al such as fly ash and GGBS

Fig No 1: Ingredients of Geopolymer Concrete

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 CHAPTER – 2

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

2.1 TYPES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

1.Slag-Based geopolymer concrete:

This slag based geopolymer concrete includes silicates, blast furnace slag and fly-ash. The first
geopolymer developed was a slag based geopolymer in the 1980s. The reason for using this
type of cement is due to its the rapid strength gain as it can reach strengths of up to 20 MPa
after just 4 hours. Slag is a partially transparent material and a by-product in the process of
melting iron ore. It usually consists of a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. It is also
used in the cement and concrete industry. The substitution of OPC with slag is one of the many
benefits that it provides to OPC concrete, reducing life cycle costs and improving the
workability of the fresh concrete. Easier finishability, higher compressive and flexural strength
and also the improved resistance to acid materials. The reactions of slag in alkali activating
systems and in cement blends are dominated by the small particles. The particles that are above
20 µm usually react slowly, while particles under 2 µm react completely within 24 hours. Thus,
when slag is used in geo polymerisation, careful control of the particle size distribution must
be ensured to control the strength of the binder.

Examples of slag used are; Iron blast-furnace slag, Corex slag& Steel slag.

2.Rock-based Geopolymer Concrete:

To compose this type of geopolymer, a fraction of the MK-750(“MK” is an abbreviation for

metakaolin and the “750” represents the temperature at which it was produced) in the slag
based geopolymer is replaced by natural rock forming materials such as feldspar and quarts.
This mixture yields a geopolymer with better properties and less CO2 emissions than that of
the ordinary slag based geopolymer. The components of rock based geopolymer cement is
metakaolin MK-750, blast-furnace slag, natural rock forming materials (calcined or non-
calcined) and a user friendly alkali silicate.

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3.Fly ash based Geopolymer Concrete:

Fly ash based geopolymer concrete improves workability and increases compressive strength.

It reduces the cost of OPC with CO2 emissions also reduces drying shrinkage. Fly ash
is the waste material produced in blast furnace. Components of fly ash are amorphous
composition (60%), quartz (20%), mullite (17%), maghemite (1.7%) and hematite (.9%).

Fly ash is commonly used as a substitute for OPC in concrete and the addition of it
provides;
1. Fly ash consists of spherical particles which improve the workability of the fresh OPC
concrete. This enables one to reduce the amount of water in the mix which reduces the
amount of bleeding of OPC concrete.
2. Improves mechanical properties such as compressive strength, due to the water
reduction and ensures a higher reactiveness and better “packing” of particles.
3. Reduce the cost of the OPC concrete.
4. Reduces the CO2 emissions and drying shrinkage.
5. Smoother surface.

4.Alkali Activated geopolymers concrete:

This kind of geopolymer usually requires heat curing at 60 ºC to 80 ºC. It is also known as the
alkali activation method. A high concentration of sodium hydroxide solution is required to
ensure an adequate geo polymerisation process. The mixture consists of fly ash and a user-
hostile sodium hydroxide solution. The fly ash particles are embedded into an aluminosilicate
gel with a Si: Al ratio of 1 to 2.

5.Ferro-silicate geopolymers concrete:

This ferro silicate geopolymers concrete has comparable properties to rock-based geopolymer,
it has excessive iron oxide content. They are formed by substituting some aluminium atoms
within the matrix. To compose this type of geopolymer, a fraction of the MK-750(“MK” is an
abbreviation for metakaolin and the “750” represents the temperature at which it was produced)
in the slag based geopolymer is replaced by natural rock forming materials such as feldspar
and quarts. This mixture yields a geopolymer with better properties and less CO2 emissions
than that of the ordinary slag based geopolymer. The components of rock based geopolymer

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cement is metakaolin MK-750, blast-furnace slag, natural rock forming materials (calcined or
non-calcined) and a user friendly alkali silicate.

2.2 PROPERTIES OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer Concrete

Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete have been found up to 70 MPa (N/mm2). The
concrete gains its compressive strength rapidly and faster than ordinary Portland cement
concrete. The concrete strength after 24 hours have been found to be more than 25
MPa. Compressive strength after 28 days have been found to be 60 to 70 MPa.

Other Properties of Geopolymer Concrete

• The drying shrinkage of is much less compared to cement concrete. This makes it well
suited for thick and heavily restrained concrete structural members.

• It has low heat of hydration in comparison with cement concrete.

• The fire resistance is considerably better than OPC based concrete.

• This concrete has chloride permeability rating of ‘low’ to ‘very low’ as per ASTM
1202C. It offers better protection to reinforcement steel from corrosion as compared to
traditional cement concrete.

• This concrete are found to possess very high acid resistance when tested under exposure
to 2% and 10% sulphuric acids.

Behaviour of geopolymer at elevated temperature:

High strength loss during the initial treatment period (up to 200°C), no more than 600°C
forward strength loss & no visible cracks up to 600°C.

Minor cracks at 800°C- GPC with more compatibility between aggregates and matrix led to
less strength loss.

Bond strength:

About one third of its compressive strength & four times compared to OPC

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 CHAPTER – 3

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

3.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Geopolymer Concrete

The main advantages and disadvantages of Geopolymer concrete are listed here.

1. High Strength – it has a high compressive strength that showed higher compressive strength
than that of ordinary concrete. It also has rapid strength gain and cures very quickly, making it
an excellent option for quick builds.

Geopolymer concrete has high tensile strength. It is less brittle than Portland concrete and can
withstand more movement. It is not completely earthquake proof, but does withstand the earth
moving better than traditional concrete.

2. Very Low Creep and Shrinkage – shrinkage can cause severe and even dangerous cracks in
the concrete from the drying and heating of the concrete or even the evaporation of water from
the concrete. Geopolymer concrete does not hydrate; it is not as permeable and will not
experience significant shrinkage.

The creep of geopolymer concrete is very low. When speaking of creep in concrete terms it
means the tendency of the concrete to become permanently deformed due to the constant forces
being applied against it.

3. Resistant to Heat and Cold – It has the ability to stay stable even at temperatures of more
than 2200 degrees Fahrenheit. Excessive heat can reduce the stability of concrete causing it to
spall or have layers break off. Geopolymer concrete does not experience spalling unless it
reaches over 2200 degrees Fahrenheit.

As for cold temperatures, it is resistant to freezing. The pores are very small but water can still
enter cured concrete. When temperatures dip to below freezing that water freezes and then
expands this will cause cracks to form. Geopolymer concrete will not freeze.

5. Chemical Resistance – it has a very strong chemical resistance. Acids, toxic waste and salt
water will not have an effect on geopolymer concrete. Corrosion is not likely to occur with this
concrete as it is with traditional Portland concrete.

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6. The main benefit of geo polymeric cement is the reductions in carbon dioxide emission since
the chemical process emits zero carbon dioxide, and the fuel much less, resulting in reduction
of carbon dioxide emissions by 80% to 90%. The other benefits are shown in fig 1.

Fig 2- Advantages of Geopolymer Concrete

3.2. Disadvantages of Geopolymer Concrete

1. Difficult to Create – geopolymer concrete requires special handling needs and is

extremely difficult to create. It requires the use of chemicals, such as sodium hydroxide, that
can be harmful to humans.

2. Pre-Mix Only – geopolymer concrete is sold only as a pre-cast or pre-mix material due
to the dangers associated with creating it.

3. Geopolymerization Process is Sensitive – this field of study has been proven

inconclusive and extremely volatile. Uniformity is lacking.

4. While the idea of geopolymer concrete seems ideal and could be the best thing to come
along since Portland concrete, there are still too many unstable issues that can cause major
hiccups in the mixing and application process of the concrete.

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 CHAPTER – 4

GEOPOLYMER FOR UNDERWATER CONCRETING

4.1. WASHOUT RESISTANCE OF GEOPOLYMER

In rheological terms, geopolymers should have low yield stress, but high plastic viscosity in
order to resist washout and segregation especially in flowing water [56,121]. The turbulence
action of flowing water and interfacial velocity between concrete and water has direct influence
on the level of washout. Researches by Hwalla et al. [56] and Roviello et al. [121] identified
the relation-ship between workability and washout loss of geopolymer sample. Geopolymer
with higher viscosity was proven to provide lower washout loss when compared to
geopolymers with lower viscosity. This was due to the high viscosity of the alkaline activator
that binds the skeleton of the substance, making the mixture more cohesive upon contact with
water and less dilution [56]. However, the effect of design of geopolymer such as molarity of
sodium hydroxide and alkali activator ratio towards the washout loss of geopolymer had not
been identified. To date, only limited researches can be found related to examining the washout
resistance of geopolymer. Theoretically, it is rea-sonable to presume that the identification of
flowability can directly identify the washout resistance of a sample based on previous
researches [56,121]. Thus, the next section will subsequently discuss on the self-compacting
ability of geopolymer. However, more researches on the washout resistance of geopolymer
material are still required in order to identify the suitability of geopolymer to be used as
underwater concreting material

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4.2. SELF-COMPACTING GEOPOLYMER

Self-compacting is one of the major requirements for a concreteto be applied for underwater
concreting [28,41,59]. Self-compacting concrete is a novel concrete capable of flowing under
its own weight without the need for concrete vibration, capable of achieving full compaction
and filling the formwork despite the presence of packed reinforcement [28,41,122]. In order to
be graded as a self-compacting concrete (SCC), fresh properties of concrete must be possessed
by the capacity to fill, move and the resistance to segregation [123–125].

Fig 3- Self-Compacting geopolymer

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 4.3. DURABILITY OF GEOPOLYMER

Concrete exposed to seawater is prone to wetting by aqueous solution that contains mainly of
sodium chloride and magnesium sulphate [8–10,136,137]. Magnesium may attack the
constituents of hardened concrete, and chloride can induce corrosion and alkali may participate
in alkali-aggregate reaction [138,139]. Thus, concrete that is exposed to seawater should be
made with cement of controlled aluminate content, low permeability and non reactive
aggregate to reduce the risk of corrosion in which, geopolymer concrete is promoted [138–
140].Past researches had proven the exceptional durability of geopolymer when exposed to
seawater as summarized in Table 11[85,136,139,141–146]. In the early days, small amount of
pollo zonic material was added to cement to improve the property sand durability [60,146,147].
Li et al. [146] studied the effect of metakaolin addition into OPC mix. Rapid chloride
penetration test revealed that addition of metakaolin material into OPC mix help to reduce the
chloride ingression distance as presented in According to the result, the chloride coefficient
diffusion decreases with the increase in metakaolin content. Addition metakaolin helps in the
reduction of porosity, permeability and the refining of pore structure [146]. It can be stated that
the utilization of meta-kaolin presents a good durability product when it is exposed to seawater.

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 CHAPTER – 5

METHODOLOGY OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

5.1. METHODOLOGY OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

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 Fig .4- Methodology manufacture geopolymer motor

5.2. METHODOLOGY

Experimental work:

Preliminary study The Optimum Binder composition Under Ambient Temperature .

Select proper mixing steps and mixing time The effective chemical activator content
Select water content in Geopolymer concrete The proper admixture percentage
(Superplasticizer ).

The optimum Slag/ Fly Ash binder ratio Select Silica fume form and content.

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 CHAPTER – 6

CONCLUSION

6.1. CONCLUSION

Increasing the slag content in the examined mixes decreases the workability and accelerates
the setting times (initial and final). The inclusion of silica fume in the geopolymer mortar has
various effects on the flow of fly ash and slag based geopolymer mortar depending on the
particle size distribution.

Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar was increased as the slag content was increased
and with the age of the specimens. The replacement of silica fume with average particle size in
between (0. 2 -37µm) by 10% undensified silica fume and 5% slurry silica provided higher
compressive strength than the control slag/fly ash mortar. Geopolymer mortar can be
manufacturer cured under ambient temperature.

Compressive strength of geopolymer mortar was increased as the slag content was increased
and with the age of the specimens. The replacement of silica fume with average particle size in
between (0. 2 -37µm) by 10% undensified silica fume and 5% slurry silica provided higher
compressive strength than the control slag/fly ash mortar. Geopolymer mortar can be
manufacturer cured under ambient temperature.

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 REFERENCES

1. Kozhukova, N.I.; Chizhov, R.V.; Zhervovsky, I.V.; Strokova, V.V. (2016). Structure
Formation of Geopolymer Perlite Binder Vs. Type of Alkali Activating Agent, International
Journal of Pharmacy & Technology, vol. 8, iss. no. 3, pp. 15,339.

2.An article published by the Commission of the European Communities in 1982, outlines the
reasons why the generic term geopolymer was chosen for this new chemistry. See: J.
Davidovits, The Need to Create a New Technical Language For the Transfer of Basic Scientific
Information, in Transfer and Exploitation of Scientific and Technical Information, Proceedings
of the symposium, Luxemburg, 10–12 June 1981, pp. 316-320.

3.Duxson, P.; Fernández-Jiménez, A.; Provis, J.l.; Lukey, G.C; Palomo, A. and Van Deventer,
J.S.J., (2007), Geopolymer technology: the current state of the art, J. Mat. Sci., 42 (9) 2917–
2933.

4.Davidovits, J. and Sawyer, J.L., (1985), Early high-strength mineral polymer, US

Patent 4,509,985, 1985, filed February 22, 1984. The first commercial geopolymer cement was
coined Pyrament 2000™ designed for repair and patching operations.

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