ANCIENT HISTORY

HISTORY
The popular meaning of the word “History” is a narrative or recording or inquiry of
past events of men in society. History is the knowledge, relating to the
development in science, arts, politics, war, religion and law with human efforts in
a particular country.
It is a written narrative constituting a continuous methodological or chronological
record of events to men in society.
STONE AGE CULTURE IN INDIA
It is believed that man appeared on the Indian sub-continent five thousand
hundred years ago. Due to the climatic conditions, except for the solitary finding of
the hominid fossil from Hathnura in the Narmada valley, no early human fossils
have been found in India.
PLEISTOCENE AGE (ICE-AGE) upto 300,000 B.C.
There were a number of geological changes during the Ice-Age (Pleistocene
glaciation). It is said that Ice-Age occurred in four phases in the Himalayan Zone.
Paleolithic Age; Old Stone Age (300,000 - 10,000 BC)
It was basically a culture of hunting and food gathering. 'Paleo' means 'old' and
'lithic' means 'stone'. Paleolithic age in India is divided into three phases:
1. Early or Lower Paleolithic (300,000 - 150,000 BC): It covers the greater part of
the Ice Age and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleaners and
choppers.
2. Middle Paleolithic (150,000 - 40,000 BC): The Middle Paleolithic culture is
characterized by flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and
scrappers made of flakes. 3. Upper Paleolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It marks the
appearance of Homo Sapiens and new flint industries; widespread appearance of a
figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals; the appearance of wide range
of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and burin tools.
Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 6,000 BC)

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It was the transitional between Paleolithic and Neolithic ages.
Its characteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. Also called middle stone
age.
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) (6,000-1,000 BC)
The civilization and culture of the Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress.
The Neolithic men had a settled life. They practiced agriculture and grew fruits and
corn. Animals, such as the cow, do g, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of
producing fire by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones was known to them.
Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now started roasting
it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of
hunting.
Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. First metal to be
used was copper and the culture of that time is called Chalcolithic culture. The
earliest settlements belonging to this phase are extended from the Chhotanagpur
plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near
Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION OR CULTURE [INDUS VALLEY

CIVILIZATION]
The beginning of IVC or Harappan Culture coincided with the Bronze Age.
The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan, extending from
Baluchistan to modern day Indian states of Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and
Punjab. It also extends to Ropar and the upper Sutlej. The civilizations mainly
flourished in the towns of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The main inhabitants of the
civilizations were from the Dravidians.
IVC was considered to be the first ever urban civilization. The towns developed
during that time were well planned and well executed. Mohenjo-Daro was a
scientifically constructed city. The streets laid out at right angles and they had a
well-developed drainage system which can be compared to any modern day
drainage system. The Great Bath, the most important structure (citadel) was
treated as the main meeting point for the community.

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The Harappan people knew the measuring tools of length,
mass, and time. They were the first in the world in developing a system of uniform
weights and measures.
By around 1700 B.C various factors like the invasion by Aryans, ecological changes
resulted in the decline of Indus Valley civilization.
Indus Valley Facts at a Glance:
• The state which has accounted for highest number of Harappan sites after
independence: Gujarat
• Three Harappan sites that have yielded three stages of Harappan Civilization (Pre-
Harappan, Harappan and post-Harappan: Rojde, Desalpur and Surkotada)
• Commonly engraved animal on Harappan seals could be found.
• Site which have yielded evidence of a pre-Harappan settlement: Kot-Diji,
Kalibangan and Harappa
• Major Harappan cities that acted as ports: Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and
Allahdin (Pakistan)
• The Harappan city with most impressive drainage system: Mohenjo-daro
• The geometric shape of the region covered by the Indus civilization: Triangle
• Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of Sumerians
• Great Male God and a Mother Goddess
• Deification or Veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the
phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni).
• A Kushana period Stupa has been found from Mohenjo-daro.
• Evidence of cultivation of barley, wheat, peas has been traced from Harappa,
paddy from Lothal
• Harappans had trade relations with Mesopotamians around 2300 BC.
• Largest Harappan site in India is situated in Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is
Dholavira in Gujarat.

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• Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width -5.5 inches,
depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4 2:1
• Harappan wheels were axles.
• Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 m wide road.
• In Harappa, perhaps because of river Ravi the Granary is outside the fort.
• In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard which is 216 meters in length and 37
meters in breadth
• Sukotada is the only Indus site where remains of a horse have actually been
found.
• Terracotta seals found at Mehargarh were the earliest precursors of Harappan
seals.
• Wider road of Harappa was 30 feet.
• Most common materials used for the Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone and
steatite

Vedic Age
• It is the period of Aryans (1500-500 BC).
• Aryan means ‘high born’
• Most probable home of Aryans is central Asia (theory of max muller).
• Term Veda is derived from word ‘vid’ which means knowledge.
• Sabha, samiti, vidhata and gana were important tribal assemblies.

Vedic Literature
FOUR VEDAS

Rigveda
• It is the earliest Veda.
• Contains 1028 hymns(suktas) in about 10,600 verses and divided into 10
mandalas.
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• The hymns are considered with prayers to God.
• Contains famous gayatri mantra composed by Vishwamitra.
• 10th Mandal contains purusha sukta that describes caste system.
• Rigvedic terms: Jana(tribe), kula (family), kulupa (head of family),
visah(cluster of gramas), aghanya(cow).

Samaveda
• Rhythmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda
• "Book for Chants" contains 1,875/1549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma'
sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris.
• Has only 75 fundamental hymns- Karnataka – Jaiminga, Gujarat – Kanthun,
Maharashtra - Ranayani

Yajurveda
• Book of sacrificial prayers
• yajus meaning "yagna / rituals”.
• Is sung by priest "Adhavaryu".
• Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the
"Adhavaryu"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement
of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.
• Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda.

Atharvaveda
• Mantras for magic spells
• Populate ritualistic system & superstitions
• Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community
• 730 hymns with about 6,000 mantras, has been divided in 20 "Kandas"/book
• 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works
• Provides freedom from evils spirits.

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• Oldest text on Indian Medicine.
The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Shruti and Smriti
Shruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved,
which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda,
Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains references only to
the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some
later date.

Aranyaka
• Literarily, it means 'Jungle'
• Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy
• Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles
• Give stress on meditation
• Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

Upanishad
It would be appropriate to describe Upanishad’s (part of Ved) as mystic writings.
There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Isha, Prasanna,
Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad,
Brehadaranyaka, etc.
1. Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of
knowledge to their disciples
2. It’s a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy
3. They are also called "Vedanta"
4. Primitive Upanishad are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"
5. Later Upanishad like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic
forms.
6. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.
7. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas.
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8. Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani.
9. Latest possibility Allopanishada(Allah Upnishad) in Akbar's reign

Smriti Literature
Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic
classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following
overlapping subjects:-
1) The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as
auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading
namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes,
(ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta
or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammar)
2) The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya,
'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
3) Itihasa: (literally means "so indeed it was)" Legendary or semi-legendary works,
specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
4) Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily
colored with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of
Hinduism. They are 18 in number .
5) Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas or applied knowledge, they deal
with medicine, architecture, erotic, archery and various arts and crafts. These were
partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one
or other of the Vedas.
6) Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain
antinomian Buddhist scholars
7) Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and
Shaktas. Agamas and Tantras are a vast collection of knowledge and form a major
portion of spiritual literature and practices.

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8) Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of
treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya'
and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The
Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. It contains 24000
hymns and is divided into 7 parts(kanda). The story of Ramayana is of indigenous
origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was
rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. It is also known as Adi
Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC.
Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses
and is divided into 18 paravas (books).

Emergence of Mahajan padas (600-321 BC)

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organizations changed its identity and gradually
shifted to the territorial identity, and the areas of settlement were now regarded
as janapadas or states. Each janapadas tried to dominate and subjugate other
janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.
The 16 Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas Capitals Locations

Gandhara Taxila Covering the region

between Kabul and
Rawalpindi in North
Western Province.

Kamboja Rajpur Covering the area around

the Punch area in
Kashmir
Asmaka Potana Covering modern Paithan
in Maharashtra; on the
bank of River Godavari

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Vatsa Kaushambi Covering modern districts
of Allahabad and
Mirzapur
Avanti Ujjain Covering modern Malwa
(Ujjain) region of Madhya
Pradesh.

Surasena Mathura Located in the Mathura

region at the junction of
the Uttarapath &
Dakshinapath

Chedi Shuktimati Covering the modern

Budelkhand area
Maila Kushinara, Pawa Modern districts of
Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur
in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Later merged into
Maghada Kingdom

Kurus Hastinapur/Indraprastha Covering the modern

Haryana and Delhi area to
the west of River Yamuna

Matsya Virat Nagari Covering the area of

Alwar, Bharatpur and
Jaipur in Rajasthan.
Vajjis Vaishali Located to the north of
the River Ganga in Bihar.
It was the seat of united
republic of eight smaller
kingdoms of which
Lichhavis, Janatriks and
Videhas were also
members.
Anga Champa Covering the modern
districts of Munger and
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Bhagalpur in Bihar. The
Kingdoms were later
merged by Bindusara into
Magadha.

Kashi Banaras Located in and around

present day Varanasi in
Uttar Pradesh.

Kosala Shravasti Covering the present

districts of Faizabad,
Gonda, Bahraich, etc.

Magadga Girivraja/Rajgriha Covering modern districts

of Patna, Gaya and parts
of Shahabad.

Panchala Ahichhatra(W. Panchala), Present day Rohilkhand

Kampilya (S. Panchala) and part of Central Doab
in Uttar Pradesh.

Alexander’s Invasion
In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of
the world. The Greek ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but
also Iran. From Iran, he marched to India, obviously attracted by its great wealth.
Alexander conquered principalities one by one. Among the rulers of these
territories, two were well-known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus whose
kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. After the conquest of Iran,
Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched India through the Khyber
Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to the invader, augmented his
army and replenished his treasure. Alexander remained in India for 19 months
(326-325 BC), which were full of fighting.

Persian Invasion

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The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire
at the same time as the Magadhan kings, took advantage of the political disunity
on the north-west frontier. The Iranian ruler, Darius, penetrated into north-west
India in 518 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.

Rise of Magadha
Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Southern
Bihar) became the most powerful Mahajanapada.

The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of

Bimbisara (547-495 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He strengthened
his position by marriage alliances. He took three wives. His first wife was the
daughter of the king of Kosala and the sister of Prasenjit. His second wife Chellana
was a Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife was the daughter of the
chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations with the different princely
families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion
of Magadha westward and northward.
The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajagirha, which was called Girivraja at that
time. Bimbisara was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru (492-460 BC), impatient to
rule Magadha, murdered his father in about 493 B.C. and became the king.
Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), His reign is important because
he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done
because Patna lay in the Centre of the Magadhan kingdom. Udayi and three other
kings who succeeded him are supposed to have ascended the throne after killing
their fathers.

The Sisunagas: According to the Buddhist tradition, Udayi and his three
successors were all unworthy to rule. So, the people got disgusted and elected
Sisunanga as the king, the minister of the last king. Their greatest achievement was
the destruction of the power of the Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. This brought to
an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. Sisunanga was
succeeded by his son Kalasoka.

The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the
most powerful rulers of Magadha.

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Mahapadma Nanda, the first king of the Nanda dynasty was a
Sudra (barber) and became a paramour of the queen. He murdered the king,
Kalasoka and became the guardian of the royal children. Finally, he usurped the
throne after killing the young princes. Mahapadma seems to have been a great
military genius.
Nine rulers of Nandas ruled over the Magadha. Dhana-Nanda was the last Nanda
ruler. He was a contemporary of Alexander and a very powerful ruler.
So, great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not
dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by the
conquering Kalinga from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory
trophy. The Nandas were the first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler Dhana
Nanda was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the Maurya Empire.

The Mauryan Facts (321 BC-185 BC)

There are mainly two literally sources of the Mauryan period.
One is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya or Chanakya, the Prime Minister of
Chandragupta Maurya, which explains how a good government should be
organized. The other source is Indica(book) written in Greek by Magasthenes, the
ambassador of Seleucus Nicator head the court of Chandragupta. Magasthenes
wrote not only about the capital city of Pataliputra but also about the Maurya
Empire as a whole and about the society.
Arthashastra
1. Written by Chanakya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya
2. Divided in 15 Adhikarnas and 180 Prakarnas
3. Is related to money and politics
4. Is divided into 15 parts
5. 6000 shlokas
6. Comment-Pratipada Panchika commented by-Bhataswamy
7. Manuscript discovered by Arya Sharma Shastri in 1904.

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Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 BC)
The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He took advantage of
the growing weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule.
With the help of Chanakya, he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of
Maurya dynasty. According the Buddhist sources, Chandragupta’s father was killed
in a battle and he was brought up by his maternal uncle. Chanakya finding the signs
of royalty in the child Chandragupta and took him as a pupil and educated him at
Taxila which was then a great center of learning.
Chandragupta built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good
portions of Bengal, but also western and north-western India, and the Deccan.
Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of north- eastern India, the Mauryas ruled
over the whole of the subcontinent. In the north-west, they held sway over certain
areas which were not included even in British Empire. Bindusara, the son and
successor of Chandragupta ruled for 28 years.

The Ashoka Facts (273-232 BC)

Asoka was greatest of the Mauryan rulers. He was one of the greatest kings in the
history of the world. It is said that Ashoka killed his brothers and came to the
throne. From the Buddhist traditions, we learn that he was originally called 'Chand
Asoka' or the fierce Asoka owing to his many evil deeds.
The earliest event of Ashoka’s reign recorded in his inscriptions is his conquest of
Kalinga in the eighth year of his reign. This turned out to be the first and the last
battle fought by him. One lakh people were killed and many more disabled. The
horrors of war completely changed the personality of Ashoka. He abandoned the
policy of aggression and tried to conquer the hearts of the people. Like his
predecessors, Asoka assumed the title of Priyadarshi (pleasing to look at) and
Devanampriya (beloved of God). In the Sarnath inscription, he adopted the third
title, i.e. Dharmasoka.

India after Mauryas (200 BC-A.D. 100)

Following are some of the major dynasties which came in existence after Mauryas.

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The Sunga dynasty (185-71 BC): The founder of Sunga dynasty
was Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander in chief of Brihadratha, the last Mauryan
king. According to Puranas, Pushyamitra ruled for about 36 years. Pushyamitra was
succeeded by his son Agnimitra. From Kalidasa's drama Malvikagnimitram, we
learned that Agnimitra was the governor of Vidisha during his father's reign. He
ruled for eight years. Agnimitra was succeeded by Jyestha. The next important king
of this dynasty was Vasumitra, who was the son of Agnimitira.
The last king of this dynasty was Devabhuti or Devabhumi.
The Sunga dynasty's greatest achievement was the safeguarding of India from
invasion of Hunas. They valiantly resisted the Huna's attacks and saved India from
being destroyed. The contributed a lot to the development of culture also.
Kanva dynasty (72 BC-27 BC): The rule of the Kanvas lasted for about 45 years. For
kings ruled during this period. Vasudeva ruled for a period of nine years and
Bhumimitra for 14 years. Narayana held the reigns of administration for 12 years -
-Susharma was the last of the Kanvas. He was a peek King wholly devoid of
administrative ability. He could roll hardly for 10 years.
Cheta (Chetis) dynasty of Kalinga: It is evident that Kalinga succeeded from the
Mauryas Empire in the years following the death of Asoka, though it's history is not
known with any degree of certainty till the first century BC. It records the exploits
of Kharavela belonging to the Cheta or Cheti line of kings, founded by Maha
Meghavahana. He assumed the title of Kalingadhipati or Kalinga Chakravartin as a
mark of his paramountcy. A follower of Jainism, Kharavela was a liberal patron of
Jain monks for whose residence he constructed caves on the Udayagiri hills, near
Bhubaneswar in Orrisa.
Age of Satavahanas (235 BC-100 BC): the most important of the native successors
of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in Central India were the Satavahanas. The
Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras mentioned in the
Puranas. The early Satavahanas kins appeared not in Andhra, but in Maharashtra
where most of their early inscriptions have been found. Gautamiputra Satakarni
(A.D. 106-130) was the most powerful Satavahana king. The successors of
Gautamiputra ruled till A.D. 200.

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The Kushanas (45 A.D.-73 A.D. or 1st century) The Parthians
(Arsacid Empire) were followed by Kushanas, who are also called Yuehis or
Tocharians. The Kushans were one of the five clans into which the Yuechi tribe was
divided. There were two successive dynasties of Kushans. The first dynasty was
founded by a house of Chief who were called Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years
from about A.D. 50. It has two Kings the first Kadphises I, who issued coins South
of the Hindukush. Kadphises I was succeeded by his sone Kadphises II or Vima
Kadphises. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana king. He spread his kingdom in and
beyond the western Himalayas, including Khotan in Sinkiang. He is credited with
popularizing Buddhism in Tibet, China, Central Asia and other parts of the world.

The Sangam age (first to third century A.D.)

'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word "Sangha" meaning a group of persons
or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets, who flourished in
three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Tamil
kings. According to tradition, the first Sangam was founded by Sage Agastya and its
seat was at Then Madurai (South Madurai). The Sangam literature speaks of three
South Indian kingdoms -Chola, Pandya and Chera. The three ancient kingdoms of
the Cholas, the Pandas and the Chera combined with were known as Tamilakha, or
the Tamil realm.
The Three Sangam Kingdoms
Kingdoms Capital Emblems Famous sport

Cholas Uraiyur, Tiger Puhar

later Puhar (Kaveripattam)

Cheras Vanji or Karur Bow Muzris, Tondi,

Bandar

Pandyas Madurai Carp (Fish) Korkai, Saliyur

The Cholas: the homeland of the Cholas was the Kaveri delta and the adjoining
region of modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly. They were the first to acquire
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ascendancy in the far south with kaveripattanam, or Puhar as
their capital. Its early capital was Uraiyur
Towards the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the power of the Chola's big gain
to decline mainly because of the rise of Pallavas on one hand and the continuous
war waged by the Pandyas and the Cheras on the other.
The Pandyas: The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital at Madurai,
compromised the modern districts of Madura, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern
parts of Travancore. The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megarthanese.
According to the Megarthanese, the kingdom was once ruled by a woman.
According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were independent people living beyond the
South than border of the Maurya Empire. The greatest Pandya king was
Nedunchezhian who defeated the Chera and Cholas.
The Cheras: The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputra) kingdom cards in the
Ashokan inscriptions. It compromised the modern districts of Malabar, Cochin and
Northern Travancore. Its Capital was Vanji. The greatest Chera king was
Senguttuvan, the red or good Chera. He is credited with having invaded the north
and crossed the river Ganga.

The age of the Guptas (A.D. 300-600)

The classical age:
The Gupta period is an important period in Indian history. It is also referred to as
the classical age of Indian history. Guptas were not of royal origin. The family of
Guptas was one of wealthy landowners who gradually gained political control in
the region of Magadha. It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the period of third
century A.D. that the Gupta dynasty emerged. In the inscriptions, the Guptas trace
their descent from maharaja Sri Gupta. His successor was Ghatotkacha, about
whom little is known.

Chandragupta-I (320 A.D.-335 A.D.)

Chandragupta-I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of Ghatotkacha, was the first great
ruler of the dynasty. He increased power and prestige of the empire to a great
extent by matrimonial alliance and conquests. He married Kumaradevi, the

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Lichchhavi Princess. His empire included modern Bihar, Oudh,
Allahabad, and Tirhut, in addition to Magadha.

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.)

Samudragupta acceded the throne in 335 A.D. The basic information about his
reign is provided by an inscription Prayaga Prasasti composed by Harisena, the poet
at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
Samudra Gupta was a versatile genius. He wasn’t only proficient in war, but also in
sastras. He is called Kaviraja which means king of poets.
Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact, Digvijay became the
ultimate call of his life. For his military achievements, he has been aptly
complemented by the historian V.A Smith as the Indian Napoleon. He has described
Samudragupta as the Hero of Hundred Battles.

Chandragupta II (380 A.D.-412/415 A.D.)

The Gupta empire reached its highest glory both in terms of territorial expansion
and cultural excellence, under Chandragupta II. He is reputed to have shown the
most chivalrous and heroic qualities. He reined the empire for about 40 years.
He entered into matrimonial alliances with Naga family and married the Naga
princess and gave his daughter to the Vakataka King. The empire of Chandragupta
II comprised the whole North India. His reign is best remembered for his patronage
of art and culture. His name is associated with the Navratanas or the nine gems of
the Sanskrit literature and Kalidas, is said to be one of them.
The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern seacoast, famous for trade and
commerce. This also contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city
Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II.
It was in Chandragupta's reign that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited
India and abroad and elaborate account of the life of its people. The decline of the
empire began soon after his death. The Hunas later became the rulers of Punjab
and Kashmir.

Gupta Architecture
• Gupta age is known as Golden Age.
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• Gupta age marks the beginning of the main styles of
temple architecture in India namely the Nagara style and Dravida style.
• The finest example of temple architecture is the Dasavatara Temple at
Deogarh. It is also an example of early stone temple with a Shikara.
• It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway.
• The Bhitragaon temple of Kanpur is made entirely of bricks.
• Other examples of temple architecture are Parvati Temple at Nachna
Kuthira, Shiva temple at Khoh, Cave temple at Udayariti etc.
• The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves
at Ajanta (Buddhist), Elephanta(Hindu) and Ellora(jain).

Ajanta Paintings
• The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta Times is provided by Ajanta
paintings. They depict the various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and
previous Buddhas, of jataka stories.
• Bagh Caves had the folk culture as the basic theme.
• The paintings in the cave number 9 and 10 belong to the first and second
century BC
• Cave number 10 belonged to the early Gupta eight, approximately 350 A.D.
• Paintings in the cave number 16, 17 and 19 belong to the later period
approximately to 650 A.D.
• Painting of the cave number 1 and 2 belong to the post Gupta period.

Development of literature during Gupta period

The Gupta period marked the brilliant phase of Indian(secular) literature. In the
field of Kavya or poetical works, the name of Kalidas stood foremost. He was one
of the nine jewels of the court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He is considered as
the Indian Shakespeare.

The Cholas
Among the South Indian royal families, the Cholas may be regarded as the oldest.
It is believed that this dynasty was founded by Karikala. Chola Empire (9th century)
was called Cholamandalam. It included in itself Trichinopoly, Tanjore and some
districts of Mysore and Madras (Now Chennai). Kaveripattam was its capital. The

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real founder of the Chola dynasty of Tanjore was Vijayalaya,
a feudatory of the Pallavas. His dynasty rose to its eminence and lasted for more
than two centuries. Later Chola power suffered misfortune at the hands of Cheras
and Pallavas.

Emergence of Rajputs
During the period between 647 A.D. and 1206 A.D. i.e. between the death of
Harshvardhan, the breakup of Pratihara Empire and the establishment of Delhi
Sultanate, nearly thirty-six Rajput clans established their kingdoms in North India
Origin: There is no agreement among modern scholars regarding the origins of
Rajputs. According to one tradition, the Rajputs are the descendants of the ancient
Kshatriyas belonging to either sun family (Suryavansha) or moon family
(Chandravansha) mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Rajputs Ruling Dynasties: The most important Rajputs dynasties were the
Gahadavalas of Kanauj, the Paramaras of Malwa, and the Chauhans of Ajmer.
There were other smaller dynasties in different parts of the country, such as the
Kalachuris in the area around modern Jabalpur, the Chandellas of Mahoha in
Bundelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Tomars of Delhi etc.
Chandradeva and Govindachandra were the famous rulers of the Ghadavala family.
The Paramara ruler was a great patron of art and literature. He himself was a great
poet and scholar. Prithvijraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora was the one of the famous
Chauhan rulers. He defeated Muhammad Ghori in the first battle of Tarain (1191).
However, Ghori defeated him in the second battle of Tarain (1192). Dhanga was
the most powerful king of the Chandella family.

Rajputs Art and Architecture (Indo-Aryan): The fort structure reached

perfection under the Rajputs. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and the forts of
Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are fine specimens of Rajputs architecture.
Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, the Vimla Vasahi and the Luna Vasahi were built by
Solankis of Gujarat.

Rajputs Paintings: The Rajputs paintings are divided into the Rajput School of
Art and the Pahari School of Art. The Rajasthani School flourished in Mewar,
Bikanar, Jaipur, Jodhpur adn Jaisalmer and specialized in depicting scenes from
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Krishna Lila, Nayika Veda and Ritu Charita. The Pahari School
was patronized by the rulers of Himalayan states especially in the regions of Basoli,
Mandi, Jammu, Kangra and Garhwal.

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