Rigid Pavement

Introduction: Pavement is one of the important components of road transport infrastructure. It has
substantial role for the operational efficiency of the traffic movement. The wheel load distribution to
the ground beneath and frictional interaction with the tyres and repetition or cyclic loading natures
are the engineering features of the pavement structure.

Factors Governing Design : The main factors governing design of concrete pavements are design
period, design commercial traffic volume, composition of commercial traffic in terms of single,
tandem, tridem and multi-axles, axle load spectrum, tyre pressure, lateral placement characteristics,
directional distribution, strength of foundation and climatic considerations.

Pavement design approach: The early approach to design of rigid of rigid pavements was based on
'Westergaard's analysis. However, presently this approach has been advanced by the application of
more analytic techniques which may incorporate the effect of present day vehicle fleet, considering
cumulative fatigue damage due to the combined effect of load and pavement temperature variations.

Types of concrete pavements

Joint Plain Cement Concrete Pavement (JPCP) : JPCP is the most common type of rigid pavement. JPCP is
constructed with longitudinal and transverse joints to control where cracking occurs in the slabs. Tie bars and
dowel bars are provided for the transfer of wheel load from one to the neighboring concrete slabs. Dowel bars
are placed along the longitudinal direction and across the transverse joints. Similarly, tie bars are placed along
the transverse direction and across the longitudinal joints. Typical cross sections may be distinguished as below.
PQC - Pavement Quality Concrete; DLC - Dry Lean Concrete; BC - Bituminous Concrete; DBM - Dense
Bituminous Macadam; GSB - Granular Sub-base;

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement ( CRCP)

Although this type of pavement is limited in construction. However, CRCP is still a relatively new concept and
preferred for construction in High Mountain and High Desert climate regions. Since CRCP uses reinforcing steel
rather than weakened plane joints for crack control, saw cutting of transverse joints is not required for CRCP.
The continuous reinforcement in the pavement holds the cracks tightly together. CRCP typically costs more
initially than JPCP due to the added cost of the reinforcement. However, CRCP is typically more cost -effective
over the life of the pavement on high volume routes due to improved long-term performance and reduced
maintenance. In CRCP, there are no transverse joins, properly built CRCP should have better ride quality and less
it has less maintenance than JPCP.
Precast Panel Concrete Pavement (PPCP)

PPCPs use panels that are precast off-site instead of cast-in-place. The precast panels can be linked together
with dowel bars and tie bars or can be post-tensioned after placement. PPCP offers the advantages of:

• Improved concrete mixing and curing in a precast yard,

• Reduced pavement thicknesses, which is beneficial when there are profile grade restrictions such as vertical
clearances and
• Shorter lane closure times, which is beneficial when there are short construction duration.
DESIGN FACTORS
The factors governing design consideration are single, tandem axle and tridemloads, their repetition, tire
presume and latter placement characteristic of commercial vehicles.
1.1 Axle Load Characteristics
The permissible axle loads in Nepal is taken as 10.2tonnes, 19 tonnes and 24 tonnes for single axles, tandem
axles and tridem axles respectively. However, most of freight vehicles plying along the National Highways as
well as Feeders Roads carry much more than these legal axle load limits.
1.2 Design Period
Generally, cement concrete has the life span of 30 years. When the traffic intensity cannot be predicted
accurately for a long period of time, and for low volume roads, a design period of 20 years may be considered.
1.3 Traffic Considerations
1.3.1 Design lane: The lane carrying the maximum number of heavy commercial vehicles is termed as
design lane.
1.3.2 Design traffic: Traffic volume should normally be analyzed on seven -day 24-hour count. Actual
growth rate for heavy commercial vehicles should be determined after the analysis of previous traffic-count
records. However, minimum growth rate may be taken as 5 percent and maximum of 7.5percent depending
upon the economic development of the region.
1.4 Temperature Differential :
Temperature difference between top and bottom of the concrete pavements causes the concrete slab to warp,
causing the rise in stresses. The temperature differential depends on the intensity of solar radiation received by
the pavement surface at location, losses due to wind velocity etc. and thermal diffusivity of concrete.

Temperature differentials are positive when the slab has the tendency to have a convex shape during the day
hours and negative with a concave shape during the night.
1.5 Characteristics of Sub-grade Soil and Sub-base
1.5.1 Embankment
California Bearing Ratio ( CBR) of embankment soil placed below the 500 mm selected subgrade should be
determined for estimating the effective CBR of subgrade and its 'k' value for design.
1.5.2 Subgrade
The strength of sub-grade is expressed in terms of modulus of sub-grade reaction k, which is defined as pressure
per unit deflection of the foundation as determined by plate bearing tests. As limiting design deflection for
cement concrete pavements is taken as 1.25 mm, the k-value is determined from the pressure sustained at the
deflection at this deflection.
1.5.3 Sub-base
The main purpose of the sub-base is to provide a uniform, stable and permanent support to the concrete slab
laid over it. It must have sufficient strength so that it is not subjected to disintegration and erosion under heavy
traffic and adverse environmental conditions such as excessive moisture, freezing and thawing. In the light of
these requirements, sub-base of Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) having a 7 -day average compressive strength of 10
MPa is recommended. Minimum recommended thickness of DLC for major highways is150 mm.
1.6 Separation Layer between sub-base and pavement
Foundation layer below concrete slabs should be smooth to reduce the inter layer friction. A separation
membrane of minimum thickness of 125 micron polythene is recommended to reduce the friction between
concrete slabs and DLC sub-base.
1.7 Drainage layer
To facilitate the quick disposal of water that is likely to enter the sub-grade, a drainage layer may be provided
beneath the pavement throughout road width above sub-grade.
1.8 Characteristics of concrete
1.8.1 Design strength : The design of the rigid pavement is based on the flexural stresses of concrete.
Flexural strength of concrete can be obtained after testing the concrete beam as per procedure (IS: 516).
Alternatively, it can be derived from the characteristic compressive strength using following relationship.
fcr =0 7x√fck
1.8.2 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio of Concrete :The modulus of elasticity (E) and the
Poisson's ratio ( µ ) of cement concrete are known to vary with concrete materials and strength. The elastic
modulus increases with the increase in strength, and Poisson's ratio decrease with the increase in modulus of
elasticity.
Modulus of elasticity of the concrete E = experimentally determined value or 30,000 MPa (3x105 kg/cm2)
Poisson's ratio = 0.15
1.8.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion: The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete ( α ) varies with
the type of aggregate. However, for design purpose a value of = 10 x 10 -6 per oC may be adopted.
1.8.4 Fatigue behavior of cement concrete: The repeated application of wheel loads create repeated
flexural stresses, which results in the progressive fatigue damage in cement concrete slab in the form of gradual
development of micro-cracks especially when the applied stress in terms of flexural strength of concrete is high.
The ratio between the flexural stressdue to the load and the flexural strength of concrete is termed as the
Stress Ratio (SR). If the SR is less than 0.45, the concrete is expected to sustain infinite number of repetitions.

DESIGN OF SLAB THICKNESS

Critical Stress Condition

In-service cement concrete pavements are subjected to stresses due to a variety of factors acting
simultaneously. The severest combination of different factors that induce the maximum stress in
the pavement will give the critical stress condition. The flexural stress due to the simultaneous
application of traffic loads and temperature differentials between the top and bottom fibres of a
concrete slab is considered for design of pavement thickness. The effect of moisture change is
opposite to that of temperature change and is not normally considered critical to thickness design.
The flexural stress at the bottom layer of the concrete slab is the maximum during the day hours
when the axle loads act midway on the pavement slab while there is a positive temperature
gradient as illustrated in Fig. 1 and 2. This condition is likely to produce Bottom-Up Cracking
(BUC).
 Fig. 1 Axle Load Placed in the Middle of the Slab during Mid-Day

Locations of points of maximum flexural stress at the bottom of the pavement slab
without tied concrete shoulder for single, tandem and tridem axles are shown in Fig. 2. The tyre
imprints are tangential to the longitudinal edge. For tied concrete shoulders also, the maximum stress
occurs at the same locations. Single axles cause highest stress followed by tandem and tridem axles
respectively. Spacing between individual axles for tandem and tridem axles varies from 1.30 m to
about 1.40 m. There is practically no difference in stresses for axle spacing between 1.30 m and 1.40
m. A spacing of 1.30 m has been used in these guidelines for stress computation.

Fig. 2 Placement of Axles for Maximum Edge Flexural Stress at Bottom of the
Slab without Concrete Shoulders
During the night hours, the top surface is cooler than the bottom surface and the ends of the
slab curl up in a concave shape resulting in loss of support for the slab as shown in Fig. 3.
Due to the restraint provided by the self-weight of concrete and by the dowel connections,
temperature tensile stresses are caused at the top. Fig. 3 shows the placement of axle loads
close to transverse joints when there is negative temperature gradient during night period causing
high flexural stresses in the top layer leading to top-down cracking. Positioning of axles of different
configurations on the slab with successive axles placed close to the transverse joints is shown in Fig.
4. These axle positions can initiate Top-Down Cracking (TDC) during the night hours when the
pavement has the tendency to curl up. Built-in permanent curl induced during the curing of the
concrete slab further aggravates the problem.

Fig. 3 Placement of Two Axles of a Commercial Vehicle on a Slab Curled During Night Hours

Fig. 4 Different Axle Load Positions Causing Tensile Stress at the Top Fibre
of the slab with Tied Concrete Shoulder
 DESIGN OF JOINTS

Spacing and Layout

Great care is needed in the design and construction of joints in cement concrete pavements, as
these are critical locations having significant effect on the pavement performance. The joints
also need to be effectively sealed, and maintained well.
Cement Concrete Pavements have different types of transverse joints given as:
i) Contraction joints
ii) Construction joints
iii) Expansion joint
iv) Longitudinal joint
Contraction joints are transverse joints which release the tensile stresses in concrete pavements. The joint
spacing of a concrete pavement depends upon the type of coarse aggregates and the average temperature
fluctuation in different seasons. The spacing of contraction joints should be limited to 4.5 m to prevent top-
down cracking during the night hours.

Expansion joints are transverse joints to allow expansion of concrete slab due to rise in average temperature in
summer months. These joints are difficult to maintain and they get filled up with dirt and other incompressible
materials causing locking of the joints and preventing expansion of concrete slabs. They are, therefore, no
longer in use except near permanent structure like bridges and culverts. Construction joints should, as far as
possible, be placed at the location of contraction joints except in case of emergency when a key joint may be
used.

Longitudinal joints are required in pavements of width greater than 4.5 m to allow for transverse contraction
and warping.

Fig 5a: Contraction Joints with Dowel Bar

 Fig5b: Longitudinal joint with tie rod between two lanes

Fig 5c: Expansion joint with dowel bar

Load Transfer at Transverse Joints

Load transfer to relieve part of the load stresses in edge and corner regions of pavement slab at transverse
joints is provided by means of mild steel round dowel bars. In coastal and high rainfall areas, coated/corrosion
resistant dowel bars are often used to provide long term load transfer. The coating may be zinc or lead based
paint or epoxy coating. Dowel bars enable good riding quality to be maintained by preventing faulting at the
joints. For general provisions in respect of dowel bars, stipulations laid down in IRC:15, may be followed. More
dowel bars may be provided under the wheel path of heavy commercial vehicles in the light of past experience.
Designer may use his/her discretion after a study of the traffic pattern.
The bearing stress in the concrete that is responsible for the performance of dowel bars at the joints. High
concrete bearing stress can fracture the concrete surrounding the dowel bars, leading to the looseness of the
dowel bar and the deterioration of the load transfer system with eventual faulting of the slab. Larger diameter
dowel bars are found to provide better performance. Maximum bearing stress (Fbmax) between the concrete
and dowel bar is obtained from Equation:

Each dowel bar should be designed for the maximum load being transferred by it for the allowable bearing
pressure. Based on the expression given by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee, Equation 13 may
be used for calculation of the allowable bearing stress on concrete.

(101.6−b d) f ck
Fb = (13)
95.25

Where,

F b = allowable bearing stress, MPa

bd = dowel diameter, mm

fck = Characteristic compressive strength of the concrete, MPa (For M 35 concrete, fck = 35 MPa (28 days);=
42 MPa (90 days)

Since the initial load transfer efficiency (LTE) at the transverse joint is almost 100 percent and it takes a long
time for the LTE to decrease with traffic repetitions, 90 day compressive strength can safely be used for the
computation of allowable bearing stress.

For heavy traffic, greater than 450 CVPD, dowels are to be provided at the contraction joints since aggregate
inter-lock cannot be relied upon to effect load transfer across the joint to prevent faulting due to the repeated
loading of heavy axles. Joint widths of 5 mm and 20 mm may be taken for stress computation in dowel bar at
contraction and expansion joint respectively. Recommended diameter and length of dowel bars are given in
Table 1.

Table 1 Recommended Dimensions of Dowel Bars

Slab Thickness Dowel Bar Details

mm Diameter, mm Length, mm Spacing, mm
200 25 360 300
230 30 400 300
250 32 450 300
280 36 450 300
300 38 500 300
350 38 500 300
Note: Dowel bars for the slabs of thickness less than 200 mm is not recommended to provide. The
recommended table is suitable for concrete grade M40. If the concrete used for slab is of grade less
than M40, then dowel bars shall be provided only after design.

Dowel group action : When loads are applied at a joint, a portion of the load is transferred to the other
side of the slab through the dowel bars. If the load is near the joint of a pavement slab

tied to a concrete shoulder, a part of the load is transferred to the shoulder also. The dowel bar immediately
below the wheel load carries maximum amount of load and other dowel bars transfer progressively smaller
magnitudes of loads. Repeated loading causes some looseness between the dowel bars and the concrete
slab and recent studies indicate that the dowel bars within a distance of one radius of relative stiffness (1.0
l) from the point of load application participate in load transfer. Assuming a linear variation of the load
carried by different dowel bars within 1.0 l, the maximum load carried by a dowel bar can be computed.

TIE BARS FOR LONGITUDINAL JOINTS

The longitudinal joint is expected to open up during the service period (in case of heavy traffic, expansive
subgrades, etc.) and tie bars may be provided in accordance with the recommendation of IRC:15., For the
sake of convenience of the designers the design procedure recommended in IRC:15 is given here.

Design of Tie Bars

The area of steel required per metre length of joint may be computed using equation 16.
A s = bfw
sst ... (16)

In which,
As=area f steel in mm2, required per m length of joint
s
b=lane width in metres
f=coefficient of friction between pavement and the subbase/base (usually taken as 1.5)
W=weight of slab in kN/m2 and
 Sst=allowable working stress of steel in MPa
The length of any tie bar should be at least twice that required to develop a bond strength equal to the
working stress of the steel. The formula for estimating the length of tie bar is given as equation 17.

L= ... (17)

In which:
L = length of tie bar (mm)
Sst = allowable working stress in steel (MPa)
A cs = cross-sectional area of one tie bar (mm2)
Pptb = perimeter of tie bar (mm), and
B* =permissible bond stress of concrete (i) for deformed tie bars = 2.46 MPa,
(ii) for plain tie bars – 1.75 MPa.
Reinforced Cement Concrete needs to be provided in pavement panels in curved portions of radius less than
45 m and at underpasses on steep gradients, and for slabs having man-hole cover slab having L/B (length to
breadth) ratio more than 1.5 and in other similar situations.
To permit warping at the joint, the maximum diameter of tie bars may be limited to 16 mm, and to avoid
concentration of tensile stress they should not be spaced more than 750 mm apart. The calculated length, L,
may be increased by 50 to 80 mm to account for an inaccuracy that may occur in the placement during
construction.

Slab Thickness mm Tie Bar Details

Diameter (d) mm Max. Spacing, mm Minimum Length, mm
Plain Deformed Plain Deformed
150 8 330 530 440 480
10 520 830 510 560
200 10 390 620 510 560
12 560 900 580 640
250 12 450 720 580 640
300 12 370 600 580 640
16 660 1060 720 800
350 12 320 510 580 640
16 570 910 720 800
Note: The recommended details are based on the following values of different design parameters: Sst = 125
MPa for plain bars, 200 MPa for deformed bars; bond stress for plain bars = 1.75 MPa, for deformed
bars = 2.46 MPa as per IRC:15. Tie bars deformed/plain shall conform to IS 1786 and IS 432
respectively.

Reinforcement in Cement Concrete Slab to Control Cracking

Reinforcement in Cement Concrete Slab to Control Cracking Reinforcement in concrete pavements, is

intended to hold the cracked faces tightly together, so as to prevent opening of the cracks and to maintain
 aggregate inter-lock required for load transfer. It does not increase the flexural strength of unbroken slab
when used in quantities which are considered economical.

Reinforcement in concrete slabs, when provided, is designed to counteract the tensile stresses caused by
shrinkage and contraction due to temperature or moisture changes. The maximum tension in the steel
across the crack equals the force required to overcome friction between the pavement and its foundation,
from the crack to the nearest joint or free edge. This force is the greatest in the middle of the slab where the
cracks occur first. Reinforcement is designed for this critical location. However, for practical reasons
reinforcement is kept uniform throughout the length for short slabs. The amount of longitudinal and
transverse steel required per meter width or length of slab is computed by the following formula:

Ld fW
As = ... (18)
2 S st
in which,
As=area of steel in mm2 required per m width or length of slab
Ld=distance (m) between free transverse joints (for longitudinal steel) or free longitudinal joints (for
transverse steel).
f = coefficient of friction between pavement and subbase/base (usually taken as 1.5),
W = weight of the slab in kN/m2 and Sst = allowable working stress in steel in MPa (usually taken as
50 to 60 per cent of the minimum yield stress of steel)

Since reinforcement in the concrete slabs is not intended to contribute towards its flexural
strength, its position within the slab is not important except that it should be adequately protected
from corrosion. Since cracks starting from the top surface are more critical because of ingress of
water when they open up, the general preference is for the placing of reinforcement about 50 to
60 mm below the surface. Reinforcement is often continued across longitudinal joints to serve the
same purpose as tie bars, but it is kept at least 50 mm away from the face of the transverse joints
and edge. In special cases, the steel reinforcement shall be provided in acute curve portions,
under passes, steep gradients and slabs having man-hole covers and slabs having length to breadth
ratio more than 1.5 and at acute angled corners.