Cement: EN 197-1 States That, Cement Is A Hydraulic Binder, I.E. A Finely Ground Inorganic Material Which

CE 2105 (Engineering Material)
CEMENT
Definition
EN 197-1 states that, Cement is a hydraulic binder, i.e. a finely ground inorganic material which,
when mixed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydration reactions
and processes and which, after hardening, retains its strength and stability even under water.
Cement conforming to EN 197-1, termed CEM (Calcium-enriched mixture) cement, shall,

when appropriately batched and mixed with aggregate and water, be capable of producing
concrete or mortar which retains its workability for a sufficient time and shall after defined
periods attain specified strength levels and also possess long-term volume stability.
Hydraulic hardening of CEM cement is primarily due to the hydration of calcium silicates but
other chemical compounds may also participate in the hardening process, e.g. aluminates. The
sum of the proportions of reactive calcium oxide (CaO) (that fraction of the calcium oxide which
under normal hardening conditions can form calcium silicate hydrates or calcium aluminate
hydrates) and reactive silicon dioxide (SiO2) (that fraction of the silicon dioxide which is soluble
after treatment with hydrochloric acid (HCl) and with boiling potassium hydroxide (KOH)
solution) in CEM cement shall be at least 50% by mass when the proportions are determined in
accordance with EN 196-2.
Classification (Details will be discussed in the later portion of the topic)

Two approaches are normally used to classify cements — the first is in respect of their
composition, and the second is in terms of their performance-related properties.
A large number of European countries, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland and the United Kingdom, have been involved in the development of a European
Prestandard for Common Cements (ENV 197-1 : 1992), a Prestandard for masonry cements
(ENV 413-1 : 1994), a draft proposal for hydraulic binders for roads, and a Prestandard for
building limes (ENV 459-1 : 1994).
The other major international contribution to the classification of cements has been made in the
USA through the Amerian Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Their work is covered in
Standards C 150-95 (Standard specification for Portland cement), C 219-94 (Standard
terminology relating to hydraulic cement) and C 595M-95 (Standard specification for blended
hydraulic cements).
COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT
Main Compounds of Portland Cement
Minor Compounds of Portland Cement

MgO, TiO2, Mn2O3, K2O and Na2O; they usually amount to not more than a few per cent
of the mass of cement. Two of the minor compounds are of particular interest: the
oxides of sodium and potassium, (Na2O and K2O), known as the alkalis (although other
alkalis also exist in cement).
Usual Composition Limits of Portland Cement Oxide and Compound Compositions of a

Typical Portland Cement of the 1960s
 The insoluble residue is a measure of adulteration of cement arising from impurities in

gypsum which is measured by treating with hydrochloric acid. British Standard BS 12 : 1996
(withdrawn) limits the insoluble residue to 1.5 per cent of the mass of cement. European
Standard BS EN 197-1 : 2000, which allows a 5 per cent content of a filler, limits the insoluble
residue to 5 per cent of the mass of the cement exclusive of the filler.
 The loss of ignition shows the extent of carbonation and hydration free lime and free
magnesia due to the exposure of cement to the atmosphere. The maximum loss on ignition (at
1000°C) permitted by BS EN 197-1 : 2000 is 5 per cent and by ASTM C 150-09 is 3 per cent
except for Type I cement (2.5 per cent); 4 per cent is acceptable for cements in the tropics.
❖ Mineral Constituents of Portland Cement

Constituents Oxide composition Abbreviation Percent composition (%)
Tri-calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO3 C3S 45 to 55
Di-calcium silicate 2CaO. SiO3 C2S 20 to 30
Tri-calcium Aluminates 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A 9 to 13
Tetra-calcium
4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF 8 to 20
Aluminoferrite
Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 -- 2 to 6
Other compounds -- -- 2 to 8
Chemical Composition [as per ASTM C 150]

HYDRATION OF CEMENT
The reaction by virtue of which Portland cement becomes a bonding agent takes place in a
water-cement paste is called hydration [new solids formed due to hydration are termed as
‘hydrates’]. In simple terms, the chemical reaction which takes place between cement and water
is known as hydration of cement. It is exothermic in nature and the generated heat during this
process is called as heat of hydration.
Le Chatelier was the first to observe, about 130 years ago, that the products of hydration of
cement are chemically the same as the products of hydration of the individual compounds under
similar conditions.
The theoretical process of cement hydration has been developed through the study of the
hydration of pure compounds (C3S, C3A, etc).
It is assumed that the hydration of each compound takes place independently. However, this
assumption is not truly valid since:
1. Compounds are not pure
2. Interaction between hydrating compounds takes place
Two primary mechanism:

Through solution- involves dissolution of anhydrous compounds to their ionic constituents,
formation of hydrates in solution, and eventual due to their low precipitation solubility
Topochemical or Solid-state hydration - reactions take place directly at the surface of the
anhydrous cement compounds without going into solution
The two calcium silicates (C3S and C2S) are the main cementitious compounds in cement, and
the physical behaviour of cement during hydration is similar to that of these two compounds
alone.
The main hydrates can be broadly classified as calcium silicate hydrates [C-S-H] and tricalcium
aluminate hydrate. C4AF is believed to hydrate into tricalcium aluminate hydrate and an
amorphous phase, probably CaO.Fe2O3.aq. It is possible also that some Fe2O3 is present in
solid solution in the tricalcium aluminate hydrate.
The process of hydration is essentially the formation of minute crystals of calcium and gels from
the solution of cement and water and continues for a long period. The hydration of different
constituent compounds of Portland cement as shown in below:
Hrdration of Calcium Silicates

Hrdration of Tricalcium Aluminates
Pure tricalcium aluminate is formed when the appropriate proportions of finely divided calcium
oxide and aluminium oxide are heated together above 1300 °C. The reaction of true C3A with
water is very violent and leads to immediate stiffening of the paste known as flash setting. To
prevent this, gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is added to cement clinker during grinding.
Instead of gypsum, other forms of calcium sulfate can be used in the manufacture of cement:
hemihydrate (CaS04.1/2 H20) or anhydrite (CaS04).
Fig: Hydration mechanism of C3A in

presence of Gypsum
This reaction occurs very quickly and is commonly referred to as flash set.
Gypsum is added during the manufacture of cement to provide a delaying mechanism.
Essentially, this delays C3A hydration in order to avoid flash set problems.
If too much gypsum (or another sulfate source) is present-
Wheb insufficient gypsum is available-

Sulfate ions in solution lead to the formation of an insoluble layer of ettringite [calcium
sulphoaluminate, ] over the surface of the aluminate crystals,
passivating them. The aluminate then reacts slowly to form the metastable phase,
. These hydrates contribute little to strength development (See fig.
Hydration mechanism of C3A in presence of Gypsum).
The presence of C3A in cement is undesirable: it contributes little or nothing to the strength of
cement except at early ages and, when hardened cement paste is attacked by sulfates,
expansion due to the formation of calcium sulfoaluminate from C3A may result in a disruption of
the hardened paste.
The amount of gypsum required increases with the C3A content and also with the alkali content
(Na2O and K2O) of the cement. Increase the fineness of the cement has the effect of increasing
the quantity of C3A available at the early ages and this raises the gypsum requirement.
The amount of gypsum added to the cement clinker is usually expressed as the weight of SO3
present. This is limited to a maximum of 3.5 percent [BS EN 197-1 : 2000], but in some cases
higher percentages are permitted.
Hydration of Ferrite Phase

The hydration reaction of C4AF is very similar to C3A-
Fig. Strength contribution of major

Fig. Rate of Hydration
compounds
Determination of progress of hydration of cement
➢ The amount of Ca(OH)2 in the paste

➢ The heat evolved by hydration
➢ The specific gravity of the paste
➢ The amount of chemically combined water
➢ The amount of unhydrated cement present (using X-ray quantitative analysis)
➢ The strength of the hydrated paste (Indirectly)
MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT
There are two process employed for the manufacture of the cement
➢ Wet process
➢ Dry process
The main steps in the manufacture of Portland cement in both the process as shown in below
➢ Collection of raw material
➢ Crushing, grinding, and mixing of raw material.
➢ Burning
➢ Grinding of clinker
➢ Packing and shipment
Process Summary:
The process of manufacture of cement consists essentially of grinding the raw materials, mixing
them intimately in certain proportions and burning in a large rotary kiln at a temperature of up to
about 1450 °C when the material sinters and partially fuses into balls known as clinker. The
clinker is cooled and ground to a fine powder, with some gypsum added, and the resulting
product is the commercial Portland cement so widely used throughout the world.
Raw material of Portland cement

❖ Calcareous Component [mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate] (providing
Lime - CaO)
➢ Limestone ➢ marble
➢ marly limestone ➢ lime-sand
➢ chalk ➢ shell deposits
➢ coral limestone ➢ lime sludge
❖ Argillaceous Component [minerals containing substantial amounts of clay-like
components. Such as, Claystone, shales etc.] (SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3)
➢ clay ➢ marly clay
➢ shale ➢ tuff, ash
➢ calcareous marl ➢ phyllite, slate
➢ marl ➢ glass
WET PROCESS
Collection of raw material

Calcareous materials are quarried and argillaceous materials are transported to the site by
wine ropeways or dumping trucks.
Crushing, grinding and preparation of cement Slurry

When Chalk (Calcareous materials) is used, it is finely broken up and dispersed in water in a
washmill. This comprises a circular tank, the walls of which contain grids or slots. Mounted on a
centrally placed plinth is a pivoted arm which rotates in a horizontal plane and to which are
attached harrows. The motion of these harrows through the suspension of the lump material in
water effects the appropriate degree of breakdown and the fine product flows out through the
grids mounted in the walls. Such a piece of equipment serves as a satisfactory method of
separating unwanted coarse, harder materials such as flints.
The clay is also broken up and mixed with water, usually in a similar wash mill.
The two mixtures are pumped so as to mix in predetermined properties and pass through a
series of screens. The resulting Cement slurry flows into storage tanks.
When limestone is used it has to be blasted and then crushed usually in two progressively
smaller crushers and then fed into a ball mill with the clay dispersed in water. There the
grinding of the limestone (to the fineness of flour) is completed and the resultant slurry is
pumped to storage tanks.
The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency, with water content between 35 to 40 percent. There
are usually a number of storage tanks in which slurry is kept, the sedimentation of the
suspended solid being prevented by mechanical stirrers or bubbling by compressed air. The
slurry then passes into silos where the proportioning is finely adjusted to ensure the correct
chemical composition. From these silos the slurry is fed into the kilns.
Burning
The fine slurry is pumped into the upper end of the rotary kiln set at a slight gradient. The rotary
kiln itself consists of a cylindrical tube fitted at suitable intervals with tires which run on pairs of
rollers. The speed of rotation is normally in the range 1.0—3.5 rev/min and the tube is inclined
to the horizontal at between 1 in 20 and 1 in 30. The inside of the rotary kiln in lined with
refractory bricks having a thickness between 175 and 250mm. The rotary kiln is usually 4
meters in diameter sometimes as long as 150 meters, slowly rotating about its axis. The slurry is
fed in at the upper end while pulverized coal is thrown in by an air blast at the lower end of the
kiln, where the temperature reaches 1400 to 1500°C. The coal used must not have too high an
ash content. Oil, tires, natural gas solid waste materials, petroleum coke etc. can be used
instead of coal for firing cement making kiln.
Figure: general layout of rotary kiln
The slurry, in its movement down the kiln, encounters progressively higher temperature. At first
the water is driven off and CO2 is liberated (calcination); further on, the dry material undergoes a
series of chemical reactions until finally, in the hottest part of the kiln, 20 to 30 per cent of the
material becomes liquid, and lime, silica and alumina recombine. The mass then fuses into
balls, 3 to 25 mm diameter, known as clinker. The clinker drops into coolers, which are of
various types and often provide means for exchange of heat with the air subsequently used for
the combustion of the pulverized coal. The largest existing kiln in a wet-process plant produces
about 3600 tons of clinker or more a day.
Because the manufacture of cement by the wet process is energy intensive, new wetprocess
plants are no longer built.
Grinding
The cool clinker which is characteristically black, glistering and hard is interground with 3 to 4%
gypsum in order to prevent flash setting of cement. The grinding is done in a ball mill consisting
of several compartments with progressively smaller steel balls. In some plants a closed-circuit
grinding system is used; the cement discharged by the mill is passed through a separator, fine
particles being removed to the storage silo by an air current, while the coarser particles are
passed through the mill once again. Closed-circuit grinding avoids the production of a large
amount of excessively fine material or of a small amount of too coarse material.
Figure: Diagrammatic representation of Wet process of manufacture of cement

Figure: Diagrammatic representation of Dry process of manufacture of cement
DRY PROCESS
Assignment:
- Describe the dry manufacturing process of cement.
- Develop a comparison between dry and wet manufacturing process of cement.
Constituents of Cement
Main constituents
(Specially selected inorganic material in a proportion exceeding 5 % by mass related to
the sum of all main and minor additional constituents)
Portland cement clinker (K)

EN 197-1 states that, Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at
least two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.SiO2), the remainder
consisting of aluminium oxide, and iron oxide and other oxides. The ratio by mass (CaO)/(SiO2)
shall be not less than 2,0. The content of magnesium oxide (MgO) shall not exceed 5,0 % by
mass.
In the USA, ASTM C 219-94 gives the following definition: 'a partially fused clinker consisting
primarily of hydraulic calcium silicates'.
Granulated blastfurnace slag (S)

EN 197-1 states that, Granulated blastfurnace slag is made by rapid cooling of a slag (Slag is
the glass-like by-product left over after a desired metal has been separated i.e., smelted from its
raw ore. Slag is usually a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide) melt of suitable
composition, as obtained by smelting iron ore in a blastfurnace and contains at least two-thirds
by mass of glassy slag and possesses hydraulic properties when suitably activated.
Granulated blastfurnace slag shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of the sum of calcium
oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO) and silicon dioxide (SiO2). The remainder contains
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) together with small amounts of other oxides. The ratio by mass (CaO +
MgO)/(SiO2) shall exceed 1,0.
ASTM C 219-94 gives the definition as:

'The glassy granular material formed when molten blast-furnace slag is rapidly chilled, as by
immersion in water - with the following items under the heading of Discussion:
Granulation may be achieved by quenching blastfurnace slag from its original molten state or by
quenching air-cooled blastfurnace slag after remelting. Also small percentages of silica and
alumina may be added whilst the slag is molten to enhance desired characteristics.'
It works synergistically with Portland cement to increase strength, reduce permeability, improve
resistance to chemical attack and inhibit rebar corrosion.
Pozzolanic materials (P, Q)

EN 197-1 states that, Pozzolanic materials are natural substances or industrial pozzolans of
siliceous or silico-aluminous composition or a combination thereof. Although fly ash and silica
fume have pozzolanic properties, they are specified in separate clauses.
Pozzolanic materials do not harden in themselves when mixed with water but, when finely
ground and in the presence of water, they react at normal ambient temperature with dissolved
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to form strength-developing calcium silicate and calcium aluminate
compounds. These compounds are similar to those which are formed in the hardening of
hydraulic materials. Pozzolanas consist essentially of reactive silicon dioxide (SiO2) and
aluminium oxide (Al2O3). The remainder contains iron oxide (Fe2O3) and other oxides. The
proportion of reactive calcium oxide for hardening is negligible. The reactive silicon dioxide
content shall be not less than 25,0 % by mass.
ASTM C 125 / ASTM C 219
Pozzolanic materials shall be correctly prepared, i.e. selected, homogenised, dried, or heat
treated and comminuted, depending on their state of production or delivery.
Natural pozzolana (P): EN 197-1 states that, Natural pozzolanas are usually materials
of volcanic origin or sedimentary rocks with suitable chemical and mineralogical composition.
Natural pozzolanas of volcanic origin occur in the vicinity of Naples and of Rome and also as
the Santorin Earth from the Grecian island of Santorin. There are also vitreous rhyolites from the
Rocky mountains in the USA and from the Bombay area of India. Another source of these
materials are the German trasses. The pozzolanic activity is dependent upon their physical form
and the amounts of glass and zeolites present.
Industrial pozzolana (Q): EN 197-1 states that, Industrial pozzolanas are thermally
treated and activated clays and shales, air cooled slags from lead, copper, zinc and other
products from the ferroalloys industry. Industrial pozzolanas shall not increase the water
demand of the cement appreciably, impair the resistance of the concrete or mortar to
deterioration in any way or reduce the corrosion protection of the reinforcement.
These include a wide range of materials from heat-treated clays and shales to ashes derived
from burning rice husks as well as slags from various non-ferrous (copper, nickel, lead and zinc)
metal-processing industries. In common with natural pozzolanas, it is desirable that they should
contain reactive silica and some glass.
Fly ashes (V, W)

EN 197-1 states that, Fly ash is obtained by electrostatic or mechanical precipitation of dust-like
particles from the flue gases from furnaces fired with pulverised coal. Ash obtained by other
methods shall not be used in cement that conforms to EN 197-1.
Fly ash (pulverised fuel ash) may be siliceous (containing abundant silica) or calcareous (mostly
or partly composed of calcium carbonate) in nature. The former has pozzolanic properties; the
latter may have, in addition, hydraulic properties. The loss on ignition of fly ash determined in
accordance with EN 196-2, but using an ignition time of 1 h, shall not exceed 5,0 % by mass.
In the case of fly ash with a loss on ignition between 5,0 % and 7,0 % by mass the maximum
limit, 7,0 %, shall be stated on the packaging and/or the delivery note of the cement.
Advantages:
 More
 fineness.  Greater workability
 Increase long age strength  Improve durability
 Less heat of hydration  Reduced bleeding
 Reduce permeability
[Classification: According to ASTM, please study the following manual.

ASTM C 618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for
Use as a Mineral Admixture in Concrete]
Siliceous fly ash (V): EN 197-1 states that, Siliceous fly ash is a fine powder of mostly
spherical particles having pozzolanic properties. It consists essentially of reactive silicon dioxide
(SiO2) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3). The remainder contains iron oxide (Fe2O3) and other
oxides.
The proportion of reactive CaO shall be less than 5 per cent by mass. The reactive SiO2 content
of siliceous fly ash conforming to this European Pre-standard shall be not less than 25 per cent
by mass. Modal compositions for UK siliceous fly ashes have been reported36 as presented in
Table 2.10.
Calcareous fly ash (W): EN 197-1 states that, Calcareous fly ash is a fine powder,
having hydraulic and/or pozzolanic properties. It consists essentially of reactive calcium oxide
(CaO), reactive silicon dioxide (SiO2) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3). The remainder contains iron
oxide (Fe2O3) and other oxides. The proportion of reactive calcium oxide shall not be less than
10,0 % by mass. Calcareous fly ash containing between 10,0 % and 15,0 % by mass of reactive
calcium oxide shall contain not less than 25,0 % by mass of reactive silicon dioxide (SiO2).
Adequately ground calcareous fly ash containing more than 15,0 % by mass of reactive calcium
oxide, shall have a compressive strength of at least 10,0 MPa at 28 days when tested in
accordance with EN 196-1.
The expansion (soundness) of calcareous fly ash shall not exceed 10 mm when tested in
accordance with EN 196-3 using a mixture of 30 % by mass of calcareous fly ash ground as
described above and 70 % by mass of a CEM I cement conforming to EN 197-1.
NOTE: If the sulfate (SO3) content of the fly ash exceeds the permissible upper limit for the
sulfate content of the cement then this has to be taken into account for the manufacture of the
cement by appropriately reducing the calcium sulfate containing constituents.
Burnt shale (T)

EN 197-1 states that, Burnt shale, specifically burnt oil shale (also known as kerogen shale, is
an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen (a solid mixture of organic
chemical compounds) from which liquid hydrocarbons called shale oil can be produced), is
produced in a special kiln at temperatures of approximately 800°C. Owing to the composition of
the natural material and the production process, burnt shale contains clinker phases, mainly
dicalcium silicate and monocalcium aluminate. It also contains, besides small amounts of free
calcium oxide and calcium sulfate, larger proportions of pozzolanically reacting oxides,
especially silicon dioxide. Consequently, in a finely ground state burnt shale shows pronounced
hydraulic properties like Portland cement and in addition pozzolanic properties.
Adequately ground burnt shale shall have a compressive strength of at least 25,0 MPa at 28
days when tested in accordance with EN 196-1.
The expansion (soundness) of burnt shale shall not exceed 10 mm when tested in accordance
with EN 196-3 using a mixture of 30 % by mass of ground burnt shale and 70 % by mass of a
CEM I cement conforming to EN 197-1.
These materials are obtained as by-products after the removal, at temperatures of the order of
750ºC, of oil from oil-bearing shales. They can have a wide range of compositions. Calcium
oxide contents vary from 16 to 60 per cent and Silica contents from 12 to 25 per cent. This
means that when finely ground, some will react as pozzolanas; others (those permitted in ENV
197-14) have strength development properties in their own right and some can act as both
cements and as pozzolanas. The cementing properties are due to the presence of dicalcium
silicate and also monocalcmm aluminate; the pozzolanic properties are a consequence of
reactive silica.
Limestone (L, LL)

EN 197-1 states that, Limestone shall meet the following requirements:
 The calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content calculated from the calcium oxide content shall
be at least 75 % by mass.
 The clay content, determined by the methylene blue test in accordance with EN 933-9,
shall not exceed 1,20 g/100 g. For this test the limestone shall be ground to a fineness of
approximately 5000 cm2/g determined as specific surface in accordance with EN 196-6.
 The total organic carbon (TOC) content, when tested in accordance with
prEN13639:1999, shall conform to one of the following criteria:
LL: shall not exceed 0,20 % by mass;
L: shall not exceed 0,50 % by mass.
Silica fume (D)

EN 197-1 states that, Silica fume originates from the reduction of high purity quartz with coal in
electric arc furnaces in the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys and consists of very fine
spherical particles containing at least 85 % by mass of amorphous silicon dioxide.
If the proportion of silica fume in the cement exceeds 5 per cent by mass (i.e. a main
constituent) then Silica fume shall meet the following requirements:
 The loss on ignition shall not exceed 4,0 % by mass determined in accordance with EN
196-2 but using an ignition time of 1 h.
 The specific surface (BET) of the untreated silica fume shall be at least 15,0 m2/g [when
tested in accordance with ISO 9277].
Because of its extreme fineness and high silica content, silica fume is a very effective
pozzolanic material. For intergrinding with clinker and calcium sulfate the silica fume may be in
its original state or compacted or pelletised (with water).
Fillers (F)
ENV 197-14 states that, Fillers are specially selected, natural or artificial inorganic mineral
materials which after appropriate preparation, on account of their particle size distribution,
improve the physical properties of the cement (such as workability or water retention). They can
be inert or have slightly hydraulic, latent hydraulic or pozzolanic properties. However, no
requirements are set for them in this respect. Fillers shall be correctly prepared, i.e. selected,
homogenized, dried and comminuted depending on their state of production or delivery. They
shall not increase the water demand of the cement appreciably, impair the resistance of the
concrete or mortar to deterioration in any way or reduce the corrosion protection of
reinforcement.
Fillers are normally either limestone or the raw meal which constitutes the feedstock to the
cement kiln system. In some cases, if the chemistry is suitable (low alkali and chloride levels),
the dust collected in the electrostatic precipitators has been used.
Minor additional constituents

(Specially selected inorganic material used in a proportion not exceeding a total of 5 % by mass
related to the sum of all main and minor additional constituents)
Minor additional constituents are specially selected, inorganic natural mineral materials,
inorganic mineral materials derived from the clinker production process or constituents as
specified above unless they are included as main constituents in the cement.
Minor additional constituents, after appropriate preparation and on account of their particle size
distribution, improve the physical properties of the cement (such as; workability or water
retention). They can be inert or have slightly hydraulic, latent hydraulic or pozzolanic properties.
However, no requirements are set for them in this respect.
Minor additional constituents shall be correctly prepared, i.e. selected, homogenised, dried and
comminuted depending on their state of production or delivery. They shall not increase the
water demand of the cement appreciably, impair the resistance of the concrete or mortar to
deterioration in any way or reduce the corrosion protection of the reinforcement.
Calcium sulfate
EN 197-1 states that, Calcium sulfate is added to the other constituents of cement during its
manufacture to control setting. Calcium sulfate can be gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate,
CaSO4.2H2O), hemihydrate (CaSO4.½H2O), or anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulfate, CaSO4) or
any mixture of them. Gypsum and anhydrite are found naturally. Calcium sulfate is also
available as a by-product of certain industrial processes.
ASTM C 219-94 defines calcium sulfate as applied to cement manufacture as 'a product
composed essentially of calcium sulfate in any hydration state or states: anhydrite (CaS04),
gypsum (CaS04.2H20) and hemihydrate (CaS04. ½H20).
There are many forms of calcium sulfate now available — both natural and synthetic. Typical
analyses of natural gypsum rocks are given in Table 2.11.
Additives
Additives for the purpose of EN 197-1 are constituents not covered in main or minor
constituents, which are added to improve the manufacture or the properties of the cement, e.g.
grinding aids.
The total quantity of additives shall not exceed 1,0 % by mass of the cement (except for
pigments). The quantity of organic additives on a dry basis shall not exceed 0,5 % by mass of
the cement.
These additives shall not promote corrosion of the reinforcement or impair the properties of the
cement or of the concrete or mortar made from the cement.
When admixtures for concrete, mortar or grouts conforming to the EN 934 series are used in
cement the standard notation of the admixture shall be declared on bags or delivery documents.
ASTM C 219-94 refers to these materials as 'additions' and defines them as 'a material that is
interground or blended in limited amounts into a hydraulic cement during manufacture either as
a "processing addition" to aid in manufacturing and handling the cement or as a "functional
addition" to modify the use properties of the finished product.'
Processing additions are required to comply with the requirements of C 465 and C 688.
[ASTM C 465 Standard Specification for Processing Additions for Use in the Manufacture of
Hydraulic Cements.
ASTM C 688 Standard Specification for Functional Additions for Use in Hydraulic Cements.]
Composition and notation

The 27 products in the family of common cements, covered by EN 197-1, and their notation are
given in Table 1. They are grouped into five main cement types as follows:
CEM I Portland cement

CEM II Portland-composite cement
CEM III Blastfurnace cement
CEM IV Pozzolanic cement
CEM V Composite cement
The composition of each of the 27 products in the family of common cements shall be in
accordance with Table 1.
NOTE: For clarity in definition, the requirements for the composition refer to the sum of all main
and minor additional constituents. The final cement is to be understood as the main and minor
additional constituents plus the necessary calcium sulfate (see 5.4) and any additives (see 5.5).
Mechanical requirements
Standard strength
The standard strength of a cement is the compressive strength determined in accordance with
EN 196-1 at 28 days and shall conform to the requirements in Table 2.
Three classes of standard strength are included: class 32,5, class 42,5 and class 52,5 (see
Table 2).
Early strength
The early strength of a cement is the compressive strength determined in accordance with EN
196-1 at either 2 days or 7 days and shall conform to the requirements in Table 2.
Two classes of early strength are included for each class of standard strength, a class with
ordinary early strength, indicated by N, and a class with high early strength, indicated by R
(see Table 2).
Standard designation
CEM cements shall be identified by at least the notation of the cement type as specified in Table
1 and the figures 32,5, 42,5 or 52,5 indicating the strength class. In order to indicate the early
strength class the letter N or the letter R shall be added as appropriate.
EXAMPLE 1
Portland cement conforming to EN 197-1 of strength class 42,5 with a high early strength is
identified by:
Portland cement EN 197-1 - CEM I 42,5 R
EXAMPLE 2
Portland-limestone cement containing between 6 % and 20 % by mass of limestone with a TOC
content not exceeding 0,50 % by mass (L) of strength class 32,5 with an ordinary early strength
is identified by:
Portland-limestone cement EN 197-1 - CEM II/A-L 32,5 N
EXAMPLE 3
Portland-composite cement containing in total a quantity of granulated blastfurnace slag (S),
siliceous fly ash (V) and limestone (L) of between 6 % and 20 % by mass and of strength class
32,5 with a high early strength is identified by:
Portland-composite cement EN 197-1 - CEM II/A-M (S-V-L) 32,5 R
EXAMPLE 4
Composite cement containing between 18 % and 30 % by mass of granulated blastfurnace slag
(S) and between 18 % and 30 % by mass of siliceous fly ash (V) of strength class 32,5 with an
ordinary early strength is identified by:
Composite cement EN 197-1 - CEM V/A (S-V) 32,5 N
ASTM Types of Cement

Standard Specification for Portland Cement / C 150
➢ Type I Normal cement
For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required
Characteristics
 Used for general purpose
 Available widely
 Used where concrete is not subjected to specific exposures such as, sulphate attacks from
soil or water or to an objectionable temperature rise due to heat of hydration
 Suitable for all uses e.g. pavement, sidewalk, R.C buildings, bridges, water tanks, culverts,
sewers etc.
 This type of cement reaches its design strength in 28 days.
➢ Type IA Normal + air entrained agents

Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air-entrainment is desired
Characteristics
Smaller quantities of air entraining materials are interground with clinker at the time of
manufacture to produce minute, well distributed and completely separated air bubbles. These
are in millions per cubic feet. Used against freezing and thawing.
➢ Type II Moderate sulphate resistant cement

For general use, more especially when moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of
hydration is desired.
This type of cement is used where precaution against moderate sulphate attack is important.
Like where concrete will come in contact with ground or buried in ground, e.g. in drainage
structures, large piers, retaining walls etc.
Type II generates less heat than type I and reaches its desired strength in 45 days
➢ Type IIA Moderate sulphate resistant cement + air entrained agents

Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where air-entrainment is desired
It is same as Type II but just having air entraining agents.
➢ Type III High early strength cement / Rapid hardening cement

For use when high early strength is desired.
High C3S content upto 70%
Also it has high fineness and have minimum surface area of 325 m2/kg
It is used where formwork is to be removed quickly or sufficient strength for further construction
is required. It has high heat of hydration and achieves its design strength in 7 days or less. Due
to high heat generation, it should not be used in mass concreting or large structural section.
Though in cold climate it may serve well.
➢ Type IIIA High early strength cement + air entrained agents

Air-entraining cement for the same use as Type III, where air-entrainment is desired
It is the same as Type III plus air entrained agents
➢ Type IV Low heat cement

For use when a low heat of hydration is desired.
Low Heat Cement is specially blended to provide a lower heat of hydration in concrete. This
unique attribute makes it ideal for mass concrete pours where the rate of temperature rise and
the maximum temperature achieved must be controlled in order to reduce the risk of thermal
cracking.
Benefits of Low Heat Cement

• Assists in minimising the potential for thermal cracking in thick concrete sections
• Significantly improved later-age concrete strengths
• Improved durability performance
• Increased workability and pumpability with large pours
Low Heat Cement is ideal for mass concrete applications, including:

• Constructing dams
• Large footings, large raft slabs, wind turbine plinths
• Very high strength concrete
➢ Type V High sulphate resistant cement

For use when high sulfate resistance is desired.
When concrete is exposed to highly alkaline soil or water having high sulphate content then this
type is used.
This cement has a low C3A content so as to avoid sulphate attack from outside the concrete.
Otherwise the formation of calcium sulphoaluminate and gypsum would cause disruption of
concrete due to an increase in volume of resultant compounds.
Standard Specification for Hydraulic Cement / C 1157

(When the type is not specified, the requirements of type GU shall apply)
➢ Type GU—Hydraulic cement for general construction. Use when one or more of the
special types are not required.
➢ Type HE—High Early-Strength
➢ Type MS—Moderate Sulfate Resistance
➢ Type HS—High Sulfate Resistance
➢ Type MH—Moderate Heat of Hydration
➢ Type LH—Low Heat of Hydration
➢ Additional Options
• Option R (low reactivity with alkali-silica-reactive aggregates)
• Option A (air-entraining)
Physical Properties
SETTING
➢ Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement fineness,
water-cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and admixtures.
Setting tests are used to characterize how a particular cement paste sets.
➢ Setting refers to describe the stiffening of the cement paste. Broadly speaking setting
refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid state.
➢ The difference between hardening and setting is that in hardening it gains strength of a
cement paste.
Setting times can give some indication of whether or not cement is undergoing
normal hydration (PCA, 1988). Normally, two setting times are defined (Mindess and Young,
1981):
Initial set:
It occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably. The initial setting corresponds to
a rapid rise in temperature.
Final set:
➢ Occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some load.
The Final setting corresponds to the peak temperature.
➢ For construction purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and the final set must not
be too late. The setting time of cement decreases with a rise in temperature but above
about 30˚C a reverse effect may observe. At low temperature setting is retarded.
False Set:
False set is the name given to the abnormal premature stiffening of cement within a few
minutes of mixing with water. It differs from flash set in that no appreciable heat is
evolved, and remixing the cement paste without addition of water restores plasticity of
the paste until it sets in the normal manner and without a loss of strength.
Causes of false Set

➢ The dehydration of gypsum when interground with too hot clinker: hemihydrates
(CaSO4.1/2H2O) or anhydrate (CaSO4) are formed and when the cement is mixed with
water these hydrate to form needle-shaped crystal of gypsum. Thus plaster set takes
place with a resulting stiffening of the paste.
➢ False set may associated with the alkalis in the cement. During storage they may
carbonate and alkali carbonates react with Ca (OH)2 liberated by the hydrolysis of C3S
to form CaCO3. This precipitates and induces a rigidity of the paste.
➢ False set can be due to the activation of the C3S by aeration at moderately high
humidity’s. Water is adsorbed on the grains of cement and these freshly activated
surfaces can combine very rapidly with more water during mixing: this rapid hydration
would produce false set.
FINENESS
➢ Fineness or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and thus the rate of
strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area-to-volume ratio
and thus the more area available for water-cement interaction per unit volume. The
effects of greater fineness on strength are generally seen during the first seven days
(PCA, 1988).
➢ The cost of grinding to a higher fineness is considerable and also the finer the cement
the more rapidly it deteriorates on exposure to the atmosphere. Finer cement leads to a
stronger reaction with alkali-reactive aggregates and makes a paste, though not
necessarily concrete, exhibiting a higher shrinkage and a greater proneness to cracking.
However, fine cement bleeds less than a coarser one. The water content of a paste of
standard consistence is greater the fine cement and an increase in fineness of cement
slightly improve the workability of a concrete mix.
➢ An increase in fineness increases the amount of gypsum required for proper retardation
because, in a finer cement, more C3A is available for early hydration
SOUNDNESS
➢ When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened
cement paste to retain its volume after setting without delayed destructive expansion
(PCA, 1988). This destructive expansion is caused by excessive amounts of free lime
(CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most Portland cement specifications limit magnesia content
and expansion. The typical expansion test places a small sample of cement paste into
an autoclave (a high pressure steam vessel). The autoclave is slowly brought to 2.03
MPa (295 psi) then kept at that pressure for 3 hours. The autoclave is then slowly
brought back to room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The change in specimen
length due to its time in the autoclave is measured and reported as a percentage.
ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for Portland cement specifies a maximum
autoclave expansion of 0.80 percent for all Portland cement types.
➢ Calcium sulphate is the third compound to cause expansion. In this case calcium sulpho-
aluminate is formed. It may be recalled that a hydrate of calcium sulphate-gypsum is
added to cement clinker in order to prevent flash setting. If gypsum is present in excess
of the amount that can react with C3A during s setting, unsoundness in the form of few
low expansion will result. For this reason a limited amount of gypsum should be added to
clinker.
STRENGTH
Cement paste strength is typically defined in three
ways: compressive, tensile and flexural. These strengths can be affected by a number
of items including: water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, type and grading of
fine aggregate, manner of mixing and molding specimens, curing conditions, size and
shape of specimen, moisture content at time of test, loading conditions and age
(Mindess and Young, 1981). Since cement gains strength over time, the time at which
strength test is to be conducted must be specified. Typically times are 1 day (for high
early strength cement), 3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 90 days (for low heat of hydration
cement). When considering cement paste strength tests, there are two items to
consider:
• Cement mortar strength is not directly related to concrete strength. Cement paste
strength is typically used as a quality control measure.
• Strength tests are done on cement mortars (cement + water + sand) and not on cement
pastes.
Compressive Strength
The most common strength test, compressive strength, is carried out on a 50 mm (2-
inch) cement mortar test specimen. The test specimen is subjected to a compressive
load (usually from a hydraulic machine) until failure. This loading sequence must take
no less than 20 seconds and no more than 80 seconds. Table 3.15 shows ASTM C 150
compressive strength specifications.
Table: ASTM C150 Portland cement Mortar Compressive Strength Specifications in MPa
(psi)
Portland Cement Type
Curing Time
I IA II IIA III IIIA IV V
12.4 10.0
1 day - - - - - -
(1800) (1450)
12.4 10.0 10.3 8.3 24.1 19.3 8.3
3 days -
(1800) (1450) (1500) (1200) (3500) (2800) (1200)
19.3 15.5 17.2 13.8 6.9 15.2
7 days - -
(2800) (2250) (2500) (2000) (1000) (2200)
17.2 20.7
28 days - - - - - -
(2500) (3000)
Note: Type II and IIA requirements can be lowered if either an optional heat of hydration or
chemical limit on the sum of C3S and C3A is specified
The standard cement mortar compressive strength test is:
• AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
(Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens)
• ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using Portions of
Prisms Broken in Flexure)
Tensile Strength
Although still specified by ASTM, the direct tension test does not provide any useful
insight into the concrete-making properties of cements. It persists as a specified test
because in the early years of cement manufacture, it used to be the most common test
since it was difficult to find machines that could compress a cement sample to failure.
Flexural Strength
Flexural strength (actually a measure of tensile strength in bending) is carried out on a
40 x 40 x 160 mm (1.57-inch x 1.57-inch x 6.30-inch) cement mortar beam. The beam is
then loaded at its center point until failure.
The standard cement mortar flexural strength test is:
• ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
Physical Properties [ASTM C 150]

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Good cement possesses following properties (which depend upon its chemical composition,
thoroughness of burning and fineness of grinding).
➢ Provides strength to masonry.
➢ Stiffens or hardens early.
➢ Possesses good plasticity.
➢ An excellent building material.
➢ Easily workable.
➢ Good moisture resistant
USES OF CEMENT
Following are the various uses of cement:

➢ It is used in cement mortar for masonry work, plastering, pointing, etc.
➢ It is used for making joints for pipes, drains etc.
➢ It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars
etc.
➢ It is employed for manufacturing precast pipes, Piles, fencing posts etc.
➢ It is used in the construction of important-engineering structures such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels, light houses etc.
➢ It is used in the preparation of foundations, water tight floors, footpaths etc.
➢ It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts,
telephone cabins, roads etc.
COMPARISON BETWEEN CEMENT AND LIME
The comparison between cement and lime as shown in figure below
Aspects Cement Lime

White greyish
Colour Greenish grey
Slaking Does not slake when wetted with water Slakes when wetted with water
Setting Sets rapidly when mixed with water Sets slowly when mixed with water
Strength Artificial cement possesses more strength Possesses less strength
Suitability Can be used for important and heavy Cannot be used for important and
engineering structures heavy engineering structures
STORAGE OF CEMENT
The following precautions should be taken in the storage of cement:

 Cement should be stored in special water-tight shed with a dry damp-proof floor, water-
proof walls and leak-proof roof on the top.
 The cement bags should be placed at a distance of 30 cm from the walls. Stacks of
bags should be of such a height as can be easily handled.
 Cement bags should be so arranged that they can be used on the principle of "first
come first served".
 Cement bags should be stacked close together to avoid free circulation of air.
 Storing of cement during rainy season should be avoided.
 Cement bags should not be placed directly on floors; planks or iron sheets may be
placed underneath to guard against dampness.
 As far as possible, the storing of cement for a long period should be avoided.
 When cement is to be stored in bulk form, it should be stored in air tight cylindrical
containers, known as silos or bins.
TESTING OF CEMENT
Consistency Test
Objective
To determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement pastes of standard
consistency for other tests (e.g., setting time, soundness and compressive strength tests).
.
Apparatus
Vicat's apparatus
 It consists of a metal frame to which is attached a movable rod weighing 300 g (along
with cap and attachment) and having diameter and length as 10 mm and 50 mm
respectively. The movable rod is provided with a releasing pin to let the rod free and is
attached with an indicator to take readings on a vertical scale which is graduated from 0
to 40 mm in either direction which gives the penetration.
 The Vicat mould is in the form of a cylinder (it can be split into two halves) and is placed
on a non-porous plate.
 There are following three attachments:
• Square needle used for initial setting time test;
• Plunger used for consistency test;
• Annular collar used for final setting time test.
 The whole apparatus may be made of gun metal, aluminum or steel.
Figure: Vicat’s Apparatus
Method
The consistency is measured by the Vicat apparatus by using a 10 mm diameter plunger fitted
into the needle holder.
 A trial paste of cement (300 g) and water (30% by weight or 90 g) is mixed and placed
in the mould.
 The plunger is then brought into contact with the top surface of the paste and released.
 Under the action of its weight the plunger will penetrate the paste, the depth of
penetration depending on the consistency of the paste. This is considered to be the
standard when the plunger penetrates the paste to a point 5 to 7 mm from the bottom of
the mould.
 The water content of the standard paste is expressed as a percentage by weight of the
dry cement, the .usual range of values being between 26 and 33 per cent
Setting Times Test
Objective
 The object of this test is to check the initial and final setting times of the cement.
 The initial setting time is determined as to give sufficient time for various operations
such as mixing, transportation, placing and compaction of cement mortar or concrete.
 The final setting time is determined to find that after laying the mortar or concrete, the
hardening should be rapid so that the structure may be used as early as possible.
Apparatus
Vicat’s Apparatus
Method
Initial setting time
 The cement paste is prepared (as mentioned in the consistency test) and is filled in the
Vicat mould.
 A round (1.13  0.05 mm) or square needle with a cross-sectional area of 1 mm2 is
attached to the moving rod
 The needle is then quickly released and it is allowed to penetrate the cement paste.
 It is then taken out and dropped at a fresh place.
 The procedure is repeated at regular intervals till the paste stiffens sufficiently for the
needle to penetrate only to point about 5 mm (51) from the bottom; at this stage the
initial set is said to have taken place.
 Initial set is expressed as the time elapsed since the mixing water was added to the
cement.
 This time should be about 30 minutes for ordinary cement.
Precautions
 During the test, the temperature of water and cement paste should be kept within 27 ±
2°C and at an atmosphere of 90% relative humidity (it is ratio of mass of water vapor
present in a given volume of atmosphere at a given temperature, to the mass of vapors
required to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature).
 This test is performed at the same temperature and relative humidity as in the case of
consistency test.
Final setting time
 The cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in the Vicat mould.
 The needle with annular collar (1 mm square needle fitted with a metal attachment
hollowed out so as to leave a circular cutting edge 5 mm in diameter and set 0.5 mm
behind the top of the needle) is attached to the moving rod of the Vicat apparatus.
 Final set is said to have taken place when the needle, gently lowered to the surface of
the paste, makes an impression on it but the circular cutting edge fails to do so.
 The final setting time is reckoned from the moment when mixing water was added to the
cement. This time should be about 10 hours for ordinary cement.
 This test is performed at the same temperature and relative humidity as in the case of
consistency test.
According to specifications the setting times for ordinary, rapid hardening and low heat Portland
cements are
Type of British Standard (BS) Indian standard(IS)

cement
Initial setting time Final setting time Initial setting time Final setting time
Ordinary >45 min <10 hours >30 <10
Rapid
>45 min <10 hours >30 <10
Hardening
Blast-
>45 min <10 hours -- --
furnace
Low Heat >60 min <10 hours >60 <10
High 2 hours after
2-6 hours -- --
Alumina initial setting time
Soundness test
Objective
To detect the presence of uncombined lime and magnesia in cement
Apparatus
Soundness of cement is tested with 'Le Chatelier apparatus'. It consists of a small brass cylinder
(30 mm dia., 30 mm high and 0.5 mm thick) split along its generatix (split does not exceed 0.5
mm). Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to the cylinder on either side of the split.
Figure: Le Chatelier Apparatus
Method
 The cement paste is prepared (the percentage of water is taken as determined in the
consistency test).
 The cylinder is placed on a glass plate and it is filled with the cement paste. It is
covered at the top with another glass plate. A small weight is placed on the top.
 The whole assembly is immersed in water at 24°C to 35°C for 24 hours. At the end of
that period the distance between the indicators is measure and
 The mould is immersed in water again and brought to boil in 30 minutes. After boiling
for one hour the mould is removed, and after cooling, the distance between the
indicators is again measured. The increase in this distance represents the expansion of
the cement and according to Indian standard specification it should not exceed 10 mm
for any type of Portland cement.
 If the expansion exceeds the above value, the cement is not rejected. A further test is
made after the cement has been spread and aerated for 7 days during which time,
some of the lime and magnesia may further hydrate or carbonate and a physical
breakdown in size may take place. At the end of 7 days, the Le Chatelier test is
repeated and the expansion of the aerated cement must not exceed 5 mm. Cement not
satisfying at least one of these tests should not be accepted.
Tensile Strength Test
Procedure
 A 1:3 cement sand mortar with a water content of 8 percent of the weight of the solids is
mixed and molded into a briquette of the shape shown in Figure below
Figure: Briquette for Tensile strength Test
 The briquettes are moulded in a standard manner, cured for 24 hours at a temperature
of 18 to 20°C for 24 hours in an atmosphere of at 90 per cent relative humidity, and
tested in direct tension, the pull being applied through special jaws engaging the wide
ends of the briquette.
 Average strength for six briquettes tested after 3 and 7 days should not be less than 2,0
N/mm2 and 2.5 N/mm2 respectively.
Compressive Strength Test
Objectives
This test is carried out to determine the suitability of cement for developing required
compressive strength of concrete and mortar.
Procedure
 The test is performed on 1:3 cement mortar cubes made by gauging 185 g of cement
555 g of standard sand and 74 g of water.
 As per Indian standard specifications average compressive strength for three cubes
should not be less than 11.5 N/mm2 and 17.5 N/mm2 after 2 and 7 days respectively.
Field tests for cement
In order to ascertain the quality of cement roughly, the following four field tests are carried out:
1. Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with age, the date of
manufacturing of cement bags should be checked.
2. Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should be typical cement
colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade.
3. Whether Hard Lumps are Formed: Cement should be free from hard lumps. Such
lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
4. Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it should
be cool inside the cement bag. If hydration reaction takes place inside the bag, it will
become warm.
5. Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it should
give smooth feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
6. Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown to the water, it should float
some time before finally sinking.
7. Smell of Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky between
the fingers. If the cement contains too much pounded clay and silt as an adulterant, the
paste will give an earthy smell.
8. Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass
plate and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
9. Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with water is
made. The block is then immersed under water for three days. After removing, it is
supported 150mm apart and a weight of 15kg uniformly placed over it. If it shows no
sign of failure the cement is good.
10. Briquette Test: The briquettes of a lean mortar (1:6) are made. The size of briquette
may be about 75 mm ×25 mm ×12 mm. They are immersed in water for a period of 3
days after drying. If cement is of sound quality such briquettes will not be broken easily.
Ordinary Portland cement

 This is by far the most common cement in use.
 It has medium rate of strength development and heat generation.
 It has adequate resistance to dry shrinkage and cracking, but has less resistance to
chemical attack.
Uses
 It is admirably suitable for use in general concrete construction when there is no
exposure to sulphates in the soil or in ground water.
 It is used in small structures where heat of hydration will not cause any problem.
Modified Portland cement

This cement, on setting, develops less heat of hydration than ordinary Portland cement.
Uses
Due to lower heat of hydration it can be employed in hot climates and for construction of
heavy abutments, large piers, retaining walls etc; where sulphate content is not high.
Rapid hardening Portland cement

 It is also known as High early strength cement.
 It contains large proportion of lime and other constituents are the same as for ordinary
Portland cement.
 It is prepared more carefully and burnt at a higher temperature than that of an ordinary
Portland cement.
 The strength developed at the age of 3 days is of the same order as the 7 days strength
of ordinary portland cement with same water-cement ratio. The increased rate of gain of
strength of this cement is achieved by a higher C3S content and by finer grinding of the
cement clinker. It is ground finer and has specific surface not less than 3250 cm2/g.
 It is ligher than ordinary Portland cement.
 The curing period is short, hence it is economical.
Uses
It is used where a rapid strength development is required; e.g., when frame work is to be
removed early for re-use, or where sufficient strength for further construction is wanted as
quickly as practicable.
Extra rapid hardening cement

 This type of cement is obtained by intergrinding calcium chloride with rapid hardening
Portland cement. The quantity of calcium chloride should not exceed 3 percent.
 Its strength is about 25 percent higher than that of rapid hardening cement at 1 or 2
days and 10 to 20 percent higher at 7 days.
Low heat Portland cement:

 It contains a low percentage (about 5%) of tricalcium silicate (C3S) which hydrates
quickly and a higher percentage (about 46%) of dicalcium silicate (C2S) which hydrates
slowly.
 It contains less lime than ordinary cement; other materials remain the same as in the
case of ordinary cement.
 The initial setting time is about one hour and final setting time is about 10 hours.
Uses
During the setting action of cement, a considerable amount of heat is produced, in order to
reduce the amount of heat; this type of cements is used. It is mainly used for massive
concrete work.
Sulphate resisting Portland cement
 In this cement, the percentage of trlcalcium aluminates (C3A) is kept below 5 percent
and it results in the increase in resisting power against sulphates.
 The heat developed by this type of cement is not much higher than that of low heat
cement. Theoretically it is ideal cement but because of the special requirement for the
composition of the raw materials used in its manufacture, sulphate-resisting cement
cannot be easily and cheaply made.
Uses
It is used at places where sulphate action is severe. It is employed for structures which are
likely to be damaged by severe alkaline conditions such as canal linings, culverts, Siphons
etc.
Water-repellent Portland cement

 Water repellent cement for use in place of ordinary Portland cement to overcome
capillary absorption of moisture into cement mortar, cement plaster and concrete.
Purpose
For preventing loss of water from water-containing structures. For reducing moisture
movement, crazing, efflorescence and moisture penetration. For reducing rising damp
in brickwork when used in mortar.
Applications
Suitable for reducing permeability in concrete tanks, reservoirs, sewerage works,
cellars, basement walls and floors, garage pits, walls and precast stone.
Quick setting cement:

 It contains less percentage of gypsum (retarder) and is ground much finer than ordinary
Portland cement. The setting action is accelerated by adding a small percentage of
Aluminium sulphate, during grinding.
 It is costlier than ordinary Portland cement.
 Its initial and final setting times are 5 minutes and 30 minutes respectively.
 The setting action of such a cement starts within 5 minutes and it becomes stone-hard
in less than half an hour.
Uses
Due to its quick setting property it is used in works where concrete is to be placed under
water or in running water.
Blast furnace slag cement:

 It is made by intergrinding Portland cement clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag,
the proportion of the latter not exceeding 65 per cent of the weight of the mixture.
 It has lower evolution of heat.
 It is more resistant to attack of weathering agencies.
 It is cheaper than ordinary Portland cement.
 Its colour is blackish grey
 Its initial setting time is not less than 30 minutes. Its final setting time is not more than
10 hours.
Uses
 It can be -used in mass concrete structures (since its heat of hydration is lower than that
of ordinary Portland cement). However, in cold weather, the low heat of hydration of
blast-furnace slag cement, coupled with a moderately low rate of strength development
can lead to frost damage.
 This cement should not be used in thin R.C.C. structures since its early strength is less.
Because of its fairly high sulphate resistance, this type of cement is frequently used in
sea water construction.
White cement:
 White Portland cement is made from raw materials containing very little iron oxide and
manganese oxide. China clay is generally used, together with chalk or limestone free
from specified impurities. Oil is used as fuel for the kiln in order to avoid contamination
by coal ash. Since iron acts as flux in clinkering, its absence necessitates high kiln
temperatures but sometimes cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) is added as a flux.
Contamination of the cement with iron during grinding has also to be avoided. For this
reason, the rather inefficient pebble grinding is used instead of a usual ball mill,
although nickel and molybdenum alloy balls have been introduced. The cost of grinding
is thus higher, and this, coupled with the more expensive raw materials makes white
cement rather expensive.
 It dries quickly
 It possesses high strength.
 It has superior aesthetic values.
 It should not set earlier than 30 minutes.
 It should be carefully transported and stored in closed container only.
Uses
 It is used for floor finish, plaster work, ornamental work etc.
 It is also used as mortars for marbles and tiles.
 Miscellaneous applications of white cement include swimming pools (where it replace
the use of glazed tiles with coloured shades usable under water), moulding sculptures
and statues, painting garden furniture etc.
 It also employed for ready mixed concrete and precast concrete blocks.
Supersulphate cement
 It is made by intergrinding a mixture of 80 to 85% of granulated slag with 10 to 15% of
calcium sulphate and about 5% Portland cement clinker and ground to a fineness of
4000 to 5000 cm2/g.
 It is highly resistant to sea-water.
 It can withstand the highest concentration of sulphates normally found in soil or ground
water.
 It also offers resistance to peaty acids and oils.
 The heat of hydration of this type of cement is low.
 Its compressive strength should not be less than 15 N/mm2, 22 N/mm2 and 30 N/mm1
after 3 days, 7 days and 28 days respectively.
 This type of cement should not be mixed with other cements.
 It combines chemically with more water than is required for the hydration of Portland
cement, so that concrete with water-cement ratio less than 0.5 should not be made and
mixes richer than 1:6 (cement: total aggregate) are not recommended.
Uses
 Supersulphated cement can be used in all cases where normal cements are used
except in very hot weather.
 It is used in variety of agressive conditions, for example, marine works, mass concrete
jobs to resist the attack of aggressive water; reinforced concrete pipes in ground water,
concrete construction in sulphate bearing soils.
 It has been use" for the undersides of bridges, over railways tracks and for concrete
sewers, carrying industrial effluents.
Masonry cement
 It is prepared by intergrinding a mixture of Portland cement clinker with inert materials
(non-pozzolanic) such as limestone, dolomite limestone and dolomite gypsum and an
air-entraining plasticizer in suitable proportion.
 Its initial and final setting times are 90 minutes and 24 hours respectively.
 Its compressive strength is 2.5 N/mm2 for 7 days.
 Because of its property of producing a smooth, plastic, cohesive, strong yet workable
mortar when mixed with fine aggregate, masonry cement is superior to lime-mortar,
lime-cement mortar and cement mortar.
Colored Cement
 Colored cements are prepared by adding 5 to 15 percent of suitable coloring pigment
before the cement is finally ground.
• Iron oxides is added to give red and yellow colors
• Chromium oxide provides green color
• Cobalt oxide provides blue color
 Colored cements are also known as Colourcrete
 These are much costlier than the ordinary cement
Uses
These cements are widely used for finishing floors, external surfaces, artificial marble, stair
treads, textural panel faces and window slabs etc.
Expanding cement
 It is produced by adding an expanding medium like sulpho-aluminate and a stabilizing
agent to the ordinary cement.
 This cement expands whereas other cements shrink.
Uses
 It is used for the construction of water retaining structures
 It is also employed for repairing the damaged concrete surfaces
Portland Pozzolana cement

 It is an interground blended mixture of cement and pozzolana.
 In the manufacture of cement about 25% of pozzolanic material is added to the ordinary
cement clinkers and mix is thoroughly ground.
Advantage
 Possesses higher tensile strength
 Evolves less heat during setting
 Attains compressive strength with age.
 Offers great resistance to expansion.
 Imparts higher degree of water-tightness.
 Imparts plasticity and workability to mortar and concrete prepared from this type of
cement.
 Offers higher resistance to chemical attack and to the action of sea water.
 Not costly.
Disadvantages
 Less compressive strength in early days
 Less resistance to erosion and weathering action
Uses
 It is widely used for hydraulic structures (mass concrete works) such as dams, wiers
etc.
 It is also used in sewage works and for laying concrete under water.
CEMENT WATER PROOFERS

 Cement mortar or concrete, rich in cement, becomes fairly water-tight when set.
However, addition of certain water proofers to cement mortar or concrete, during
mixing, makes them absolutely water-tight on setting. These water proofers render
mortar or concrete water-tight either by filling the pores physically or reacting
chemically.
 The water proofers may be in powder, paste or liquid forms. The amount to be added
must be in accordance with the instructions of the manufactures; generally the following
proportions are used :
• 2 to 5 per cent ... when in powder form
• 1 part paste and 10 parts water ... when in paste form
• 1 liter liquid and 15 liters water. .. when in liquid form
The water proofers are required for all water retaining structures especially for:
• Swimming pools
• Basements
• Hospitals
• Refrigeration rooms
• Cold storages
• Water supply and sewage works
• Exterior plaster
• Bath rooms and kitchens
• Reservoirs.

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CE 2105 (Engineering Material)

Cement conforming to EN 197-1, termed CEM (Calcium-enriched mixture) cement, shall,

Classification (Details will be discussed in the later portion of the topic)

COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Main Compounds of Portland Cement

Minor Compounds of Portland Cement

Usual Composition Limits of Portland Cement Oxide and Compound Compositions of a

 The insoluble residue is a measure of adulteration of cement arising from impurities in

❖ Mineral Constituents of Portland Cement

Chemical Composition [as per ASTM C 150]

Two primary mechanism:

Hrdration of Calcium Silicates

Hrdration of Tricalcium Aluminates

Fig: Hydration mechanism of C3A in

If too much gypsum (or another sulfate source) is present-

Wheb insufficient gypsum is available-

Hydration of Ferrite Phase

Fig. Strength contribution of major

Determination of progress of hydration of cement

➢ The amount of Ca(OH)2 in the paste

MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Raw material of Portland cement

Collection of raw material

Crushing, grinding and preparation of cement Slurry

Figure: general layout of rotary kiln

Figure: Diagrammatic representation of Wet process of manufacture of cement

Figure: Diagrammatic representation of Dry process of manufacture of cement

Portland cement clinker (K)

Granulated blastfurnace slag (S)

ASTM C 219-94 gives the definition as:

Pozzolanic materials (P, Q)

ASTM C 125 / ASTM C 219

Fly ashes (V, W)

[Classification: According to ASTM, please study the following manual.

Burnt shale (T)

Limestone (L, LL)

Silica fume (D)

Minor additional constituents

Composition and notation

CEM I Portland cement

ASTM Types of Cement

➢ Type IA Normal + air entrained agents

➢ Type II Moderate sulphate resistant cement

➢ Type IIA Moderate sulphate resistant cement + air entrained agents

➢ Type III High early strength cement / Rapid hardening cement

➢ Type IIIA High early strength cement + air entrained agents

➢ Type IV Low heat cement

Benefits of Low Heat Cement

Low Heat Cement is ideal for mass concrete applications, including:

➢ Type V High sulphate resistant cement

Standard Specification for Hydraulic Cement / C 1157

Causes of false Set

Physical Properties [ASTM C 150]

Following are the various uses of cement:

COMPARISON BETWEEN CEMENT AND LIME

The comparison between cement and lime as shown in figure below

Aspects Cement Lime

The following precautions should be taken in the storage of cement:

Figure: Vicat’s Apparatus