Module 7

Lymphatic System

Overview

The lymphatic system is an essential part of the defence system of the body. This is also
important in fluid balance. In this module, we are going to talk about how the lymphatic system
participates in trapping microbes to prevent it from migrating to other body organs and how the
fluid leaked from the cardiovascular system is brought back to the circulation.

Course objectives.

At the end of this module, you are expected to

1. Describe the structure and function of a lymphatic vessel

2. Trace the flow of lymph from the tissues to the heart
3. Discuss the immune response

Course contents.

The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system consists of two semi-independent parts. First, s network of lymphatic
vessels and second, lymphoid tissues and organs scattered throughout the body. Examples of these
organs are the Lymphatic nodules, Lymph nodes, Tonsils, Spleen and Thymus. This system is also
responsible for Returning interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back to the blood. Lymph is a
collective term used for interstitial fluid once it has entered lymphatic vessels.

The main function of the lymphatic system includes Maintenance of fluid balance in tissues.
It returns three liters of fluid a day back to the circulation. Absorption of fats from the small
intestine. Lacteals are specialized lymph capillaries present in the intestinal mucosa which absorb
digested fat and deliver chyle (fatty lymph) to the
blood and lastly it Defends against microorganisms
and foreign substances.

In contrast to the cardiovascular system,

lymphatic vessels are One-way system. Lymph flows
toward the heart. Lymph vessels include Microscopic,
permeable, blind-ended capillaries, Lymphatic
vessels and Ducts

The flow of lymph goes from Lymphatic capillaries to

the Lymphatic vessels and to Lymphatic ducts
(largest of them all). These lymphatic ducts are
connected to the cardiovascular system where it
returns the fluids picked by lymph capillaries.

Lymphatic Vessels
 Lymphatic Capillaries are similar to blood capillaries, with modifications. They are very
permeable, loosely joined endothelial mini-valves, withstand interstitial pressure and remain open.
These lymphatic capillaries are like the veins because they join to form lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic
vessels have valves that ensure the one-way flow of lymph. Lymph is moved by contraction of
lymphatic vessel smooth muscle, skeletal muscle action and thoracic pressure changes

Lymph is delivered into one of two large trunks, the Right lymphatic duct which drains the
right upper arm and the right side of the head and thorax and the Thoracic duct which arises from
the cisterna chyli and drains the rest of the body.

Lymphatic tissues

These are Reticular connective tissue that contains lymphocytes and other cells.
Lymphocytes are cells that are responsible for defending our body against microbes. These tissues
can be surrounded by a capsule such as the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus. They can be non-
encapsulated such as the diffuse lymphatic tissue, lymphatic nodules, tonsils. Diffuse lymphatic
tissue consists of dispersed lymphocytes and has no clear boundaries. Lymphatic nodules are small
aggregates of lymphatic tissue (e.g., Peyer’s patches in the small intestines). Peyer’s patches are
Isolated clusters of lymphoid tissue, similar to tonsils. They are found in the wall of the distal portion
of the small intestine and similar structures are found in the appendix. Their main function is to
destroy bacteria, preventing them from
breaching the intestinal wall. These are
special cells because they generate “memory”
lymphocytes for long-term immunity.

Tonsils
 Tonsils are the Simplest lymphoid organs. It forms a ring of lymphatic tissue around the
pharynx. They can be found in three locations. The Palatine tonsils are in either side of the posterior
end of the oral cavity, Lingual tonsils which lies at the base of the tongue, and Pharyngeal tonsil
found in posterior wall of the nasopharynx. There are Epithelial tissue overlying tonsil masses
invaginates, forming blind-ended crypts. These Crypts trap and destroy bacteria and particulate
matter

Lymph Nodes

Lymph nodes are the principal lymphoid organs of the body. They are embedded in
connective tissue and clustered along lymphatic vessels. Aggregations of these nodes occur near the
body surface in inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions of the body. The Two basic functions of these
organs are for Filtration where filtrates of microbes and debris are destroyed by macrophages
destroyed. They also plays a role in Immune system activation by monitoring for antigens and mount
an attack against them.

Lymph Nodes are bean shaped and surrounded by a fibrous capsule. They have a Trabeculae
extended inward from the capsule and divide the node into compartments. Nodes have two
histologically distinct
regions: a cortex and a
medulla. The Cortex
contains follicles with
germinal centers, heavy
with dividing B cells. It also
contains dendritic cells
nearly encapsulate the
follicles. T cells circulate
continuously among the
blood, lymph nodes, and

lymphatic stream Deep

cortex houses T cells in transit

The Spleen

The Spleen Is in the left

superior side of the abdomen. It
has Two distinct areas. The White
pulp which contains mostly
lymphocytes suspended on
reticular fibers and are involved in immune functions and the Red pulp remaining splenic tissue
concerned with disposing of worn-out RBCs and bloodborne pathogens. The spleen is a limited
reservoir for blood

The Thymus

The Thymus is a bilobed organ that secretes hormones (thymosin and thymopoietin) that cause T
lymphocytes to become immunocompetent. Size of the thymus varies with age. In infants, it is found
in the inferior neck and extends into the mediastinum where it partially overlies the heart. It
increases in size and is most active during childhood. It stops growing during adolescence and then
gradually atrophies. It differs from other lymphoid organs in important ways. It functions strictly in T
lymphocyte maturation and it which lies does not directly fight antigens. The stroma of the thymus
consists of star-shaped epithelial cells (not reticular fibers). These thymocytes secrete the hormones
that stimulate lymphocytes to become immunocompetent

Immunity

Immunity is the ability to resist the harmful effects of microorganisms and other foreign
substances. There are two types of immunity. Adaptive immunity exhibits specificity and memory
and Innate immunity does not show specificity or memory. Innate immunity responds quickly and
consists of mechanical mechanisms such as the Skin and mucosae prevent entry of microorganisms
and tears, saliva, and mucus remove them. There also chemical mediators, cells and inflammatory
Response. This immunity does not care whatever the microbe that comes into the body, they simply
resist everything.

Innate immunity makes use of complement systems. This refers to a group of 20 or so

proteins that circulate in the blood in active form. They provide a major mechanism in destroying
foreign substances in the body. It amplifies all aspects of the inflammatory response. Complements
Kills bacteria and certain other cell types. Our cells are immune to complement. Each complement
pathway involves a cascade in which compliment proteins are activated in an orderly sequence. The
end result is cell lysis, phagocytosis, and inflammation. The complement system can be activated by
either the classical or the alternative pathway. The Classical pathway is part of adaptive immunity.
Depends on the binding of antibodies to invading organisms. Subsequent binding of C1 to the
antigen-antibody complexes (complement fixation). Alternative pathway is part of innate immunity.
It is triggered by interaction among factors B, D, and P, and polysaccharide molecules present on
microorganisms.

Interferons leave the infected cell and enter neighboring cells. This stimulates the
neighboring cells to produce proteins to prevent the replication of viruses. It also activate
macrophages and natural killer cells

Cells also plays a role in the innate immunity. Chemotaxis is the ability of white blood cells to
move to tissues that release certain chemicals. Phagocytosis is the ingestion and destruction of
materials. Neutrophils are small phagocytic cells which are fast but short lived. They attack all types
of bacteria. Basophils and mast cells release chemicals that promote inflammation and Eosinophils
release enzymes that reduce inflammation. Natural killer cells lyse tumor cells and virus-infected
cells. Macrophages are large phagocytic cells that can engulf more than neutrophils can. In
connective tissue they protect the body at locations where microbes are likely to enter, and
macrophages clean blood and lymph. Some macrophages have specific names, Dust cells in the
lungs, Kupffer cells in the liver, Microglia in the CNS.

The inflammatory response can be initiated in many ways. Chemical mediators cause
vasodilation and increase vascular permeability, which allows the entry of other chemical mediators.
Chemical mediators attract phagocytes. The amount of chemical mediators and phagocytes
increases until the cause of the inflammation is destroyed. Then the tissue undergoes repair.

Local inflammation produces the symptoms of Redness (rubor), Heat (calor), Swelling
(tumor), Pain (dolor) and Loss of function. Symptoms of systemic inflammation include an increase in
neutrophil numbers Fever and Shock

Adaptive Immunity

The adaptive immune system is a functional system that recognizes specific foreign
substances, acts to immobilize, neutralize, or destroy foreign substances, and amplifies
inflammatory response and activates complement. The adaptive immune system is antigen-specific,
systemic, and has memory. It has two separate but overlapping arms, the Antibody-mediated
immunity (provided by antibodies in the blood and lymph) and the Cell-mediated immunity
(lymphocytes are involved).

Antigens are large molecules that stimulate an adaptive immune system response. Foreign
antigens are not produced by the body (self-antigens are).
The body recognizes the self-antigen thereby normally
does not harm itself. B cells are responsible for antibody-
mediated immunity. These B Cells when activated
becomes a plasma cells which produces immunoglobulins
specific to a particular antigen. T cells are involved with
cell-mediated immunity. B Cells mature in the bone
marrow and T Cells mature in the thymus. They then both
circulated in the blood continuously and some are stored
in the lymph nodes.
 The antigenic determinant (epitope) is the specific part of the antigen to which the
lymphocyte responds. The antigen receptor (T-cell receptor or B-cell receptor) on the surface of
lymphocytes combines with the antigenic determinant. MHC class I molecules display antigens on
the surface of nucleated cells, resulting in the destruction of the cells. MHC class II molecules display
antigens on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, resulting in the activation of immune cells. MHC
antigen complex and costimulation are usually necessary to activate lymphocytes. CoStimulation
involves cytokines and certain surface molecules. Antigen-presenting cells stimulate the proliferation
of helper T cells which stimulate the proliferation of B or T effector cells

Tolerance is suppression of the immune system’s response to an antigen Tolerance is

produced by the deletion of self-reactive cells, the prevention of lymphocyte activation and
Suppressor T cells

Antibodies are proteins produced by plasma

cells. Antibodies are proteins that have a variable region

of an antibody which combines with the antigen the

constant region activates complement or binds to cells.

Five classes of antibodies exist: IgG, 1gM, IgA, IgE, and
IgD. Antibodies affect the antigen in many ways. They
bind to the antigen and interfere with antigen activity or
bind the antigens together. They increase phagocytosis
by binding to the antigen and to macrophages. It Can
activate complement through the classical pathway. It
can also attach to mast cells or basophils and cause the
release of inflammatory chemicals when the antibody combines with the antigen

Teaching Learning Activity

Find someone who had a chicken pox and interview his experience

Find someone with a child with at least one year old. Interview about their vaccination
activities

Assessment task

1. Describe how the Rapid Test for COVID 19 gets its results.

2. Share your experience when you had any form of infection.

3. Share any experience when you had an enlarged lymph nodes.

4. Discuss how does a vaccine works

References:
Geb, Elaine N. (2019), Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 8 th Edition
Philip (2009), Seely’s Principles of Anatomy and Physiology