THEORIES OF

LEARNING
A. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory

2. Thorndike’s S-R Theory
3. B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning Theory
4. Social Learning Theory

2
1. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory

Meaning of Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory:

This is learning from the behavioristic viewpoint.

According to this viewpoint learning is ‘formation
of conditioned reflexes’ or “acquisition of
involuntary anticipatory adjustment” or “a habit
formation”, so that behavior may become
automatic.

3
Similarly, because salivation
occurred automatically in the
presence of meat, also
without the need for any
training or experience, this
response of salivating is
referred to as an
unconditioned response.
Pavlov’s experiments showed
that if a previously neutral
stimulus (ringing of the bell) is
paired with an unconditioned
stimulus, the neutral stimulus
In other words, after the bell
becomes a conditioned and the meat are presented
stimulus and gains the power together, the ringing of the
to prompt a response similar bell alone causes the dog to
to that produced by the salivate. This process is called
unconditioned stimulus. classical conditioning.
4
5
2. Thorndike’s S-R Theory
Edward Thorndike’s work on
animal behavior and the learning
process led to the theory of
connectionism and helped lay the
foundation for modern educational
psychology.
Thorndike’s early studies with animal behavior led him
to declare his Law of Effect which states that if an act is
followed by a satisfying change in the environment, the
likelihood that the act will be repeated in similar situations
increases. According to Thorndike, pupils learn more
effectively and easily, and retain that learning longer, if
it has pleasant consequences. Thus rewards, successes, or
positive reinforcement further learning, while punishment,
failure, or negative experiences
6 hinder it.
 Two other laws of learning formulated by Thorndike
were the laws of readiness and exercise.
The law of readiness. Thorndike believed that
readiness is an important condition of learning because
satisfaction or frustration depends on an individual’s
state of readiness, e.g. a child forced to read before
he is ready may acquire skills but may not necessarily
develop the desire to read.
The law of exercise. Thorndike opined that practice
alone was not enough for improvement. The
connection is to be strengthened through
reinforcement, thus the law of effect must also
operate. When the students practice, they should be
aware of the consequences of what they are doing.
Otherwise, practice becomes ineffective or may even
be harmful.
7
3. B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning Theory
Like Thorndike’s, Skinner’s work
focused on the relation between behavior
and its consequences. For example, if an
individual’s behavior is immediately followed
by pleasurable consequences, the individual
will engage in that behavior more
frequently.

The operant conditioning theory was

based on Skinner’s experiment with a
hungry rat that was placed in a box, it was The use of pleasant
rewarded with a food pellet which served and unpleasant
as reinforcement to the reinforcing consequences to
behavior. Reinforced thus, the rat kept on change behavior is
pressing that bar, this time no longer often referred to as
accidentally but intentionally. Skinner has
operant conditioning.
shown that basic to operant conditioning is
the use of reinforcement.
8
9
Positive and Negative Reinforcers

Positive reinforcers are events that are presented

after a response has been performed and that
increase the behavior or activity they follow.
Examples of positive reinforcers are things given to
students such as praise, grades, and stars.

Negative reinforcers are escapes from unpleasant

situations or ways of preventing something
unpleasant from occuring. For example,a parent
might release a student from washing the dishes if
the student completes his or her homework. If
washing the disher is seen as unpleasant task,
release from it will be reinforcing.
10
4. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory was
developed by Albert Bandura.
Social learning theory accepts
most of the principles of
behavioral theories that focuses to
a much greater degree on the
effects of cues on behavior and on Bandura’s analysis
internal processes, emphasizing of observational
the effects of thought on action learning involves
and action on thought. four phases:
Bandura felt that much of attention,
human learning is not shaped by retention, motor
its consequences but is more reproduction, and
efficiently learned directly from motivational
processes.
a model. 11
12
13
5. Tolman’s Sign Learning

Tolman’s theorizing has been

called purposive behaviorism
and is often considered the
bridge between behaviorism
and cognitive theory.

14
Tolman’s Sign Learning
Tolman’s theory combines the advantages of
stimulus-response theories and cognitive field
theories.

Tolman published his major work entitled.

Purposive Behaviour in Animals and Men (1932)
and recorded the results of his experiments. He
revised his theory in 1949. According to the
findings of these experiments, the learner does
not reach the goal in fixed sequence of
movements but changes his behaviour according
to the variation in conditions.
15
Tolman’s Sign Learning
The main features of this theory are as
follows:
1. It accepts behaviourism as basis:
Main characterstics of behaviour are:
(a) Behaviour is goal-directed i.e. it is purposive.
(b) Behaviour makes use of environmental factors
as means for getting at the goal.
(c) Behaviour consists of the formation of
cognitive maps.
(d) The organism has a selective preference for
the “principle of least effort”, for arriving at the
goal.
(e) Molar behaviour is docile.
16
Tolman’s Sign Learning
2. According to Tolman, the behaviour depends upon:
(a) The need system,
(b) The belief value matrix, and
(c) The behaviour space.

3. This theory takes into consideration that learning is based upon some
signs or clues leading to the goal. The organism learns not the movement
patterns, but the sign-significative relations.
Educational Implications:
Typical Learning Problems:
Capacity:
The learning of a task depends upon the capacity of the learner.
Practice:
Tolman believes that practice or exercise cannot help the learner in the
initial selection of a right response. Mere frequency without
belongingness does not establish a connection.
17
Tolman’s Sign Learning
Motivation:
Motivation does not help in learning something new. It simply
encourages the performance as such.
Understanding:
Tolman believes in learning by creative inference, inventive
ideation and so on. Insightful learning is emphasized.
Transfer:
Transfer of training depends upon applicability of the essential
relationship perceived by the learner in one situation to some
other situation.
Forgetting:
Repression and ratio-active inhibition cause forgetting Tolman
attributes forgetting to the resistance of cathexis (relationship
between a drive and object) also.
18
B. COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. Bruner’s Cognitive Learning Theory

2. Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory
3. Gagne’s Cognitive Learning Theory
4. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Theory

19
B.COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING

Cognitive theories are concerned with the

things that happen inside our heads as we learn.

The cognitive approach emphasizes how

information is processed.

The three researchers Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne

and Piaget take different perspectives but each
presents ideas that add to the discussion on how
people learn.

20
1. Bruner’s Cognitive Learning Theory
Jerome Bruner advocated
discovery learning. His theory is
based upon the study of cognition.
A major theme in his theory is
that “learning is an active process According to Bruner,
in which learners construct new the instructor’s task is
to “translate
ideas or concepts based upon their
information to be
current/past knowledge ”. learned into a format
According to Bruner, the appropriate to the
instructor should try and learner’s current state
of understanding” and
encourage the students to
organize it in a spiral
construct hypotheses, make manner so that the
decisions,, and discover principles student continually
by themselves. builds upon what they
have already learned.
21
22
2. Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory

David Paul Ausubel is an

American psychologist and
educator.

Ausubel has long been an

outspoken advocate of meaningful
learning which he defines as the
acquisition of new meanings.

23
24
3. Gagne’s Cognitive Learning Theory
Gagné theory is based upon an
Information Processing model and
described several factors that
influence learning and as such are
called the Conditions of Learning.

He proposed that learning is like a

building process which utilizes a
hierarchy of skills that increase in
complexity.

25
Instructional events
In addition the theory outlines nine instructional
events, which should be found in any instructional
context, and the corresponding cognitive processes.
1. Gain attention
Present a good problem or new situation in a
stimulating and engaging way. (reception)

2. Inform learner of objectives

Describe the learning outcomes, the aims and
objectives of the session, what skills will be
accomplished and how they will be able to use the
knowledge, give a demonstration if appropriate.
(expectancy)
26
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
Remind students of prior knowledge relevant to
the current lesson (facts, rules, procedures or
skills). Show how the sessions are connected.
Provide the student with a framework that
helps learning and remembering. Tests can be
included. (retrieval)

4. Present stimulus material to be learned

Use a mixture of media e.g. text, graphics,
simulations, figures, pictures, sound, etc. e.g.
follow a consistent presentation style, chunking
of information (avoid memory overload, recall
information) (selective perception)
27
5. Provide learner guidance
Show examples and demonstrate the relevance of the
materials. Use different approaches to demonstrate
the same information. (semantic encoding)

6. Elicit performance
Let the student do something with the newly acquired
behavior, practice skills or apply knowledge.
(response)

7. Provide informative feedback

Show correctness of the student's response, analyze
learner's behavior (or let him do it), maybe present a
good (step-by-step) solution of the problem - model
answer. (reinforcement)
28
8. Assess performance
Test if the lesson has been learned. Also
give sometimes general progress information
in the context of the whole course.
(retrieval)

9. Enhance retention and transfer

Give examples of similar problems or
situations, provide additional practice. Put
the learner in a transfer situation and get
them to review the training materials.
(generalization)

29
30
5. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Gestalt is a German word that means roughly means

“shape”, “form”, “essence”, or “whole”.

Gestalt is a psychology term which means "unified whole".

It refers to theories of visual perception developed by
German psychologists in the 1920s

One of the most important theories of perception is the

Gestalt Theory.

Gestalt Theory “The Whole is different from the sum of

its part”.
It was developed about 1910by Max Wertheimer and
carry on by Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka at
Frankfurt University.
31
 Born April 15, 1880
 Died Oct 12, 1943
 Born in Prague, Czech

Republic
 Psychologist
 Father of Gestalt

psychology
 Born in Jan 21, 1887
 Died in June 11, 1967
 Born in Reval (now

Tallinn), Estonia
 Psychologist and

phenomenologist
 Another of the founders

of Gestalt psychology
 Born March 18, 1886
 Died Nov 22, 1941
 Born in Berlin,

Germany
 Psychologist
 Another of the founders

of Gestalt psychology
 Learning theorist
 Max Wertheimer,Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt
Koffka concluded that learners were not
Passive,but rather active.They suggested
that learners do not just collect
information as is but they actively process
and restructure data in order to
understand it.This is the Perceptual
Process.
 Certain factors impact on this perceptual

process. Factors like past experiences,

needs, attitudes and one’s present
situation can affect his perception.
 Law of Proximity
 Law of Similarity
 Law of Closure
 Law of Good
Continuation
 Law of Good Pragnanz
 Law of Figure/Ground
 Wolfgang kohler was the first psychologist who
developed the insight learning in which he described
an experiment with apes that could use boxes and
sticks as tools to solve the problem.
 Inhis experiment, Kohler hung a piece of fruit just out
of the reach of each chimp. He then provided the
chimps with either two sticks or three boxes, then
waited and watched. Kohler noticed that after the
chimps realized they could not simply reach or jump
up to retrieve the fruit, they stopped, had a seat, and
thought about how they might solve the problem. Then
after a few moments, the chimps stood up and
proceeded to solve the problem.
 Inthe first scenario, the
problem was solved by
placing the smaller stick
into the longer stick to
create one very long
stick which could be
used to knock the
hanging fruit down.
42