Geotechnical Engineering

Symbols and Notations

e = void ratio

n = porosity

w = moisture content, water content

s = specific gravity of any substance

G = specific gravity of solids

S = degree of saturation

V = volume of soil mass

Va = volume of air

Vw = volume of water

Vs = volume of solids

Vv = volume of voids

W = total weight of soil

Ww = weight of water

Ws = weight of solids

Dr = relative density

γm = unit weight of soil mass, moist unit weight, bulk unit weight

γs = unit weight of soil solids

γw = unit weight of water

γb = γ′ = buoyant unit weight, submerged unit weight

γd = γdry = dry unit weight

γsat = saturated unit weight

LL = liquid limit

PL = plastic limit

LI = liquidity index

PI = plasticity index

GI = group index
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Phase Diagram of Soil

Soil is composed of solids, liquids, and gases. Liquids and gases are mostly water and air,
respectively. These two (water and air) are called voids which occupy between soil particles.
The figure shown below is an idealized soil drawn into phases of solids, water, and air.

Weight-Volume Relationship from the Phase Diagram of Soil

total volume = volume of soilds + volume of voids

V=Vs+Vv

volume of voids = volume of water + volume of air

Vv=Vw+Va

total weight = weight of solids + weight of water

W=Ws+Ww

Soil Properties

Void Ratio, e

Void ratio is the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of solids.

e=VvVs

Porosity, n

Porosity is the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of soil.

n=VvV

Degree of Saturation, S

Degree of saturation is the ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids.

S=VwVv

Water Content or Moisture Content, w

Moisture content, usually expressed in terms of percentage, is the ratio of the weight of water
to the weight of solids.

w=WwWs×100%

Unit Weight, γ

Unit weight is the weight of soil per unit volume. Also called bulk unit weight (γ), and moist unit
weight (γm).

γ=WV
Dry Unit Weight, γd

Dry unit weight is the weight of dry soil per unit volume.

γd=WsVdry

Saturated Unit Weight, γsat

Saturated unit weight is the weight of saturated soil per unit volume.

γsat=WsatVsat

Effective Unit Weight, γ'

Effective unit weight is the weight of solids in a submerged soil per unit volume. Also called
buoyant density or buoyant unit weight (γb).

γ′=γsat−γw

Specific Gravity of Solid Particles, G

Specific gravity of solid particles of soil is the ratio of the unit weight of solids (γs) to the unit
weight of water (γw).

G=γsγw

Formulas for Properties of Soil

Basic Formulas:

Unit weight, γ=sγw

Weight, W=γV=sγV

Specific gravity, s=γγw

Physical Properties

Total weight, W=Ww+Ws

Total volume, V=Vs+Vv

Volume of voids, Vv=Vw+Va

Void ratio, e=VvVs, Note: 0<e<∞

Porosity, n=VvV, Note: 0<n<1

Relationship between e and n, n=e1+e and e=n1−n

Water content or moisture content, w=WwWs×100%, Note: 0<w<∞

Degree of saturation, S=VwVv, Note: 0≤S≤1

Relationship between G, w, S, and e, Gw=Se

Moist unit weight or bulk unit weight, γm=WV=(G+Se)γw1+e=G(1+w)γw1+e

Dry unit weight, γd=WsV=Gγw1+e

Saturated unit weight, γsat=(G+e)γw1+e

Submerged or buoyant unit weight, γb=γsat−γw=(G−1)γw1+e

Critical hydraulic gradient, icr=γbγw=G−11+e

Relative Density, Dr=emax−eemax−emin=1(γd)min−1γd1(γd)min−1(γd)max

Atterberg Limits

Plasticity index, PI=LL−PL

Liquidity index, LI=MC−PLPI

Shrinkage index, SI=PL−SL

Activity of clay, Ac=PIμ, where μ = soil finer than 0.002 mm in percent

Other Formulas

Volume of voids, Vv=eV1+e

Volume of solids, Vs=V1+e

Volume of water, Vw=SeV1+e

Weight of water, Ww=SeVγw1+e

Weight of soil, W=V(G+Se)γw1+e

Dry unit weight, γd=γm1+w

Relationship between G, w, S, and e

The relationship between specific gravity of solid particles G, water content or moisture content
w, degree o saturation S, and void ratio e, is given by the following:

Gw=Se

The formula above can be derived as follows:

γs=Gγw
WsVs=Gγw

WsVs⋅WwWw=Gγw

WwVs⋅WsWw=Gγw

WwVs⋅1Ww/Ws=Gγw

γwVwVs⋅1w=Gγw

VwVs⋅1w=G

VwVs=Gw

VwVs⋅VvVv=Gw

VwVv⋅VvVs=Gw

Se=Gw

Thus, Gw=Se as stated above.

Relationship e and n

The relationship between the the void ratio e, and the porosity n is given by:

e=n1−n and n=e1+e

Derivation is as follows

e=VvVs → void ratio

e=VvV−Vv

e=VvV−Vv⋅1/V1/V

e=Vv/V1−Vv/V → n = Vv / V

e=n1−n (okay!)

n=VvV → porosity

n=VvVs+Vv
n=VvVs+Vv⋅1/Vs1/Vs

n=Vv/Vs1+Vv/Vs → e = Vv / Vs

n=e1+e

Consistency of Soil (Atterberg Limits)

Consistency is the term used to describe the ability of the soil to resist rupture and
deformation. It is commonly describe as soft, stiff or firm, and hard.

Water content greatly affects the engineering behavior of fine-grained soils. In the
order of increasing moisture content, a dry soil will exist into four distinct states: from
solid state, to semisolid state, to plastic state, and to liquid state. The water contents at
the boundary of these states are known as Atterberg limits. Between the solid and
semisolid states is shrinkage limit, between semisolid and plastic states is plastic limit,
and between plastic and liquid states is liquid limit.

Atterberg limits, then, are water contents at critical stages of soil behavior. They,
together with natural water content, are essential descriptions of fine-grained soils.

Liquid Limit, LL
Liquid limit is the water content of soil in which soil grains are separated by water just
enough for the soil mass to loss shear strength. A little higher than this water content
will tend the soil to flow like viscous fluid while a little lower will cause the soil to
behave as plastic.

Plastic Limit, PL
Plastic limit is the water content in which the soil will pass from plastic state to semi-
solid state. Soil can no longer behave as plastic; any change in shape will cause the soil
to show visible cracks.

Shrinkage Limit, SL
Shrinkage limit is the water content in which the soil no longer changes in volume
regardless of further drying. It is the lowest water content possible for the soil to be
completely saturated. Any lower than the shrinkage limit will cause the water to be
partially saturated. This is the point in which soil will pass from semi-solid to solid state.

Determination of Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits

Casagrande Cup Method for Liquid Limit Test

Casagrande Cup
Courtesy of MOHAN LAL AND SONS

The semispherical brass cup is repeatedly dropped into a hard rubber base from a
height of 10 mm by a cam-operated crank.

The dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water turning it into a paste. The soil
paste is then placed into the cup to a thickness of about 12.5 mm and a groove is then
cut at the center of the paste using the standard grooving tool. The crank operating the
cam is turned at the rate of 2 revolutions per second lifting the cup and dropped it from
a height of 10 mm. The liquid limit is the moisture content required to close a distance
of 12.5 mm along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows.

The required closure in 25 blows is difficult to achieve in a single test. Four or more
tests to the same soil at varying water contents are to be done for 12.5 mm closure of
the groove. The results are then plotted on a semi-logarithmic graph with moisture
content along the vertical axis (algebraic scale) and number of blows along the
horizontal axis (logarithmic scale).

The graph is approximated by the best fit straight line, usually called the flow line and
sometimes called liquid state line. The moisture content that corresponds to 25 blows is
the liquid limit of the soil.

The slope of the flow line is called flow index and may be written as
Flow index, FI=w1−w2log(N2/N1)FI=w1−w2log⁡(N2/N1)

where w1 and w2 are the water content corresponding to number of blows N1 and N2,
respectively.
Plastic Limit Test
The plastic limit can easily be found by rolling a small soil sample into thin threads until
it crumbles. The water content at which the threads break at approximately 3 mm in
diameter is the plastic limit. Two or more tests are made and the average water content
is taken as plastic limit. In this test, soil will break at smaller diameter when wet and
breaks in larger diameter when dry.

Fall Cone Method for Liquid and Plastic Limit Tests

Cone Penetrometer
Courtesy of SAIGON ISC

Fall cone method offers more accurate result of liquid limit and plastic limit tests. In this
method, a cone with a mass of 80 grams and an apex angle of 30° is suspended above
so that its pointed part will just in contact with the soil sample. The cone is permitted to
fall freely under its own weight for a period of 5 seconds. The water content that allows
the cone to penetrate for 20 mm during this period defines the liquid limit of the soil.

Like the cup method, four or more tests are required because it is difficult to find the
liquid limit in a single test. The results are then plotted into a semi-logarithmic paper
with water content along the vertical axis (arithmetic scale) and penetration along the
horizontal axis (logarithmic scale). The best fit straight line is then drawn and the water
content that corresponds to 20 mm penetration defines the liquid limit.
The plastic limit can be found by repeating the test with a cone of similar geometry but
with a mass of M2 = 240 grams. The liquid state line of this cone will be below the liquid
state line of the M1 = 80 grams cone and parallel to it.

The plastic limit is given as

PL=LL−2Δwlog(M2/M1)PL=LL−2Δwlog⁡(M2/M1)

Shrinkage Limit Test

The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a
porcelain dish 44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven dried. With oven-
dried soil still in the dish, the volume of shrinkage can be determined by filling the dish
with mercury. The volume of mercury that fills the dish is equal to the shrinkage
volume. The shrinkage limit is calculated from
SL=m1−m2m2−(V1−V2)ρwm2SL=m1−m2m2−(V1−V2)ρwm2

where m1 = mass of wet soil, m2 = mass of oven-dried soil, V1 = volume of wet soil,
V2 = volume of oven-dried soil, and ρw = density of water.
Other Formulas
Shrinkage ratio
SR=m2V2ρwSR=m2V2ρw

Specific gravity of solids

G=11SR−SL100

Unit Weights and Densities of Soil

Unit Weights of Soil
Symbols and Notations
γ, γm = unit weight, bulk unit weight, moist unit weight
γd = Dry unit weight
γsat = Saturated unit weight
γb, γ' = Buoyant unit weight or effective unit weight
γs = Unit weight of solids
γw = Unit weight of water (equal to 9810 N/m3)
W = Total weight of soil
Ws = Weight of solid particles
Ww = Weight of water
V = Volume of soil
Vs = Volume of solid particles
Vv = Volume of voids
Vw = Volume of water
S = Degree of saturation
w = Water content or moisture content
G = Specific gravity of solid particles

Bulk Unit Weight / Moist Unit Weight

γ=WVγ=WV
γ=Ww+WsVv+Vsγ=Ww+WsVv+Vs
γ=γwVw+γsVsVv+Vsγ=γwVw+γsVsVv+Vs
γ=γwVw+GγwVsVv+Vsγ=γwVw+GγwVsVv+Vs
γ=Vw+GVsVv+Vsγwγ=Vw+GVsVv+Vsγw
γ=SVv+GVsVv+Vsγwγ=SVv+GVsVv+Vsγw
γ=S(Vv/Vs)+G(Vs/Vs)(Vv/Vs)+(Vs/Vs)γwγ=S(Vv/Vs)+G(Vs/Vs)(Vv/Vs)+(Vs/Vs)γw
γ=Se+Ge+1γwγ=Se+Ge+1γw
γ=(G+Se)γw1+eγ=(G+Se)γw1+e

Note: Se = Gw, thus,

γ=(G+Gw)γw1+eγ=(G+Gw)γw1+e

Moist unit weight in terms of dry density and moisture content

γ=WV=Ws+WwVγ=WV=Ws+WwV
γ=Ws(1+Ww/Ws)V=WsV(1+w)γ=Ws(1+Ww/Ws)V=WsV(1+w)
γ=γd(1+w)γ=γd(1+w)

Dry Unit Weight (S = w = 0)

From γ=(G+Se)γw1+eγ=(G+Se)γw1+e and γ=(G+Gw)γw1+eγ=(G+Gw)γw1+e, S
= 0 and w = 0
γd=Gγw1+eγd=Gγw1+e

Saturated Unit Weight (S = 1)

From γ=(G+Se)γw1+eγ=(G+Se)γw1+e, S = 100%
γsat=(G+e)γw1+eγsat=(G+e)γw1+e

Buoyant Unit Weight or Effective Unit Weight

γ′=γsat−γwγ′=γsat−γw
γ′=(G+e)γw1+e−γwγ′=(G+e)γw1+e−γw
γ′=(G+e)γw−(1+e)γw1+eγ′=(G+e)γw−(1+e)γw1+e
γ′=Gγw+eγw−γw−eγw1+eγ′=Gγw+eγw−γw−eγw1+e
γ′=Gγw−γw1+eγ′=Gγw−γw1+e
γ′=(G−1)γw1+eγ′=(G−1)γw1+e

Unit weight of water

γ = 9.81 kN/m3
γ = 9810 N/m3
γ = 62.4 lb/ft3

Typical Values of Unit Weight for Soils

Type of soil γsat (kN/m3) γd (kN/m3)

Gravel 20 - 22 15 - 17

Sand 18 - 20 13 - 16

Silt 18 - 20 14 - 18

Clay 16 - 22 14 - 21

Densities of Soil
The terms density and unit weight are used interchangeably in soil mechanics. Though
not critical, it is important that we know it. To find the formula for density, divide the
formula of unit weight by gravitational constant g (acceleration due to gravity). But
instead of having g in the formula, use the density of water replacing the unit weight of
water.

Basic formula for density (note: m = W/g)

ρ=mVρ=mV

The following formulas are taken from unit weights of soil:

ρ=(G+Se)ρw1+eρ=(G+Se)ρw1+e

ρ=(G+Gw)ρw1+eρ=(G+Gw)ρw1+e
ρd=Gρw1+eρd=Gρw1+e
ρsat=(G+e)ρw1+eρsat=(G+e)ρw1+e
ρ′=(G−1)ρw1+eρ′=(G−1)ρw1+e

Where
m = mass of soil
V = volume of soil
W = weight of soil
ρ = density of soil
ρd = dry density of soil
ρsat = saturated density of soil
ρ' = buoyant density of soil
ρw = density of water
G = specific gravity of soil solids
S = degree of saturation of the soil
e = void ratio
w = water content or moisture content

Density of water and gravitational constant

ρw = 1000 kg/m3
ρw = 1 g/cc
ρw = 62.4 lb/ft3
g = 9.81 m/s2
g = 32.2 ft/sec2

Relative Density
Relative density is an index that quantifies the state of compactness between the
loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils.

The relative density is written in the following formulas:

Dr=emax−eemax−eminDr=emax−eemax−emin

Dr=1(γd)min−1γd1(γd)min−1(γd)maxDr=1(γd)min−1γd1(γd)min−1(γd)max

where:
Dr = relative density
e = current void ratio of the soil in-situ
emax = void ratio of the soil at its loosest condition
emin = void ratio of the soil at its densest condition
γd = current dry unit weight of soil in-situ
(γd)min = dry unit weight of the soil at its loosest condition
(γd)max = dry unit weight of the soil at its densest condition

Designation of Granular Soil Based on Relative Density

Dr (%) Description

0 - 20 Very loose

20 - 40 Loose

40 - 70 Medium dense

70 - 85 Dense

85 - 100 Very dense