CHAPTER 1: Metacognition

Metacognition is the ability to think about and regulate one’s own thoughts. Teaching
metacognitive strategies can improve learners’ performance at school. This makes it a good,
evidence-based target for intervention.
A simplified definition of metacognition is “thinking about thinking”, but metacognition
also encompasses the regulation of these thoughts – the ability to change them. It is a step further
than simple awareness of thought processes, incorporating the ability to alter thoughts and
behaviours. Explicitly teaching learners strategies for metacognition has been shown to lead
to improvements in attainment.
The term “Metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell
(1979,1987),metacognition consist of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive
experiences or regulation.Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired cognitive processes.
Flavell further devides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person’s
variables, task variables and strategy variables.

1. Person variable – knowledge about how human beings learn and process information and
individual’s knowledge of one’s own learning process
2. Task variables – knowledge about nature of tasks and type pf processing demands that it
will place upon the individual
3. Strategy variables – awareness of the strategy one is using to learn a topic and evaluating
whether this strategy is effective.Terms like Meta-attention and Meta-memory are related
to strategy variables.
1. Meta-attention – awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your
attention focused on the topic or task at hand.
2. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you
These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition. Omrod includes the
following in the practice of metacognition:
 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities
 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of
time
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material using effective
strategies for retrieval of previuosly stored information
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly usd in a puproseful manner to
ensure that a goal is met. For example, a student may use knowledge in plnning how to
do homework: “ I know that I (person variable) have more difficulty with my science
assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task variable), so I will do
my homework in science first, then Language Arts, then Araling Panlipunan (strategy
variable).” If one is only aware about one’s cognitive strenghts or weaknesses and the
nature of the task but does not use this to guide or oversee his/her own learning, then no
metacognition has been applied.
However, according to Annie Brookman (2018) , we must be cautious not to overstate the
impact metacognition can have on learning. Like mindsets, metacognition is sometimes revered
as an easy fix, when in fact there are of course many factors affecting learning. Teaching
metacognitive strategies can also be challenging for the educator. On the other hand,
metacognition is disregarded by some who fear it is simply the latest buzzword in the teaching
profession.
 “What seems to be important is that metacognitive strategies are taught explicitly and in
relation to specific tasks.”
In the monitoring phase, while the task is underway, a teacher might ask whether the
current approach is working, and what can be improved, in order to encourage students to change
their strategy if necessary. After the task has finished, during the evaluation phase, questions
relate to whether or not the goal was reached and what would be better next time.

“Encouraging metacognition doesn’t require expensive specialist equipment, and is

thought to have its biggest impact on disadvantaged students.”
Metacognition is a particularly appealing target for improving learning because it doesn’t
require expensive specialist equipment, and is thought to have its biggest impact on
disadvantaged students. There is a good evidence base, and there are great resources freely
available online to support teachers and parents. If metacognition is the latest buzzword in
teaching, then it’s for good reason (Annie Brookman-Byrne, June 22, 2018)

Strategies for teaching metacognition in classrooms

(Owen and Vista, 2017)

Metacognition is thinking about thinking. It is an increasingly useful mechanism to

enhance student learning, both for immediate outcomes and for helping students to understand
their own learning processes. So metacognition is a broad concept that refers to the knowledge
and thought processes regarding one’s own learning. Importantly, there is research evidence
(e.g., Moely and colleagues, 1995; Schraw, 1998) that metacognition is a teachable skill that is
central to other skills sets such as problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking.
Reflective thinking, as a component of metacognition, is the ability to reflect critically on
learning experiences and processes in order to inform future progress.

What’s the difference between expert and novice learners?

Novice learners  are well-intentioned folks who are typically brimming with enthusiasm
while lacking actual knowledge about the subject being taught.   They have limited or
nonexistent experience with most of their understanding of the subject based on basic
rules. Because of this, their ability to perform is rather limited.
Experts , on the other hand, know a significant amount about the subject and how it’s
organized meaning they cannot only understand but can add to a lesson. Their abilities
allow them to take in the larger picture and not fixate on minor attributes  (as summarized
by Ross, Phillips, Klein, & Cohn, 2005). Expert learners are able to apply what they learn
to create a far more intuitive way of working.

Now, we’ll cover some simple ways to make complex subjects easier for novice learners :

Treat adult learners like adults

1. Adult learners  are adults and should, therefore, they shouldn’t be treated like children.
Sounds simple enough, right? It is, but sometimes we need reminders to actually do it.  
Because adults have a wide existing knowledge base they tend to relate new information
to existing information.
2) Clarify complex info, DON’T delete it
It can be tempting, VERY tempting to skip the most complex topics  when training
new learners. Even instructors who don’t skip hard material will often either oversimplify
to the point of patronizing their students or will present the information as is without
regard to individual learning levels. Both ways are unfair to students but here are some
ways to present subject matter without making it too simple or complex:
If you need to use acronyms and industry jargon, which you probably do, then take
the time to define these things before getting started.
Start by explaining the goal of the information first, not presenting ALL the info and then
giving the conclusion.

3) Avoid Clichés like the Plague

The trouble with common examples is they are, well, common meaning we see
them A LOT.  Consider the last time you purchased a new chair for your home. At first
this new thing really stood out and you admired and loved your new purchase. Fast
forward to a few years later, can you remember the last time you even noticed it? This is
the way clichés are. At some point they were new and drew attention to a point, but now
are barely noticed.
Even more importantly, clichés make your writing and courses look lazy as if you
couldn’t come up with anything better to say than these tired phrases.

Module 2- LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The Learner-Centered Psychological were put together by the American

Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the
learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects:

 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the
control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors.
However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or
contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-
world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and
metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective (3) developmental and social (4)
individual differences factors influencing learners and learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners ─ from children, to
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to to community members involved in
out educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

 The leaning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learners, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

3. Construction of knowledge

The successful learner can link in creating new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.

4. Strategies thinking

The successful learner can create and use repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking

6. Context of learning

Learning is influenced by environment factors, including culture, techonology and

instructional practices

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.

Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interests and goals, and habits of thinking

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute
to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks oprimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interest, and providing for personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner of ort and guided
practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this ef ort is
unlikely without coercion.

10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for

learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account

11. Social influences on learning

 Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and
communication with others

12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are
a function of prior experience and heredity

13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural and

social backgrounds are taken into account.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well learning process ─ including diagnostic process and outcome assessment ─are
integral parts of the learning process.

Module 3 – Review of Theories Related to the Learners’ Development

D____ 1. "The teacher must orient his work A. Sigmund Freud

not on yesterday’s development in
the child but on tomorrow’s.”
______F____ 2. “Healthy children will not fear life B. Urie Bronfenbrenne
their elders have integrity enough
not to fear death.”
______E____ 3. “Right action tends to be defined in C. Jean Piaget
terms of general individual rights and
standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the
whole society.”
______C____ 4. “The principal goal of education in D. Lev Vygotsky
the schools should be creating men
and women who are capable of
doing new things, not simply
repeating what other generations
have done.”
______A____ 5. “The mind is like an iceberg, it floats E. Lawrence Kohlberg
with one-seventh of its bilk above
water.”
______B____ 6. “We as nation need to be reeducated F. Erik Erikson
about the necessary and sufficient
conditions for making human beings
human. We need to be reeducated G. Robert Havighurst
 Sigmund Freud

I remembered the id, the ego, and the superego. He simplifies our decision-making
process, which is based on our id, ego, and superego. Our id is sought after in the infant/newborn
phases of life, the ego emerges from the id and ensures that the wishes d's are expressed, and
finally the superego, which is a portion of our personality made up of values and beliefs learnt
from our parents and surroundings
  Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory According to the notion, completing

each step successfully leads in a healthy personality and the development of basic qualities.
Failure to effectively complete a stage might result in a decreased ability to complete following
stages and, as a result, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.

 Jean Piaget

I recall the four phases of development, beginning with the sensorimotor stage, in which
the kid learns to interact with his or her surroundings. Second, there is a preoperative period in
which the infant learns to portray the world metaphorically. Finally, there is the tangible
operational stage in which the youngster learns rules such as talking. Finally, the teenager can
transcend the concrete situation and think about the future during the formal operational period.

 Lawrence Kohlberg

I actually remember Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, which comprises three
levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional, each with six stages. This moral
development hypothesis, I discovered, refers to the process through which children develop
proper attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, as established by social and
cultural norms, laws, and standards.

 Lev Vygotsky

His most remembered theory or notion is the socio-cultural theory, which is about the Zone of
Proximal Development, The More Knowledgeable Other, and scaffolding. He claimed that social
connection is critical to children's learning. Children learn on a continuous basis through such
social interactions.

 Urie Bronfenbrenner

Urie Bronfenbrenner's most important and impactful ideas are that a human's
development is shaped by the interaction between an individual and their environment. His first
model, the ecological systems theory, focused strongly on childhood development.

Id Ego Superego
 The id is the  The ego grows in  The superego is a
impulsive (and order to serve as a part of the
unconscious) part buffer between unconscious that
of our psyche the unrealistic id is the voice of
which responds and the external conscience (doing
directly and reality. That is the what is right) and
the source of self-
immediately to part of the
 basic urges, personality that criticism. It
needs, and desire. makes decisions. reflects society's
 The id works on  The ego is the moral values to
the pleasure only part of the some degree, and
principle, which conscious a person is
sometimes aware
states that any personality. It's
of their own
wishful impulse what the person is
morality and
should be fulfilled aware of when ethics, but the
right away, no they think about superego contains
matter what the themselves, and is a vast number of
consequences are. what they usually codes, or
try to project prohibitions, that
toward others. are issued mostly
unconsciously in
the form of
commands or
"don't"
statements.

Freud’s Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development

 ORAL STAGE

 In the earliest stage of psychosexual development, the desire is centeredin

a baby's mouth. During the oral stages, the baby derives a lot of pleasure
from placing everything in its mouth to satisfy its libido and hence its id
wants. Which are oral, ormouth oriented, at this period of life, such as
sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. Oral stimulation, according to Freud,
could lead to an oral fixation later in life. We observe oral personalities
like smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers all around us.
Oral personalities indulge in such oral actions, especially when stressed.

 ANAL STAGE

 The libido turns its attention to the anus during the anal stage of
psychosexual development, and the infant finds considerable pleasure in
defecating. The youngster is now fully cognizant of the fact that they are
individuals in their own right and that their desires may conflict with those
of the outside world (i.e., their ego hasdeveloped). Freud thought that
when children are learning to use the potty, parents will often place
limitations on when and where they can urinate. The child's future
interactions with all types of authority may be influenced by the character
of this child's initial conflict with authority.
 PHALLIC STAGE

 Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the
libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the
differences between males and females. Freud also believed that boys
begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The
Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the
mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears
 that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud
termed castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to
describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud,
however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy. Eventually, the
child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously
possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat
fixated on this stage.

 LATENCY STAGE

 During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's
energies are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and
relationships with peers and adults outside of the family. The development
of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins
around the time that children enter into school and become more
concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. The latent
period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas
such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important
in the development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence. As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it
was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase.
Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

 GENITAL STAGE

 The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again.
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual
develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins
during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in
earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to
establish a balance between the various life areas. If the other stages have
been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced,
warm, and caring. Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development,
Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and
functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which
demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.

Piaget’s Cognitive of Development

Sensory Motor Stage: Age Range: 0-1year old

Characteristics:

 The infant discovers the world through their senses and their behaviors (movingaround
and exploring its environment).
 A variety of cognitive abilities develop throughout the sensorimotor stage. Object
permanence, self-recognition, postponed imitation, and representational play are
Pre-operational Stage: By 2 years, children have made some progress towards detaching their
thought from physicalworld. However have not yet developed logical (or 'operational') thought
characteristic of laterstages.

Age Range: 2-7 years old

Characteristics:

 Toddlers and early children learn to internalize the world through language and mental
pictures.
 Young children can think about things symbolically at this period. This is the ability to
use anything, such as a word or an object, to represent something other than itself.
 The way the world appears, rather than how the world is, dominates a child's thinking. It
is not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) thinking.
 Infants at this age also exhibit animism. This is the child's predisposition to believe that
non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings just like people.

KeyConcrete
TeachingOperational
Strategies: Thinking is still
Stage: The stageintuitive
is termed (based on subjective
concrete assessments
because children of
can reason more
situations)
logicallyand egocentric
if they (centeredreal
can manipulate on the child's own
(concrete) itemsperspective of of
or drawings thethem.
world).
Because it marks the
beginning of logical or operational reasoning, Piaget believed the concrete stage to be a crucial
turning point in the child's cognitive development.

Age Range: 7-11 years old

Characteristics:

 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
 Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although
things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
 During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine
returning to its original shape).
 During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
Formal Operations Stage: Children as young as 12 years old can follow the form of a
logical argument without reference to its content. People develop the ability to think about
abstract concepts and logically examine hypotheses throughout this stage.

Age Range: 12 years old and over

Characteristics:

 Concrete operations are performed on physical objects, whereas formal operations

are performed on concepts. Formal operational thought is completely free of physical
and perceptual restrictions.
 Adolescents can deal with abstract concepts at this period (e.g. no longer needing to
think aboutslicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
 They can follow the structure of an argument without having to think about
individual examples.
 Adolescents are capable of dealing with hypothetical situations that have numerous
answers. For example, if asked, "What would happen if money disappeared in one
hour?" They could ponder a variety of alternative outcomes.

Key Teaching Strategies: When confronted with a challenge, this stage sees the rise of
scientific thinking, the formulation of abstract theories and hypotheses.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Review the moral stages and identify and describe each using the graphic organizer
below.
STAGE 1: Obedience and punishment
behavior driven by avoiding
punishment.

PRE-CONVENTIONAL STAGE 2: Individual Interests

 and rewards.

STAGE 3: Interpersonal: behavior

driven by social approval.

CONVENTIONAL STAGE 4: Authority: behavior driven

by obeying authority and
conforming to social order.

STAGE 5: Social Contract: behavior

driven by balance of social oirder
and individual rights

POST-CONVENTIONAL
STAGE 6: Universal ethics: behavior
driven by internal moral principles

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Define or describe the words below.

More Knowledgeable Zone of Proximal

Scaffolding
Other (MKO) Development (ZPD)

More Knowledgeable
Other (MKO) as
 with a qualified
learner's abilityto
instructor or more
successfullycomplete
knowledgeable peers
tasks withthe assistance
helps students discover
ofmore capable
connections between
otherpeople, and for
concepts. Vygotsky
thisreason it is
identified scaffolding as
oftendiscussed in
a strategy for growth to
relationto assisted
assist learners acquire
orscaffolded learning.
independence.

Scaffolding is used in conjunction with the ZPD. An individual's general knowledge

provides the knowledge, abilities, and prior experiences that form the foundation of the
scaffolding for possible development. At this stage, students work collaboratively with adults
and/or peers to finish a task that may not be possible for them to do alone. To successfully
employ scaffolding as a teaching tool, language use and shared experiences are crucial.

The "More Knowledgeable Other" (MKO), as described by Vygotsky, is someone who is

more knowledgeable than the learner, particularly with relation to a given task, idea, or
procedure. The MKO is typically pictured as a teacher or an elderly person. This isn't always the
case, though. The MKO could also be a friend, a brother, a younger person, or even a computer.
The secret to MKO is that they must be more knowledgeable than the student on the subject
matter. Through the ZPD, teachers or more competent classmates can increase a student's
competency.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Theory

Macrosystem
Focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as
socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity.
 Exosystem/Mesosystem
It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which
do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as
they affect one of the microsystems.

Microsystem/Chronosystem
Things that have direct contact with the child in
their immediate environment, such as parents,
siblings, teachers and school peers.

The Individual

Application
Describe what parents and teachers should do to help children develop into the
persons that they are meant to be the point of view of:

1. Freud - A parent should be supportive of their child's growth and development, and
what better way to do so than to be knowledgeable about their child's behavior from
birth through adolescence? Parents must provide their own ideas for disciplining and
instilling morals in their children. Children crave intimacy, a sense of
accomplishment, and life maturity from their parents. Parents should make every
effort to educate themselves on what is normal and healthy for their children, and
then balance that guidance with the advise of child development. Parents will be able
to assess their children's progress along the route.

2. Erikson - Parents were encouraged to take an active role in their child's education by
attending parent-teacher conferences, assisting in obtaining appropriate tutoring for
the child when necessary, and assisting with school projects. Teachers encouraged a
 child to be punctual in school and also helped build his/her ethics, thus preparing
him/her for the future.

3. Piaget - At different ages, children's thinking patterns alter, as does how they employ
intellect to answer questions and solve issues. Teachers and parents should constantly
build knowledge through hands-on learning to help their children grow their skills.
They would also provide the child with appropriate and relevant items with which the
child may interact and construct.

4. Kolhberg - Parents must discipline their children and teach them moral and ethical
behavior. Impose a set of rules. Teachers and parents should assist their children in
determining what is wrong and right. Because youngsters are more prone to
reasoning, instructors and parents will supply and teach good moral and attitudes to
children in order for them to follow the rules and escape punishment.

5. Vysgotsky - Teachers and parents must help their children reach the upper level of
their zone of proximal growth. Parent or teacher should guide and prompt what the
child already knows, assisting the child in learning more about the world around
him/herself, as well as what a child might potentially do and what a child can do with
the support of others.

6. Bronfenbrenner - Parents and teachers should interact with children and form strong
bonds with them since the absence or lack of children's continual mutual interaction
with people has a detrimental impact on their development.

1. Identify one concept from the theories reviewed and describe how this can be
applied in teaching and learning.

Theory/Concept Application
1. Cognitive Learning Theory Cognitive learning theory impacts
students because their understanding
of their thought process can help
them learn. Teachers can give
students opportunities to ask
questions, to fail, and think out loud.
These strategies can help students
understand how their thought process
works, and utilize this knowledge to
construct better learning
opportunities.
2. Behaviorism Learning Theory It is the idea that how a student
behaves is based on their interaction
with their environment. It suggests
that behaviors are influenced and
learned from external forces rather
than internal forces.

3. Constructivism Learning It is based on the idea that students

Theory actually create their own learning
based on their previous experiences.
 Students take what they’re being
taught and add it to their previous
knowledge and experiences, creating
a reality that’s unique to them. This
learning theory focuses on learning
as an active process, which is
personal and individual for each
student.
4. Humanism Learning Theory It is very closely related to
constructivism. Humanism directly
focuses on the idea of self-
actualization. Everyone functions
under a hierarchy of needs. Self-
actualization is at the top of the
hierarchy of needs—it’s the brief
moments where a person feels all of
their needs are met and that they’re
the best possible version of
themselves. Everyone is striving for
this, and learning environments can
either move toward meeting needs or
away from meeting needs.
5. Connectivism Learning Theory It is one of the newest educational
learning theories. It focuses on the
idea that people learn and grow when
they form connections. This can be
connections with each other or
connections with their roles and
obligations in their lives. Hobbies,
goals, and people can all be
connections that influence learning.

Part 3: Focus on Learning

Module 1: Behaviorist Perspective

Behaviorist Perspective

The behaviorist perspective is a theory of psychology that states that human behaviors are
learned, not innate. The behaviorist approach asserts that human beings have no free will and
that all actions, characteristics and personality traits are the result of a person's environment and
the cultural forces that shape it.

Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people (and
animals) as controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of what we
have learned from our environment. The behaviorist perspective is concerned with how
environmental factors (called stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the response).

What is response to stimuli?

Stimuli - Stimuli is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. That which
influences or causes a temporary increase of physiological activity or response in the whole
organism or in any of its parts.
Examples of stimuli and their responses:

 You are hungry so you eat some food.

 A rabbit gets scared so it runs away.
 You are cold so you put on a jacket.
Response - an act or instance of replying

The behaviorist perspective proposes two main processes whereby people learn from
their environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

 Classical conditioning involves learning by association, and

 Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of behavior.
Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, also called Pavlovian conditioning and respondent conditioning,

is learning through the association of a neutral stimulus with a biologically potent stimulus. The
biologically potent stimulus is an involuntary response also known as reflex or reflexive
response.

In his experiments, Pavlov rang a bell every time he fed his dogs. Over time, the dogs
became conditioned to salivate when they heard the sound of a bell, even when food wasn’t
present. Food, which was able to trigger salivation naturally, is the unconditioned stimulus. The
bell’s sound, which began to trigger salivation after being paired with food, was the conditioned
stimulus.

Examples of Classical Conditioning

1. A warm and nurturing teacher motivates students

A warm and nurturing teacher (US) makes students feel connected (UR). Students
associate going to school (CS) with the teacher. Therefore, students learn to enjoy going
to school (CR).

2. A harsh and strict teacher demotivates students

A harsh and strict teacher (US) makes students feel bad (UR). Students associate
going to school (CS) with the harsh teacher and learn to feel bad about going to school
(CR).

3. Stage Fright
A child is laughed at (US) when he gave a presentation in class and he felt ashamed
(UR). Now every time he has to speak up in front of people (CS), he feels nervous and
fearful (CR).

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a learning process in

which behavior is modified using rewards or punishments. By repeatedly pairing the desired
behavior with a consequence, an association is formed to create new learning.

E.g. A dog trainer gives his dog a treat every time the dog raises its left paw. The dog learns that
raising its left paw can earn him food reward. It will raise his paw again and again for more
treats.
 To study operant conditioning, BF Skinner made a chamber, called the Skinner Box, and
put a small animal inside. In the experiments, each time the animal pressed a lever or a bar, it
received food or water as reinforcement. Reinforcement increases target behavior, while
punishment decreases it. Through his experiments, Skinner distinguished two types of
consequences that could affect new learning: reinforcement vs punishment.

Reinforcement

There are two types of reinforcement – positive reinforcement and negative

reinforcement.

In psychology, positive refers to adding a stimulus and negative removing one.

Positive reinforcement adds a rewarding consequence as a positive reinforcer to behavior,

therefore strengthening or increasing the likelihood that the desired behavior will appear again.

Example:

 A parent gives their child an extra allowance (reinforcer) for doing the dishes (desired
behavior.)
 A manager offers bonuses (reinforcer) to their workers for finishing the project on time
(desired behavior.)
Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase the desired behavior in the
future.

Example:

 A child doesn’t have to clean the table (unpleasant event) after the meal if they eat their
vegetable (desired behavior.)
 Brushing the teeth (desired behavior) prevents tooth decay (unpleasant event.)

Punishment

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. It aims to reduce bad behavior. Like

reinforcement, punishment also comes in two forms: positive punishment and negative
punishment.

Positive punishment adds an unpleasant stimulus to weaken or eliminate a behavior. Positive

punishment is usually what we refer to as “punishment” in our everyday lives.

Example:

 A parent assigns the child extra chores (unpleasant consequence) for playing too much
video games (bad behavior.)
 Teacher gives a student extra homework (aversive stimulus) for making noise in class
(undesired behavior.)
Negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus to stop undesired behavior.

Example:

 A parent takes away their child’s phone (pleasant stimulus) for watching too much videos
(bad behavior.)
  The police revoke the driver’s license (pleasant stimulus) for reckless driving (unwanted
behavior.)

Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and
says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior.

DISCUSSION

Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There

are three different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:

1. Classic conditioning - occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. We are

biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. One of
the more common examples of classical conditioning in the educational environment is in
situations where students exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like fear of failure, fear of
public speaking and general school phobia.
So, according to classical conditioning principles, learning occurs when an association is
formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

2. Behavioral or operant conditioning - occurs when a response to a stimulus is

reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or
reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more
probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement
techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.

3. Observation Conditioning - "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention

hazardous if people had to rely solely on the effects of their actions to inform them what
to do," wrote Albert in his 1977 book 'Social Learning Theory.' He believed that
associations and direct reinforcements could not explain every learning.

There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:

1. Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the activities of
the mind.
2. Behaviorism does not explain some learning–such as the recognition of new language
patterns by young children–for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
3. Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For
instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a maze it had
previously mastered through reinforcements.

Here is a quick snapshot of behaviourist teaching strategies that you can practice in your
class.

• Practice Mock Drills

 You may practice skills using drill patterns to assist students in seeing the repetition and
reinforcement that behavioural learning theory uses.

• Organize Question and Answer Session

You may use a question as a stimulant and answer it as an answer, gradually becoming
harder with questions to help students.

• Provide Guidance

You can directly help students overcome problems to give them the reinforcement and
demonstration of behaviour you want them to follow.

• Regularly Review Materials

Reviews are important to the theory of behavioural learning. Revisiting materials and
providing positive reinforcement will help students retain information much better.

• Practice Positive Reinforcement

Behavioural classes use positive reinforcement regularly. This may include verbal
reinforcement and praise, reward systems, additional privileges and more.

HOW BEHAVIORISM IMPACTS LEARNING

This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable

behavior and describes several universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative
reinforcement techniques can be very effective– such as in treatments for human disorders
including autism, anxiety disorders and antisocial behavior. Behaviorism is often used by
teachers who reward or punish student behaviors.

Module 2: Neo – Behaviorism

Neo-Behaviorism: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s Social Learning

Theory

Neo Behaviorism

It has aspect of behaviorism but also reaches out to cognitive perspective.

Neo behaviorism is an extension of behaviorism, which emphasizes the importance of mental

process in understanding human behavior.

There are two theories reflecting neo behaviorism that stands out. Edward Tolman’s Purposive
Behaviorism and Alberts bandura’s Social Learning Theory. Both theories are influenced by
behaviorism (which is focused on external elements in learning), but their principles seem to also
be reflective on the cognitive perspective (focused on more internal elements).

Short Biography of Edward C. Tolman

 American Psychologist
 Known for Behavioral Psychology, Cognitive Map, Latent Learning and Purposive
Behavior
 He was born on April 4, 1864 in United states and died in 1959.
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

 Goal-Directedness
 Cognitive Maps
 Latent Learning
 Intervening Variables

Purposive Behaviorism

 A.K.A “Sign Learning Theory”

 Learning is a Cognitive Process
 Learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.

Concepts of Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

 Learning is always Purposive and Goal-directed

Individual act on beliefs, attitude, changing conditions and they strive towards
goals. Edward C. Tolman saw behavior as “Holistic, Purposive and Cognitive”.

 Cognitive Maps
In Tolman’s experiments it is also called “Learn location” or the cognitive map
learning the location reward.
Famous experiment on rats concluded that organism or individual to be exact
learned location and will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve goal. The
rats created a mental map of the maze.
In teaching, cognitive maps help learners perform well. This include making mind
maps, concept maps and visualization.
 Latent Learning
Latent means present but hidden, ready to come out of hiding if the circumstances
are right. It is the learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed.
According to Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement. Whenever learning
goes on without its evidence in performance at the time.

For example, the rats learned by roaing around the maze.

 Intervening Variable
It is a variable that are not readily seen but serve as determinants behavior.
Tolman’s purposive behaviorism called intervening variable is to mediate the
relationship between goals or purpose from previous experience and cognition.
 The initiating cause and result must be observable and operationally defined.
In the experimentation on rat, hunger was the intervening variable with rats.

Reinforcement is not essential for learning

Tolman concluded reinforcement is not essential for learning although it provides an

‘incentive performance’. Incentive performance are reward systems that tie pay to performance.
In short this is pay-for-performance.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social learning Theory focuses on the learning that occurs within social context. It
considers that people can learn from one another. Including concepts of observational learning,
imitation and modeling.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

 Principles
 Modeling
 Four Conditions for Effective Modeling
Short Biography of Albert Bandura

 Canadian-born American psychologist and originator of social cognitive theory.

 Known for his modeling study on aggression, referred to as the “Bobo doll”
experiment. Which demonstrated that children can learn behaviors through
observation of adults.
 He was born on December 1925 in Canada and died year 2021 in California.

Concepts of Social Learning

Observational learning

It is a major component of Albert Bandura’s social learning theory. This method of

learning consists of observing another individual behavior, attitudes or emotional expressions.

Imitation

It is the action of using someone of something as a model.

Principles of Social learning Theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorist that has to be presented by
a permanent change in behavior. In contrast, social learning theorist say that because
people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not be necessarily be
shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
Over the last 30 years social learning theory has been increasingly cognitive in its
interpretation of human learnings
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist
learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
Modeling
 This provide students both visual and verbal examples of what they will be expected to.

Live Model/ Real Life- examples are teachers and parents.

Symbolic Model- it refers to oral or written, presented through audio and visual measures.

Four Conditions for Effective Modeling

1. Attention
The observer must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention
The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observe.
3. Motor reproduction
It is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated for
motivation.
4. Motivation
The final necessary ingredient to occur in motivation.

Module 3: Cognitive Perspective

The Cognitive Perspective focuses on how the interactions of thinking, emotion,

creativity, and problem-solving abilities affect how and why you think the way you do. Also
includes how people think critically.

According to Ulric Neisser, the father of cognitive psychology, ‘Cognition’ refers to “all
the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered
and used. Emerged as a reaction against behaviorism.

According to cognitivist, the teaching-learning process should include a mediator

cognitive function in between the stimulus and the response.

• Which gives less importance to the mechanical repetition of language but gives more
importance to the subjective.

• Insight and intelligence have more significant place in the development of the mental processes
such as speech fluency, memorization, perception, reasoning and creative thinking.

Jean William Fritz Piaget also known as Jean Piaget. Piaget showed keen interest in the
study of development of cognitive abilities in children.

• According to him, “Learning is dynamic and continuous process of mental reorganization

which depends on maturation, previous knowledge and language factors in its search for
equilibrium”.

PRINCIPLES OF COGNITIVISM

 Human Beings are endowed with a biological capacity for language.

 The Capacity to learn language is genetic and not acquired.
  Learning is a process of relating new information to previous learned information.

FEATURES OF COGNITIVISM

 Learner, central figure of the learning process.

 Teacher, facilitator and architect of learning.
 Learning outcome depends on the teacher and the learner.
 Reinforcement is important.
 Learning materials and activities meet individual differences.
 Ensures learner’s involvement in class activities.
 Teaching process proceeds from simple to complex and thee goal of instruction is
communication of knowledge.

LIMITATIONS OF COGNITIVISM

 It consumes a lots of time as it gives more important to students and thinking ability.
 The theory has not evolved essential methods of teaching.
 It has not given any importance to the environment factors.

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Gestalt psychology, school of psychology founded in the 20th century that provided the
foundation for the modern study of perception.

Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. That is, the
attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation. The word Gestalt
is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been “placed,” or “put together.” There is
no exact equivalent in English. “Form” and “shape” are the usual translations; in psychology the
word is often interpreted as “pattern” or “configuration.”

Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a
whole. When trying to make sense of the world around us, Gestalt psychology suggests that we
do not simply focus on every small component. Instead, our minds tend to perceive objects as
elements of more complex systems.

History of Gestalt Psychology

Originating in the work of Max Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed in part as a

response to the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt.

While followers of structuralism were interested in breaking down psychological matters

into their smallest possible parts, Gestalt psychologists wanted instead to look at the totality of
the mind and behavior. Guided by the principle of holism, Wertheimer and his followers
identified instances where perception was based on seeing things as a complete whole, not as
separate components.
 Wertheimer developed Gestalt psychology after observing what he called the phi
phenomenon while watching alternating lights on a railway signal.

Based on his observations of the phi phenomenon, Wertheimer concluded that we

perceive things by seeing the whole perception, not by understanding individual parts. In the
example of blinking lights at a train station, the whole we perceive is that one light appears to
move quickly between two points. The reality is that two separate lights are blinking rapidly
without moving at all.

Principles of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology helped introduce the idea that human perception is not just about
seeing what is actually present in the world around us. It is also heavily influenced by our
motivations and expectations.

Wertheimer created principles to explain how Gestalt perception functions. Some of the
most important principles of Gestalt theory are:

 Prägnanz: This foundational principle states that we naturally perceive things in their
simplest form or organization.
 Similarity: This Gestalt principle suggests that we naturally group similar items together
based on elements like color, size, or orientation.
 Proximity: The principle of proximity states that objects near each other tend to be
viewed as a group.
 Continuity: According to this principle, we will perceive elements arranged on a line or
curve as related to each other, while elements that are not on the line or curve are seen as
separate.
 Closure: This suggests that elements that form a closed object will be perceived as a
group. We will even fill in missing information to create closure and make sense of an
object.
 Common region: This Gestalt psychology principle states that we tend to group objects
together if they're located in the same bounded area. (For example, objects inside a box
tend to be considered a group.)

IMPACT OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Gestalt psychology has largely been subsumed by other types of psychology, but it had
an enormous influence on the field. Researchers like Kurt Lewin and Kurt Goldstein were
influenced by Gestalt concepts before going on to make important contributions to psychology.

Gestalt theory still impacts how we understand vision and the ways that context, visual
illusions, and information processing impact our perception.

Module 4: Information Processing

WHAT IS INFORMATION PROCESSING?

 Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge
enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant
cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning
process.

Information Processing Theory

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used
in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who
program and design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes
similar to that of the human mind.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change
(as behaviorist theorists thought).

They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that
how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will learn. All
these notions comprise what is called the information processing theory.

“TYPES” OF KNOWLEDGE
General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in
one.

Declarative – This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are.
They maybe in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a
nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.

Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a

lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.

Episodic – This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
Conditional- This is about “knowing when and why to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term
memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the
progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive
structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).

Three primary stages in IPT are…

1. Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
2. Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
3. Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated
 for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-
like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the
memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information
processing revolve around the

Three main stages in the memory process:

Sensory Memory — Sensory memory involves whatever we take in through our senses. This
kind of memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3 seconds. In order for something to
enter sensory memory, the individual has to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to
every piece of information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and
only sends what seems important to the next stage, short-term memory. The information that’s
most likely to reach the next stage is either interesting or familiar.

Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — Once information reaches short-term memory,

which is also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again, this kind of memory
doesn’t last long, only about 15 to 20 seconds. However, if information is repeated, which is
referred to as maintenance rehearsal, it can be stored for up to 20 minutes. As observed by
Miller, working memory’s capacity is limited so it can only process a certain number of pieces
of information at a time. How many pieces is not agreed on, although many still point to Miller
to identify the number as five to nine.

Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity, the capacity of
long- term memory is thought to be limitless. Several different types of information are
encoded and organized in long-term memory: declarative information, which is information
that can be discussed such as facts, concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal
experiences (episodic memory); procedural information, which is information about how to do
something like drive a car or brush your teeth; and imagery, which are mental picture.

Module 5: Cognitive Processes

Cognitive Processes

- process that result in learning

- refers to the mental pathways used to comprehend, learn, and communicate.
Cognition involves the processes used to think, remember, solve problems, speak,
imagine, and think. These pathways allow humans to gather facts, think about them,
and combine the new information with what was previously learned in order to
grow their knowledge base.
- The cognitive process demonstrates how people learn new information, form
memories, and make decisions.
There are multiple steps that are used when following the cognitive process. They include:

Attention - the ability to focus and concentrate.

Attention is the cognitive process that makes it possible to position ourselves

towards relevant stimuli and consequently respond to it. This cognitive ability is very
important and is an essential function in our daily lives.

Language - the ability to communicate and express ideas through written or spoken
language.

Language and language development are cognitive processes that involve the
ability to understand and express thoughts through spoken and written words. This allows
us to communicate with others and plays an important role in thought.

Learning - the ability to take in new information, process it, and combine it with
previous knowledge.

Learning is an immersive and active process that engages your senses in a

constructive and long-lasting way. It teaches you to maximize your brain's potential and
makes it easier to connect new information with existing ideas, deepening the memory
and retention capacity.

Memory - storing learned information to be retrieved later.

Memory is an important cognitive process that allows people to encode, store, and
retrieve information. It is a critical component in the learning process and allows people
to retain knowledge about the world and their personal histories.

Perception - obtaining information through the senses and using that information to react
or respond.

Perception is a cognitive process that allows people to take in information through

their senses, then utilize this information to respond and interact with the world.

Thought - the ability to solve problems, reason, and to make decisions

Refers to the ability to process information, hold attention, store and retrieve
memories and select appropriate responses and actions.

Theories of Cognitive Processes in Learning

There are multiple theories to describe the cognitive processes in learning.

Multiple philosophers and psychologists have analyzed how people learn. Each
developed their own models to explain the process.

1. Piaget's constructivism

Piaget's constructivism theory states that distinct pieces of information or

knowledge about a subject are stored, called schema, and then later applied to situations
 in order to learn. His theory in a classroom setting dictates that a teacher does not lecture
or provide answers to students, but they guide their own self-understanding.

2. Gagne's three stages of instruction

Gagne constructed a formula to develop a strategy in teaching. If an educator

follows this model of instruction, then learners will be more engaged in a classroom.
Gagne's three stages of instruction include:

Preparation - get the students' attention, inform them of expectations, and

stimulate the retrieval of past knowledge on the subject

Performance and Acquisition - present the new information, guide their learning,
respond to their needs, and provide feedback

Transfer - assess the students' performance and help them transfer the knowledge
to be retrieved again later.

3. Social-cognitive theory

Albert Bandura's social-cognitive theory describes that learning and cognition are
affected by behavioral and environmental factors and not only through experience.
Humans manage their behavior and decide if they will engage with a topic. Their
thoughts are adapted to achieving a particular goal and include their own motivation. It
implies that learning can occur by observing situations and witnessing the consequences.

Cognitive Processes Examples

The cognitive process involves taking in information, processing it, and being able to retrieve it
again when necessary. Each phase is necessary and important for cognitive learning.

Different cognitive processes examples include:

 Encoding - the initial acquisition of information

 Storage - keep the information stored in the memory to be used again
 Retrieval - pulling information from the memories back into conscious awareness.
CONCLUSION

What is cognitive processing?

Cognitive processing involves acquiring information and processing it to be accessed again in

the future. Cognitive processing allows people to think, learn, and solve problems.

What is an example of cognitive learning?

Cognitive learning can involve a series of steps. Initially, attention is needed to focus on the
subject, while language is necessary to understand written and verbal input. After processing the
information, it can be stored in memory to be accessed again. The steps enable someone to learn
new things and to make decisions.

What are the cognitive processes in learning?

The cognitive processes in learning allow people to access information, process it, and store it as
memory. The stored information can then be retrieved to aid in future learning.

Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept Leaning

What is Constructivism?

o It is a learning theory that teachers use to help their learners understand.

o As individuals experience the world and reflect upon their experiences.
o It is founded on the notion that individuals actively establish their understanding
through experiences, rather than just passively accepting information.
o Constructivism is a philosophy of education that says that people construct knowledge
through their experiences and interactions with their world.
o Essentially, it says that people learn through experience, not through hearing someone
give a lecture. Because this constructivism points out that experiential learning is more
powerful than lectures and worksheets.

The two views of Constructivism

1. Individual Constructivism

o Also known as Cognitive Constructivism

o It emphasized individual, internal construction of knowledge.
o It is largely based on Piaget's theories; Humans create knowledge through the interaction
between their experiences and ideas.
o Learners can build their own knowledge individually.

Example: The facilitators give an art project to the learners independently.

o It is done individually, creating or build own knowledge or ideas and that is what we
called individual constructivism.
o Proponents of this type choose child-centered and discovery learning.
o They believe the learners should be allowed to discover principles through their own
exploration rather than direct instruction by the teacher.

2. Social Constructivism

o This view emphasizes that "knowledge exists in a social context and is initially shared
with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual.
o This social constructivism is based on Vygotsky's theory. Here, construction of
knowledge is shared by two or more people.
o It is the opportunity to interact and share among learners to help to shape and refine
their ideas.
o Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.

Characteristics of Constructivism
 Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there are 4
characteristics that these two views have.

1. Learners construct understanding.

2. New learning dependes on current understanding.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction.
4. Meaningful learners occur within authentic learning tasks.

Organizing Knowledge

o A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind.

o A concept of teach, includes a group of tasks such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain,
assist, etc.

Concepts of Feature Lists

Learning a concept involves learning specific features that characterize positive instance of the
concept.

 DEFINING FEATURES – is a characteristic present in ALL instances.

 CORRELATIONAL FEATURE – is one that is present in many positive instances but
not essential for concept membership.

Concepts of Prototypes

o A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a "typical example". It is usually formed

based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often.

o Once learners have their own concept prototypes, the new examples that they see are
checked against this existing prototype.

Concepts as Exemplars

o Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows learners to know that an example

under a concept may have variability.

Making Concepts – Learning Effective and Applying Constructivism in Facilitating

Learning

As a future teacher, you can help students learns concepts by doing the ff:

 Provide a clear definition of the concept

Other example of Making Concepts – Learning Effective

o Make the defining features very concrete and prominent.

o Give a variety of positive instances.
o Give negative instances
o Cite a "best example" of a prototype.
o Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances.
Schemas and Scripts

o A schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. It is like a file of

information you hold in your mind about something. Like a schema of what teacher is.
o A script is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity.

Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own knowledge such that
they have a well organized set of concepts. Aim to make clear those concepts that are still
vague for them, and to pave the way for them to overcome misconceptions.

o Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Leaning

o Constructivism can be excellent guide for you
o Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction. Have a lots of hands-on
activities.

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Leaning

o Aim to make learners’ understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than
taking up so many topics superficially.
o Give varied examples.
o Provide opportunities for experimentation.
o Relate your topic to real life situations.
o Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

Module 6: Transfer Learning

Transfer learning is a machine learning method where we reuse a pre-trained model as

the starting point for a model on a new task. To put it simply—a model trained on one task is
repurposed on a second, related task as an optimization that allows rapid progress when
modeling the second task.

The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present acquisition.
In the laboratory and the outside world, how well and how rapidly we learn anything depends to
a large extent upon the kinds and amount of things we have learned previously and of the
experiences and emotions we went through.

The main purpose of any learning or education is that a person who acquires some
knowledge or skill in a formal or structured situation like a classroom, or a training situation, will
be able to transfer such knowledge and skills to real-life situations and adapt himself more
effectively. The purpose of any teaching-learning interaction is to bring about a generalization
and application of what has been learned in specific situations to real-life situations and acquire a
general capacity to adapt.

There are three types of transfer of learning:

1. Positive transfer
 When learning in one situation facilitates learning in another situation, it is known as a
positive transfer. For example, skills in playing the violin facilitate learning to play the piano.
Knowledge of mathematics facilitates to learn physics in a better way. Driving a scooter
facilitates driving a motorbike.

2. Negative transfer

When learning of one task makes the learning of another task harder- it is known as a
negative transfer. For example, speaking Telugu hindering the learning of Malayalam. Left-hand
drive vehicles hindering the learning of right-hand drive.

3. Neutral transfer

When learning of one activity neither facilitates or hinders the learning of another task, it
is a case of neutral transfer. It is also called as zero transfer. Two important theories explain the
transfer of learning.

These are known as modern theories.

1. Theory of identical elements

This theory has been developed by E.L. Thorndike. According to him most of the transfer
occurs from one situation to another in which there are most similar or identical elements. This
theory explains that carrying over from one situation to another is roughly proportional to the
degree of resemblance in a situation, in other words- more the similarity, more the transfer.

2. Theory of generalization of experience

This theory was developed by Charles Judd. Theory of generalization assumes that what
is learned in task ‘A’ transfers to task ‘B’ because in studying ‘A’, the learner develops a general
principle which applies in part or completely in both ‘A’ and ‘B’. Experiences, habits,
knowledge gained in one situation help us to the extent to which they can be generalized and
applied to other situations.