Woodwool Slabs - Production, Properties and Use: January 1994

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Woodwool slabs - production, properties and use
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Woodwool Slabs
– Manufacture, Properties and Use
by Erik Johansson
Contents
Acknowledgements 4
1 Introduction 4
Problem 4
Method 4
Organization of the report 4
2 General considerations 5
History of woodwool slabs 5
Production 5
Properties 6
Products and uses 6
3 Recommendations for production 7
Manufacturing process 7
Quality control 10
Plant 10
Equipment 10
Staff 11
Setting up the plant 12
Consumption of raw materials and energy 12
Production costs 12
4 Choice of wood 14
Technical requirements for the wood 14
Availability of the wood 14
Improving the compatibility of the wood
with cement 14
Tests of suitability 14
5 Properties 15
Thermal properties 15
Strength 15
Acoustic properties 16
Fire performance 16
Moisture properties 17
Erik Johansson was born in Sweden in 1963. Durability 17
He holds a master’s degree in Civil Engineering from Emissions of harmful compounds 17
Lund University. Since graduation he has done research 6 Quality control 18
on building materials, and has participated in develop-
Size and density 18
ment research projects on building technique and build-
Strength 18
ing materials in Tunisia, Algeria and Ethiopia. He is
engaged as a researcher at Lund Centre for Habitat Other tests 18
Studies and at the Division of Building Materials, the 7 Applications 19
Institute of Technology, Lund University. Exterior walls 19
His master’s thesis dealt with water leakage in flat Roofs and ceilings 22
roofs in Tunisia, and he wrote a Building Issue on the Surface finishes 23
topic in 1989. He is the house expert on football and
spends all his free time out in the Swedish rain cheering References 24
on his home team Malmö FF. Appendix 26
3
Volume 6 • Number 3 Building Issues 1994
Acknowledgements 1 Introduction
I would like to acknowledge some of the help I received Problem
during this study.
Thermal insulation is important to improve indoor cli-
First I would like to thank Mr Bengt Rääf (Production
mate and save energy in a building. The use of thermal
Manager) and Mr Lennart Rääf of Tepro Byggmaterial,
insulation materials are, however, often limited in devel-
Österbymo, Sweden, for their generous hospitality on the
oping countries. There are several reasons, for example:
many occasions they invited me, and my colleagues, to
their factory and for the time they took to • The advantages of thermal insulation materials are not
discuss the production and use of woodwool slabs. known.
Invaluable information on the production and use of • Local thermal insulation materials are not available.
woodwool slabs was provided by Elten Systems, • Imported thermal insulation materials are expensive
Barne-veld, the Netherlands, who also commented on the and require foreign currency.
draft report. I am very grateful to Mr John de Wit (Divi-
• Use of thermal insulation materials requires modifi-
sion Manager) and Mr Arnold Plak (Export Manager).
cation in current building methods.
My visit to Climatex Indústria de Madeira
Minerali-zada, Porto Alegre, Brazil, greatly increased This reports deals with woodwool slabs, a well tested
my knowl-edge about woodwool slabs and their use. I thermal insulation material that can be made locally in
would like to thank Mr Carlos Roberto Simm (Opera- most countries. Because of their versatility, woodwool
tions Direc-tor), Mr Luiz Sergio Bocchese, Mr Werner slabs are easy to integrate with most construction tech-
Dopheide, and Mr Romildo Feijó da Rosa for their warm niques.
reception, hospitality and willingness to provide infor- Many of the materials traditionally used in contempo-
mation. rary buildings – bricks, concrete, stone, soil block, etc. –
Last but not least, thanks to Ms Rosane Bauer, Archi- have poor thermal insulation capacity. To reach the same
tect, who participated in the Architecture & Develop- thermal insulation as 100 mm of woodwool slab requires
ment course at LCHS in 1993. She acted as guide and about 4 m natural stone, 1.8 m concrete, 700 mm soil
translator during my visit to Porto Alegre. block or concrete hollow block and 500 mm hollow
brick.
Erik Johansson
Method
This report is primarily based on the experience gained
from a research cooperation between Lund University,
Division of Building Materials and LCHS, and the
National Centre for Building Research and Studies
(CNERIB) in Algeria during the period 1991–1993. This
project, which included test production of wood-wool
slabs with Algerian woods and full scale tests of the
slabs in building components, laid the foundation for in-
troducing woodwool slabs on the Algerian market.
Visits were made to modern, completely automated
factories in Sweden and the Netherlands. A semi-auto-
mated, labour intensive factory was studied in Brazil.
Detailed studies were also made on the use of woodwool
slabs in these countries.
The report is also based on a study of the literature,
including a large part of all the material on woodwool
slabs written over the years.
Organization of the report

The report is divided into two parts. The first part in-
cludes Chapter 1, the background to the study, Chapter 2,
a short description of the production, properties and use
of woodwool slabs, and Chapter 3, a description of how
woodwool slabs can be produced industrially in develop-
ing countries.
The second part includes Chapter 4, choosing an ap-
propriate wood, Chapter 5, the properties of woodwool
slabs, Chapter 6, quality control, and Chapter 7 examples
of use.
4
Building Issues 1994 Volume 6 • Number 3
2 General considerations
History of woodwool slabs
Slabs of woodwool (excelsior), gypsum and water were
patented in Germany already in 1880. During the 1910s
production of woodwool slabs with magnesite as the
binding agent (patented 1908) started in Austria. Magne-
site1 gave better durability than gypsum.
Portland cement was introduced at the end of the
1920s, and is the most common binder today, which is
why they are commonly called woodwool cement slabs Fig. 1 Making woodwool in a vertical wood shredding machine
and, in North America, cement excelsior boards (CEB). (Tepro, Sweden). Shredders sold today are horizontal.
See Figs 9 and 10.
For a long time woodwool slabs were made in Germany
with either gypsum, magnesite or cement as binder.
Gypsum slabs are no longer made.
duces the amount of sugar and other compounds in the
The technique to produce woodwool slabs – mainly
wood that inhibit setting of the slabs, and lowers the
cement-bonded, but even magnesite-bonded – spread
moisture content (shredding is more difficult with green
quickly from Austria and Germany to other European
wood).
countries and North America. A great increase in pro-
To make woodwool, a half metre long log is placed in
duction occurred during the years before and after the
a shredding machine (Fig. 1) fitted with scoring knives
second world war, and woodwool slabs were spread even
perpendicular to the planing knives. The cross section of
farther geographically.
the woodwool is determined by adjusting the speed with
At first cement-bonded woodwool slabs were pro-
which the log is fed toward the planing knife, and the
duced by hand in small plants. The equipment was lim-
distance between the scoring knives. The thickness of the
ited to wood shredding machines, to make the wood-
woodwool can vary between 0.2 – 0.5 mm, and the width
wool, and a mixer. Manufacture became more and more
between 1.5 – 5 mm depending on how the slab will be
mechanized over the years, with significantly high pro-
used. The amount of woodwool in a slab varies between
duction capacity. Modern factories are normally fully
about 75 – 200 kg depending on the density of the slab.
mechanized, and about 15 persons can produce up to 150
m3 slabs a day. Binder
The most commonly used wood for woodwool slabs The most commonly used binder in woodwool slabs is
comes from conifers, mainly pines and firs. During the Portland cement, but magnesite can also be used. The
1960s a great number of other species were tested, in- Portland cement is normally of ordinary type (OPC),
cluding tropical woods, to see if they could be used for although rapid-hardening cement can be used to make
woodwool slabs. A number of species were suitable, the setting faster. Sometimes white cement is used for
which led to production of woodwool slabs on other con- aesthetic reasons.
tinents. There is currently production in Africa (Ghana, For magnesite-bonded slabs the binder can be said to
Malawi, Namibia, Zambia), Asia (Burma, India, Indone- be magnesium oxide (MgO), one of the components of
sia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand) magnesia cement.
and Latin America (Brazil, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Vene- The amount of binder depends on the density of the
zuela). Production in these countries varies in the degree woodwool slab, and varies between about 150 and
of mechanization – everything from manual to com- 400 kg/m3.
pletely automated.
Binder additives
Normally some kind of binder additive is necessary. The
Production setting of the Portland cement and water mixture can be
The components needed for woodwool slabs are wood- inhibited to greater or lesser extent by sugars and other
wool, binder (Portland cement or magnesite) and water. chemicals in the woodwool. An accelerator is therefore
Normally a small amount of binder additive is added to often added so that the slabs set within 24 hours. The
speed up setting. most common accelerator is calcium chloride (CaCl2).
The amount of accelerator depends on the kind of wood,
Making woodwool but is usually about 2% by weight of the water.
Woodwool can be made from a number of woods. To For magnesite-bonded slabs the binder additive is ei-
make production easier, the wood should allow easy ther magnesium chloride (MgCl2) or magnesium sul-
shredding (have a low density) and not contain com- phate (MgSO4).
pounds that seriously inhibit the setting of the slab.
Usually the tree trunks are air-dried (seasoned) before
cutting into logs and shredding to woodwool. This re-
1 The binder is actually magnesia cement, produced by mixing magnesium oxide (MgO) with a solution of magnesium chloride (MgCl2) or sulphate
(MgSO4). The magnesium oxide is produced by heating minerals such as magnesite (MgCO3) or dolomite (Ca(MgCO3)2).
5
Density Thermal conductivity

Material (kg/m3) (W/mK)
Woodwool slab 400 0.085
Cellular plastic, mineral wool 20 – 50 0.036
Lightweight concrete 400 0.10
Softwood 500 0.14
Hollow brick 800 0.47
Table 1 Comparison of density and thermal conductivity
(values in practice) for woodwool slabs and some other
materials.
Other properties
Woodwool slabs have very good acoustic properties and
are often used to absorb sound in, for example, factories,
public gathering places, sports and concert halls.
The material is known for its good durability. It has
Fig. 2 Mould filled to overflowing with a mixture of wood-
wool, cement and water before compressing very good fire resistance, tolerates damp and is not at-
(Tepro, Sweden). tacked by mould or rot. Woodwool slabs have good re-
sistance to insect pests, as termites.
Compared to many other insulation materials, wood-
Water wool slabs have good bending and compression strength.
The water should not contain anything that would They are easy to saw, drill and nail. They have good
inhibit the setting of the slabs. The amount of water adhesion to rendering/plastering mortars and concrete.
required is about 50% of the cement by weight. The material is considered to be healthy, since it has very
Mixing low emissions of harmful compounds.
Before the woodwool is mixed with the binder, it is
soaked in a water bath containing the binder additive. Products and uses
The wet woodwool is transferred to a mixer, where dry
binder is added.2 Insulation slabs
The ratio by weight of binder to woodwool is about Insulation slabs are normally made of relatively coarse
2:1. There are small variations from this ratio. Since the woodwool (3 – 5 mm wide). They are used for thermal
binder normally is the most expensive part of the wood- insulation, and are normally not visible but rendered/
wool slab, attempts are made to use as little as possible. plastered. The slabs can be 2 – 3 m long, 500 – 900 mm
Too little binder, however, means that not all the wood- wide and 15 – 150 mm thick. Their density ranges from
wool is coated, which results in poorer binding and 250 – 700 kg/m3 depending on use. If thermal insulation
strength. capacity is important, they are made with low density; if
strength is important, they are made with high density.
Making the slabs
The mixture of woodwool, binder and water is put into Acoustic slabs
moulds which are filled with the required amount of Woodwool slabs meant for sound absorption are often
mixture by weight (Fig. 2). The moulds are then stacked made of finer woodwool (1.5 – 3 mm). These slabs are
on top of each other and put under pressure so that the visible, and they are often painted for aesthetic reasons.
mixture in each mould is compressed.3 They might also be made with white cement which gives
After the slabs have hardened, usually in 24 hours, them a whitewood colour. Acoustic slabs are usually 15
they are demoulded and the edges trimmed with a saw. – 50 mm thick.
They cure for two to three weeks before they are deliv- Special products
ered. There are also a number of special products. To increase
the loadbearing capacity for use in roof structures, the
Properties slabs might be reinforced with wooden poles or bars, or
the sides of the slabs can be strengthened with galva-
Thermal insulation nized steel channels (Fig. 4). These reinforced slabs can
Woodwool slabs give good thermal insulation. Thermal even be used as standing, loadbearing wall elements.
conductivity is, however, relative to their density (see In many countries the slabs are sold with a finished
Fig. 23). At a density of 400 kg/m3 the thermal conduc- surface. These might be a layer of cement-based mortar
tivity is about 0.085 W/mK in practice. A comparison of or gypsum plaster. The surfacing can be done so thinly
the thermal conductivity of woodwool slabs and some that the texture of the slab still shows (Fig. 5).
other materials is shown in Table 1.
2 Less commonly the binder and water are mixed before the woodwool is added. A small-scale process using this method of mixing is described in
Hawkes and Cox (1992).
3 Magnesite-bonded woodwool slabs can also be produced industrially in a continuous process during which the slabs are compressed and heated
to 400°C to make them cure faster (see Kollmann 1955).
6
3 Recommendations
for production
The manufacturing process recommended is in principle
the same as for more automated production. This means
the proposed plant can be gradually mechanized with
more equipment without alterations in the plant layout.
This description assumes the binder is Portland
cement. Magnesite can also be used according to
Chapter 2.
Manufacturing process
Debarking and air-drying (seasoning)
Immediately after felling, or at least before stacking in
the wood yard, the bark is removed from the trunks with
a debarking tool, such as a steel scraper.
The tree trunks should then be air dried until the
moisture content of the wood drops to the right level,
usually about 20 – 30%. This normally takes three to six
months and has to be done in open air.
Making woodwool
The trunks are cut into logs of about half a metre long
Fig. 3 Example of an insulation slab (above) and moved to the wood shredding machine on carts.
and an acoustic slab (below), life-size photographs. During shredding, the planing and scoring knives are ad-
(Tepro, Sweden). justed to produce the desired width and thickness of
woodwool strands.
Weighing and soaking woodwool
Dry woodwool is taken to the scales in a wheelbarrow
and the right amount for a batch is weighed. It is then
carried by hand and fed into an immersion tank. The im-
mersion tank is also filled with accelerator solution from
an attached container. (The amount and type of accelera-
tor in the solution depends on the type of wood, and it
can happen that no accelerator is needed).
Before the wet woodwool leaves the immersion tank,
it passes between rubber rollers to remove the excess
liquid. The woodwool is then carried by conveyer belt to
the mixer.
Adding the cement
Fig. 4 Cross section of slabs reinforced with wood (above) Cement is delivered to the plant in bags. The bags are
and galvanized steel channels (below). emptied into a container and the cement is transferred to
the mixer through screws. The correct amount of cement
for a batch is controlled by a cement dosing unit next to
the mixer.
Mixing and moulding
Wet woodwool and dry cement are mixed continuously
in a horizontal mixer. The homogenous mix is then
spread in oiled moulds that are pushed into place under
the mixer on a line of rollers. The amount of material in
the moulds depends on the density of slab to be pro-
duced. The mixture must be spread evenly in the mould
and pressed down along the edges. Note that gloves must
be used to avoid skin contact with the mixture, since ce-
Fig. 5 Slab coated with gypsum plaster, resulting in a smooth
ment is corrosive. (Skin contact with cement might even
surface that retains the texture of the slab lead to chrome allergy.)
(Climatex, Brazil).
7
Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

Debarking the tree trunks before they are air dried. Cutting the trunks into Debarked
half a metre long logs. and cut logs
stacked on carts.
Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13

Woodwool Dry woodwool is soaked in an immersion Continuous mixing of wet woodwool with cement,
is weighed manually tank and transported to the mixer. and filling the moulds. The mixture must be spread
before soaking. Before the wet woodwool reaches the conveyer belt, uniformly in the moulds and pressed down along
it goes between rubber rollers to press out excess the edges.
liquid.
Fig. 17 Fig. 18
Stripping the 24 hour old slabs. Stripping 24 hour old slabs (Climatex, Brazil).
8
Fig. 9 Fig. 10
Producing woodwool in a horizontal Shredding woodwool. As the log is fed down,
wood shredding machine. The logs are the planing and scoring knives go back and forth
fastened and pressed down against the planing horizontally at high speed.
and scoring knives by toothed rollers. The woodwool falls down under the shredder.
Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16

Filling the cement container Compression The slabs set under
that is connected to the mixer of filled moulds pressure for 24 hours.
by cement screws. in a hydraulic press. The required pressure
is maintained by a con-
crete slab weighing
about one ton.
Fig. 19 Fig. 20
After a weeks curing, the slabs are sawn to trim the edges Storing of slabs stacked on top of each other.
and ensure the correct length and width.
9
Compressing and setting fices, etc. Some of the machines require cast concrete
The filled moulds are stacked on top of each other and foundations. The plant should have sanitation facilities
compressed in a hydraulic press. The bottom of one and fire equipment.
mould becomes a lid on the mould under. Then the entire The plant yard should be large enough to allow
stack of filled moulds is moved and allowed to set for 24 air-drying of tree trunks.
hours. Pressure is maintained by, for example, placing a
concrete slab (weighing about one ton) on top of the
Equipment
stack.
The equipment needed for the suggested production pro-
Stripping cess is shown in Tables 2 – 4. Some of it must be im-
When the slabs have set they are stripped from the ported, and some should be available locally. The prices
moulds, and the moulds are cleaned and oiled for reuse. given are estimates for new imported equipment. The
Curing and trimming the edges placement of the equipment in the plant is shown in
The stripped slabs must be cured indoors or under cover, Fig. 21.
protected from direct sunlight. The best curing occurs if
the surrounding air is somewhat moist, so the slabs are Note that the equipment to make woodwool slabs is
not allowed to dry out. It is recommended that each stack very robust, and it is recommended that used equip-
of boards be covered with a plastic sheet during the first ment be bought if available.
week. To avoid high temperatures due to hydration, spac-
ers could be put between the boards. Item Number Code Cost (US$)
When the slabs are sufficiently hardened, say after
Wood shredding machines 2 2 130,000
one week, they can be sawn along both long and short
Immersion tank 1 5 56,000
sides to the correct size. Cement bag tipping unit 1 7 14,000
After a total of two to three weeks curing the slabs are Cement screws 2 8 19,000
ready for delivery. Cement dosing unit 1 9 16,000
Continuous mixer 1 10 54,000
Quality control Distribution station (mould supplier,
spreading machine, stripping table) 1 11 32,000
Quality is monitored by inspecting randomly selected Switch box 1 12 28,000
samples and should be routine at the plant (proprietary Hydraulic press 1 14 54,000
inspection) and, if possible, at an accredited testing cen- Grinding machine for wood shredding
tre. Chapter 6 gives recommendations on how to deter- machine planing knives 1 18 20,000
mine the quality of woodwool slabs. Set of spare parts and tools 1 – 27,000
Table 2 Equipment to be imported. Approximate cost 1 Dec
Proprietary inspection 1994 according to Elten Systems, the Netherlands.
The size and weight of one sample slab, of each product The code number shows the placement of the
made, should be checked each production day, and the equipment in the plant (Fig. 21).
findings entered in a permanent record.
Item Number Code
Monitoring by a testing centre
Bark removers (steel scrapers) 5 –
The plant’s own inspection should, if possible, be cor-
roborated by an independent testing centre, perhaps Saw to cut logs 1 1
twice a year. Manual fork-lifts 3 15
An overall inspection of each product should be done Saw blade grinding machine 1 17
regularly, perhaps once a year, by an accredited testing Air compressor 1 19
centre. The most important checks are size, density, Concrete blocks
(for compressing slabs in the moulds) 20 – 30 –
bending strength and compression strength.
Delivery pallets (for storage of slabs
and delivery to the customer) – –
Plant Oil for the hydraulic system 600 litres –
Oil and grease for machine maintenance – –
For the production process described, it is recommended Main transformer station with distribution station 1 –
that the plant be about 55 × 40 m with a height of at least Distribution system for process water – –
5 m. See the design in Fig. 21. This building is large Tools for the workshop – –
enough to permit increase automation without major al- Laboratory equipment for testing slabs – –
teration. There will be unused space at first, but this Basic electric installation material – –
space might well be used to produce prefabricated ele- Equipment for plant cleaning – –
ments. Containers for transport of waste – –
The plant should be serviced by roads suitable for lor-
Table 3 Equipment normally available locally.
ries. It needs to be connected to water and electricity.
Lighting is necessary, and possibly even heating. Some
partition walls are needed to separate the workshop, of-
10
Fig. 21 Design for a semi-automated plant.

(Detailed proposals for plants with different degrees of automation are available from Elten Systems, the Netherlands.)
Item Number Code Cost (US$)

Staff
Scales for woodwool 1 3 10,000 For production 22 labourers (see Table 5), a supervisor
Salt solution preparation unit 1 4 20,000 and a maintenance engineer are needed, which makes a
Woodwool conveyor 1 6 28,000 total of 24 production staff. There are also administra-
Roller conveyor 1 13 6,000 tors, sales and marketing staff, etc.
Edge trimming station 1 16 47,000
No. of
Table 4 Equipment that might be purchased locally. Tasks workers
Approximate cost 1 Dec. 1994 according to Elten
Systems if the equipment is imported. Slab production
Debarking tree trunks, sawing into logs, shredding
Moulds and transport of woodwool to scales. 3
It is recommended that the moulds have bottoms of wa- Weighing woodwool and loading the immersion tank 1
ter-resistant plywood and sides of wood strips, see Fig. Preparation of accelerator solution, filling cement,
22. The plywood should be about 20 mm thick and pref- cleaning, oiling, etc. 2
erably be surface treated with phenolic resin. The edge Filling and spreading the mixture in the moulds 4
strips should be about 50 mm wide. The recommended Transport of filled moulds with a manual fork-lift 1
inside dimensions for the moulds is 2 – 3 m long, 500 – Stacking the moulds, compression in the hydraulic press 2
600 mm wide, and 15 – 150 mm high. Stripping the set slabs from the moulds 2
The number of moulds needed depends on the pro- Transport of the stripped slabs and trimming the edges 3
duction volume and the thickness(es). With a daily pro- Stacking the slabs on pallets 2
duction of 32 m3, if the slabs are 50 mm thick and 1 m2 Delivery
in area (for example 500 × 2,000 mm), the theoretical Transport with manual forklift 1
number of moulds needed is 640. However, there should Maintenance
always be some spare moulds, and one should have Maintenance of machines,
about twice as many, that is 1,300. A mould should last sharpening the shredder knives and saw blades 1
about five years with good care and maintenance. Total 22
Table 5 Labour needed for production.
11
470 kg/m3. An annual production of 7,700 m3 requires

the following raw materials.
Wood 1,000 metric tons (including wastage)

Cement 1,875 metric tons
Water 1,100 metric tons (including general use)
Accelerator1 18 metric tons
1 The accelerator can be calcium chloride or any other accelerating

salt. A solution of 2% is assumed. However, the amount of
accelerator depends on the type of wood.
Fig. 22 The moulds are normally made with a plywood bottom
and wooden strips on the sides.
Note there are several advantages in making slabs
with a density lower than 400 kg/m3: thermal con-
Setting up the plant ductivity decreases (see Fig. 23), the slabs are easier
Before starting production, the equipment must be set up to handle (lighter) and the production volume is
and tested. Mechanical and electrical installations are su- greater for the same amount of raw materials.
pervised by qualified professionals with help of the fu- A lower density however means that strength de-
ture labourers. Installations can take 1.5 – 2 months. creases. This makes no difference in most applica-
Each machine must be tested after installation. When tions. Lower density however requires good quality
all machines work well, the plant starts pilot production, woodwool, which must be elastic and strong.
while the staff is trained by experts. This training takes 2 If slabs are made with a density of 300 instead of
– 3 weeks. 400 kg/m3, thermal conductivity improves from
about 0.085 to about 0.072 W/mK, and the volume
of production increases about 30% for the same
Consumption of raw materials and energy amount of raw materials.
Raw materials
Production capacity is usually governed by the number
of shredders. With a normal thickness of woodwool Energy consumption
(about 0.3 mm) each shredder has a capacity of 300 – The equipment recommended requires a total of about 75
400 kg of woodwool per hour. kW. The most demanding machine is the shredder which
The production method described here makes slabs draws about 20 – 30 kW depending on the brand. Energy
with a density of 250 kg/m3 or more. With an air-dry consumption for the plant with one shift per day is about
density of 400 kg/m3, about 32 m3 of woodwool slabs 75,000 kWh per year (240 work days and a load factor of
can be made during an 8 hour shift (7 hours effective about 60%).
work). This gives a year’s production of 7,700 m3 (reck-
oning 240 work days per year). Production costs
Estimated production cost
To produce 8,000 m3 of woodwool slabs per year An example is given of the calculation of production
requires about 2,000 m3 wood. An annual felling of costs for 1 m3 of woodwool slab with an air-dry density
this volume of wood requires a plantation of an of 400 kg/m3. The calculation is done for the plant rec-
estimated 200 – 500 hectares. ommended in this chapter and assumes one work shift
It is important that production of woodwool slabs per day, equivalent to an annual production volume of
does not lead to deforestation. The wood must be 7,700 m3. The current prices for imported equipment
taken from well-managed forests and plantations, were used. Other prices and costs, which vary greatly
with continuous replanting. between countries, were estimated in this example. The
Industries using wood do not necessarily lead to a calculation is set up so that the correct values can easily
decrease in forests. On the contrary, commercial for- be put in.
estry can promote wood plantation, if replanting is The calculation is done for the first year of produc-
seen to pay. tion. Over time bank interest will go down, but the cost
for maintenance will go up. Therefore it is not expected
The maximum capacity of a plant is thus 23,000 m3 that the total production costs will change very much.
(with 3-shift production). To increase production capac- Possible import taxes on the equipment are not in-cluded
ity per shift requires more shredders and moulds. (Pro- in the calculation. It is assumed that there is continuous
posals for larger plants than that described here can be production, that is the demand is rather constant and
obtained from Elten Systems, the Netherlands.) there are no big technical problems.
The ratio between woodwool, cement and water (in- The calculated production cost for 1 m3 woodwool
cluding accelerator) is about 1:2:1. For slabs with a slab is 52 US dollars (see Table 6). If 50 mm thick slabs
air-dry density of 400 kg/m3, the wet density is about are produced, the cost per m2 is 2.6 US dollars.
12
Calculations Type of cost Cost/m3 (US$)

Raw materials 16
Cost of raw materials1 (in US dollars)
Consumables 2
Total Salaries 13
Quantity Unit price annual cost
Energy 1
Cement 1,875 tonnes 50 94,000
Capital costs for equipment 14
Wood 1,000 tonnes 25 25,000
Capital costs for plant and site 6
Water 1,100 tonnes 1 1,000
Total production costs 52
Calcium chloride 18 tonnes 100 2,000
Sum 122,000 Table 6 Estimated total production costs during the first year
(in US dollars) for 1 m3 woodwool slab with an air-dry
1 Including transport density of 400 kg/m3 with an annual production
of 7,700 m3.
Cost of consumables (in US dollars)
Quantity Unit price Total annual cost Note that if the slabs are made with a density of 300
Moulds 1,300 pcs 50 13,0001 instead of 400 kg/m3 (which means production in-
Other 2,0001 creases from 7,700 till 10,000 m3/year), the calcu-
Sum 15,0001 lated production cost decreases from US dollars 52
1 With an expected lifetime of 5 years to 40 per m3 (a decrease of 23%).
Note also that if the interest rate is 5% instead of
Salaries (in US dollars) 10% the calculated production cost drops from US
Number Cost/person1 Total annual cost dollars 52 to 46 (a decrease of 12%).
Engineer 1 8,000 8,000
Supervisor 1 6,000 6,000
Labourers 22 4,000 88,000 Comparison with other materials
Sum 102,000
The actual cost for the material will be significantly
1 Annual salary including insurance, employers tax, etc.
greater than the estimated production cost. Overhead
costs include costs for management, administration, sales
Energy cost (in US dollars)
and marketing, taxes, profit, etc. When the production
Quantity Unit price Total annual cost starts for the first time, there are also costs for installa-
Machines 75,000 kWh 0.04 3,000 tion, training and the pilot production.
Other 25,000 kWh 0.04 1,000 It is difficult to compare prices of woodwool slabs
Sum 4,000 and other building materials since the prices vary greatly
between countries. In general woodwool slabs are some-
Capital costs for equipment (in US dollars)
what more expensive per m2 than thermal insulation ma-
Investment cost terials such as mineral wool and cellular plastic to give
Imported equipment 450,000 equal thermal insulation.
Transport (6%) 30,000 Compared to traditional construction using, for exam-
Other equipment 160,000 ple, hollow blocks, building components containing
Total 640,000 woodwool slabs are often cheaper. This is because con-
struction is faster with the material, and it combines good
Total annual cost thermal insulation capacity with high strength.
Amortization 640,000 / 15 years 43,000
Interest 640,000 × 10% 64,000
Sum 107,000
Note that if second hand or locally produced equip-

ment are used as much as possible, investment costs
will be significantly lower.
Capital costs for plant and site (in US dollars)

Investment cost
Plant building 300,000
Site (8,000 m2) 50,000
Total 350,000
Total annual cost

Amortization 350,000 / 30 years 12,000
Interest 350,000 × 10% 35,000
Sum 47,000
13
4 Choice of wood Improving the compatibility

of the wood with cement
This chapter deals only with cement-bonded slabs, but Air-drying (seasoning)
Air drying lowers the content of sugars and other com-
the procedures to choose a suitable wood are the same
pounds that inhibit setting, and normally takes 3 – 6
for magnesite-bonded slabs.
months.
Technical requirements for the wood Addition of an accelerator

The inhibition of the cement setting by the wood can be
Ease of shredding compensated by the use of an accelerator. Dissolved in
The wood must allow shredding at a reasonable cost. water, these are often called “mineralizing fluids.” They
This means it should not be too hard and/or contain work by making the slab set before the “cement poisons”
much silica, which causes excessive wear on the knives. in the wood have time to diffuse into the cement paste.
Woods with an air-dry density over 750 kg/m3 are not The most common accelerator is calcium chloride
normally suitable. The most suitable species have few (CaCl2). Other possible accelerators are magnesium
branches and trunks that grow relatively straight. chloride (MgCl2), water-glass (sodium silicate, Na2SiO3,
or potassium silicate, K2SiO3), aluminium sulphate
Wood species that give long, strong and elastic (Al2(SO4)3) and lime water. The accelerator is usually
strands are best to achieve good thermal insulation added to the water bath that the woodwool is soaked in
capacity. This type of woodwool allows production before it is mixed with the cement. The normal concen-
of slabs with low density and sufficient bending tration is between 1 – 5% by weight of the water in the
strength. On the other hand if the woodwool easily mix.
breaks into short strands, it is difficult maintain both There are several reasons to keep the amount of accel-
low density and good bending strength in the slabs. erator low. One is production costs, especially if the ac-
celerator is expensive or must be imported. If the slab
The diameter of the tree trunk should normally be contains chloride, which it will if calcium chloride or
greater than 100 mm and less than 400 mm. (There are magnesium chloride was used as accelerator, there is a
also special shredding machines that handle diameters clear risk of corrosion and galvanized nails and screws
under 100 mm). must be used.
The wood’s effect on setting Rapid-hardening cement
Cement-bonded woodwool slabs consist of organic The amount of accelerator can be reduced – perhaps
woodwool enclosed in inorganic cement paste (Portland none is needed at all – by using rapid-hardening (quick
cement and water). Like all cellulose materials, wood to setting) Portland cement. It is more finely ground than
greater or lesser extent inhibits the setting of the cement. ordinary cement and thus more expensive.
This is caused by wood sugars and other compounds that
leach out of the wood in contact with the cement paste. If Leaching
the species of wood prevents setting, or delays it too Another, often economical, way to improve the compati-
much, the wood is not suitable. bility of the wood with cement is leaching. This is done
by pre-soaking the woodwool in water for 24 hours (pos-
sibly 48 hours with a change of water after the first day).
Availability of the wood Sometimes the woodwool is soaked for some period in
If a wood species is to be considered suitable for produc- hot water or in solution of calcium chloride, water-glass
tion of woodwool slabs, it is not enough that the techni- or sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
cal requirements are met. It is also important that the
wood is available in adequate quantity and at a reason- Tests of suitability
able price. The proximity to the source of wood is impor-
tant, since transport costs would otherwise be high. Full-scale tests
Quick growing species are often preferable, since these The only way to be sure that a wood species is suitable
woods are normally the cheapest. for woodwool slabs is to produce test slabs on full scale.
An annual production of 8,000 m3 woodwool slabs, Such a test requires access to a woodwool shredder.
as assumed in Chapter 3, requires a plantation of about If this is not available, logs can be sent away for shred-
200 – 500 hectares, assuming it is well maintained and ding, and the woodwool shipped back. It might be possi-
replanted after felling. The precise area depends on how ble to conduct tests at the closest woodwool slab factory,
quickly the species grows. which gives one access to the factory’s practical
experience, which can be very valuable. Full-scale tests
Tree species with little commercial value might be can also be conducted by Elten Systems, the Nether-
used in woodwool slabs. Quick growing species, lands.
such as pulpwood, that are not appropriate for furni- Observe how the wood shreds. The wood should be
ture, etc. are often suitable. easy to shred so that the knives do not wear out too fast.
14
(Normally the knives should last for eight hours produc-

tion before they need sharpening.) 5 Properties
The slabs themselves can be made by hand. The ratio
of woodwool : cement : water should be 1:2:1. First soak Thermal properties
the woodwool in water (perhaps with an accelerator),
Thermal conductivity
then sprinkle on the cement. (Alternatively the dry
The thermal conductivity of woodwool slabs is mainly
woodwool can be put into a cement slurry.) Mixing can
a function of their density and moisture content; it in-
be done with a pitchfork in a trough or in a cement
creases as density and/or moisture content increases. Fig.
mixer. The mix is packed into a mould of appropriate
23 shows thermal conductivity in practice as a function
size, such as 50 × 500 × 1,000 mm. of air-dry density. (Thermal conductivity for oven-dry
The main aim of making test slabs is to see if the slabs material is significantly lower.) Table 7 compares the
hold together and how long time they take to set before thermal conductivity of a woodwool slab, with
they can be stripped from the mould. If the test slab sets 400 kg/m3 density, with other materials.
satisfactorily, in a reasonable time, one can examine its
bending strength and compression strength. For these,
and other tests, see Chapter 6 Quality control.
A large number of wood species have already been
tested by production of full-scale slabs. They are listed in
Appendix (Table A1).
Screening tests
There are several small-scale tests to determine the suit-
ability of a wood. Note that it is not possible to estab-
lish suitability with these tests; they only help elimi-
nate completely unsuitable woods.
A rather good method is to make small test slabs with
woodwool, cement and water (perhaps containing accel-
erator). This gives an impression of the shredding quality
of the wood, and if the slabs set satisfactorily. If these Fig. 23 Approximate values for the thermal conductivity (λ)
tests are promising, then full-scale tests are done and the as a function of air-dry density for woodwool slabs
(moisture content 8 – 10%).
slabs are tested for strength. Woods tested by this method
(Sources: Information from different manufacturers and
are shown in Appendix (Table A2). Cammerer (1962): Der Wärme- und Kälteschutz in der
There are other more or less simple screening tests, Industrie).
but since they are not reliable they are not described
here.
Woodwool slabs allow air to pass easily, which could
increase the thermal conductivity by forced convection
when the material is left unplastered (acoustic applica-
tions as in Fig. 44). Studies show however that if one
side of the slab is sealed, normal values for thermal con-
ductivity apply as well to this kind of construction.
Thermal capacity
Woodwool slabs have a high specific thermal capacity
(about 1,600 J/kgK at 10% moisture content). The rela-
tively high thermal capacity of roofs and walls con-
structed with woodwool slabs can significantly improve
indoor comfort, since indoor temperature changes are
attenuated, when there are large diurnal variations in out-
door temperature.
The thermal capacity of woodwool slabs is compared
with other materials in Table 7.
Strength
The standards for strength according to DIN4 1101 for
cement and magnesite-bonded woodwool slabs are given
in Table 8. The minimum values according to DIN are
low; modern industrially produced woodwool slabs
might have several times the strengths shown.
4 Deutsches Institut für Normung (“German standards institution”).
15
The strength of woodwool slabs, especially if they are Acoustic properties

cement-bonded, is insignificantly affected by high rela-
Sound absorption
tive humidity.
Woodwool slabs have good sound absorption, which
Bending strength makes them suitable for all kinds of public gathering
The bending strength of a slab is high relative to its places, industries, etc.
weight, because the two components – woodwool and The sound absorption normally increases somewhat
binder – complement each other: the wood strands take with increased thickness, especially for low frequencies.
the tensile stress, while the hardened cement paste (or Sound absorption is also affected by proximity to other
magnesia cement) takes most of the compressive stress. materials, while painting the slabs has only slight effect.
The tensile strength of the wood strands is crucial to the Fig. 24 shows sound absorption at different frequen-
slab’s bending strength. cies both for a free-standing slab, such as a suspended
Bending strength increases with density. Normally slab, and for a slab next to a hard material, such as a
thin slabs are made with higher density than thick slabs woodwool slab against cast concrete.
to give adequate bending strength.
Load bearing capacity can be increased significantly
by reinforcing the slabs. Steel channels or wooden poles
or bars can be used, see Fig. 4. These slabs can have a
bending moment capacity of over 2 kNm and are about 4
times stronger than an ordinary slab of the same thick-
ness.
Compressive strength
Woodwool slabs have a relatively high compressive
strength that, as bending strength, increases with density.
The compressive strength perpendicular to the plane of
the slab is expressed as compressive stress at 10% com-
pression (see Table 8). Compressive strength of wood-
wool slabs is compared with other materials in Table 7. Fig. 24 Sound absorption at different frequencies for a 50 mm
thick woodwool slab. Curve A is the slab with at least
Volumetric 50 mm clear space over. Curve B is the slab lying
Thermal thermal Compressive against a hard material.
Density conductivity1 capacity strength (Source: Anon. 1985).
Material (kg/m3) (W/mK) (J/m3K) (MPa)
Woodwool slab 400 0.085 640 × 103 0.2 – 1.02
Autoclaved
Sound insulation
aerated A woodwool slab itself gives very moderate sound insu-
concrete 400 0.10 420 × 103 1.7 lation, but if it is plastered on one side, the sound insula-
Glass wool 50 0.036 44 × 103 0.01 tion properties are good (sound reduction of about
Expanded 30 dB). If a plastered woodwool slab is part of a heavy
polystyrene 30 0.036 36 × 103 0.1 wall, made of brick or concrete for example, sound insu-
Hollow brick 800 0.47 700 × 103 – lation is very good; (sound reduction is 35 – 55 dB de-
1 Values in practice. pending on the weight of the wall). Good sound insula-
2 At 10% compression.
tion can also be achieved with a wall made of two plas-
Table 7 Comparison of properties for some insulation materials tered woodwool slabs with an air cavity (sound reduction
and hollow brick. Note the high thermal conductivity for
hollow brick and the low thermal capacity for mineral of about 50 dB).
wool and expanded polystyrene.
Fire performance
Bending Compressive
Thickness Weight1 Density1 strength2 strength2 3 In spite of the wood content, woodwool slabs have good
(mm) (kg/m2) (kg/m3) (MPa) (MPa) resistance to fire. The material is classed as hard to ig-
15 8.5 570 1.7 0.20 nite, and is therefore approved for indoor surfaces ac-
25 11.5 460 1.0 0.20 cording to international standards. A 50 mm thick slab
50 19.5 390 0.5 0.15 resists fire for 1 hour and a 100 mm thick slab for
75 28.0 370 0.4 0.15 2 hours.
100 36.0 360 0.4 0.15 The good fire performance of the material is related to
1 Maximum value. the fact that the wood strands are protected by the binder,
2 Minimum value. as well as its thermal insulating capacity and coarse
3 At 10% compression.
structure. If the material is covered with a layer of ce-
Table 8 Standards for weight and strength of woodwool slabs ment or gypsum plaster, fire resistance increases further.
for different thicknesses according to DIN 1101.
16
Moisture properties The material has been buried in the ground for 30 years
and kept under water for 10 years without destruction.
Woodwool slabs have the ability to absorb large amounts
Mould resistance is an important quality for healthy
of moisture. If the relative humidity in the air exceeds
buildings. Where moisture is high, mould is common on
95%, the moisture content of the slab is more than 20%.
untreated wood and on wooden boards that are not ce-
(When dipped in water until saturation, the moisture con-
ment-based.
tent is about 30%.) Because of their capac-ity to absorb
moisture, woodwool slabs are suitable where the relative Resistance to insects and termites
humidity is occasionally very high, for example in sports Because the wood strands are covered by binder, resis-
halls. The slabs attenuate the variations in the indoor air tance to insects and termites increases significantly.
humidity, by absorbing moisture rapidly when there is a Some studies show however that both cement and
moisture input (when the relative humidity rises) and re- magnesite-bonded woodwool slabs might be attacked by
leasing this moisture when the relative humidity de- termites (see Kumar 1980).
creases. Most thermal insulation materials lack this abil- The results are very good in practice. Woodwool slabs
ity. Fig. 25 compares the ability of woodwool slab with have been used at least since the 1960s in countries with
wood (pine), brick and mineral wool to absorb moisture. severe termite problems, without any reports of termite
When wet woodwool slabs dry to air-dry (about 50% attack on the slabs.
relative humidity), shrinkage in length is about 3‰. For safety reasons the risk of termites must however
The vapour diffusivity of woodwool slabs (at 20°C) is be considered, if the slabs have an active function in the
about 10 × 10–6 m2/s, whereas the vapour resistivity is loadbearing construction.
about 20 MNs/gm. Plastering the slabs will further reduce the risk of
termite attack.
Resistance to an aggressive environment
Woodwool slabs have good resistance to aggressive air.
The material resists sulphur in the air and has been very
successfully used in swimming halls where the air often
contains chlorine and chrome. Woodwool slabs in facto-
ries where aggressive chemicals are used have not deteri-
orated.
Emission of harmful compounds

Woodwool slabs have little emissions. Unlike glued
wood-based boards, such as plywood and chipboard, the
material does not release formaldehyde. The total amount
of volatile organic compounds (TVOC) released by a ce-
ment-bonded slab was measured at less than 11 µg/m2h,
which is very low (Tests by Swedish National Testing
Fig. 25 The ability to absorb moisture. The moisture content and Research Institute).
(kg moisture per m3 material) as a function of relative
humidity for woodwool slab (density 400 kg/m3),
pine (500 kg/m3), brick (1,700 kg/m3) and mineral wool
(20 kg/m3). (These absorption isotherms are valid at
equilibrium at 20°C)
(Source: Own measurements and Elmarsson and
Nevander, 1981: Fukthandbok)
Durability
Resistance to rot and mould
Cement and magnesite-bonded woodwool slabs have
surprisingly good resistance to rot and mould. This is be-
cause the binder creates a chemically basic environment
that protects the wood strands (pH-value ≥9).
Woodwool slabs have been in use for over 80 years,
and the experiences of all areas of application are uni-
formly good. Rendered slabs have sat on facades ex-
posed to heavy rains for over 50 years without rotting or
moulding. Experience from swimming halls, where the
relative humidity can be over 80%, is also very good.
17
Method. Five slabs of the same type are tested in a hy-

6 Quality control draulic press (or the equivalent). Each slab is placed on
two supports (preferably rollers) that are at least as wide
The suggestions in this chapter are largely based on the as the slab (Fig. 26). The slab is placed so that the sup-
German standards for woodwool slabs, DIN 1101, but ports are placed one quarter in from each short end (so
local standards may be established. that the weight of the slab itself does not affect the test).
The slab is loaded with a linear load across its centre
Conditions of testing
(parallel to the supports) as shown in Fig. 26. The load is
The tests should be carried out on five randomly selected
gradually increased until the slab breaks. The bending
slabs of each product produced. Before testing, the slabs
should be conditioned for at least two weeks under as strength (the modulus of rupture), σb (MPa), is calcu-
constant room temperature and humidity as possible. lated as follows:
σb = 0.75F × L / (w × t2)
Size and density where F is the breaking load in Newtons (N); L, w
and t are the length, width and thickness of the slab re-
Size
Requirement. The slab is measured and the following spectively (mm).
variations are allowed: length ±10 mm, width ± 5 mm, Compressive strength
thickness ± 3 mm. Requirement. A standard for the lowest compressive
Method. Use a steel measuring tape. Measure the strength (defined as the compressive stress at 10% com-
length of each slab in three places and the width in four pression) should be established for each type of slab pro-
places. Measure the thickness of the slab with callipers in duced. See for example Table 8, which gives the DIN
10 places. The average of the measurements for each di- standard. The average compressive strength of five spec-
mension should fall within the range specified. imens should not fall below the chosen standard. The
compressive strength of an individual sample should not
Density be more than 10% below this standard.
Requirement. A standard for the highest density should Method. From five slabs of the same type, saw square
be established for each type of slab made. See for exam- specimens with an edge L of, say, 200 mm. The speci-
ple Table 8, which gives the DIN standards. The average mens are tested in a hydraulic press (or the equivalent).
of the five slabs must be equal to or lower than the cho- Each specimen is placed between two rigid metal plates
sen standard. The density of an individual slab may not with the shorter side at least as long as the edge of the
exceed this standard by more than 15%. specimen. Each specimen is subjected to a load over its
Method. Five slabs of the same type, whose dimen- centre (Fig. 27). The specimen is first loaded with a force
sions are determined as described above, are each of 100 N to determine its initial thickness. The pressure
weighed on scales with an accuracy of ± 0.5 kg. The is then increased steadily until the specimen is com-
density of each slab is calculated. pressed to 90% of its initial thickness. Compressive
strength, σc (MPa), is then calculated as follows:
Strength σc = F / L2
Bending strength where F is the load (N) at 10% compression.
Requirement. A standard for the lowest acceptable bend-
ing strength should be established for each type of slab
made. See for example Table 8, which gives the DIN
standards. The average value for the bending strength of
the five slabs must not fall below the chosen standard.
The bending strength of an individual slab may not be
more than 10% below this standard.
Fig. 27 Set up for the test of compressive strength.
Other tests
Fig. 26 Set up for the bending strength test. Thermal conductivity
Requirement. A standard for the highest permitted ther-
mal conductivity should be established with respect to
the density of the slab. The same standard can be used
18
for slabs of different thicknesses but with about the same

density. (The DIN standard for slabs with thicknesses 7 Applications
≥ 25 mm is 0.090 W/mK.
Method. Thermal conductivity is closely tied to den- Exterior walls
sity (compare with Fig. 23), that is a test of density is an Thermal insulation requirements
indirect test of thermal conductivity. However, if possi- It is difficult to give a general standard for the thermal
ble, at least one thermal conductivity test should be done transmittance (U-value) of an exterior wall, since it
per product in a laboratory. How to measure thermal con- depends on the local climate and on economic factors.
ductivity is described in, among others, DIN 52 612 part Adamson and Åberg (1993) recommend a maximum
1 and 2, British Standard (BS) 874 and American Stan- U-value of 1.0 W/m2K for walls of air conditioned
dard (ASTM) C 518. Since thermal conductivity is also houses in warm and humid climates. The types of walls
related to the moisture in the material, the slabs should described here follow this recommendation.
be conditioned to a defined moisture content before test-
ing. Walls built on site
Acoustic properties H The wall in Fig. 28 is made of elements containing

Slabs intended for sound absorption should, if possible, a cavity. Each element consists of two woodwool slabs
be tested to produce a profile of sound absorption at dif- sandwiching spacer strips of woodwool slab. The spacer
ferent frequencies (see Fig. 24). strips should be at least 50 mm thick. The parts are as-
The sound insulation properties of the slabs might be sembled with cement slurry. The slabs in the elements
tested for the types of walls and roofs they are normally might stand vertically or horizontally. In the latter case
used for. Such tests are described in BS 2750 (sound re- the distance can be increased between the concrete col-
duction index). umns, and each column can be cast in vertical stages.
Fire performance
Fire performance is related to the density of the slabs,
that is if the slabs meet the density requirements, their
fire performance is also known. If possible the fire per-
formance of each product should be tested at least once.
Tests of fire performance are described in, for example,
DIN 4102 part 1, BS 476 part 1, 5, 6 and 7. Fig. 28 Wall of vertical (or horizontal) elements consisting of two
woodwool slabs sandwiching spacer strips of woodwool
Chloride content slab. The elements are joined by in-situ cast columns of
Requirement. According to DIN 1101 a woodwool slab reinforced concrete. (Using 30 mm thick woodwool slabs
gives a U-value of 0.9 W/m2K).
may not contain more than 0.35% water soluble chlo-
rides (measured in percent weight of the slab’s oven-dry
weight). Advantages. The walls are light and fast to build. The
Method. The principle for the test is that chlorides are cavity can be used for electrical cables. The wall has
leached out by distillation and the content is determined good vertical loadbearing capacity and is stable because
by potentiometric titration. The method is described in of the good adhesion of the concrete columns to the ele-
DIN 1101. ments. It has no significant thermal bridges and is safe in
case of termites, since the load is carried by the concrete.
Disadvantages. Wall elements must be prefabricated,
requiring an extra step in the work process.
Calculation of U-value for the wall in Fig. 28

t (m) λ (W/mK) R (m2K/W) = t / λ
External rendering 0.02 1.0 0.02
Woodwool slab 0.03 0.085 0.35
Some national standards Cavity 0.05 — 0.17
for woodwool slabs Woodwool slab 0.03 0.085 0.35
Plastering 0.01 1.0 0.01
Austrian ÖNORM B6021
External + internal
British BS 1105 surfaces — 0.17
Total 0.14 1.07
German DIN 1101; requirements, testing
1102; application U = 1/Rtotal = 0.93 W/m2K
The small decrease in the insulation capacity caused by the
Indian IS:3308 concrete columns is ignored in the calculation.
Dutch NBN 638
Swedish SIS 238101
19
H The wall in Fig. 29 consists of homogeneous slabs

with the ends sawed into a V-shape. A square cavity is
created when the slabs are placed next to each other, and
reinforcement is placed in the cavity. Concrete of fluid
consistency is poured in. The slabs can be placed verti-
cally or horizontally. In the latter case the distance be- Fig. 31 Wall of vertical slabs reinforced by galvanized steel
channels. (Using 70 mm thick woodwool slabs gives
tween the concrete columns is greater, and they can be
a U-value of 1.0 W/m2K).
cast in stages.
kind of wall is used in Mexico, Venezuela and Panama,
among other places.
Advantages. The wall is thin and in spite of that has
a low U-value (1.0 W/m2K for a thickness of 100 mm).
It has good vertical loadbearing capacity, is extremely
quick and easy to build and safe in case of termites, since
Fig. 29 Wall of vertical (or horizontal) woodwool slabs with
V-shaped ends. The slabs are joined by columns of
the load is carried by the steel channels.
in-situ cast concrete. (Using 70 mm thick woodwool Disadvantages. The steel channels form thermal
slabs gives a U-value of 1.0 W/m2K). bridges which raise the U-value of the wall.
H Fig. 32 shows a wall of slabs reinforced by wooden
Advantages. The wall is thin and in spite of that has a poles to carry the vertical load.
low U-value (the U-value is 1.0 W/m2K for a total wall
thickness of 100 mm). It has good vertical loadbearing
capacity and is stable because of the good adhesion of
the concrete to the slab. The wall is light and quick to
build, and it is safe in case of termites since the load is
carried by the concrete.
Disadvantages. The concrete columns go through the Fig. 32 Wall of vertical woodwool slabs reinforced by wooden
wall and function as thermal bridges, which raises the poles. (Using 70 mm thick woodwool slabs gives
U-value somewhat. a U-value of 1.0 W/m2K).
Materials with very high thermal conductivity, such

Advantages. The wall is thin and in spite of that has a
as concrete and steel, should not be allowed to go
low U-value (1.0 W/m2K for a thickness of 100 mm). It
through an outer wall or the roof if possible. They
has good vertical loadbearing capacity. The wall has no
function as thermal bridges promoting thermal flow.
thermal bridges and is very easy and quick to build.
Also, when it is colder outdoors than indoors, con-
Disadvantages. The wall is not safe in case of ter-
densation can occur on these thermal bridges caus-
mites, since the load is carried by wood studs.
ing dirtying.
H Fig. 33 shows a wall with woodwool slabs nailed on
H The wall in Fig. 30 consists of prefabricated, both sides of a wooden loadbearing structure.
I-shaped concrete columns, with woodwool slabs placed
horizontally between. The distance between the columns
is the full length of the slab (2.4 m). This kind of wall is
used in Zambia (see Hawkes and Cox 1992).
Advantages. The wall is thin and in spite of that has a
low U-value (1.0 W/m2K for a thickness of 100 mm). It Fig. 33 Wall with a wooden loadbearing structure against which
has good vertical loadbearing capacity, is extremely woodwool slabs are nailed on both sides. (Using 30 mm
quick to build and is completely termite safe. thick woodwool slabs gives a U-value of 0.9 W/m2K).
Disadvantages. The concrete columns function as
thermal bridges and raise the U-value somewhat. Advantages. The wall has good vertical loadbearing
capacity and is quick and easy to build. The cavity can
H Fig. 31 shows a wall of slabs reinforced with galva- be used for electrical cables.
nized steel channels, which carry the vertical load. This Disadvantages. The wall is not safe in case of ter-
mites, since the load is carried by wood studs.
Fig. 30 Wall of prefabricated, I-shaped concrete columns, with
woodwool slabs placed horizontally between.
The slabs are joined by mortar. (Using 70 mm thick
woodwool slabs gives a U-value of 1.0 W/m2K).
20
If the accelerator used in making the woodwool slab

contains chlorides, all nails and other metal fittings
that come into contact with the slab should be
hot-dip galvanized.
H Fig. 34 shows a wall made of woodwool blocks.

(The blocks are sawn from as thick a slab as possible,
at least 70 mm). The blocks are laid to bond with lime
cement mortar, with thin joints.
Fig. 36 Wall element in the “Climatex system” consisting of

50 mm thick woodwool slabs with columns and beams
Fig. 34 Woodwool block masonry. (Using 70 mm wide of reinforced concrete. The elements are rendered and
woodwool blocks gives a U-value of 1.0 W/m2K). plastered (U-value = 1.3 W/m2K).
Advantages. A very quick and easy technique with

great flexibility.
Disadvantages. The wall has limited vertical load-
bearing capacity.
H Fig. 35 shows a wall for a multi-storey building. The
wall is made of reinforced concrete, cast in-situ between
woodwool slabs which function as permanent shuttering.
Fig. 37
Above: House in Porto
Alegre, Brazil, built
with the “Climatex
Fig. 35 Concrete wall for a multi-storey building where the system” (Fig. 36) with
woodwool slabs are used as permanent shuttering. prefabricated wall
(Using 25 and 50 mm thick woodwool slabs gives elements of wood-
a U-value of 1.0 W/m2K). wool slabs and
concrete.
Advantages. Compared to an ordinary concrete wall,
this saves the work of taking down the formwork and Left: Interior showing
finishing the surface of the concrete. Electric cables and plastered walls and a
ceiling of gypsum
other installations can be cast in the concrete. The wall coated woodwool
has no thermal bridges and is safe in case of termites. slabs (see Fig. 5).
Prefabricated wall elements
In Porto Alegre, Brazil, a building system is used for sin-
gle-storey houses – the “Climatex system” – with both
exterior and partition walls of prefabricated wall ele-
ments made of woodwool slabs and concrete. During
production in the factory, slabs are placed in a mould and
21
Fig. 38 Supplementary insulation on a masonry wall.

The slabs are fixed by mortar.
reinforced concrete cast around them, leaving space for

windows and doors (Fig. 36).
During assembly the elements are tied together with
reinforcement bars sticking out from the elements (the
joints between the elements are later covered with con-
crete). When all walls are up, they are rendered and plas-
tered.
The wall elements are currently made of 50 mm thick Fig. 39 Woodwool slabs used in pitched roofs.
woodwool slabs and have a U-value of about 1.3 W/m2K. A. Slabs nailed to the rafters as a base for the roofing
To reduce the U-value to a maximum of 1.0 W/m2K, the material. (Using 100 mm thick woodwool slabs gives
a U-value of 0.6 W/m2K).
thickness of the slabs must be increased to 70 mm. B. Slabs nailed to the ceiling joists. A thinner slab is used
Corrugated asbestos sheets have been the main roof- as a ceiling. (Using 100 and 25 mm thick woodwool
ing material together with a ceiling of 25 mm woodwool slabs gives a U-value of 0.5 W/m2K).
slab. Over 7,000 houses have been build with this system
in southern Brazil since the 1970s. The houses are
largely maintenance free and the residents are very
pleased with them (Fig. 37). See also van Elten (1982).
Supplementary insulation
Woodwool slabs are very suitable for both external and
internal supplementary insulation of walls. Against ma-
sonry (with or without rendering) or concrete walls, the
material can be fixed with cement slurry, lime cement
mortar or gypsum plaster (Fig. 38). The material can be
nailed or screwed to wood walls.
Roofs and ceilings

Thermal insulation requirements
A roof should have at least as good insulation as the Fig. 40 Nailing woodwool slabs to the rafters on a pitched roof.
walls. In tropical climates, with high solar elevation and
strong solar radiation, much of the heat transmission is
through the roof, and here the roof should be better insu- Reinforced slabs are often used in roof applications,
lated than the walls. In air conditioned houses in tropical because they are stronger than ordinary slabs and allow a
climates, Adamson and Åberg (1993) recommend a max- greater distance between the supporting beams.
imum U-value for the roof of 0.5 W/m2K. Most of the
roofs described here meet this recommendation. Flat roofs
The roof shown in Fig. 41 is a variant of a type of flat
Pitched roofs roof that is very common in many countries. It normally
A common use for woodwool slabs in pitched roofs is to consists of prefabricated (often prestressed) concrete
nail them to the rafters as a base for the roofing material, beams with hollow blocks (of either concrete or burnt
such as roofing tiles, metal sheets, or similar (Figs 39A clay) in between and is covered with a reinforced con-
and 40). Before applying the roofing material the slabs crete slab cast in situ. By replacing the hollow blocks
are normally coated with a cement-sand screed. with woodwool slabs, and by increasing the distance
The woodwool slabs can also be nailed to the ceiling between the beams, the U-value of the construction can
joists (Fig. 39B). be improved significantly.
22
Fig. 41 Flat roof with woodwool slabs laid between prefabricated concrete beams. A slab of reinforced concrete is cast
over the woodwool slabs and beams. The ceiling can either be left as it is, which give good sound absorption,
or plastered.
(Using a 150 mm thick layer of woodwool slabs gives a U-value of 0.5 W/m2K).
H The roof in Fig. 41 was used in two buildings in Tu- Both roofs met the strict Algerian and Tunisian re-
nisia (Fig. 44). The cost for the roofs was less than for a quirements for loadbearing capacity and deflection in
traditional roof using hollow blocks, even though the full-scale laboratory tests (see Åstrand et al., 1994).
woodwool slabs were imported. The reason for the lower
Ceilings
cost was mainly that it was quicker to build.
One of the most common uses for woodwool slabs is as
Advantages. The roof is very quick to build and needs
acoustic ceiling panels in public gathering places, corri-
no formwork, only posts. It has good thermal insulation
dors, etc. The slabs can either be fixed to the roof (cast
(U = 0.5 W/m2K).
against concrete or screwed in as in Fig. 39B) or sus-
Disadvantages. The beams must be prefabricated and
pended (Fig. 43). The air space between the slabs and the
they function as thermal bridges.
roof influences the sound absorption somewhat (Fig. 24).
H Fig. 42 shows a variation of the roof in Fig. 41 using
two layers of woodwool slabs. In this roof, entirely cast
in-situ, the thermal bridges created by the concrete Surface finishes
beams are broken by the underlying woodwool slab. Woodwool slabs provide and excellent base for render-
Advantages. The roof is quick to build. It requires no ing and plastering because of their coarse texture.
formwork when cast, only support consisting of beams
Reinforcement
and posts. It has no thermal bridges and excellent ther-
Before applying render or plaster, all joints between
mal insulation (U = 0.5 W/m2K).
slabs, or between slabs and another material (for example
Disadvantages. This roof requires more support when
a concrete column), should be reinforced. This is done to
casting than the roof in Fig. 41.
avoid cracks in the material caused by movements in the
Note that for the roofs in Figs 41 and 42 it is very im-
woodwool slabs due to temperature and moisture
portant to calculate the shear reinforcement in the beams.
changes. Reinforcement can be done with galvanized
This vertical reinforcement, which should be anchored in
steel wire netting, preferably welded netting (chicken-
the concrete slab, increases with the distance between the
wire can be used, but because it is elastic, it does not pre-
beams.
Fig. 42 Flat roof consisting of two layers of woodwool slabs. Space is left in the top layer for reinforced concrete beams.
These beams and the concrete slab are cast at the same time. The under layer of woodwool slab breaks the thermal
bridges created by the concrete beams. The ceiling can either be left as it is, which gives good sound absorption,
or plastered. (Using 30 and 120 mm thick woodwool slabs gives a U-value of 0.5 W/m2K).
Fig. 43
Ceiling of suspended woodwool slabs.
23
References
Adamson, B and O Åberg
1993 Design for Climatization: Houses in warmhumid
areas. Building Issues Vol. 5, No. 1. LCHS,
Lund University, Sweden.
Anon.
1985 Leichtbauplatten-Fibel. Bundesverband der
Leichtbauplattenindustrie e.V., München, Ger-
many. (In German)
Anon.
Fig. 44 The roof in Fig. 41 as built in the youth centre of 1990 Woodcemair Wood Wool Cement Building Slabs
Tameghza, Southern Tunisia. Woodwool slabs provide – Handbook. Torvale Building Products,
both thermal insulation and sound absorption. Leominster, Herefordshire, United Kingdom.
Åstrand, J, L Bessadi, E Johansson, S Laïd, H Teggour
vent small cracks). The net, which should cover at least and N Toumi
100 mm on each side of the joint, is fixed to the slab 1994 Matériaux thermiquement isolants – béton
with hot-dip galvanized nails. mousse et panneaux en laine de bois. Report 2.
LCHS, Lund University, Sweden. (In French)
External rendering
The slabs should be neither too damp nor too dry at fin- DIN
ishing. A dry slab, for example exposed to direct sun- 1989 Woodwool Slabs and Multilayered Slabs as
light, can be dampened a little before finishing. A damp Insulating Materials in Building: Requirements,
slab, for example one that has been in the rain, must dry Testing. DIN 1101. Deutsches Institut für
before finishing. Normung, Berlin, Germany. (In German)
The external rendering should be in two or three van Elten, G J
coats: spatterdash coat (a preparation of the base, maxi- 1975 “Wood wool cement boards used for low cost
mum 2 mm, optional), undercoat (10 – 15 mm) and a fin- houses and other applications.” World Consul-
ishing coat (paint or render 0 – 5 mm). The mortar of a tation on Wood Based Panels, Feb. 6–16, FAO,
previous coat should be stronger (contain more cement) United Nations, New Delhi, India.
or as strong as the mortar for the next coat. A suitable
1977 “Prefab Elements from Wood Wool Cement for
spatterdash coat is lime-cement mortar with a small
Economic and Low Cost Housing in Argentina,
amount of lime. A suitable material for the undercoat and
Brazil, Honduras, Malaysia, Mexico, Panama,
the finishing coat is lime-cement mortar with equal parts
Spain, Yugoslavia.” International Conference
(by weight) lime and cement, or with more lime than ce-
on the Use of Prefabricated Building Elements,
ment. (See also Anon. 1985 and Anon. 1990).
Constructions in Developing Countries. World
Internal plastering Association for Element-building and Prefabrica-
Internal plastering should be done on air dry slabs. The tion, Sep.19–22, Hamburg, Germany.
plastering material can be cement mortar, lime-cement 1982 “Climatex System for economic housing pro-
mortar or gypsum mortar. If a lime-cement mortar is jects.” 3rd International Conference on the Use
used, a thin preparation of the base is preferable before of Prefabricated Building Elements. World
the undercoat (10 – 15 mm) is applied. Plastering with Association for Element-building and Prefabrica-
gypsum mortar should be done in two or more coats tion, March 8–10, Orlando, Florida, USA.
starting with a thin undercoat.
Hawkes, A J and D R S Cox
1992 A Small-scale Process for Manufacturing Wood-
Vapour barriers are often recommended in air condi-
wool/cement Slabs in Developing Countries.
tioned buildings to improve tightness and avoid
Bulletin 49. Natural Resources Institute,
moisture transport that could damage organic mate-
Chatham, United Kingdom.
rials. Woodwool slabs are moisture resistant, so
there is no need for a vapour barrier in these appli- Kohler, R
cations. Finished woodwool slabs meet the require- 1966 “La Fabricación de la Tabla de Pajilla de Madera
ment for air tightness. y Cemento.” Boletín – Instituto Forestal Latino-
americano de Investigación y Capacitación.
No. 20–21: pp. 5–19. Mérida, Venezuela.
(In Spanish)
24
Kollmann, F Addresses
1955 Technologie des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe,
2. Aufl. II Bd., pp. 468–489, Springer-Verlag, Manufacturers of equipment
Germany. (In German) for woodwool slab production
Kumar, S Elten Systems
1980 Development of Wood-wool Boards from P.O. Box 15
Indigenous Forest Materials. Final Research NL-3770 AA BARNEVELD, The Netherlands
Report, PL-480 Project. Forest Research Insti-
tute, Dehra Dun (U.P), India. Manufacturers of wood shredding machines
Lee, A W C MECCAT
1991 “The Latest Developments in the Cement-bonded Zona Industriale
Wood Excelsior (Wood wool) Board Industry.” Via Braille 5
Proc. Inorganic Bonded Wood and Fiber Com- I-391 00 BOLZANO, Italy
posite Materials. Forest Products Research
Society, Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Some Manufacturers of woodwool slabs
Simatupang, M H, G H Schwarz and F W Bröker Österreichische Heraklith AG
1979 “Small Scale Plants for the Manufacture of A-9702 FERNDORF, Austria
Mineral-bonded Wood Composites.” Special (Manufacturer of magnesite-bonded woodwool slabs.
paper FID-II/21-3, Eighth World Forestry Factories in Austria, Germany and Greece)
Congress, October 1978, Jakarta, Indonesia. S.A. DHENACLITE
35, rue Emile Claus
B-8798 SINT-ELOOIS-VIJVE, Belgium
Climatex Indústria de Madeira Mineralizada Ltda.
Caixa Postal 7054
91130-040 PORTO ALEGRE – RS, Brazil
FIBRALITH GIE
Zone Industrielle
Conversion factors F-68190 UNGERSHEIM, France
from SI units to British and US units E. Schwenk Dämmtechnik GmbH & Co. KG
1m = 3.281 ft Isotexstraße 1
1 mm = 3.937 × 10 –2 in D-86899 LANDSBERG/LECH, Germany
1 m2 = 10.76 ft2 Nederlandse Bouwplaten
1 hectare en Isolatiematerialen Industrie BV
= 10,000 m2 = 2.471 acres
P.O. Box 375
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
NL-4900 AJ OOSTERHOUT, The Netherlands
1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 tonnes Träolit AB
= 1,000 kg = 1.102 short tons = 0.984 long tons Box 20
1 kg/m3 = 6.243 × 10 –2 pcf (lb/ft3) S-570 60 ÖSTERBYMO, Sweden
1N = 0.2248 lb f Torvale Building Products
1 Nm = 8.850 in lb f Pembridge
1 MPa LEOMINSTER
= 1 N/mm2 = 145.0 psi (lb f/in2)
Herefordshire HR6 9LA, United Kingdom
1J = 9.485 × 10 –4 Btu
1 kWh = 3.414 × 10 3 Btu
Organizations with information
1 W = 1 J/s = 3.414 Btu/hr
about woodwool slabs
1 kW = 1.341 hp
TK = T°C + 273 = 5/9 (T°F – 32) + 273 Bundesverband der Leichtbauplattenindustrie e.V.
1 W/mK = 6.938 Btu in/ft2 hr °F Beethovenstr. 8
1 W/m2K = 0.1762 Btu/ft2 hr °F D-80336 MÜNCHEN, Germany
1 J/kgK = 2.390 × 10 –4 Btu/lb °F (Trade association for the 14 woodwool slab
manufacturers in Germany)
from SI units to CGS units Forest Research Institute
1N = 0.102 kp P.O. New Forest
1 MPa = 10.2 kp/cm2 DEHRA DUN 248 006
1 W/mK = 0.860 kcal/m h°C Uttar Pradesh, India
1 J/kgK = 2.39 × 10 –4 kcal/kg°C
25
Appendix
Botanical name Suitability Botanical name Suitability Botanical name Suitability
Abies pindrow* s Garcinia sp. (“manggis hutan”) n Pinus kesiya s
Agathis borneensis Warb n Gonystilus brunescens A. Shaw. n Pinus khasya s
Ailanthus malabarica DC. n Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum Harms. s Pinus mercusii s
Albizia falcataria s Grevillea robusta s Pinus nigra* s
Albizia lebbek s Haplolobus celebicus H.J.L. s Pinus patula s
Anisoptera costata Korth. s Holoptelia integrifolia n Pinus roxburghii* s
Anisoptera marginata Korth. n Hopea dryobalanoides Miq. s Pinus sylvestris* s
Anogeissus latifolia n Hymenodictyon excelsum s Pinus taiwanensis Hay. s
Araucaria araucaria* s Irwingia malayana Olive n Pinus wallichiana* s
Azadirachta indica n Koompasia excelsa Tamb. n Polyathia hypoleuca HK. & TH n
Bombax cieba s Koompasia malacencis Maing n Populus deltoides s
Bridelia retusa s Koordersiodendron pinnatum Meer s Populus tremula s
Calophyllum inophyllum s Lannea coromandelica n Pterocarpus indica n
Calophyllum soulatri Burn. f. s Larix leptolepis s Pterospermum celebicum Miq. s
Cassia siamea r Licania laxiflora n Quercus alba L. n
Cedrela toona s Liquidambar styraciflua L. n Quercus falcata Michx. n
Cedrus deodara s Liriodendron tulipifera L. s Salmalia malabarica s
Cinnamomum seylanicum n Maesopsis eminii n Sandoricum indicum n
Cordia myxa s Mangifera foetida Lour n Santiria laevigata Bl. n
Cratoxylon sp. (“geronggang”)* s Mangifera indica s Shorea bracteolata Dyer n
Cunninghamia lanceolata Hook. s Mangifera minor Bl. n Shorea elliptica Burck. n
Dacryodes excelsa s Melanorhoea wallichii Hook. n Shorea gibbosa Brandis n
Dalbergia sisoo s Miristica lowiana King n Shorea gysbertsiana Burck. s
Dehassia caesia Bl. s Mora excelsa n Shorea hopeifolia Sym n
Delonix regia s Morus sp. (“shehtoot”) n Shorea koordersii Brandis n
Dialium platysepalum Baker. n Octomeles sumatrana Miq. n Shorea leprosula Miq. n
Diospyros macrophyla Bl. s Ougeinia oojeinensis n Shorea ovalis Bl. s
Dipterocarpus sp. (“gurjan”) s Palaquium ferox H.J.L. n Shorea palembanica Miq. s
Dipterocarpus appendiculatus Scheff. n Palaquium hexandrum Baill n Shorea pauciflora King. s
Dipterocarpus condiferus Merr. n Palaquium obovatum s Shorea pinanga Scheff. n
Dipterocarpus costulatus V. Sl. n Palaquium obtusifolium Burck s Shorea sp. (“Meranti”) r
Dracontomelon dao Meer & Rolf. n Palaquium rostratum Burck n Simaruba amara r
Dracontomelon mangiferum Bl. n Parastemon versteeghii Meer & Perry n Spondias cytherea Sonn. n
Drypetes longifolia Pax & Hoffm. n Parinari corymbosa Miq. n Swietenia macrophylla n
Durio zibethinus Merr. r Payena leerii Kurz n Syzygium cumini s
Emblica officinalis n Pericopsis elata n Tarrietia javanica Bl. n
Eperus falcata n Picea abies* s Tectona grandis r
Eschweilera sp. n Picea smithiana* s Terminalia spread n
Eucalyptus globulus* s Pinaceae sp.* s Tetrameles nudiflora* s
Eucalyptus grandis r Pinus sp. (“southern pine”)* s Toona ciliata s
Ficus sp. (“gular”) s Pinus caribaea s Tsuga chinensis Pritz. r
Ficus sp. (“bar”) s Pinus densiflora s Xylopia malayana HK. f. & TH n
Ganua motleyana Pierre n Pinus elliottii* s
s suitable
Table A1. Woods tested by production of full-scale slabs.
A wood is considered suitable if the slab meets the requirements n not suitable
for bending strength of DIN 1101 or an equivalent standard. r restrictive suitability
(Information from different sources. Information about other woods * This wood species is used commercially
can be obtained from Elten Systems, the Netherlands.) for woodwool slab production
Botanical name Suitability Botanical name Suitability Botanical name Suitability

Afzelia bipindensis n Daniellia ogea r Nauclea diderrichii n
Antiaris africana n Distemonanthus benthamianus n Nesogordonia papaverifera r
Antrocaryon micraster n Entandrophragma angolensis s Ongokea gore n
Berlinia grandiflora s Entandrophragma cylindricum r Piptadeniastrum africanum n
Canarium schweinfurthii r Entandrophragma utile s Pterygota macrocarpa n
Cedrela odorata s Eucalyptus camaldulensis r Tarrietia utilis r
Ceiba pentandra n Eucalyptus gomphocephala s Tectona grandis r
Celtis zenkeri n Guarea cedrata n Terminalia ivorensis r
Chlorophora excelsa n Khaya sp. (“khaya, mahogany”) n Terminalia superba s
Chrysophyllum africanum s Lovoa trichilioides s Tieghemella heckelii n
Chrysophyllum albidum s Mansonia altissima r Triplochiton scleroxylon r
Cola gigantea r Mitragyna stipulosa r
Cylicodiscus gabunensis s Musanga cecropioides s
s suitable
Table A2. Woods tested by production of small test slabs.
The wood is considered suitable if it can be shredded easily n not suitable
and if the slabs set satisfactorily. If these tests are promising, r restrictive suitability
then full-scale tests are done and the slabs are tested for strength.
(Information from different sources.)
26
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Organization of the report

Density Thermal conductivity

Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13

Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16

Fig. 21 Design for a semi-automated plant.

Item Number Code Cost (US$)

470 kg/m3. An annual production of 7,700 m3 requires

Wood 1,000 metric tons (including wastage)

1 The accelerator can be calcium chloride or any other accelerating

Calculations Type of cost Cost/m3 (US$)

Note that if second hand or locally produced equip-

Capital costs for plant and site (in US dollars)

Total annual cost

4 Choice of wood Improving the compatibility

Technical requirements for the wood Addition of an accelerator

(Normally the knives should last for eight hours produc-

4 Deutsches Institut für Normung (“German standards institution”).

The strength of woodwool slabs, especially if they are Acoustic properties

Emission of harmful compounds

Method. Five slabs of the same type are tested in a hy-

Fig. 27 Set up for the test of compressive strength.

for slabs of different thicknesses but with about the same

Acoustic properties H The wall in Fig. 28 is made of elements containing

Calculation of U-value for the wall in Fig. 28

H The wall in Fig. 29 consists of homogeneous slabs

Materials with very high thermal conductivity, such

If the accelerator used in making the woodwool slab

H Fig. 34 shows a wall made of woodwool blocks.

Fig. 36 Wall element in the “Climatex system” consisting of

Advantages. A very quick and easy technique with

Fig. 38 Supplementary insulation on a masonry wall.

reinforced concrete cast around them, leaving space for

Roofs and ceilings

Botanical name Suitability Botanical name Suitability Botanical name Suitability

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