Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2050–2056

www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Investigations on the bearing behaviour and application potential of textile

reinforced concrete
J. Hegger, S. Voss ∗
Institute of Structural Concrete, RWTH Aachen University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str. 1, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
Received 20 September 2007; received in revised form 12 December 2007; accepted 10 January 2008
Available online 4 March 2008

Abstract

At present there is a rising interest of architects and engineers in the application of Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC) as a construction
material. Filigree, self-supporting and ventilated façade systems are state-of-the-art in the application of TRC. In current investigations potentials
for light-weight structural members are developed. The required models for a secure design of structural members are deduced within the
framework of the research activities in the collaborative research centre 532 at RWTH Aachen University [Collaborative Research Centre 532:
Textile Reinforced Concrete – Development of a new technology. RWTH Aachen University, Germany. http://sfb532.rwth-aachen.de]. The article
outlines fundamental research results as well as their realisation in first applications.
c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Textile reinforced concrete; Fabrics; Fibres; AR-glass; Carbon; Load-bearing behaviour

1. Introduction the reinforcement material and better load-bearing properties

of the component. The rovings are bundles of hundreds or even
In present architecture there is a distinctive trend towards
thousands of single fibres (filaments).
more and more lean structures of high-quality materials
Currently, the main application areas for the building
which continuously increases the requirements placed on
material TRC are in the field of façade construction but also
the construction materials and which demands a continuous
increasingly in the field of bearing structures for minor vertical
development of their properties. Using non-metallic high
loads. For the production of TRC-elements depending on their
performance fibres as concrete reinforcement allows for the
geometry the casting technique, spraying method or laminating
production of thin and light-weight elements with high
technique is used.
durability and the potential of economic savings. These
The established dimensioning models known from rein-
advantages together with the high scope of design options given
forced concrete construction cannot just be transferred to the
to the architects have made glass-fibre reinforced concrete
dimensioning of textile reinforced concrete members because
(GFRC) a widespread building material around the world. A
the bearing behaviour of textile reinforcements differs from that
disadvantage of the reinforcement with chopped strands is the
of concrete reinforcing steels due to the specific material and
partial unorientated distribution of the fibres over the total bond properties [2]. Therefore the development of dimension-
cross-section, reducing their effectiveness. Textile Reinforced ing models for textile reinforced concrete is the topic of sys-
Concrete (TRC) whereas combines the advantages of both tematic investigations of the authors whose essential results are
GFRC and ordinary steel reinforced concrete: no concrete cover presented in this paper. In addition, some examples of proto-
is required to protect the reinforcement against corrosion and typical application are shown which have been carried out in
the fibre material is placed only where necessary in the direction cooperation with other institutes involved in the collaborative
of the tensile forces. In TRC two-dimensional and three- research centre 532 [1].
dimensional textile structures consisting of yarns (rovings) are
used as a reinforcement. This leads to a higher utilization of 2. Materials

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 241 80 26830; fax: +49 241 80 22335. To describe the significant influences on the bearing
E-mail address: svoss@imb.rwth-aachen.de (S. Voss). behaviour of the composite building material, some textile

c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

0141-0296/$ - see front matter
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2008.01.006
 J. Hegger, S. Voss / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2050–2056 2051

Notations
At cross-section area of the textile reinforcement
Fctu tensile strength of the component
ft tensile strength of the fibre material (= f fil )
k1 factor accounting for the bond behaviour
k0,α factor accounting for the fibre orientation
k f l,ρ factor accounting for bending
σmax axial tensile strength of the fibre material in the
composite
σmax,α tensile strength of the fibre material depending on
fibre orientation α
z internal lever arm
ARov cross-section of one roving

fabrics were chosen from the multitude of investigated textile

reinforcement structures which differ in their basic properties
(Fig. 1, Table 1).
The mechanical characteristics of the textile reinforcement
materials were determined in tensile tests on single filaments
taken from the rovings, the basic material of the textiles.
The fabric “Fabric 1” consists of alkali-resistant glass rovings
Fig. 1. Textile fabrics made of AR-glass and carbon.
(AR-glass) (company Saint-Gobain-Vetrotex, titer 2400 tex (=
g/km)) and, regarding binding type and geometry, it features
the same properties as the fabric “Fabric 2” which consists
of 1600 tex carbon rovings of the company Tenax Fibres.
Thus, a direct comparison of the bearing behaviour of both
fibre materials AR-glass as well as carbon is possible. The
2400 tex AR-glass roving consists of 1600 single filaments
with a diameter of 29 µm, the carbon roving consists of
21 000 single filaments with a diameter of 7 µm. The AR-
glass fabrics “Fabric 3” and “Fabric 4” differ in the textile
bindings at otherwise the same geometric properties. The
tricot binding (Fabric 3) produces a wider open and flatter
roving whereas the chain binding (Fabric 4) causes a round,
compact roving diameter. The effects of an impregnation with
Fig. 2. Stress–strain curves for fine grained concrete (according to [3]).
epoxy resin are investigated on the AR-glass fabric “Fabric 5”.
By impregnating the fabric, the filaments are glued to each investigations is described correctly with the function from the
other yielding a more homogeneous roving cross-section which Model Code 90 [4] considering the experimentally determined
causes a better activation of the entire reinforcement cross- ultimate strains (Fig. 2). For the dimensioning of building
section in the composite building component. members under bending load, equivalent to Model Code 90, a
The specific properties of the textile reinforcement structures parabola-rectangle diagram is suggested.
require special rheological properties and a defined maximum
grain size of the concrete to penetrate the reinforcement. 3. Bearing behaviour under tensile load
Therefore special concrete matrices adjusted to textile
reinforced concrete were developed [3]. Due to the high binder The bearing behaviour under uniaxial tensile load was
content, fine grained concretes feature a lower Young’s modulus investigated on tensile specimens with a length of 90 cm
and larger deformations than normal concretes of the same (Fig. 3). In some of the test series the deformations of the
compressive strength. At the investigation of the tensile strength measurement range were recorded with a photogrammetric
and the fracture mechanical properties, a less ductile bearing measurement system [5] to be able to exactly analyse the crack
behaviour became obvious owing to the more homogeneous formation behaviour.
structure of the fine grained concrete in comparison to normal The ultimate strength of the fibres in the composite building
concrete. Investigations regarding creep behaviour and fatigue component averaged over the cross-sectional area of the textile
strength of the fine grained concrete resulted in similar reinforcement was determined from the measured ultimate
characteristic values as for normal concrete. The stress–strain load. As was to be expected, they partially range significantly
curve of the fine grained concrete applied in the mentioned below the tensile strength of the filaments, as a simultaneous,
2052 J. Hegger, S. Voss / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2050–2056

Table 1
Characteristics of the textile reinforcement
Name Material Roving titer Binding type Mesh size 0◦ /90◦ Cross-sectional area 0◦ /90◦ f f il E f il εmax
(−) (tex) (−) (mm) (mm2 /m) (MPa) (MPa) (h)
Fabric 1 AR-Glass 2400 Chain 8/8 105/105 1808 70 000 25.8
Fabric 2 Carbon 1600 Chain 8/8 105/105 3912 235 555 16.5
Fabric 3 AR-Glass 1200 Tricot 8/8 52.5/52.5 2018 70 000 28.8
Fabric 4 AR-Glass 1200 Chain 8/8 52.5/52.5 2018 70 000 28.8
Fabric 5a AR-Glass 2400 Chain 8/8 105/105 1808 70 000 25.8
a epoxy-impregnated; f : tensile strength of the filament; E : Young’s modulus of the filament; ε
fil fil max : ultimate strain.

Fig. 3. Geometry (left) and illustration (right) of a tensile specimen test with photogrammetric measurement.

Table 2
Tensile strength and efficiency of the fabrics in tensile tests on the component

Name σmax (MPa) k1 (−) Failure mode

Fabric 1 460 0.25 Filament rupture
Fabric 2 753 0.19 Anchorage failure
Fabric 3 813 0.40 Filament rupture
Fabric 4 550 0.27 Filament rupture
Fabric 5 1200 0.66 Splitting
σmax : tensile strength of the reinforcement in the composite; k1 : coefficient of
efficiency (s.o.) (= σmax / f f il ).

Fig. 4. Textile stress–strain curves of the tensile specimen tests. ultimate strengths owing to the tricot binding which produces
wider open and oval roving cross-sections than Fabric 4 with a
complete activation of the entire reinforcement cross-section chain binding.
is impossible due to the inhomogeneous bond properties The comparison between fabrics Fabric 4 and Fabric 1 which
scattering across the roving cross-section. Exemplarily, the feature a different roving cross-sectional area at otherwise
roving can be divided into at least two groups: the outer and the the same properties makes obvious that the average ultimate
inner filaments [6]. The group of the outer filaments consists of strength of the reinforcement rises with a decreasing roving
fibres which are directly and completely bonded to the concrete titer and thus an increasing ratio between surface and cross-
matrix. The inner filaments do not possess direct contact with sectional area. The unimpregnated glass fabrics failed in the
the matrix, their bond properties are determined by friction tensile specimen test by a successive failure of the filaments,
bond between the filaments. the ultimate load is determined by reaching the ultimate
Fig. 4 shows the influence of the textiles stated in Table 1 strength of the outer filaments. The impregnation with epoxy
on the load-deformation behaviour. The calculated average resin increased the bearing capacity of the reinforcement to
ultimate strengths and the deduced efficiencies k1 (the ratio about 1200 MPa, i.e. to the triple bearing capacity of the
between the calculated average ultimate strength of the unimpregnated AR-glass fabric (Fabric 1). However, at a textile
filaments in the tensile specimen test and the tensile strength tensile stress of about 1000 MPa, starting longitudinal crack
of the filament) are compiled in Table 2. formation was observed. These longitudinal cracks ran along
The bearing strength of the reinforcement which can be the reinforcement layer and led to a gradual splitting of the
activated in the composite section depends mainly on the test specimen. Despite of this mechanism the load could
roving geometry and the penetration depth of the matrix in the subsequently be increased further at a growing longitudinal
roving cross-section. Both factors are decisively influenced by crack formation and opening. The failure of the building
the textile binding type. Fabric 3 reaches significantly higher member occurred upon the splitting off of entire parts of the
 J. Hegger, S. Voss / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2050–2056 2053

concrete cover. The formation of longitudinal cracks and the

splitting off of the concrete cover were already observed in tests
on other impregnated reinforcements [7]. The reason can be
found in high bond forces which lead to high hoop tensions in
the concrete. The bond stresses are mainly caused by the macro-
roughness and the waviness of the impregnated rovings because
the adhesion between epoxy resin and concrete is eliminated as
reason. A target-oriented adjustment of the bond properties to
avoid bond splitting is the aim of further investigations [8]. A
promising method is the embedding of the impregnated fabric
in the concrete directly after the impregnation process (fresh-
in-fresh).
The higher Young’s modulus of carbon becomes obvious
at the higher stiffness of the tensile specimen reinforced with
Fabric 2 after the multiple cracking. Simultaneously, the carbon Fig. 5. Textile stress–strain curve of tensile tests on AR-glass (Fabric 1)
reinforced specimens under cyclic and static loading.
fabric yields an average 60% higher calculated ultimate strength
than the comparable fabric of AR-glass Fabric 1. However, ascertained that the deformations of the building member grow
the efficiency of the carbon amounts to only 19%. The main during the load cycles because of the increase in the crack
reasons are the low matrix penetration depth of the roving due widths (Fig. 5). After the completion of the load cycles, the
to the very low filament diameter and the relatively low friction tensile specimens showed the same behaviour as in tests where
between the carbon filaments. This situation is also reflected the specimens were monotonically loaded until failure, i.e.
in the failure process of carbon fabrics. Contrary to the AR- an influence on the stiffness as well as the bearing capacity
glass, the inner filaments do not break at a distance of a few could not be observed. Possible causes for the increase in
centimetres into a failure crack but they are partly torn out of deformations during the load cycles are the cracking of single
the anchorage area up to 30 centimetres. filaments as well as a growing detachment of the filaments.
Owing to the structure of the rovings and the brittleness Considering the test results, the tensile bearing strength Fctu
of the basic materials, the textile reinforcements feature a of a textile reinforced composite section can be calculated as
relatively high sensitivity to loads that arise in an oblique follows:
angle to the longitudinal axis of the fibres. To determine this
influence on the bearing behaviour, tensile specimen tests with Fctu = At · f t · k1 · k0,α · k2 (1)
different reinforcement angles were conducted [9]. The test
results prove that approximately a linear correlation between with
oblique angularity and the decrease in the bearing capacity of At cross-sectional area of the textile reinforcement
the reinforcement can be assumed (coefficient k0,α in Eq. (1)).
ft tensile strength of the filament
The reasons for a decreasing bearing capacity at an increasing
angle between reinforcement and tensile specimen are mainly k1 coefficient of efficiency
the deflection forces occurring at the crack edges which lead to α
k0,α coefficient of oblique-angled load: k0,α = 1 − (2)
notch stresses and to additional flexural stresses in the outer 90◦
filaments as well as the incomplete orientation of the inner k2 coefficient of biaxial load: Fabric 1:
filaments towards the direction of force. k2 = 1 − 22 · σc,lateral /σmax ≤ 1, 0. (3)
The effects of transverse tensile and transverse compressive
loads were investigated in tests on square membrane elements Dimensioning a structural element according to existing
with an edge length of 60 cm [9]. The thickness of the elements standards for reinforced concrete members (e.g. Eurocode
in the inner measurement area (30 cm × 30 cm) amounted to 2) requires the supplement of a safety factor for the textile
0.8 cm and to 1.2 cm in the reinforced load introduction area. In reinforcement. Furthermore losses in the bearing strength of the
the tests, a biaxial tensile load resulted in a decreasing bearing textile reinforcement have to be considered depending on the
capacity (coefficient k2 in Eq. (1)). The reason is the formation environmental conditions, the mix design of the fine grained
of cracks occurring at transverse tension which cause damage concrete as well as the fibre material. For unimpregnated AR-
and a reduced bond quality of the rovings. The introduced glass reinforcements in fine grained concretes with a high
transverse compressive stresses had no influence on the bearing alkalinity, strength losses of up to 40% over a period of 50
behaviour of the textile reinforcement. years can presently be expected at outside building elements
For the construction of permanently usable building with a changing moisture penetration at simultaneously
elements, the knowledge of the influences of load alternations high temperatures. The glass corrosion is influenced by the
on the bearing behaviour of the reinforcement is necessary. temperature of the building element as well as the intensity
Therefore first tensile specimen tests with a cyclic load of of the moisture penetration because the water is needed as a
up to 100 load cycles and maximum loads of up to 70 % medium of transportation. At present no data concerning losses
of the ultimate bearing capacity were conducted. Here, it was as a result of weathering are known for carbon fibres.
2054 J. Hegger, S. Voss / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2050–2056

Fig. 6. Relation of the ultimate strengths in the tensile and flexural test.

4. Bearing behaviour under bending load

The effects of bending of structural elements on the bearing

Fig. 7. Façade of the extension of the testing hall of the Institute of Structural
behaviour of textile reinforcement was investigated in bending
Concrete; RWTH Aachen University, Germany.
tests on I-section beams with a length of 1 m [9]. These tests
were conducted as deformation-controlled four-point bending AR-glass (chain binding): k f l = 1.0
tests with loading on each third of the span. The comparison
AR-glass (tricot binding): k f l = 1.0 + 0.15 · ρl (5)
of the ultimate strength in the bending and tensile specimen
test (Fig. 6) clarifies the influence of bending of the structural ρl degree of longitudinal reinforcement in %
element. Under bending load the carbon reinforcements and Carbon: k f l = 1.0 + 0.4 · ρl (6)
the glass fabrics with tricot binding yield higher calculated Fctu according to Eq. (1)
ultimate strengths than in the tensile test. The increase in the
z internal lever arm
bearing load is due to the deflection pressures as a result
of the bending of the beam at the crack edges. Thus the
bond properties especially of the inner filaments are improved 5. Applications
which are only slightly activated under a centric tensile load
because of the smaller matrix penetration into the carbon roving 5.1. Façade elements of textile reinforced concrete
and the lower friction between the inner filaments compared
to the comparable AR-glass roving. Moreover there is a If the usual steel reinforcement is replaced by a textile
significant correlation between the reinforcement ratio and the reinforcement, the concrete cover essential for the corrosion
calculated average ultimate strengths. As, with an increasing protection of steel reinforcements becomes unnecessary and
reinforcement ratio, the elongation of the flexural tensile area filigree façade claddings can be designed with a high
grows because of the smaller crack spacing, the inner filaments creative freedom [10]. The application of textile reinforced
consequently feature higher strains in the state of failure. For concrete for curtain walls and sandwich elements enables
the AR-glass rovings a dependency on the binding type was slab thicknesses amounting to less than 30 mm, so that at
ascertained. While comparable to the carbon fabrics the bearing the same building cubature the insulation thickness can be
capacity for fabrics with tricot binding ranged above the values increased and customary fixing materials can be used or, at the
measured in a tensile specimen test, for a chain binding it tends same insulation thickness, the usable floor space is enlarged.
to be equal in the tension and in the bending test. Obviously Furthermore the application of fine grained concretes with a
the friction between the inner filaments is already completely maximum grain size of 1.0 to 2.0 mm enables the realisation
activated by the compression of the glass filaments caused by of smooth surfaces as well as sharp-edged profiles and joints
the chain binding. which lead to a new appearance of concrete surfaces.
Equivalent to reinforced concrete construction the calculated A first application of textile reinforced concrete as ventilated
flexural bearing capacity results from the tensile strength of building façade was made on the occasion of the enlargement
the reinforcement and the internal lever arm. The filament of the testing facility of the Institute of Structural Concrete
strain at failure is determined as the maximum strain of the of RWTH Aachen University in 2002 [11]. The entire façade
textile reinforcement. The influences of bending load and surface of 240 m2 consists of single panels with the dimensions
reinforcement ratio ascertained in the tests are taken into of 268.5 × 32.5 × 2.5 centimetres, which, owing to their low
consideration with the factor k f l : weight (57.5 kg/m2 ), were fixed to the reinforced concrete
substructure at four anchorage points with a customary clasp
Mu = k f l · Fctu · z (4)
fixing system (Fig. 7). The elements of high-strength fine
with grained concrete are reinforced by an AR-glass fabric (Fabric 1)
in two layers near the surface. The dimensions and the concrete
k fl coefficient of the bending load depending on the tensile strength were adjusted in a way that the slabs remained
fibre material: uncracked under service load.
 J. Hegger, S. Voss / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2050–2056 2055

Fig. 8. Prototype (left) and detail (right) of the rhombic framework of textile reinforced concrete.

Fig. 9. Design (left) and prototype (right) of the barrel shell made of textile reinforced concrete.

5.2. Rhombic framework overall dimensions of the demonstration building: Span 10 m,

rising of the vault 3 m, width of the building 1.8 m. Fig. 8 shows
The application of rhombic lattice structures for arc the prototype as well as a detail. The framework consists of
constructions is an efficient and established principle of hall rhombic basic elements (outer dimensions of 1000 × 600 ×
construction. Here, the rhombic structure is the geometric 160 mm, wall thickness 25 mm, weight about 23 kg). The
result of diagonally crossing and relatively close arc shares. dimensioning of the rhombic elements was made considering
This principle of construction has its origin in a construction a supported glass roofing.
method for arched halls with single crossing wood lamellas 5.3. Barrel shells
developed by municipal building officer Zollinger in 1905,
who gave this method his name. This construction method Due to its material properties textile reinforced concrete
was also applied in concrete construction. So in the 1950s and is also very well suited for the production of more complex
60s, numerous commercial, traffic and sports buildings were geometries, e.g. for roof constructions. Here, an improvement
spanned by rhombic frameworks of precast concrete elements. of the bearing capacity can be yielded especially by the
The complex manufacturing and the high dead load entail that formation (bending or folding) of two-dimensional building
today rhombic structures are hardly put into practice any more components. The easy forming of the textiles enables a
in concrete construction. relatively simple realisation of curved surfaces as e.g. the barrel
The application of textile reinforced concrete enables other shell elements depicted in Fig. 9. The simplest method to
forms of precasting and assembling of building components manufacture this structure is with shotcrete where concrete
which lead to a sensible use of concrete for filigree lattice layers with thicknesses amounting from 3 to 5 mm and the
structures. Especially the possibility to already assemble four reinforcement are applied alternately. The design of this barrel
bars of the lattice structure in precast rhombic building shell with a span of 7.0 m and 1.5 m long cantilevers on
components considerably reduces the complexity of the both sides resulted in a necessary thickness of the building
formation of intersections. The interaction of the low dead element of 2.5 cm with a higher thickness of up to 6 cm at
load of the components with the screw connection as a simple the most tensioned longitudinal edges in which up to 10 layers
method of assembly results in the possibility to efficiently of the AR-glass fabric Fabric 3 (Table) have to be placed. The
produce arched support structures for smaller and medium- manufacturing of such a barrel shell was first successfully tested
sized spans of 8 to 15 m. on a 1.5 m long segment (Fig. 9).
To demonstrate the practicability, a section of the above 6. Summary
described lattice structure was erected at RWTH Aachen
University, Germany. In the process three parallel rows of arcs The different material and bond properties of textile
with 12 rhombs each were assembled resulting in the following reinforcements and reinforcing steel require the basic research
2056 J. Hegger, S. Voss / Engineering Structures 30 (2008) 2050–2056

of the bearing behaviour and the derivation of new References

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Acknowledgment
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The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support [11] Hegger J, Schneider HN, Sherif A, Molter M, Voss S. Exterior cladding
of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) within the panels as an application of textile reinforced concrete. Thin reinforced
Collaborative Research Centre (SFB) 532 “Textile Reinforced cement based products and construction systems, SP-224. Farmington
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