General Mathematics – Grade 11

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Module 10: Logic
First Edition, 2019

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Published by the Department of Education – Region X – Northern Mindanao

Regional Director: Dr. Arturo B. Bayocot, CESO III
Development Team of the Module:
Development Team of the Module
Authors: Ludita S. Aljas
Author: Reviewers:
Cristina D. AbaoCherry Mae P. Casinillo
Ruby L. Quilala

Reviewers:
Cherry
Mae P.Syville Niňo U. Dumanon
Casinillo Ruby L. Quilala
Illustrator:
Syville Niňo U. Dumanon A. Calipusan
Jay Michael

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Chairperson:
Chairperson:Dr.
Arturo B. Bayocot, CESO
Dr. Arturo III
B. Bayocot, CESO III
RegionalRegional Director Director
Co-Chairpersons: Dr. Victor G. De Gracia Jr., CESO V
Asst.
Co-Chairperson: Regional
Dr. Victor G. De Gracia Director
Jr. CESO V
Mala Epra B. Magnaong
Asst. Regional Director
CES, CLMD
Members
Members: Mala
B. Magnaong,
Epra Dr. Bienvenido
Chief U.ES,
Tagolimot,
CLMD Jr.
Regional ADM
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ii
 11
General
Mathematics
Module 10
Logic

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encourage teachers and other education stakeholders to email their feedback,
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We value your feedback and recommendations.

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iii
 Table of Contents

What I Need To Know ……………………………………..……..…… 1

Module Content ………………………………………………… 1
Module Objectives ………………………………………………… 1
General Instructions ………………………………………………… 2
What I Know ………………………………………………… 2
Lessons/Concept
Lesson 1 – Propositions ………………………………… 4
Activity 1 ………………………………… 7
Activity 2 ………………………………… 7
Lesson 2 – Simple and Compound Propositions ………… 8
Activity 1 ………………………………… 10
Activity 2 ………………………………… 11
Activity 3 ………………………………… 11
Lesson 3 – Operations on Propositions ……………….. 12
Activity 1 ………………………………… 16
Activity 2 ………………………………… 17
Lesson 4 – Conditional Propositions ………………………… 18
Activity 1 ………………………………… 21
Lesson 5 – Tautologies, Contradiction, Fallacies
and Categorical Syllogism ………………….......... 22
Activity 1 ………………………………… 28
Lesson 6 – Method of Proof and Disproof ………………… 29
Activity 1 ………………………………… 34
Activity 2 ………………………………… 34
What I Have Learned ………………………………………... 35
Assessment ………………………………………………… 36
Glossary of Terms ………………………………………………… 43
References ………………………………………………… 44

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 What I Need To Know

Whenever we encounter problem solving, we apply the process of Logic. Logic

is the set of principles underlying correct or reliable reasoning or inferences. We
analyze the given facts in the problem. Then, we do internal manipulation to try and
see if the solutions fit the situation and then do some further analyses until we arrive
at the desired results. Mathematicians, computer programmers, scientists, logicians,
researchers, analysts are some of the people who use the principles of logic. The very
essence of mathematicians is its structure and logical development.

Module Content

This module has six lessons:

 Lesson 1 – Propositions
 Lesson 2 – Simple and Compound Propositions
 Lesson 3 – Operations on Propositions
 Lesson 4 – Conditional Propositions
 Lesson 5 – Tautologies, Contradiction, Fallacies and Categorical Syllogism
 Lesson 6 – Methods of Proof and Disproof

Module Objectives

After going to this module, you are expected to:

1. illustrates and symbolizes proposition (M11GM-IIg-1, M11GM-IIg-2)
2. distinguishes between simple and compound propositions (M11GM-IIg-3)
3. performs the different types of operations on propositions (M11GM-IIg-4)
4. determines the truth values of propositions (M11GM-IIh-1)
5. illustrates the different forms of conditional propositions (M11GM-IIh-2)
6. illustrates the different types of tautologies and fallacies (M11GM-IIi-1)
7. determines the validity of categorical syllogism (M11GM-IIi-2)
8. establishes the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms and fallacies (M11GM-IIi-3)
9. to illustrate the different methods of proof and disproof (M11GM-IIj-1)
10. justify mathematical and real-life statement using the different methods of
proof and disproof (M11GM-IIj-2)

1
 General Instructions

To achieve the objectives of this module, do the following

 Take your time reading the lessons carefully.

 Accomplish the pre-test to identify your preparedness about the lessons in this
module.
 Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises
diligently.
 Answer all the given tests and exercises
 Answer the post-test to measure how much you have gained from the topics.

What I Know

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. What is the sequence of statements that demonstrates that a theorem is true?

A. Argument C. Proof
B. Premise D. Theorem
2. Which of the following illustrates this logical equivalence P → Q ≡ ~ Q → ~ P?
A. Contrapositive Law C. Identity Law
B. Distributive Law D. Negation Law
3. Which of the following statement is a proposition?
A. Get me a glass of milkshake. C. What is the time now?
B. Good luck! D. The only odd prime number is 2.
4. What is the truth value of the statement ‘4 + 3 = 7 or 5 is not prime’?
A. False C. Cannot be determined
B. True D. Neither true nor false
5. Which of the following option is true?
A. If the Sun is a planet, then elephants will fly.
B. 3 +2 = 8 if and only if 5-2 = 7
C. 1 > 3 and 3 is a positive integer
D. -2 > 3 or 3 is a negative integer
6. Let 𝒑𝒑: I am in Bangalore., 𝒒𝒒: I love cricket. Which of the following is 𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒?
A. If I love cricket then I am in Bangalore
B. If I am in Bangalore then I love cricket
C. I am not in Bangalore
D. I love cricket

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7. Let 𝑷𝑷: If Tina bowls, then Saurabh hits a century. And 𝑸𝑸: If Raju bowls , then Tina
gets out on first ball. Now, if 𝑷𝑷 is true and 𝑸𝑸 is false then which of the following
can be true?
A. Raju bowled and Tina got out on first ball
B. Raju did not bowled.
C. Tina bowled and Saurabh hits a century.
D. Tina bowled and Saurabh got out.
8. What is the truth value of the statement below?
‘If 9 is prime then 3 is even’.
A. False C. Cannot be determined
B. True D. Neither true nor false
9. Let 𝑷𝑷: This is a great website, 𝑸𝑸: You should not come back here. Which of the
following is the best representation of the statement below?
‘This is a great website and you should come back here.’
A. ~P V ~Q C. P V Q
B. P ∧ ~Q D. P ∧ Q
10. Let 𝑷𝑷: We should be honest., 𝑸𝑸: We should be dedicated ., 𝑹𝑹: We should be
overconfident. Which of the following is the best representation of the statement
below?
‘We should be honest or dedicated but not overconfident.’
A. ~P V ~Q V R C. P V Q ∧ R
B. P ∧ ~Q ∧ R D. P V Q ∧ ~R

Key to answer on page 38

3
 Lesson
PROPOSITIONS
1
Introduction
Logic is the science of the correctness or incorrectness of reasoning, or the
study of the evaluation of arguments. Probably the best-known application
mathematical logic is in the area of higher mathematics and in the field of computer
science where the software development makes use of logic circuit design. It can also
be used in law, philosophy and other disciplines.

There are so many ways we can use logic in everyday life. Even the act of
convincing people of your own beliefs and arguments to be true is an application of
logic. Yet, before we can get to determine the validity of arguments, let us first talk
about propositions.

What is It

Definition
Propositional logic is a declarative sentence subject for affirmation or denial.
It is a statement with truth value; either true (T) or false (F), but not both.

Remark that propositions are usually denoted by small letters as shown in the next
example. For example,
𝑝𝑝: I am beautiful.
may be read as
𝑝𝑝 is the proposition “I am beautiful.”

Examples:
Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not. If a
proposition, give its truth value.

1. 𝑞𝑞 : Rhombuses are squares.

Solution: 𝑞𝑞 is a proposition. Its truth value is false.
2. 𝑟𝑟 : Is an equilateral triangle an isosceles triangle?
Solution: It is not a proposition as it is not a declarative statement.
3. 𝑠𝑠 : Triangle ABC is a right triangle.
Solution: It is a declarative sentence yet the truth value cannot be determined.
Hence, this is not a proposition.

4
 4. 𝑡𝑡 : My seatmate will get a perfect score in the Logic Exam.
Solution: 𝑡𝑡 is a proposition. Yet, the truth value will only be determined after
the exam.
5. 𝑢𝑢 : Welcome to the Philippines!
Solution: This is an exclamatory sentence. So, this is not a proposition.

QUALITATIVE CATEGORIES OF PROPOSITIONS

Propositions are categorized as affirmative or negative.

The following are examples of affirmative propositions:

1. A quadrilateral has four sides.

2. The Philippines is a member of the ASEAN.
3. Whales are mammals.
4. A circle has no sides.
5. Humans are cousins of monkeys.
The following are examples of negative propositions:

1. A right triangle has no obtuse angle.

2. Tomato is not a fruit.
3. Parallel lines never intersect.
4. Heroes are not immortals.
5. Philippines is never an island.

QUANTITATIVE CATEGORIES OF PROPOSITIONS

Propositions are further classified according to quantity or the different possible

extensions of their subject terms.
Type of
Categorical Description Examples
Proposition
 All quadrilaterals are
polygons.
Universal The subject term is taken in
 No parallel lines meet.
Proposition full extension.
 Every integer is a real
number.
 Some algebraic expressions
Particular The subject term is taken are polynomials.
Proposition only in particular extension.  Some children are
overweight.
 A prime number has only
Singular The subject term denotes a
two factors.
Proposition single person or thing.
 2 is an even number.

5
When quality and quantity are combined, propositions may be classified based on its
mood as follows:

Types Universal Proposition Particular Proposition

Affirmative A I
Proposition Example: All 𝑥𝑥 are 𝑦𝑦. Example: Some 𝑥𝑥 is 𝑦𝑦.
O
E
Negative Proposition Example: Some 𝑥𝑥 is not
Example: All 𝑥𝑥 is not 𝑦𝑦.
𝑦𝑦.

The letters A, E, I and O are used to refer propositions. As such, A is used to refer
universal affirmative propositions, E is used to refer universal negative propositions, I
is used to refer particular affirmative propositions and O is used to refer particular
negative propositions.

Examples: Determine whether each statement is A, E, I or O propositions.

1. There are snakes in every forest.

Solution: The statement is affirmative. And the word “every” suggests a
universal usage. Hence, the statement is an A proposition.

2. Some crocodiles are found in the city.

Solution: The statement is affirmative. And the word “some” suggests a
particular usage. Hence, the statement is an I proposition.

3. Not all lamb is tame.

Solution: The statement is negative. The word “not all” suggests a particular
usage. Hence, the statement is an O proposition.

4. Children are never as free as a bird.

Solution: The statement is negative. The word “children” suggests a universal
usage. Hence, the statement is an E proposition.

5. Every odd number multiplied by 2 is an even number.

Solution: The statement is affirmative. The word “every” suggest a universal
usage. Hence, the statement is an A proposition.

6
 What’s New

Activity 1

Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not. If it is a

proposition, give its truth value.

1. Every problem has a solution.

______________________________________________________________
2. Find a number greater than 1.
______________________________________________________________
3. Let’s go!
______________________________________________________________
4. Natural numbers are subset of the real numbers.
______________________________________________________________
5. I am lying.

Activity 2
Determine whether each statement is 𝐴𝐴, 𝐸𝐸, 𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑂𝑂 proposition.

1. Every problem has a solution.

______________________________________________________________
2. Some typhoons are not Pacific Ocean-origin.
______________________________________________________________
3. No man is an island.
______________________________________________________________
4. Respect is always earned.
______________________________________________________________
5. Not every shiny object is silver.
______________________________________________________________

Key to answer on page 38

7
 Lesson SIMPLE AND COMPOUND
2 PROPOSITIONS

What is It

Definition

A simple proposition is a declarative statement that cannot be broken down any

further into other component propositions. In other words, simple propositions are
sentences having one thought. Simple propositions are also called atomic
propositions because they are the building blocks of propositional logic.

A compound proposition is a proposition formed by combining two or more simple

categorical propositions by some logical connectors. Some logical connectors used
in compound propositions are 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏, 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂, 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐, 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 − 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆, and others.

Example: For each of the following propositions, determine whether it is a simple or

compound proposition.

1. Rhombuses are squares.

Solution: This is a simple proposition.

2. It is not the case that √5 is a rational number.

Solution: The word “not” in this case is a logical connector. Hence, this is a
compound proposition.

3. 7 is a prime number.
Solution: This is a simple proposition.

4. If the sky is cloudy, then it will rain.

Solution: The words “if” and “then” is a logical connector. Hence, this is a
compound proposition.

5. A triangle is equilateral if and only if it is equiangular.

Solution: The phrase “if and only if” is a logical connector. Hence, this is a
compound proposition.

8
 Later on, we will be required to establish the truthfulness or falsity of a
compound statement. In order to facilitate the process of establishing its truthfulness
or falsity, propositions need to be symbolize together with the connective to be used.

Consider relating proposition 𝑝𝑝 to another proposition 𝑞𝑞 to form a new proposition.

Here are some connectives that are used.

Connecting 𝒑𝒑 and
Symbol Connectives
𝒒𝒒 in symbols
and
˄ but 𝒑𝒑 ˄ 𝒒𝒒
yet
˅ Or 𝒑𝒑 ˅ 𝒒𝒒
implies
→ 𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒
if….., then
is equivalent to
↔ 𝒑𝒑 ↔ 𝒒𝒒
if and only if
~ Not ~ 𝒑𝒑

Example: Given that 𝑝𝑝 is the statement “Anna is a MAPEH teacher.” and 𝑞𝑞 is the
statement “Anna is a LET passer.” Write each symbolism in ordinary English sentence.
1. 𝑝𝑝 ˄ 𝑞𝑞
Solution: Anna is a MAPEH teacher and she is a LET passer.

2. 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞
Solution: If Anna is a MAPEH teacher, then she is a LET passer.

3. 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑝𝑝
Solution: If Anna is a LET passer then she is a MAPEH teacher.

4. ~𝑞𝑞 ˅ ~𝑝𝑝
Solution: Anna is not a LET passer or she is not a MAPEH teacher.

5. ~𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞
Solution: Anna is not a MAPEH teacher if and only if she is a LET passer.

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Example: Write each compound sentence in symbolic form.

1. If the sky is cloudy, then probably it will rain.

Solution: Let 𝑝𝑝 be the sentence “The sky is cloudy.” and 𝑞𝑞 be the sentence
”Probably it will rain.” So, 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞.

2. A triangle is right if and only if it has a 90-degree angle.

Solution: Let 𝑝𝑝 be the sentence “A triangle is right.” and 𝑞𝑞 be the sentence ”A
triangle has a 90-degree angle.” So, 𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞.

3. 2 is prime and even.

Solution: Let 𝑝𝑝 be the sentence “2 is prime.” and 𝑞𝑞 be the sentence ”2 is even.”
So, 𝑝𝑝 ˄ 𝑞𝑞.

4. Study hard or you will fail.

Solution: Let 𝑝𝑝 be the sentence “Study hard.” and 𝑞𝑞 be the sentence ”You will
fail.” So, 𝑝𝑝 ˅ 𝑞𝑞.

5. Prices are going up but wages are not.

Solution: Let 𝑝𝑝 be the sentence “Prices are going up.” and 𝑞𝑞 be the sentence
”Wages are not going up.” So, 𝑝𝑝 ˄ ~𝑞𝑞.

What’s New

Activity 1
Determine whether each statement is a simple or compound statement.

1. It is not the case that √5 is a rational number.

______________________________________________________________
2. Jose Rizal is a National Hero.
______________________________________________________________
3. Either Math is fun or it is boring.
______________________________________________________________
4. 5 is an integer.
______________________________________________________________
5. If you sleep early, then you will wake up early.
______________________________________________________________

10
Activity 2
Let 𝑝𝑝 be “Jezzelyn is beautiful.” And let 𝑞𝑞 be “Jezzelyn is poor.” Write each statement
in symbolic form.

1. Jezzelyn is neither beautiful nor poor.

______________________________________________________________
2. If Jezzelyn is ugly, then she is poor

______________________________________________________________
3. Jezzelyn is beautiful or rich.

______________________________________________________________
4. Jezzelyn is ugly but rich.

______________________________________________________________
5. Jezzelyn is ugly if and only if she is rich.

______________________________________________________________

Activity 3
Let 𝑝𝑝 be “Bryan is loved.” And let 𝑞𝑞 be “Bryan is happy.” Write each symbolism in
ordinary English sentence.

1. 𝑝𝑝 ˄ 𝑞𝑞

______________________________________________________________
2. 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞

______________________________________________________________
3. 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑝𝑝

______________________________________________________________
4. ~(𝑝𝑝 ˄ 𝑞𝑞)

______________________________________________________________

5. ~(~𝑝𝑝)

______________________________________________________________

Key to answer on page 38

11
 Lesson OPERATIONS ON
3 PROPOSITIONS
Introduction

Recall that a simple proposition is a statement having one thought and having
one truth value, that is, the statement is either true or false. Proposition composed of
two or more simple propositions is a compound proposition. In order to connect a
two or more propositions, connectives are used. To determine whether this resulting
proposition is true or false, a scheme for listing all possible truth vales are used.

What is It

Definition

Truth table is a table that describe the conditions in which a proposition is true or
false. The columns represent the propositions consisting the compound propositions
with the last column representing the whole statement. The rows represent the
possible combinations of truthfulness and falsity of each propositions.

There are five common propositions that are the results of five common
connectives: conjunction, disjunction, implication/condition, equivalence/biconditional
and negation.

Definition

Conjunction This is a proposition which is the result of combining two other

propositions called conjuncts with the connectives word “and”.

Truth table:
𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ˄ 𝒒𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

The conjunction of two statements is true only if both conjuncts are true.

12
Example: Determine whether each conjunction is true or false.

1. 3 is odd and prime.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the conjunct “3 is odd.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the conjunct “3 is prime.” 𝑝𝑝 is
true and 𝑞𝑞 is also true. So, 𝑝𝑝 ˄ 𝑞𝑞 is true.

2. 5 is a factor and a multiple of 25.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the conjunct “5 is a factor of 25.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the conjunct “5 is a
multiple of 25.” 𝑝𝑝 is true while 𝑞𝑞 is false. So, 𝑝𝑝 ˄ 𝑞𝑞 is false.

3. 3 and −3 are roots of 𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 = 0.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the conjunct “3 is a root of 𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 = 0.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the
conjunct “−3 is a root of 𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 = 0.” 𝑝𝑝 is false while 𝑞𝑞 is true. So, 𝑝𝑝 ˄ 𝑞𝑞
is false.

Definition

Disjunction This is a proposition which is the result of combining two other

propositions called disjuncts with the connectives word “or”.

Truth table:
𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ˅ 𝒒𝒒
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

The disjunction of two statements is false only if both disjuncts are false.

Example: Determine whether each disjunction is true or false.

1. Tarsiers are nocturnal primates or arboreal mammals.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the disjunct “Tarsiers are nocturnal primates.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the
disjunct “Tarsiers are arboreal mammals.” 𝑝𝑝 is true and 𝑞𝑞 is also true. So, 𝑝𝑝 ˅
𝑞𝑞 is true.

2. Platypus is a fish or it lays eggs.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the disjunct “Platypus is a fish.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the disjunct “Platypus
lays eggs.” 𝑝𝑝 is false while 𝑞𝑞 is true. So, 𝑝𝑝 ˅ 𝑞𝑞 is true.

3. A group of dogs is a herd or a group of horses is a flock.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the disjunct “A group of dogs is a herd.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the disjunct
“A group of horses is a flock.” 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 are both false. So, 𝑝𝑝 ˅ 𝑞𝑞 is false.

13
Definition

Implication This proposition, which is also called conditional proposition, is a

proposition which is a result of combining a hypothesis or
antecedent to a conclusion or consequent in the form If…, then…
Truth table:

𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

The implication is true in all cases, except when the antecedent is true and the
consequent is false. In other words, a true hypothesis cannot imply a false
conclusion.

Example: Suppose that Angie is a Grade 12 student. Determine whether each

implication is true or false.

1. If Angie is a Grade 12 student, then she is a senior high school student.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the antecedent “Angie is a Grade 12 student.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the
consequent “She is a senior high school student.” 𝑝𝑝 is true and 𝑞𝑞 is also true.
So, 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 is true.

2. If Angie is a Grade 12 student, then she is working as a doctor.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the antecedent “Angie is a Grade 12 student.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the
consequent “She is working as a doctor.” 𝑝𝑝 is true and 𝑞𝑞 is also false. So, 𝑝𝑝 →
𝑞𝑞 is false.

3. If Angie is a Grade 11 student, then Angie is still studying.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the antecedent “Angie is a Grade 11 student.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the
consequent “She is still studying.” 𝑝𝑝 is false and 𝑞𝑞 is also true. So, 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 is
true.

Definition

Equivalence This proposition, which is also called biconditional proposition, is a

proposition which is a result of combining two propositions in the
form …If and only if…

14
Truth table:

𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ↔ 𝒒𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

The equivalence is true if both propositions are true or both are false.

Example: Determine whether each equivalence is true or false.

1. A square is a polygon if and only if the square is a rectangle.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the proposition “A square is a polygon.” And 𝑞𝑞 is the proposition
“The square is a rectangle.” 𝑝𝑝 is true and 𝑞𝑞 is also true. So, 𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞 is true.

2. The diagonals of a square are parallel if and only if the square is a quadrilateral.
Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the proposition “The diagonals of a square are parallel.” And 𝑞𝑞
is the proposition “The square is a quadrilateral.” 𝑝𝑝 is false and 𝑞𝑞 is also true.
So, 𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞 is false.

3. Parallel segments intersect at a point if and only if the segments have only one
endpoint.
Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the proposition “Parallel segments intersect at a point.” And 𝑞𝑞
is the proposition “the segments have only one endpoint.” 𝑝𝑝 is false and 𝑞𝑞 is
also false. So, 𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞 is true.

Definition

Negation This is a proposition which is a result of reversing the truth value of a

given proposition.

Truth table:
𝒑𝒑 ~𝒑𝒑
T F
F T

If a proposition is true, its negation is false, and if a proposition is false, its negation
is true.

15
Example: Determine the negation of each proposition and tell whether each
negation is true or false.

1. Manila is the capital city of the Philippines.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the proposition given above, then its negation ~𝑝𝑝 is the
proposition “Manila is not the capital city of the Philippines”. 𝑝𝑝 is true so ~𝑝𝑝 is
false.

2. 2 is and odd number.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the proposition given above, then its negation ~𝑝𝑝 is the
proposition “2 is not an odd number.”. 𝑝𝑝 is false so ~𝑝𝑝 is true.

3. Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.

Solution: If 𝑝𝑝 is the proposition given above, then its negation ~𝑝𝑝 is the
proposition “It is not true that everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.” 𝑝𝑝 is false
so ~𝑝𝑝 is true.

What’s New

Activity 1

Determine the truth value of each proposition.

1. ~(𝑝𝑝 v ~ 𝑞𝑞)

______________________________________________________________
2. ~(𝑝𝑝 ↔ ~ 𝑞𝑞)

______________________________________________________________
3. ~(𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞)

______________________________________________________________
4. 𝑝𝑝 → ~𝑝𝑝

______________________________________________________________
5. 𝑝𝑝 v ~𝑝𝑝

16
Activity 2

Express each proposition in symbolic form.

1. If 2 + 25 = 27, then 9 + 12 = 21

______________________________________________________________
2. It is not true that September 2 is a Monday if and only if December 25 is a
Friday.

______________________________________________________________
3. Jolo is in Batanes or Basco is in Sulu.

______________________________________________________________
4. It is not true that a ray has a fixed length or segment has endpoints.

______________________________________________________________
5. If a triangle is right, then it is not equilateral.

Key to answer on page 38

17
 Lesson CONDITIONAL
4 PROPOSITIONS
Introduction

There are other related implications that are often used in mathematical logic.
These are converse, inverse, and contrapositive.

What is It

Definition

The converse of an implication is formed by interchanging the hypothesis and the

conclusion. That is, if the implication is 𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒 , its converse is 𝒒𝒒 → 𝒑𝒑 .

Examples: Write the converse of the following statement.

a. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior angles
are congruent.
b. If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is an isosceles
triangle.

Solutions:

a. Let 𝒑𝒑 be the statement “Two lines cut by a transversal are parallel.” and 𝒒𝒒 be
the statement “The alternate interior angles of two lines cut by a transversal are
congruent”
𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior
angles are congruent.
𝒒𝒒 → 𝒑𝒑: If the alternate interior angles are congruent, then the two parallel lines
are cut by a transversal.
b. Let 𝒑𝒑 be the statement “Two angles of a triangle are congruent.” and 𝒒𝒒 be the
statement “A triangle is an isosceles triangle.”
𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒: If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is an isosceles
triangle.
𝒒𝒒 → 𝒑𝒑: If a triangle is isosceles, then two of its angles are congruent.

18
Definition

The inverse of an implication is formed by replacing the hypothesis and conclusion of

the implication by their negations. That is, if the implication is → 𝒒𝒒 , its inverse is the
statement 
~ 𝒑𝒑 → ~ 𝒒𝒒 .

Examples: Write the inverse of the following statement.

a. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior angles
are congruent.
b. If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is an isosceles
triangle.

Solutions:

a. Let 𝒑𝒑 be the statement “Two lines cut by a transversal are parallel.” Then, ~𝒑𝒑
is the statement “Two lines cut by a transversal are not parallel.” Let 𝒒𝒒 be the
statement “The alternate interior angles of two lines cut by a transversal are
congruent.” Then, ~𝒒𝒒 is the statement “The alternate interior angles of two
lines cut by a transversal are not congruent.”

𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior
angles are congruent.

~𝒑𝒑 → ~𝒒𝒒: If two lines cut by a transversal are not parallel, then the alternate
interior angles are not congruent.

b. Let 𝒑𝒑 be the statement “Two angles of a triangle are congruent.” Then, ~𝒑𝒑 is
the statement “Two angles of a triangle are not congruent.” Let 𝒒𝒒 be the
statement “A triangle is an isosceles triangle.” Then, ~𝒒𝒒 is the statement “A
triangle is not an isosceles triangle.”

𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒: If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the triangles is an isosceles
triangle.

~𝒑𝒑 → ~𝒒𝒒: If the two angles of a triangle are not congruent, then the triangle is not
isosceles.

19
Definition

The contrapositive of an implication is simply the inverse of the converse of the

implication, or the converse of the inverse of the implication. That is, if the implication is
→ 𝒒𝒒 , then its contrapositive is ~𝒒𝒒 → ~𝒑𝒑.

Examples: Write the contrapositive of the following statement.

a. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior angles
are congruent.
b. If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is an isosceles
triangle.

Solutions:
a. Let 𝒑𝒑 be the statement “Two lines cut by a transversal are parallel.” Then, ~𝒑𝒑
is the statement “Two lines cut by a transversal are not parallel.” Let 𝒒𝒒 be the
statement “The alternate interior angles of two lines cut by a transversal are
congruent.” Then, ~𝒒𝒒 is the statement “The alternate interior angles of two
lines cut by a transversal are not congruent.”

𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior
angles are congruent.

~𝒒𝒒 → ~𝒑𝒑: If the alternate interior angles of two lines cut by a transversal are not
congruent, then the two lines are not parallel.

b. Let 𝒑𝒑 be the statement “Two angles of a triangle are congruent.” Then, ~𝒑𝒑 is
the statement “Two angles of a triangle are not congruent.” Let 𝒒𝒒 be the
statement “A triangle is an isosceles triangle.” Then, ~𝒒𝒒 is the statement “A
triangle is not an isosceles triangle.”

𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒: If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the triangles is an isosceles
triangle.

~𝒒𝒒 → ~𝒑𝒑: If a triangle is not isosceles, then two of its angles are not congruent.

20
 What’s New

Activity 1
Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following statements.

1. If a triangle is right, then it is not equilateral.

______________________________________________________________
2. If a number 𝑛𝑛 is a multiple of two, then 𝑛𝑛 is even.

______________________________________________________________
3. If numbers 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 are relatively prime, then GCF(𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.

______________________________________________________________
4. If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diagonal bisects each other.

______________________________________________________________
5. If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the corresponding opposite sides
are congruent.

______________________________________________________________

Key to answer on page 38

21
 TAUTOLOGIES, CONTRADICTION AND
Lesson
FALLACIES AND CATEGORICAL
5 SYLLOGISM

If it can be shown that the truth values for a proposition formed by connectives are all
true, then the proposition is called a tautology.

What is It

Examples: Determine whether each proposition is a tautology.

a. 𝑝𝑝 v ~𝑝𝑝
b. {~[(𝑝𝑝 v 𝑞𝑞) → 𝑟𝑟] ˄ ~𝑞𝑞} → (𝑝𝑝 ˄ ~𝑟𝑟)

Solutions:

a. 𝑝𝑝 v ~𝑝𝑝

𝑝𝑝 ~𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 v ~𝑝𝑝
T F T
F T T

The proposition 𝑝𝑝 v ~𝑝𝑝 is a tautology.

a. {~[(𝑝𝑝 v 𝑞𝑞) → 𝑟𝑟] ˄ ~𝑞𝑞} → (𝑝𝑝 ˄ ~𝑟𝑟)

To save on space, observe how the truth table for three propositions p, q, and
r with eight connectives is done.

𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 𝒓𝒓 {~ [(𝒑𝒑 → 𝒓𝒓] ∧ ∼ 𝒒𝒒} → (𝒑𝒑 ∧ ∼ 𝒓𝒓)

∨ 𝒒𝒒)
T T T F T T F F T F F
T T F T T F F F T T T
T F T F T T F T T F F
T F F T T F T T T T T
F T T F T T F F T F F
F T F T T F F F T F T
F F T F F T F T T F F
F F F F F T F T T F T

22
 Since the 9th and final connective shows all T’s, then the proposition {~[(𝑝𝑝 v
𝑞𝑞) → 𝑟𝑟] ˄ ~𝑞𝑞} → (𝑝𝑝 ˄ ~𝑟𝑟)is a tautology.

Tautology is the only condition required for a valid argument.

There are common tautologies that are very useful and often used. The proofs
for these tautologies will be left as student exercise. These tautologies are classified
as simple implications and equivalence implications.
Simple Implications

1. Modus Ponens – the process of affirming the antecedent

[(𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞) ∧ 𝑝𝑝] → 𝑞𝑞
2. Modus Tollens – the process of denying the consequent
[(𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ∧ ∼ 𝑞𝑞] →∼ 𝑝𝑝
3. Denial of a Disjunction
[(𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ∧ ∼ 𝑝𝑝] → 𝑞𝑞
4. Simplification
(𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) → 𝑝𝑝
5. Adjunction
[(𝑝𝑝) ∧ (𝑞𝑞)] → (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞)
6. Hypothetical Syllogism
[(𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞) ∧ (𝑞𝑞 → 𝑟𝑟)] → (𝑝𝑝 → 𝑟𝑟)
7. Absurdity
[𝑝𝑝 → (𝑞𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑞𝑞) ] →∼ 𝑝𝑝
8. Addition
𝑝𝑝 → (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞)

Equivalence Implications

1. Idempotent Law
(𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝) ↔ 𝑝𝑝 (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑝𝑝) ↔ 𝑝𝑝
2. Double Negation
𝑝𝑝 ↔∼ (∼ 𝑝𝑝)
3. Communicative Law
(𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) ↔ (𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝) (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ↔ (𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝)
4. Associative Law
(𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) ∧ 𝑟𝑟 ↔ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ (𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟) (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ∨ 𝑟𝑟 ↔ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ (𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟)
5. Distributive Laws
𝑝𝑝 ∧ (𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟) ↔ (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ∧ (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑟𝑟) 𝑝𝑝 ∨ (𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟) ↔ (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) ∨ (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑟𝑟)
6. Contraposition
(𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞) ↔ (∼ 𝑞𝑞 →∼ 𝑝𝑝)
7. De Morgan’s Law
∼ (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) ↔ (∼ 𝑝𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞𝑞) ∼ (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ↔ (∼ 𝑝𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞𝑞)
8. Equivalence for Implication and Disfunction
(𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞) ↔ (∼ 𝑝𝑝 →∼ 𝑞𝑞)

23
 9. Negation for Implication
∼ (𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞) ↔ (𝑝𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞𝑞)
10. Biconditional Sentences
(𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞) ↔ [(𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞) ∧ (𝑞𝑞 → 𝑝𝑝)] (𝑝𝑝 ↔ 𝑞𝑞) ↔ [(𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) ∨ (∼ 𝑝𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞𝑞)]

Examples: Simplify the following statements.

a. p ˄ (~ q ˄ p)
b. ~ [(p ˄ ~ q) ˄ r]

Solutions:

To simply a statement means to express it in a simpler equivalent statement by

applying established tautologies.

a. p ˄ (~ q ˄ p)
(p˄~q ) ˄p Associative Law

(~ q ˄ p ) ˄ p Commutative Law

~q˄ (p˄ p ) Associative Law

~q˄ p Idempotent Law

b. ~ [(p ˄ ~ q) ˄ r]
[~ (p ˄ ~ q ) V ~ r ] De Morgan’s Law

[{ ~ p V ~ ( ~ q )} V ~ r] De Morgan’s Law
[{ ~ p V q } V ~ r] Double Negation
~pVqV~r Associative Law

If the truth values for a proposition formed by connectives are all false, then the
proposition is called a contradiction. An example of such proposition is 𝒑𝒑 ˄ ~ 𝒑𝒑.
Verification will be left as learner exercise.
An argument is an assertion that a given set of statements called premises
results in another statement called conclusion. Arguments may either be deductive or
inductive. In deductive argument, the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence
of the premise. In inductive argument, the truth of the conclusion is supported by the
premises.

24
 As an illustration, consider the following premises, 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 and 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 and the
conclusion 𝑪𝑪:

𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 : Every quadrilateral is a polygon,

𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 : A rectangle is a polygon

𝑪𝑪: A rectangle is a polygon

Since an argument is a resulting statement, then it has a truth value. If its truth
is true, the argument is described as valid; otherwise, it is a fallacy.
A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic which is a result of invalid reasoning.
A fallacy is not synonymous with factual error. Some fallacies are popular beliefs,
some are often persuasive, some are unintentionally created, and some are
intentionally created for deception.

Fallacies are either formal or informal, Formal fallacies are invalid arguments
due to a flaw in logical structure. Informal fallacies are arguments whose premises
adequately support the validity of its conclusion. In many cases, informal fallacies are
detective both in content and structure.

There are a number of fallacies that are commonly committed in daily

conversation. Identifying these fallacies is necessary in order to avoid enticing
missteps in constructing arguments.
Here are some of the fallacies that are often used unintentionally or otherwise:
1. Circular reasoning is committed when an arguer begins with a concept that is
supposed to be the end of the arguments.
Example:
A measurement is a quantity that expresses the measure of an object
being measured.

2. Undistributed middle happens when the middle term in a syllogism is not

distributed as a subject and as a predicate.
Example:
All triangles are polygons.
All quadrilaterals are polygons.
Therefore, all triangles are quadrilaterals.

3. Insufficient statistics is used in drawing a conclusion based on a clearly small

population.
Example:
A class of 40 students was subjected to an informal survey about the
mayoralty candidate they will support in the election. The survey says
that 21 of the students support Candidate A. The surveyor declares that
the majority of the city residents support the candidacy of candidate A.

25
4. Quaternion terminorum is a fallacy that used four, instead of three categories
terms.
Example:
Every school has a principal
Every principal has an interest
Therefore, every school has an interest.

5. Fallacy of inverse is denying the antecedent of a conditional and then assuming

that by doing so, a sufficient reason to deny the consequent can be claimed.
Example:
If Ralph was a UP student, then he would know that a UP’s official
publication is The Collegian. But Ralph is not a UP student. Therefore, it
is certain that Ralph does not know that UP’s official publication is The
Collegian.

6. Fallacy of equivocation is committed when the ambiguity of a term or a phrase

in an argument which has occurred at least twice is exploited or deliberately
misused.
Example:
The end of life is death.
Happiness is the end of life.
Therefore, death is happiness.

7. Fallacy of amphiboly is ambiguity due to syntax structure.

Example:
“The guidance or counselor is asked to stop bullying”. This statement
can be interpreted in at two ways: The guidance counselor is bullying
someone, or the guidance counselor is tasked to eradicate bullying.

8. Fallacy of composition is committed when the characteristics of some are

transferred to another.
Example:
Every member of the gymnastic team is an outstanding dance sports
performer. The gymnastic team is an outstanding team.

9. Post boc ergo propter boc (After this, therefore because of this) is a fallacy of a
causation which relates two events on the basis of temporal succession.
Example:
Daniel failed most of his subjects in the 4th Grading Period
Because he did not submit his project in the 3rd Grading Period.

10. Ad vercundiam fallacy involves using a pronouncement of a person taken to be

an authority but is not really one as evidence.

26
11. Fallacy of false dilemma limits unfairly an arguer to only two choices, as if the
choices is on black or white.
Example:
Decide! You are joining the rip, or just the same, you will pay the
contribution.

12. Ad populum fallacy involves using popular opinion as evidence for a

proposition.
Example:
Survey shows that mathematics in the most dislike subject. So must
dislike mathematics too.

13. Fallacy of faulty analogy is committed when analogies are used to support a
conclusion using similarities of two things that are too remote.

14. Ad boc rescue is committed when trying to rescue a troubled belief by citing
different argument.
Example:
This soap will remove skin blemishes after 7 days of use.
Skin blemishes are still present after 7 days of use.
The soap probably is fake.

15. Fallacy of converse is accepting the consequent to accept the antecedent.

16. Ad bominem is committed when ignoring the validity of an argument by

attacking the personality of the arguer.
Example:
She is wrong when she claim that Girolamo Cardano was insane
because she is only a Grade 10 students.

17. Avoiding the issue occurs when an issue is answered by an argument not really
a response to the issue.
Example:
Issue: Why is she appointed the leader of the group?
Answer: Why not she?

27
 What’s New

Activity 1
Determine the validity of the following arguments.

1. If the solution turns blue litmus paper red, then the solution contains acid. The
solution does not contain acid. So, the solution does not turn the blue litmus
paper red.

______________________________________________________________

2. If the solution turns blue litmus paper red, then the solution contains acid. The
solution turns the blue litmus paper red. So, the solution contains acid.

______________________________________________________________

3. If you study hard, you refine your communication skills and build up your
confidence. If refining your communication skills build up your confidence, then
your job opportunities increase. Hence, if you study hard, your job opportunities
increase.

______________________________________________________________

4. Kidnapping is wrong if the society disapproves of it. Kidnapping is wrong. So,

society disapproves of kidnapping.

______________________________________________________________

5. If overeating causes disease, then it is not healthy. Overeating does not cause
disease. So, overeating is healthy.

______________________________________________________________

Key to answer on page 38

28
 Lesson METHODS OF PROOF AND
6 DISPROOF
Introduction
Consider the given argument and its corresponding truth table below.

p ⋁ ~q
r ⋁s
q ⋀ ~r
∴p⋀s

Its Propositional form is (p ⋁ ~q) ⋀ (r ⋁s) ⋀ (q ⋀ ~r) → p ⋀ s

Premise Premise Premise Conclusion
P q r s ~q ~r p ⋁ ~q r⋁s q ⋀ ~r p⋀s
T T T T F F T T F T
T T T F F F T T F F
T T F T F T T T T T
T T F F F T T F T F
T F T T T F T T F T
T F T F T F T T F F
T F F T T T T T F T
T F F F T T T F F F
F T T T F F F T F F
F T T F F F F T F F
F T F T F T F T T F
F T F F F T F F T F
F F T T T F T T F F
F F T F T F T T F F
F F F T T T T T F F
F F F F T T T F F F

An argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true whenever the premises
p1, p2, …pn are all true. The truth table of the given argument shows that the third row
is the only row in which all premises are true, and in that row the conclusion is also
true. Since there is no bad row (a row in which the premises are false and the
conclusion is true or all premises are true then the conclusion is false), thus the
argument above is VALID.

29
 Using the truth table in validating argument is usually time consuming specially
if the given argument includes three are more propositions. Additionally, truth table
does not give exact idea why a given argument is valid or invalid.

Thus, in this lesson, you will learn the different methods that can be used in
systematically establishing validity of an argument which is called proof.

What is It

A. Proof and proving Validity of arguments in propositional form.

Logical Equivalence and rules of inferences are very useful in showing the validity of
each proposition of an argument and to systematically arrive into the conclusion.

The validity of the following arguments has been established using the Rules of
Inferences. Observed how to prove the validity of argument
Example:
1. Prove the validity of the following argument.

p
~q → ~p
q →r_
∴r
Proposition Reason
1 ~q → ~p Premise
2 p→q Contrapositive 1
3 q→r Premise
4 p→r Hypothetical Syllogism 2 and 3
5 p Premise
6 r Modus Ponens 4 and 5

2. Prove the validity of the following argument.

A→B
C→D
(~B ⋁ ~D) ⋀ (~A ⋁ ~B)
∴ ~A ⋁ ~C

30
 Proposition Reason
1 A→B Premise
2 C→D Premise
3 (A → B) ⋀ (C → D) Conjunction 1 and 2
4 (~B ⋁ ~D) ⋀ (~A ⋁ ~B) Premise
5 ~B ⋁ ~D Simplification 4
6 ~A ⋁ ~C Destructive Dilemma 3 and 5

B. Disproof

It is the contrary of proof or proving that a statement is wrong. Instead of proving that
something is true, we must show that it is false.
Example:

If I enter the poodle den, then I will carry my electric poodle prod or my can of mace.
I am carrying my electric poodle prod but not my can of mace.
Therefore, I will enter the poodle den.

Solution:
Symbolize the argument
p: I enter the poodle den.
q: I will carry my electric poodle.
s: I will carry my can of mace.
Reduce the argument ton its propositional form.
p → (q ⋁ s)
q ⋀ ~s
∴p
To show that the argument is not valid, construct its truth table and find the truth
values of each proposition such that the premises are all true, but the conclusion is
false.

Premise Premise Conclusion

p Q s q⋁ p → (q ~s q ⋀ ~s [p → (q ⋁ s)] ⋀ (q [p → (q ⋁ s)] ⋀ (q
s ⋁ s) ⋀ ~s) ⋀ ~s) → p
T T T T T F F F T
T T F T T T T T T
T F T T T F F F T
T F F F F T F F T
F T T T T F F F T
F T F T T T T T F
F F T T T F F F T
F F F F T T F F T

31
For p to be false, the conjunction of two premises must be true. If q is true and s is
false, then the premises p → (q ⋁ s) and q ⋀ ~s are both true. So based on the truth
table, the propositions (p is false; q is true; and s is false) for which the premises are
true but the conclusion is false. Therefore, the argument is invalid.

C. Indirect proofs

An indirect proof uses rules of inference on the negation of the conclusion and on
some of the premises to derive the negation of a premise. This result is called a
contradiction.

Example:
If x2 is odd, then so is x.

Proof:
Assume that x is even (negative of conclusion).
Say x = 2n (definition of even).
Then x2 = (2n)2 (substitution)
= 2n · 2n (definition of exponentiation)
= 2 · 2n2 (commutativity of multiplication)
which is an even number (definition of even) which contradicts the
premise that x2 is odd.

D. Proof and Proving Validity of Arguments in Mathematics

Definition: A proof by cases uses the following rule of inference:

p → r premise 1
q → r premise 2
p ∨ q premise 3
r conclusion

Example:
Let x be any integer. Then x2 + x is even.
Proof:
Setup for the proof-by-cases inference p: x is even; q: x is odd; r: x2 + x is even.
Verify premise 1.
If x is even, then x = 2n, for some integer n. Hence, x2 + x = (2n)2 + 2n = 4n2 +
2n, which is even.
Verify premise 2.
If x is odd, then x = 2n + 1, for some n. Hence, x2 + x = (2n + 1)2 + (2n + 1) =
(4n2 + 4n + 1) + (2n + 1) = 4n2 + 6n + 2, which is even.
Verify premise 3:
An arbitrary integer is either even or odd.

32
Example:
Prove the given argument

1. In Δ ABC, lengths of sides ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ are equal.

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
2. If Δ ABC is not isosceles, then no two sides are equal.
3. If Δ ABC is isosceles, then the angles opposites the sides of equal length are
equal.
4. Therefore the angles B and C in Δ ABC are equal.
Solution: Symbolic form

p
~q → ~p
q →r_
∴r

Use the propositional form to establish the validity of the argument.

Proposition Reason
1 ~q → ~p Premise
2 p→q Contrapositive 1
3 q→r Premise
4 p→r Hypothetical Syllogism 2 and 3
5 P Premise
6 R Modus Ponens 4 and 5

As shown in table above, the argument is proven logically. With the use of rules of
inferences, the validity of each premises has been established until to its conclusion.

33
 What’s New

Activity 1
Establish validity of the following arguments using propositional form.

1. M → N 3. ~Q → R
M→O ~R ˄ P
(M → O) → (N → P) ~(Q ˄ ~R)
(M → P) → Q ∴R
∴Q

2. P→ R
R→S
S→Q
P ____
∴Q ˄ P

Activity 2
Consider the following arguments, write each argument to its symbolic form and
construct the truth table to establish its validity.

1. Socrates has a new toga, or he didn't waste 30 drachmas.

Plato has a pound of feta cheese or a quart of olive oil.
Socrates wasted 30 drachmas and Plato doesn't have a pound of feta cheese.
Therefore, Socrates has a new toga and Plato has a quart of olive oil.

2. If you are a hound dog, then you howl at the moon.

You don't howl at the moon.
Therefore, you aren't a hound dog.

Key to answer on page 38

34
What I Have Learned

 A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.

 The proposition that is always true is denoted by T and the proposition that is
always false is denoted by F.
 Compound Propositions; constructed from logical connectives and other
propositions
 Negation ~
 Conjunction ∧
 Disjunction ∨
 Implication →
 Biconditional↔
 From p →q we can form new conditional statements.
 q →p is the converse of p →q
 ￢q → ￢ p is the contrapositive of p →q
 ￢ p → ￢ q is the inverse of p →q
 Two propositions are equivalent if they always have the same truth value.
 A proof is a sequence of statements that demonstrates that a theorem is true.
 An argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true whenever the premises
p1, p2, …pn are all true.
 Proofs may include axioms, the hypotheses of the theorem to be proved, and
previously proved theorems.

35
 Assessment

Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the best answer.

1. What is the sequence of statements that demonstrates that a theorem is true?

A. Argument C. Proof
B. Premise D. Theorem
2. Which of the following illustrates this logical equivalence P → Q ≡ ~ Q → ~ P?
A. Contrapositive Law C. Identity Law
B. Distributive Law D. Negation Law
3. Which of the following statement is a proposition?
A. Get me a glass of milkshake. C. What is the time now?
B. Good luck! D. The only odd prime number is 2.
4. What is the truth value of the statement ‘4 + 3 = 7 or 5 is not prime’?
A. False C. Cannot be determined
B. True D. Neither true nor false
5. Which of the following option is true?
A. If the Sun is a planet, then elephants will fly.
B. 3 +2 = 8 if and only if 5-2 = 7
C. 1 > 3 and 3 is a positive integer
D. -2 > 3 or 3 is a negative integer
6. Let 𝒑𝒑: I am in Bangalore., 𝒒𝒒: I love cricket. Which of the following is 𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒?
A. If I love cricket then I am in Bangalore
B. If I am in Bangalore then I love cricket
C. I am not in Bangalore
D. I love cricket
7. Let 𝑷𝑷: If Tina bowls, then Saurabh hits a century. And 𝑸𝑸: If Raju bowls , then Tina
gets out on first ball. Now, if 𝑷𝑷 is true and 𝑸𝑸 is false then which of the following
can be true?
A. Raju bowled and Tina got out on first ball
B. Raju did not bowled.
C. Tina bowled and Saurabh hits a century.
D. Tina bowled and Saurabh got out.
8. What is the truth value of the statement below?
‘If 9 is prime then 3 is even’.
A. False C. Cannot be determined
B. True D. Neither true nor false
9. Let 𝑷𝑷: This is a great website, 𝑸𝑸: You should not come back here. Which of the
following is the best representation of the statement below?
‘This is a great website and you should come back here.’
A. ~P V ~Q C. P V Q
B. P ∧ ~Q D. P ∧ Q

36
10. Let 𝑷𝑷: We should be honest., 𝑸𝑸: We should be dedicated ., 𝑹𝑹: We should be
overconfident. Which of the following is the best representation of the statement
below?
‘We should be honest or dedicated but not overconfident.’
A. ~P V ~Q V R C. P V Q ∧ R
B. P ∧ ~Q ∧ R D. P V Q ∧ ~R

Key to answer on page 38

37
 Key to Answers

What I Know:
1. A 6. B
2. A 7. C
3. D 8. B
4. B 9. B
5. A 10. D

Lesson 1 Activity 1: Lesson 1 Activity 2:

1. Proposition 1. A
2. Not a Proposition 2. E
3. Not a Proposition 3. I
4. Proposition 4. A
5. Not a Proposition 5. O

Lesson 2 Activity 1: Lesson 2 Activity 2:

1. Compound 1. ~(𝒑𝒑 ˄ 𝒒𝒒)
2. Simple 2. ~𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒
3. Compound 3. 𝒑𝒑 ˅ ~𝒒𝒒
4. Simple 4. ~𝒑𝒑 ˄ ~𝒒𝒒
5. Compound 5. ~𝒑𝒑 ↔ ~𝒒𝒒

Lesson 2 Activity 3:
1. Bryan is loved and happy.
2. If Bryan is loved, then he is happy.
3. If Bryan is happy, then he is loved.
4. Bryan is neither loved nor happy.
5. Bryan is not hated.

Lesson 3 Activity 1:

1.
𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 ~𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ˅ ~𝒒𝒒 ~(𝒑𝒑 ˅ ~𝒒𝒒)
T T F T F
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T T F

(All other items are left to the teachers handling the module.)

38
Lesson 3 Activity 2:

1. If 𝑝𝑝 is the statement “2 + 25 = 27” and 𝑞𝑞 is the statement “9 + 12 = 21”, then the

statement would be written as 𝒑𝒑 → 𝒒𝒒.
(All other items are left to the teachers handling the module.)
Lesson 4 Activity 1:

1. Converse: If a triangle is not equilateral, then it is a right triangle.

Inverse: If a triangle is not right, then it is equilateral.
Contrapositive: If a triangle is equilateral, then it is not right.

2. Converse: If a number 𝑛𝑛 is even, then 𝑛𝑛 is a multiple of two.

Inverse: If a number 𝑛𝑛 is not a multiple of two, then 𝑛𝑛 is odd.
Contrapositive: If a number 𝑛𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛𝑛 is not a multiple of two.
(All other items are left to the teachers handling the module.)
Lesson 5 Activity 1:

1. Valid (Modus Tollens)

2. Valid (Modus Ponens)
3. Valid (Syllogism)
4. Invalid (Fallacy of Converse)
5. Invalid (Fallacy of Inverse)

Lesson 6 Activity 1:

1. M → N
M→O
(M → O) → (N → P)
(M → P) → Q
∴Q

Solution:
Proof:

Statements Reasons
(M → O) → (N → P) Given (Premise 3)
M→O Given (Premise 1)
N→P Modus Ponens (from 1 and 2)
M→N Given (Premise 1)
M→P Hypothetical Syllogism (from 4 and 3)
(M → P) → Q Given (Premise 4)
Q Modus Ponens(From 6 and 5)

39
2. P→ R
R→S
S→Q
P ____
∴Q ˄ P

Solution:
Proof:

Statements Reasons
P→R Given (premise 1)
R→S Given (premise 2)
P→S Hypothetical Syllogism (from 1 and 2)
S→ Q Given (premise 3)
P→ Q Hypothetical Syllogism (from 3 and 4)
P Given (premise 4)
Q Modus Ponens(from 5 and 6)
P˄Q Conjunction ( from 6 and 7)

3. ~Q → R
~R ˄ P
~(Q ˄ ~R)
 ∴R
Solution:
Proof:
Statements Reasons
~Q → R Given (premise 1)
~R ˄ P Given (premise 2)
~ (Q ˄ ~R) Given (premise 3)
~R Simplification (from 2)
~Q v ~~R De Morgan’s (from 3)
~Q v R Double Negation (premise 5)
~~Q Modus Tollens (from 1 and 4)
R Disjunctive Syllogism (from 6 and 7)

40
Lesson 6 Activity 2:
1.) P: Socrates has new toga

p v ~q
rvs
q ˄ ~r
 ∴ p˄s
Premise Premise Conclusion
p q r s ~q ~r p v ~q rvs q ˄ ~r (p v ~q) [(p v ~q) P ˄ {[(p v ~q) ˄(r v
˄ (r v s) ˄(r v s)] ˄ s s)] ˄ (q ˄ ~r)}
(q ˄ ~r) → P˄s
T T T T F F T T F T F T T
T T T F F F T T F T F F T
T T F T F T T T T T T T T
T T F F F T T F T F F F T
T F T T T F T T F T F T T
T F T F T F T T F T F F T
T F F T T T T T F T F T T
T F F F T T T F F F F F T
F T T T F F F T F F F F T
F T T F F F F T F F F F T
F T F T F T F T T F F F T
F T F F F T F F T F F F T
F F T T T F T T F T F F T
F F T F T F T T F T F F T
F F F T T T T T F T F F T
F F F F T T T F F F F F T

Since the conclusion is a tautology, then the argument is valid.

2.) (p ˄ q) → r

q ˄ ~ r___
∴ ~p

Statements Reasons
q ˄ ~r Given (premise 2)
~r Simplification (from 1)
(p ˄ q) → r Given (premise 1)
~ (p ˄ q) Modus Tollens (from 3 and 2)
~p ˄~q De Morgan’s Law (from 4)
~p Simplification (from 5)

41
Assessment:
1. A 6. B
2. A 7. C
3. D 8. B
4. B 9. B
5. A 10. D

42
 Glossary of Terms

 A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true.

 A proof is a sequence of statements that demonstrates that a theorem is true.
 Arguments is a compound proposition of the form (p1 ˄ p2 ˄ … ˄ pn) → q.
 The rules of inference, which are the means used to draw conclusions from
other assertions, tie together the steps of a proof.
 Proofs may include axioms, the hypotheses of the theorem to be proved, and
previously proved theorems.
 Propositional logic is a declarative sentence subject for affirmation or denial. It
is a statement with truth value; either true (T) or false (F), but not both.
 A simple proposition is a declarative statement that cannot be broken down any
further into other component propositions.
 A compound proposition is a proposition formed by combining two or more
simple categorical propositions by some logical connectors.
 Truth table is a table that describe the conditions in which a proposition is true
or false. The columns represent the propositions consisting the compound
propositions with the last column representing the whole statement. The rows
represent the possible combinations of truthfulness and falsity of each
propositions.
 Conjunction. This is a proposition which is the result of combining two other
propositions called conjuncts with the connectives word “and”.
 Disjunction. This is a proposition which is the result of combining two other
propositions called disjuncts with the connectives word “or”.
 Implication. This proposition, which is also called conditional proposition, is a
proposition which is a result of combining a hypothesis or antecedent to a
conclusion or consequent in the form If…, then…
 Equivalence. This proposition, which is also called biconditional proposition, is
a proposition which is a result of combining two propositions in the form …If
and only if…
 Negation. This is a proposition which is a result of reversing the truth value of
a given proposition.
 The converse of an implication is formed by interchanging the hypothesis and
the conclusion. That is, if the implication is p→q, its converse is q →p.
 The inverse of an implication is formed by replacing the hypothesis and
conclusion of the implication by their negations. That is, if the implication is →q,
its inverse is the statement ~ p→~ q.
 The contrapositive of an implication is simply the inverse of the converse of the
implication, or the converse of the inverse of the implication. That is, if the
implication is p→q, then its contrapositive is ~q→~p.

43
References

Banigon, Ricardo Jr., Camilon, Maita, Manalo and Catalina. General

Mathematics. 1st ed. Manila, Philippines: Educational Resource
Corporation. (2016)

Crisologo, L., Hao, L., Miro, E., Palomo, E., Ocampo, S., and Tresvalles, R.
General Mathematics Teacher’s Guide. Department of Education-
Bureau of Learning Resources, Ground Floor Bonifacio Bldg, DepEd
Complex Meralco Avenue, Pasig City, Philippines 1600. Lexicon Press
Inc. (2016). blr.lrpd@deped.gov.ph.

Image in the Cover Page of Module 10. Usage Rights (Labeled for Reuse)
https://bit.ly/3cQWpOO

Orines, F. General Mathematics. 2nd ed.Manila, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing

House Inc. (2016), Chapter 5 pp. 1 – 55

Oronce, O. General Mathematics. 1st ed. Manila, Philippines: Rex Publishing

House (2016), pp.226 - 335.

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