CHAPTER VIII:

THEORIES OF LEARNING
 LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

Learning is one of the component areas of

personality and this is usually gained through formal
and non-formal education.
 BASIC DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING

• Craig – a process through which one’s capacity or

disposition is changed as a result of experience
• Whittaker – a process by which behavior originates or is
altered through experience
• Wittig and Hilgard – a relatively permanent change in
behavior that occur as a result of experience
Based on the given definitions, learning is considered both as a process
and as a result of experiences. However, some theories state that
learning is more of a process than a product since it focuses on the
changes and results of experiences that lead to maturation and
development.
One basic yet important way to understand learning is to trace the
different theories related to it. These theories provide significant
information to help understand how learning takes place.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
 1. BEHAVIORIST THEORY

• A theory on animal and human learning that focuses on

observable behaviors and discounts mental activities as the
main focus of learning. Thus, behaviorist believe that
learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new
behavior.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF BEHAVIORISM

• Behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning

process which has two different types that yield to different
behavioral sequences.
 A. BEHAVIORAL OR OPERANT
CONDITIONING

This occurs when a response to stimulus is reinforced.

Basically, operant conditioning is simple feedback system. If
a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus,
then the response becomes more probable in the future. This
is how Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach a
pigeon to dance in bowl ball in a mini alley.
 A. BEHAVIORAL OR OPERANT
CONDITIONING

However, there are some criticisms of behaviorism, which include the

following:
- That behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it
disregards the activities of the mind;
- That behaviorism does not explain some learning processes such as
recognition of new language patterns by young children for which there is
no reinforcement mechanism; and
- That research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new
information. For example, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes
in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered through reinforcement.
 B. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

This occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The

most popular example is Pavlov’s observation that dogs
salivate when they eat or even when they just see food.
Essentially, animals and people biologically wired so that
certain stimulus will produce a specific response.
 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF
BEHAVIORIST THEORY OF LEARNING

• This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only

on observable behaviors and it describes universal laws of behavior.
Although it has been criticized over and over, its positive and
negative reinforcement techniques can be very effective – both in
animals and treatments in human disorders such as autism and
antisocial behavior. Behaviorism is often used by teachers, by giving
rewards and punishments depending on student behavior.
 2. CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

A process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate

new experiences. The constructivist’s philosophy of learning
works on the premise that by reflecting on one’s experiences,
the individual constructs his own understanding of the world
he lives in. Thus, he generates his own rules and mental
models which he uses to make sense of his experiences.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM

a. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must

start with the issues around which students actively try to
construct meaning.
b. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts,
and parts must be understood in the contexts of wholes.
Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary
concepts, not isolated facts.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF
CONSTRUCTIVISM

c. Understanding the mental models that students use to perceive the

world and the assumptions they make to support models will be
helpful in order to teach well.
d. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her
own meaning, not just memorize the “right” answers and simply take
someone else’s ideas. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary,
the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment
part of learning process, since assessments provide students with
information on the quality of their learning.
 THE CONTRIBUTION OF
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF LEARNING

• In the area of curriculum, constructivism calls for the

elimination of standardized one. Instead, it promotes the
use of curricula based on the student’s prior knowledge.
Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
 THE CONTRIBUTION OF
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF LEARNING

• In the area of instruction, constructivism encourages

educators to focus on making connections between isolated
facts and fostering new understanding in students.
Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student
responses and encourage them to analyze, interpret, and
predict open-ended questions and promote extensive
dialogue among students.
 THE CONTRIBUTION OF
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF LEARNING

• Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and

standardized testing.
 3. PIAGET’S THEORY

Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the developing child

builds cognitive structures such as mental “maps”,
“schemes”, or network concepts for understanding and
responding to physical experiences within his or her
environment. This theory proves that the child’s cognitive
structure increases in sophistication with development,
moving from a few innate reflexes and progressing to highly
complex mental activities.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF PIAGET’S
THEORY

a. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old) – the child,

through physical interaction with his or her environment,
builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. This
is the stage where a child does not know that physical
objects remain in existence even when out of sight (object
permanence).
b. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7) – in this stage, the child is
not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and therefore needs
concrete physical situations.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF PIAGET’S
THEORY

c. Concrete operations (ages 7-11) – as the physical

experiences accumulate, the child starts to conceptualize,
creating logical structures that explains his or her
physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is also
possible at this stage. For instance, arithmetic equations
can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF PIAGET’S
THEORY

d. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15) – at this point,

the child’s cognitive structures develop according to Piaget’s
principles of building cognitive structures, which state that
during all developmental stages, the child experiences his or
her environment using whatever mental maps he or she
constructed so far. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits
easily – or is assimilated – into the child’s cognitive structure
so that he maintains mental equilibrium, and alters his or her
cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. This
way, the child develops more and more adequate cognitive
structures.
 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF PIAGET’S
THEORY OF LEARNING

- In the area of curriculum, educators are expected to plan a

developmentally appropriate curriculum that enhances their
student’s logical and conceptual growth.
- In terms of instruction, the theory encourages teachers to
emphasize the critical role that experiences or interactions
with the surrounding environment play in student learning.
For example, instructors have to take into account the role
of fundamental concepts, such as the permanence of
objects, play in establishing cognitive structures.
 4. LEARNING STYLES THEORY

This theory emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and

process information in different ways. The learning styles
theory believes that the success of individual’s learning has
more to do with whether the educational experiences is
geared towards their particular style of learning than whether
or not they are “smart”.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF LEARNING
STYLES THEORY

a. Concrete and Abstract Perceivers – concrete perceivers

absorb information through direct experiences by doing,
acting, sensing, and feeling, while abstract perceivers take
in information through analysis, observation, and thinking.
b. Active and Reflective Processors – active processors
make sense of an experience by immediately using the new
information, while reflective processors make sense of
experience by reflecting on and thinking about it.
 LEARNING STYLES THEORY

In Learning Styles Theory, it is important that all these types

of learning are utilized. However, conventional schooling
tends to favor abstract perceiving and reflective processing
more than others. Hence, other kinds of learning are not
reflected in the traditional curriculum, instruction, and
assessment, even though they are equally crucial.
 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF LEARNING
STYLES THEORY TO LEARNING

- In the area of curriculum, educators are encouraged to put

equal emphasis on intuition, feeling, sensing, and
imagination, in addition to the traditional skills of analysis,
reason, and sequential problem solving.
 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF LEARNING
STYLES THEORY TO LEARNING

- In terms of instruction, teachers are encouraged to design

their instructional materials integrating four learning styles
and using various combinations of experience, reflection,
conceptualization, and experimentation. Instructors can
introduce a wide variety of experiential elements into
classroom, such as the use of sounds, music, visuals,
movement, experience and even informal discussions.
 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF LEARNING
STYLES THEORY TO LEARNING

- In addition, teachers should employ variety of assessment

techniques, focusing on the development of the “whole
brain” capacity and the different learning styles.
 5. OBSERVATIONAL THEORY

This theory is also called social learning theory which

believes that an observer’s behavior changes after observing
the behavior of a model. Thus, an observer’s behavior can be
affected by the positive and negative consequences called
vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment of a model’s
behavior.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE
OBSERVATIONAL THEORY

a. The observer imitates the model’s behavior if the model possesses

characteristics such as intelligence, power, talent, good looks or
popularity that the observer finds attractive or desirable.
b. The observer reacts the way the model is treated. He also mimics
the model’s behavior and when the model’s behavior is awarded,
the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior.
When the model is punished, as an example of vicarious
punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce the same
behavior.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE
OBSERVATIONAL THEORY

c. A distinction exists between an observer’s “acquiring a

behavior” and “performing a behavior.” Through
observation, the observer can acquire behavior without
performing it. The observer may later, in situations where
there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE
OBSERVATIONAL THEORY

d. Learning by observation involves four separate processes:

1. Attention – in which the observer can learn and pay attention to
what is happening if it is influenced by some characteristics of the
model;
2. Retention – in which the observer must not only recognize the
observed behavior but also remember it at some time later;
3. Production – in which the observer must be physically and
intellectually capable of producing the act wherein observer
possesses the important responses; and
4. Motivation – in which the observer performs the act only if he/she
has some motivation or reason to do so.
 THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE
OBSERVATIONAL THEORY

e. Attention and retention account for acquisition or

learning of a model’s behavior, while production and
motivation control the performance.
f. Human development reflects the complex interaction of
the person, the person’s behavior, and the environment.
The relationship between these elements is called
reciprocal determinism, which means that abilities,
physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and
the like influence both one’s behavior and environment.
 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF
OBSERVATIONAL THEORY TO
LEARNING:

- In the area of curriculum, the students must get a chance to observe

and model a behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement.
- In terms of instruction, educators are encouraged to advocate
collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within
important social and environmental contexts.
- In addition, assessment is important as learned behavior often cannot
be performed unless there is a right environment for it. Therefore,
educators must provide the incentive and supportive environment for
the behavior to happen; otherwise, assessment will not be accurate.