Teaching by Principles- Notas

Douglass H. Brown

Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy synthesizes that

accumulation of knowledge into a practical, principles approach to teaching English as a second or
foreign language.

It is a book for prospective and new teachers who need to learn how to walk into a classroom and
effectively accomplish communicative objectives.

The use of the term approach in the subtitle of the book signals an important characterisc of
current language-teaching pedagogy. (…) While we may indeed still appropriately refer to
classroom “methodology”, the various separately named methods are no longer at the center of
our concern. Instead, our current –and more enlightened—foundations of language teaching are
built on numerous principles of language learnig and teaching about which we can be reasonably
secure.

Chapter 4 Teaching by Principles

Previous chapters: Examine a century of language-teaching history, observe a classroom in action,

take a look at constructs that define current practices in language teaching.

“It is appropriate for you to focus on what we do know, what we have learned, and what we can
say with some certainty about second language acquisition”.

Key word: second language acquisition

La importancia de percibir e internalizar las conexiones entre la practica (las decisiones que
hacemos en el salón) y la teoría (los principios que se derivan de la investigación).

You will be better able to se why you have chosen to use a particular classroom technique, to carry
it out with confidence, and to evaluate its utility after the fact.

Principles for the core of an approach to language teaching (Chapter 3).

COGNITIVE PRINCIPLES

They relate mainly to mental and intellectual functions.

I. The Principle of Automaticity

Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of the control of a few
language forms into automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms.
Overanalysing language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of
language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity.

Its application:
 1. If students become too heavily centred on the formal aspects of language, such processes
can block pathways to fluency.
2. Make sure that a large proportion of your lessons are focused on the “use” of language for
purposes that are as genuine as a classroom context will permit. (Set the functional
purposes of language as the focal point).

3. Exercise patience with students as you slowly hep them to achieve fluency.

Derived from automatic processing with peripheral attention to language forms: In order to
manage the incredible complexity and quantity og language –the vast numbers of bits of
information –both adults and children must sooner or later move away from processing language
piece by piece to aform of high-speed, automatic processing in which language forms (words,
affixes, word order, rules, etc) are on the periphery of attention. Children usually make this
transition faster than adults. Barry McLaughlin (1990, 1983)

The Principle of Automaticity includes the importance of:

-subconscious absorption of language through meaningful use

-efficient and rapid movement away from a focus on the forms of language to a focus on
the purpose to which language is put

-efficient and rapid movement away from a capacity-limited control of a few bits and
pieces to a relatively unlimites automatic mode of processing language forms

-resistance to the temptation to analyze language forms

II. The Principle of Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention that rote learning.

Derived from theories of learnig which convincingly argue that the strength of meaningful as
opposed to rote learning (Ausubel 1963).

-> Meaningful learning “subsumes” new nformation into existing structureas and memory
systems, and the resulting associative links create stronger retention.

Rote learning (taking I isolates bits and pieces of information that are not connected with ne’s
existing cognitive structures) has little chance of creating long-term retention.

((some aural-oral drilling is appropriate; phonems, rhythm, stress and intonationcan inded be
taught effectively through pattern repetition.

Clasroo Implications:

. Capitalize on the power of meaningful learning y appealing to students’ interests,

academic goals, and career goals.
1. Whenever a new topic or concept is introduced, attempt to anchor it in students’ existing
knowledge and background so that it becomes associated with something they already know

3. Avoid:

a- too much grammar explanation

b- too many abstract principles and theories

c- to much drilling and / or memorization

d. activities whose purpose are not clear

e- activities that do not contribute to accomplishing the goals of the lesson, unit or course

f- techniques that are so mechanical or tricky that they focus on the mechanics instead of on the
language or meanings.

The Anticipation of Rewards Principle III

Human beings are universally driven to act, or “behave,” by the anticipation of some sort of
reward -tangible or intangible, short term or long term—that will ensue as a result of the
behaviour.

In the spectrum of this principle, on one hand you have :

-The importance of praise

And at the other end:

-The principle behooves you to help students to see clearly why they are doing something
and its relevance to their long-term goals in learning Engish.

KEEP IN MIND! Conditioning by rewards can a) lead learners to become dependent on short-term
rewards b) coax them into a habit of loking to teachers and others for their rewards and therefore
c) forestall the development of their own internally administered, intrinsic system of rewards.

Classroom implications:

1. Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal paise and encouragement to them as a form of
short-term reward

2. Encourage students to reard each other

3. In classes with very low motivation short term reminders of progress mayhelp students to
perceive their development.

4. Display enthusiasm and excitement yourself in the classroom.

5. Try to get learners to see the long-term rewards I learnig English by pointing out what they can
do with Engish where they live and around the world.
The Intrinsic Motivation Principle IV

The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner.
Because the behaviour stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behaviour itself
is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary.

If all learners were ntrinsicaly motivated to perform all classroom tasks, we might not even need
teachers!

-> Este principio es una lave para halar sobre el autoaprendizaje.

…designing classroom tasks that feed into hose intrinsic drives. (…) Thelearnes perform the task
because it is fun, interesting, useful, or challenging, andnot because they anticipate some cognitive
or affective rewards fro the teacher.

¿Por qué está clasificado com cognitivo?

…reard-directed behavior in all organisms is complex to the point that cognitive, physical, and
affective processing are all involved. In the specific case of second language acquisition, mental
functions may actually occypy a greater proportion of the whole (Check Chapter 5) (For futher
perspectives on defining motivation, especially constructivist views of motivation, see Principles of
Language Larning and Teaching (PLT) Ch.6)

((A look at Chapter 5: Intrinsic Motivation In The Classroom))

Defining Motivation

Dictionary definition: Motivtion is the extent to which you make choices about (a) goals to pursue
and (b) the effort yo will devote to that pursuit.

Behavioristic Definition: The anticipation of Reinforcemnt. M&M theory, derived from the practice
of administration of M6M chocolates to children for manifesting desired behavior. Reiforcement
theory is apowerful concept for the classroom. Learners (…) pursue goals in order to receive
externaly administered rewards (…) ultimately, happiness. (¡Qué horror!)

Cognitive Definitions:

-Drive theory: By seeing human drives as fundamental to human behavior, motivation

stems from basic innate drives. According to David Ausubel :

1. exploration

2. manipulation

3. activity

4. stimulation

5. knowledge

6. ego enhancement
These drives act as innate predispositions, compeling us, to probe the unknown, to control our
environment, to be physically active, to be receptive to mental, emotional, or physical stmulation,
to yearn for answers to questions, and to build our own self-esteem

-Hierarchy of neds theory: Abraham Maslow (1970) in the spirit of drive theory,
elaborated a system of needs within each human being that propel us to higher and higher
attainment. The Pyramid of Needs. (Vale la pena leer el apartado, p. 74).

Maslows’ theory tells us that what might be inappropriately viewd as rather ordinary classroom
routines may in fact be important precursor to motivation for higher attainment. For an activity in
the classroom to be considered motivating, then, it ned not be orstandingly striking, innovative, or
inspirationa. Eve familiar classroom procedures (eg. Checking homework, small talk, etc.) if they
fulful lower order needs* can pave the way to meeting higher-order needs.

*Self actualization (Level 5)

Esteem: Strength, Eteem: Status (Level 4)

Love Belongingnes Affetion (level 3)

Safety, Security, Protection, Freedom from Fear (level 2)

Air, Water, Food, Rest, Exercise (level 1)

-Self control theory: Certain cognitive psychologist (Hunt 1917) focus on the importance of
people deciding for themselves what to thin or fel or do. We define ourselves by making our own
decisions, rather than by simply reacting to othrs. Motivation is highest when one can make one’s
own choices, whether they are in short-term or long-term contexts.

In the classroom when learners have opportunities to make their own choices about what to
pursue and what not, as in a cooperative learning contect, they are fulfilling this need for
autonomy. Wh learnes ge things shoved down their throats, motivation can wane, according to
this branch of theory, because those learnes have to yield to othes’ wishes and commands.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Robert Gardner and his associates: Work on orientation in second language acquisition.

Integrative orientation (desire to learn language stemming from positive affect toward a
community of its speakers) An integrative orientation simply means the learner is pusuing a
second language for social and/or cultural purposes.

Instrumental orientation (desire to learn a language in order to attain certain career, educational,
or financial goals).

Gardener’s research suggested that integrative orientation was more strongly linked to success in
learnig a second language than a instrumental orientation. However, later studies showd that both
orientation could be associated with success.
Orientation means a context or purpose for learning; motivation refers to the intensity of one’s
impetus to learn. Regardless the type of orientation, the intensity or motivation of a learner to
attain that goal could be high or low.

Orientation is a dichotomy (integrative /instrumental)

Orientation refers only to the context of learning.

Intrinsic / Extrinsic motivation desinates a continuum of possibilities of intensity of feling or drive,

ranging from deplyinternal, self-generated rewards to strong, externally administered rewards
from beyond oneself.

Definition of Intrinsic motivation (by Edward Deci):

Intrinsically motivates activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward ecept the activity
itself. People seem to engage in the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an
extrinsic reward…Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed at bringing about cerain internall
rewarding consequences, namely, felings of competence and self-determination

Extrinsically motivated behaviors are carried out in anticipation of a reward from outside byond
the self. Examples of extrinsic rewards: money, prizes, grades, cetain types of positive feedback.
Behaviors initiated soley to avoir punishments are also extrinsically motivated, even though
numerous intrinsic benefits can ultimately accrue t those who, instead, view punishment
avoidance as achallenge that can build their sense of competence and self determination.

Which form of motivation is more poerful?

One of the ptincipal weaknesses of extrinsically driven behavior is its addictive nature.. we can
become dependent on those tangible rewards, even to the point that heir withdawl can extinguish
the desire to learn.

Conclusion: if the learners in your classroom are given an opportunity to “do” anguage for teir own
personal reasons ofachiving competence and autonomy, those learners will have abetter chance
of success than if they become dependent on external rewards for their motivation.

Research onmotivation strongly favors intrinsic drives, especially for long-term retention.

Jean Piaget (1972) and others pointes out that human beings universally view incongruity,
uncertainty, and “disequilibrium” as motivting. In other words, we seek out a reasonable
challenge.

Krashen’s i+1 (optimal incongruity) presents enough of a posibilit of being resolved that we will go
afer the resolution.

Abrahan Maslow (1970) claime that intrinsic motivation is clarly superior to extrinsic. Nomattr
what extrinsic rewards are present or absent, we will strive for self-esteem and fulfilment.

Jerome Bruner (1962) praising the “autonomy of self reward” claimed that one of the most
effective ways to help both children and adults to think and learn is to free them of the control of
rewards and punishments. Addictive nature of extrinsic rewards.
Extrinsic rewards, couples with intrinsic motivation does not enhance the intrinsic according to a
numer of studies. (Kohn 1990)

One type of extrinsic reward can indeed have an effect on intrinsic motivation: the positive
feedback that learners perceive as a boost to their feelings of competence and self detrmnation.
No other externally administered sr of rewards has a lasting effect. Sincerely delivered positive
feedback in a classroom, seen by students as a validation of their own personal autonomy, critical
thinking ability, and self-fulfillment, can increase or maintain intrinsic motivation.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION

Exemplary models: Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, Paolo Freire, A.S. Neil and Carl Rogers.

Traditionally elementary and secondary schools are fraught with extrinsically motivated behavior…
Parents’ and society’s values and wishes are virtually forced onto pupils, whether they like it or
not… The consequence of such extrinsic motivators is that schools all too often teach students to
play the “game” of pleasing teachers and authorities rather than developing an internalized thirst
for knowledge and experience.

- Being a “god child” = dependency on M&M gratification

- Competition against classmates vs. creating allies or partenrs in learning

Over the long haul, such dependency focuses students too exclusively on the material or
monetary rewards of an education rather than nstilling an appreciation for creativity and for
satisfying some of the more basic drives for knowledge and exploration.

Ultimately, the product of this system is student who has been taught to fear failure above all
and therefore to refrain from potentially rewarding risk-taking or innovative behavior.

Can something be done to turn such a picture upside down? Or, more specifically to your quest,
can your English classroom become aplace where thse extrinsic elements are diverted into a more
positive direction? Or, better yet, can such elements be avoided entirely?

Accepting the extrinsic elments as real in virtually any society or educational institution and
turning theme in an intrinsically oriented direction

-> Chech table 5.1 on p.79

Transformation in schools, not by revolutionizing society but by shifting its view of the student.

-Student-centered learnig and teaching

-Alow students to set some of their own learning goals

-Individualize lessons and activities as much as possible

Results: highr student self-esteem, greater chances for self-actualization, more deciding for
oneself.

Teachers can help convert the perception of the expectations of parents and other authority
figures nto a sense od the positive effect of the immediate family on a student and of the
importance of tradition not bcause it has been forced on them, but because its intrinsic worth is
perceived.

Result: appreciation of love, intimacy and respect for the wisdom of age.

( Dejo de tomar notas porque está alentando mi lectura. Aquí hay puntos en los que difiero, y son
importantes paraentender le propuesta de Brown).

Check Chapter 21 for incorporating student consultation and peer evaluation to tests and exams.

Teachers can hel students to view tests as feedback instruments for self diagnosis (vs. a
comparison of one’s performance against a norm).

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

Activities that capitalize on the intrinsic by appealing to learners’ self-determination and

autonomy

-teaching writing as a thinking process in which learners develop their own ideas frely and
openly

-showing learners strategies of reading that enable them to bring their own information to
the written word

-language experience approaches in which students create their own reading material for
others in the class t read

-oral fluency exercises in which learners talk about what interests them and not about a
teacher-assigned topic

-listening to an academic lecture in one’s own field of study for specific information that
will fill a gap for the learner

-communicative language teaching, in which language is taught to enable learners to

accomplish certain specific functions

-grammatical explanations, if learners see their potential for increasing their autonomy in
a second language.

Apply the following checklist to help you determine whether something you’re doing in the
classroom is contributing to your students’ intrinsic drives:

1. Does the technique appeal to the genuine interest of your students? Is it relevant to
their lives?

2. Do you present the technique in a positive, enthusiastic manner?

3. Are students clearly aware of the purposes of the technique?

4. Do students have some choice in

a. choosing some aspects of the technique?

 b. determining how they go about fulfilling the goals of the technique?

5. Does the technique encourage students to discover for themselves certain principles or
rules (rather than simply being “told”)?

6. Does it encourage students in some way to devlop or use effective strategies of learning
and communication?

(INVESTIGAR: Strategies of learning and communication)

7. Does it contribute –at least to come extent –to student’s ultimate autonomy and
independence (from you)?

8. Does it foster cooperative negotiation with other tudents in the class? Is it truly
interactive?

9. Does technique present a “reasonable challenge”?

10. Do students receive sufficient feedback on their performance (from each other or from
you)?

**********Think of yourself not so much as a teacher who must constantly d”deliver”

information to your students, but as a facilitator of learning whose job it is to set the stage for
learning… to turn them on t their own abilities, and to help channel those abilities in fruitful
directions.

Ten commandments for motivating learners (what the teacher can do to stimulate intrinsic
motivation) (Zoltàn Dörnyei and Kata Csizér (1998:215):

1. Set a personal example with your own behavior.

2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.

3. Present the tasks properly.

4. Develop a good relationship with the learners.

5. Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence.

6. Make the language classes interesting.

7. Promote learner autonomy.

8. Personalize the learning process.

9. Increase the learners’ goal-orientedness.

10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture.

Brown’s 6 general guidelines for infusing your ESL classroom with some intrinsically motivating
dynamics.

1. Teaches are enablers, not rewarders. Focus on how to get students to tune in to their potential
and to be challenges by self-determined goals.
2. Learners need to develop autonomy, not dependence. Administer praise selectively and
judiciously, helping students to recognize their own self-satisfaction in having done something
well.

3. Help learners to take charge of their on learning through setting some personal goals and
utilizing learning strategies.

4. Learner-centered, cooperative teaching is intrinsically motivating. Give students opportunites to

make choices in activites, topics, discussions, etc. ometimes a simple witer/or choice. Involve them
in various aspects of loking at their needs and self-diagnosing, of planning lesons and objectives, of
deciding in which direction a lezzon might go, and of evaluating their learning.

5. Content-based activities and courses are intrinsically motivating. Therefore, you might strive to
focus your students on interesting, relevant subject-mater content that gets them more
linguistically involved with meanings and purposes and less with verbs and prepositions.

6. Test, with some special atentio from the teacher, can be intrinsically motivating. (Checar el resto
de la cita) (Check Chapter 22)

Your task is to maintain these intrinsically motivating factors on an underlying plane o

awareness in your mind whenever and wherever learners are placed under your tutelage.

Hacer Topics

Para construir la motivación con adult@s:

In some ways, traditional, largely extrinsically inspired educational systems were harshly
criticized here. Ask the clas to discus whether that criticism is justified. Have the class
share some examples in learning another language of extrinsically oriented practices from
their own experience. What did they do to survive that atmosphere? How ca student
survival techniques be turned around to inspire beter teaching pratices?

-> As pair to think of some counterexamples of traditional education, positive, intrinsically

rewarding experiences in their own school experiences. Have pairs share them with the
rest of the class.

GRAN IDEA! Assign partners to design a simple classroom experiment in intrinsic motivation (check
model on p.77) Since motivation can’t be observed, it must be inferred. Therefore,
students will need to be as specific as possible in determining how they will measure
intrinsic motivation.