TROUBLE with PAINT

Trouble with Coating

Structural Concrete: Part II
by Clive H. Hare, Coating System Design Inc.

I
n the first part of our review of
structural concrete, we dis-
cussed many of the unique
Coating
properties of the material as well as
its vulnerability under extreme ser-
vice conditions. We emphasized the DRY SIDE WET SIDE DRY SIDE
material as a substrate for paint, and Hydrostatic
we gave particular attention to the Pressure
cleaning processes required for suc-
WATER
cessful application of a coating sys-
tem on the concrete surface. This
month, we give specific attention to
some of the most common problems
Concrete Wall
associated with coating concrete and Positive Side Negative Side
the structures where these problems Waterproofing Waterproofing
are most critical.

Effects of Moisture
Establishing good adhesion over Fig. 1 - Waterproofing strategies
properly cleaned and scarified con-
crete involves many of the same
coating and coating system design Painting New Concrete alkali-tolerant coatings. The actual
techniques needed to optimize adhe- Newly laid concrete is slow to release delay required is likely to be affected
sion on marginally cleaned steel. all of the excess water employed for by compositional aspects of the con-
With concrete, however, its porosity workability. For the first month or so crete mix as well as by curing condi-
to water vapor, even water, presents after pouring, the concrete remains tions and the presence or absence of
special problems not encountered on “green,” meaning it is wet and alka- curing membranes.
other rigid surfaces. Water and vapor line. The painting of newly laid con- There are justifications in keying
pressure building up on the under- crete has historically been delayed the pre-paint interval to engineering
side of the coating may have an ef- because of concerns over the effect concerns over strength. During the
fect on the initial adhesion of the of water on paint film adhesion. early strengthening period, shrinkage
coating over wet surfaces and the The quoted 28-day interval re- of the majority of the substrate oc-
maintenance of long-term adhesion. quired between pouring and coating curs. Thus, cracking and other di-
Initial leaks and damage to vapor is, however, more related to engi- mensional changes are most likely to
barriers will cause severe hydrostatic neering concerns over adequate occur during this period. It is better
pressures to develop on the insides strength development than to any for these changes to occur before the
of subterranean vaults, manholes, specifically directed attempt to avoid paint is applied. The climatological
pipelines, and basements. coating film instability.1,2 The period conditions during the initial cure of
Moisture plays a large part in the has been rather blindly adopted by the concrete will largely affect the ac-
failure of paint systems over con- coatings engineers. However, it prob- tual pre-painting interval. Water
crete. Problems may arise from mois- ably had more reality in the past be- evaporates less in cold, humid cli-
ture derived from the concrete itself cause of the current use of water- mates than in warm, dry ones. Evap-
or from external sources. borne systems and water- and oration will affect the cure of the
48 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
substrate and the condition of its sur- successfully applied with no appre- Water ingress to the back of the
face at the time of painting. While ciable loss of adhesion. Adhesion re- coating film from the concrete in ex-
concrete should not be painted dur- mains a concern with coating systems ternal service is a problem that will
ing the green stage, this stage may be that are much less tolerant of moist, worsen with time. Hydrostatic pres-
shorter or longer than 28 days. alkaline surfaces. Most coating sys- sures add to the cumulative stress
At one time, the primary concern tems will adhere better to an entirely that opposes adhesion of the coat-
was the alkalinity of the newly dry substrate. Water within the con- ing/substrate system and cohesion of
poured surface. Under wet condi- crete surface at the time of coating the substrate. Optimal design prac-
tices, especially the use of positive
side vapor barriers beneath concrete
slabs and barrier coatings do much to
eliminate this type of problem (Fig.
1). These are applied to the exterior
walls of below grade structures and
basements. The practice dates to an-
tiquity. If the coating is between the
water and the concrete, the hydrosta-
tic pressure does not oppose the ad-
hesive forces. Positive side cementi-
tious waterproofing on the interior
surfaces of aqueducts was employed
successfully in Roman times. With
negative side devices (i.e., where
concrete is between the water source
and the coating film), hydrostatic
pressure opposes paint film adhe-
sion. While negative side waterproof-
Fig. 2 - Cohesive failure of concrete beneath a high-build epoxy/amine tank lining for ing techniques are easier to install,
high temperature water service. Concavity of delaminating chip (to the system exterior) they are rarely as successful as posi-
indicates a tensile failure, almost certainly related to internal stress development of the coating
tive side techniques.
during cure, and the inaibility of the concrete to accomodate the induced stress.

Coating of Wet Concrete

tions, alkalinity could induce alkaline may also have effects on the coating. Coated and uncoated concrete sur-
hydrolysis of ester-based oxidizing Water will react with urethanes, caus- faces do become wet sometimes (and
systems such as alkyd coatings. This ing bubbling and frothing from the continually so) because of water
reaction could lead to softening and evolution of carbon dioxide as well from external sources. In below
breakup of the paint, and certainly to as severe film disruptions. Water, de- grade applications, ingress of water
loss of adhesion. Today, these mate- rived from the substrate during cure, to and through the concrete may
rials are rarely employed directly may cause pinholing and blistering in occur because the vapor barriers are
over concrete surfaces. Newer sys- the drying film. missing or damaged. Ingress may
tems will tolerate larger amounts of occur through problem areas at the
water within the concrete at the time Water Penetration of Concrete slab/wall junction, around penetra-
of coating and even at the surface. Currently, we are perhaps less con- tions such as drains and pipes, and
Many coating systems are both cerned with water-induced reduc- through cracks in either exterior
“breathable” and alkali-resistant (latex tions in the state of the initial adhe- vapor barriers or in the concrete it-
paints, for example). Water-borne sion. Instead, we are more concerned self. Water may also access the wall
paints in general, but also high-solids with the entrapment of water within from higher up, such as from leaks in
and 100% solids polyamide-based the concrete beneath the dry paint faulty roofs, giving problems in
epoxies, are less sensitive to both al- film after the structure is in service. above grade locations. In these latter
kali and moist surfaces. Some epox- Also, an interfacial buildup of water circumstances, however, hydrostatic
ies used in the maintenance of un- vapor from sources behind the film pressure is usually less of a problem.
derwater piers and pylons may be may weaken adhesion. continued

Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 49

 TROUBLE with PAINT

For the most part, this type of prob-

lem is an engineering defect. It
should be addressed with engineer- Detecting Moisture
ing solutions before coatings are ap-
plied. Engineering problems are not
in Concrete
ideally resolved by the use of coat- A variety of devices can ascer- to the concrete surface and exam-
ings themselves. Although such diffi- tain whether or not water is pre- ined (the sheet and the concrete
culties may be addressed in a less sent in the concrete surface before surface itself) after 16 hours for
costly manner using negative side painting. One type of device is the condensation. In the dome test, a
waterproofing techniques, these tech- moisture meter, which measures weighed plastic dish of anhydrous
niques do not address the basic water content in a loosely quanti- calcium chloride is mounted on a
problem or the consequences that tative manner. It assesses the con- coin and covered with a plastic
may occur within the concrete itself. ductivity of the substrate, either on dome of known surface area for
For instance, corrosion of the rein- the surface or within the concrete. three days. Moisture from the con-
In the latter case, nails are driven crete is absorbed by the calcium
forcing steel may occur in low pH,
into the concrete as extension chloride, which is again weighed
high chloride environments.
probes for the instrument. at the end of the test to determine
A variety of negative side coating Other assessments of moisture the weight of water picked up per
responses has been attempted to wa- within concrete include the ASTM unit area. The dome test is used
terproof wet interior surfaces. Where D 4263, Standard Test Method for only on horizontal surfaces such
hydrostatic pressures are not in- Indicating Moisture in Concrete by as floors. (The test was recently
volved, 100% solids, high-wetting Plastic Sheet Method, which quali- organized and issued by ASTM as
epoxies have been applied, often on tatively assesses the presence of ASTM F-1869, Standard Test
wet surfaces, where they effectively moisture, and the “dome test,” a Method for Measuring Moisture
displace water. 3 Perhaps the most procedure more accurate than the Vapor Emission Rate of Concrete
popular response is the use of the plastic sheet test. In the first test, Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calci-
so-called cementitious barrier coat- an 18-inch by 18-inch (457-mm by um Chloride.) The plastic sheet
457-mm) sheet of clear 4-mil (100- test may be used on vertical sur-
ings, essentially latex-modified ce-
micrometer) polyethylene is taped faces also. ❍
mentitious coatings that are mixed in
the field and applied by brush, spray,
or trowel onto the wall in thicknesses
of 0.8 to 3 mils (20 to 75 microme-
ters). These materials can hold back ing catalysts added to the mix that block the capillaries and microcracks
hydrostatic pressures of up to 7 psi stimulate this corrosion.) The conse- within the cementitious structure, ex-
(48 kPa), but coverage must be com- quent corrosion product closes panding by up to 0.3 millimeters (12
plete or water will flow through dis- porosities in the coating, increasing mils) and sealing the concrete. The
continuities. Thicker film variations of impermeability. Applications require coatings are applied as cementitious
this same technology, available for much skill, and masons experienced slurries against the concrete surface,
new or existing slabs, are suitable for in using these materials are difficult which allows the proprietary reactant
vehicle traffic. Though not used ex- to locate. to penetrate the concrete for as much
tensively in the U.S., they have been Yet another response to the same as 150 millimeters (6 in.).4 In new
used in Europe on floors, parking problem is offered by the concrete, this same approach to in-
garages, and other high wear areas.4 capillary/crystalline waterproofing creased impermeability may be ap-
A much older technique but one coatings developed by Jensen in the plied by distributing the chemicals
that is very effective is the use of a early 1940s.3,4 In this system, a mix over the surface of the concrete
cementitious coating that contains of cement and silica sand is used as a while it is still wet and trowelling
finely divided iron particles. The carrier for a proprietary blend of re- them into the surface, a process re-
coating is applied in two- or three- active chemicals. The chemicals are ferred to as dry shake waterproofing.
coat systems, 6 to 16 millimeters capable of reacting with the calcium
(0.24 to 0.64 in.) thick, onto interior hydroxide residues left over from the Improving Adhesion of Coatings
walls and three times that thickness cement hydration processes, forming to Concrete
onto floor slabs. As water penetrates insoluble crystalline complexes with- With concrete, a key to optimized
the coating, the metal within the sys- in the upper layers of the concrete. adhesion centers on the ability of the
tem corrodes. (There may be oxidiz- These crystalline reaction products continued

Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 51

TROUBLE with PAINT

coating system to wet and penetrate They also dry by a lacquer-type sol- epoxies) have been developed that
deeply into the surface layers of the vent loss mechanism, at least before soak into the surface layers of the
substrate. The coating should thus fill chemical curing. Modern coatings concrete, reinforcing them after cur-
the porosities that have been opened with low volatile organic compound ing. These sealers also provide a
up by surface preparation. As has (VOC) content have much higher more hospitable surface for adhesion
been noted by Stanfield5, the surface solids. They can rely less on solvent of subsequently applied finishes.
of the concrete is quite different from for penetration and more on low vis- The modern epoxy penetrating
the bulk phase, being less dense, and cosity liquid binders. These binders sealers for concrete are formulated as
containing much larger pores. The soak into the substrate and remain engineered high wetting systems.
cement skin is, at least, partially re- wet for several hours until chemical They are based on low viscosity liq-
moved during blasting. Years ago, cure is established. uid epoxies with relatively slow cure
when fast-drying thermoplastic lac- Many of the modern coatings and rates and excellent low energy prop-
quers (e.g., vinyl and chlorinated linings are applied to concrete as erties. These materials effectively
rubber) were used, wetting and pen- thick multicoat thermosetting sys- enter the pores of the concrete sur-
etration of the opened surface was tems. The danger in applying thick- face. They penetrate the substrate to
often facilitated by drastic thinning of film composites of these finishes over great depths (optimally several hun-
the first coat with a high-boiling sol- concrete surfaces arises from thermal dred mils) before they become too
vent package. The solvent carried the coefficient differentials between mat- viscous (with advancing cure) to
coating or sealer deep into the sur- ing components and from the high penetrate further. After final cure,
face layers of the concrete before the shrinkage stresses. Such coatings in- they provide an epoxy-impregnated
solvent left the film completely. This clude high-strength epoxies, ure- surface. Very high builds of dense
rather crude technique is continued thanes, and especially the acrylics, finishes may be then applied with
today with low-build architectural polyesters, and vinyl esters. The minimal risk of delamination or cohe-
“do-it-yourself” finishes for floors. shrinkage stresses occur as the film sive substrate failure. Long-chain,
The technique provides a sound cures. They may either pull the coat- slow-converting curing agents (imida-
primer for heavier film build finishes. ing from the concrete or more likely zoline-modified amidoamines and
The same technique has also been pull apart the substrate itself. To polyamides) ensure good wetting
used with the medium molecular combat this, several high wetting, while epoxy diluents and reactive
weight epoxy/polyamide coatings. clear penetrating sealers (typically modifiers further reduce viscosity.

Blistering, Chalking, and Acid Attack in

Coated Swimming Pools
Another common source of trouble were readily recoated year after year. difficult because of wet surfaces and
with coated concrete in aggressive Many are still used where VOC regu- high water tables. In these systems,
service arises from the painting of lations allow. When properly formu- very careful mechanical scarification
swimming pools. Although vinyls, lated, chlorinated rubber coatings is advisable before priming as well
epoxies, and, at one time, latex had the alkali resistance necessary as before the chlorinated rubber re-
paints have been used on sub- for use on the concrete surface and coat is applied.
merged and above water concrete in were sufficiently acid-resistant to Old films of chalking thermosets
swimming pools, the application has handle pool additives. Good light such as epoxies require the removal
long been the domain of chlorinated stability and hardness ensured the of chalk before recoating and should
rubber-based coatings. These highly required aesthetics. be sweep blasted between coats.
impermeable compositions per- Lower VOC systems such as the Waterjetting may also work where
formed well, as did other chlorinated epoxies also do well, but they are energies are high enough to remove
systems, such as the maleic acid- subject to chalking as well as blister- the chalk. This practice was not as
modified vinyl chloroacetates and ing in recoats, often because of poor necessary with chlorinated rubber
the chlorinated polyolefin/vinyl ac- preparation techniques. Gay19 sug- because of the better chalking resis-
etate copolymer compositions. These gests the use of chlorinated rubber tance and the solvent weld advan-
lacquer systems adhered well to over 100% solids epoxies on poorly tage.
properly prepared concrete and constructed pools where painting is New concrete for swimming pools

52 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company

 TROUBLE with PAINT

Monofunctional epoxy diluents monolithic toppings, or thick tank silane. Addition of silanes such as the
such as the alkyl glycidyl ethers and linings, solvents are not effective. In amino silanes to the amine compo-
glycidyl neodecanate can reduce vis- other less critical applications, they nent may result in diminished shelf
cosity and extend cure without the may be used. Where solvents are em- stability (the formation of gelled ma-
need for solvent. These materials par- ployed, these are often high-boilers. terial).
tially chain stop the amine cure, The volume of most solvents that Epoxy sealers of this type may
thereby reducing crosslink density may be used is, however, limited be- provide additional value when the
and adding flexibility and stress at- cause of regulations on VOCs. Many concrete is wet, as is often found in
tenuation to the system. The disad- solvents are also restricted because subterranean applications. Moisture
vantage of these techniques is an in- they are regulated as hazardous air will interfere with the cure of many
evitable reduction in chemical pollutants (HAPS). One new, if ex- polymer finishes, diminishing initial
resistance, but this is less critical in pensive, solvent that may eventually adhesion. Under rising temperatures
sealers because they are used be- find value in some of these applica- (in sunlight or within a newly heated
neath high builds of more chemical- tions is the VOC-exempt, non-HAPS, building), moisture may also be
resistant finishes. Many of the alkyl non-ozone depleting substance drawn from the concrete as vapor.
glycidyl ethers (especially the lower (ODS), parachlorobenzotrifluoride. It Along with occluded air from porosi-
alkyl moieties such as butyl glycidyl is much slower to evaporate than ties, the vapor will produce bubbling
ether) are also biologically active and other permissible non-VOC materials and pinholing in the finish. Some
readily absorb into the skin. Use of (such as acetone) and allows for epoxy penetrating sealers displace
these materials is declining in favor good wet films to be laid down. air or moisture from the pores as
of higher homologues such as linear The use of reactive silanes as addi- part of the sealing process. These
C11-C13 and C13-C15 glycidyl ethers tives may also be employed to fur- sealers allow the formation of more
(epoxide 7 and epoxide 8). C11-13 ther improve the bond between the homogeneous finishes and lining
refers to alkyl glycidyl ether with 11- concrete and such penetrating seal- systems. Finally, such sealers can be
13 carbons in the alkyl chain. C13-15 ers. It is preferred that the silanes be formulated so that their coefficients
refers to alkyl glycidyl ether with 13- added to the epoxy component of of thermal expansion lie between the
15 carbons in the alkyl chain. epoxy/amine systems using an values for concrete and for the de-
In many applications, especially epoxy-terminated silane such as sired finish. In this case, they mini-
where sealers are to be used beneath gamma glycidoxypropyltrimethoxy- continued

is best prepared by abrasive blasting. the film). Solvent odors are then cult where the water table remains
While often successful, acid etching detected. high. Epoxies rather than chlorinated
requires careful rinsing to avoid sub- Other blistering problems often rubber may be a better choice of
sequent osmotic blistering because originate from poor pool design. The system. It is, however, desirable that
of soluble salts at the interface. Blis- absence of a secure waterproof recoating be delayed until water ta-
tering may also result where pools membrane on the backside of the bles are low enough to allow the ap-
are filled too quickly after painting. concrete is a major cause of prob- plication of coatings to well-blasted
Many coatings, particularly high mol- lems. The pour should be densely dry surfaces. Wherever the vapor
ecular weight systems such as chlori- compacted, just as is required for barrier is defective or missing, and
nated rubbers, retain solvents for other water-retaining structures. water tables are high, coating will be
several weeks. If pools are filled be- High water tables around pools a problem. In some cases, success
fore the coatings are sufficiently free without vapor barriers will allow the on poorly constructed pools, subject
of solvent, osmotic blistering is likely access of water to the backside of to underfilm water accumulation,
to be produced by retained solvent. the film. There, the high imperme- can be achieved by using more per-
Coatings containing hydrophilic high ability of the chlorinated rubber meable flat coating systems of higher
boiling solvents may be especially coating effectively stops the flow. pigment volume concentration
prone to this defect. Thinner films The accumulating interfacial water (PVC). These types of films may be
drying under good air flow and will eventually result in adhesion harder to keep clean than conven-
higher temperature may facilitate failure, although well adhering sys- tional pool paints. ❍
solvent release. Large amounts of tems over good surfaces may last for
residual solvents may be detected several years.
by opening (removing a section of Repair and recoating may be diffi-

Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 53

TROUBLE with PAINT

problematic in high shrinkage sys-

tems in which free radical-induced
Prestressed Concrete crosslinking occurs at sites of unsat-
uration (e.g., vinyl esters, unsaturat-
Concrete gives optimum mechanical performance under compression,
ed polyesters, and acrylics). Internal
when it is much more resistant to cracks and checks that form during
shrinkage. In the compressed condition, the surface is also most stable
stress is stored as a tensile strain in
and makes the best substrate for coatings. Compressive stresses the composite after cure. Tensile
are induced into concrete by prestressing. In this process, the steel strain thereafter compromises the
reinforcement is stretched before the concrete is poured. This ability of the system (including the
tensioning of the reinforcement is maintained throughout the curing concrete substrate) to tolerate the
process and only released after the concrete has hardened. At this point, imposition of hygrothermal and
the forces created as the steel attempts to regain its original length are other in-service stresses.
transferred through the steel/concrete bond to the concrete itself, induc- Hygrothermal stresses may be ex-
ing a compression. acerbated by the large differentials in
coefficients of thermal expansion be-
tween the concrete and strong high-
build liners. In response to applied
mize stress from high differentials of ings are 100% solids polymeric ma- stress, such systems may fail cohe-
thermal expansion between substrate terials applied as a seamless layer at sively by cracking. Even more prob-
and lining. high film thickness (>1⁄8 in. [>3 mm.]) lematic may be their effect on the in-
and often filled with a chemical-re- terface or on the concrete. Many
Problems with Linings and sistant aggregate. failures have occurred where shrink-
Monolithic Flooring on Concrete In maintenance applications, ing stresses (or later-induced hy-
Stress resurfacing floors with monolithic grothermal stresses) have been too
Industrial floors in light manufactur- topping or polymer concrete of this great for the concrete substrate, caus-
ing service that utilize the types of type is often favored over installing ing spalling and delamination of the
low-build coatings discussed above new floors because resurfacing re- coating system (Fig. 2).
may, with maintenance, require re- quires less down time than new in- Great care is necessary to maxi-
placement every ten years or so. stallation. Monolithic self-leveling mize adhesion and minimize the
These same coatings may not last 12 toppings and protective lining mate- amount of stress in the coating. Most
months, however, when used on rials are generally aggregate-filled or of the above mentioned polymers are
floors in more demanding services reinforced composites. They are high modulus materials with limited
such as those found in the chemical based on 100% solids epoxies (often elongation at break. Stress relief is
processing industry, pulp and paper cured with aliphatic or cycloaliphatic predominantly engineered into the
plants, and food and beverage pro- amines), polyurethanes, vinyl esters, system with a range of coarse fillers
cessing plants. In facilities such as and unsaturated polyesters or (including silica) known as aggre-
oil refineries, exposure to chemicals, acrylics. They require application gates. These aggregates diminish in-
constant cleaning regimens, impact by skilled applicators at very high ternal stress buildup on cure and the
loads, and abrasion will rapidly de- film thicknesses (1⁄8 in. to 1⁄4 in. [3 mm thermal coefficient of expansion. Lin-
stroy these thin coatings and the to 6 mm]) in one, two, or more ear thermal coefficient of expansion
concrete they protect. Physical coats. Still higher film builds (up to values as high as 40 x 10-6 in./in./de-
abuse and chemicals frequently 1
⁄2 in. [13 mm] thick) using larger ag- gree F (73 x 10-6 cm./cm./degree C)
erode the concrete matrix, so that gregates are applied as polymer for the unfilled system can be re-
cleaning becomes difficult, bacterial concretes where service is particular- duced to something like 12-15 x 10-6
growth increases, and the floors be- ly demanding. At these higher film in./in./degree F (22-27 x 10 -6
come unsafe. Concrete surfaces can thicknesses, stress becomes the cm./cm./degree C) after filling. The
disintegrate so severely under these major concern. latter values are much closer to val-
conditions that reinforcing steel as While the lack of solvent does ues for the concrete substrate (ap-
well as stone aggregate is exposed. much to reduce stress, the internal proximately 6 x 10-6 in./in./degree F
To prevent this type of attack, stress that accompanies shrinkage [11 x 10-6 cm./cm./degree C7]).
monolithic polymeric linings are on polymerization (even in 100% The danger in minimizing unwant-
now used as floor toppings, as well solids systems) may be very signifi- ed stress accretion or improving
as tank linings.6,7,8,9 Monolithic lin- cant. Internal stress is especially stress relaxation is that permeability
54 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
 TROUBLE with PAINT

and, therefore, resistance properties

of the lining to penetrants may be
a.) Elastomeric Coating Elastomeric Coating
too greatly compromised. The inclu-
sion of aggregate will generally di-
Crack
minish the impermeability of the lin-
ing, although platey fillers such as Elastomer
Rigid Coating
mica and glass flake will have the b.) Elastomeric
Underlayer
least negative impact. Permeability
Crack
concerns are also minimized by high
film thicknesses. Bondbreaker Tape
Flat, platey pigments (such as mica c.) Bondbreaker Rigid Coating
and, especially, glass flake) are used Tape
where impermeability is a primary re- Crack

quirement. These systems may be Reinforcement Bondbreaker Tape

valuable in tank floor linings for d.) Bondbreaker Rigid Coating
high-temperature immersion service. Tape with
Reinforcement Crack
Aggregates are normally added on
site as part of a multi-component
mix. In some cases, the polymer may
be poured onto the concrete directly Fig. 3 - Crack accommodation devices in monolithic flooring system
and applied by squeegee. Next, the
aggregate itself may be broadcast
into the resin. The excess is swept up
afterwards. This type of application Coating or Lining Expansion Joint Compound
may be repeated until the required
buildup in film thickness is obtained.
A final coat of polymer may then be
applied. Fiberglass in the form of
chopped mat or woven cloth is wide-
ly used as reinforcement. These ma-
terials add great strength to the lining
Concrete Slab Termination Point Fig. 4 - Design to
and reduce the propensity of the sys-
(e.g. Doorway) prevent lifting of
tems to crack.
coating at
For specific purposes, other fillers termination point
may also be included in place of
fiberglass. Substitutes include carbon-
based fillers and tin oxide-coated The danger in minimizing unwant- of the free radical-induced systems
mica doped with antimony10 for elec- ed stress accretion or improving and have lower shrinkage on poly-
trical conductivity (electrostatic dissi- stress relaxation is that permeability merization. Flexibilizers such as reac-
pation)11 of floor coatings. Synthetic and, therefore, and the resistance tive and non-reactive diluents may be
textile fibers may improve resistance properties of the lining to penetrants incorporated into the epoxy system.
to hydrofluoric acid and strong alka- may be too greatly compromised. There are many more curing agent
lis. The aggregate type will also affect The inclusion of aggregate will gen- options with epoxies. These include
the wearing properties of the top- erally diminish the impermeability of • aromatic amines,
ping, and coarse aggregate may be the lining, although platey fillers such • aliphatic amines and their adducts,
included in the final application as an as mica and glass flake will have the • cycloaliphatic amines,
anti-skid device. In this application, least negative impact. Permeability • mannich bases,
harder materials such as silicone car- concerns are also minimized by high • polyamides,
bide and aluminum oxide give better film thicknesses. • amidoamines, and
abrasion resistance than do quartz Stress minimization or dissipation • polyoxypropylene amines.
and sand. Sand is, however, inexpen- may also be achieved by careful selec- The above list is given in order of in-
sive and provides good chemical re- tion of the binder. Epoxies allow creasing flexibility and, therefore,
sistance and workability. more formulating latitude than do any continued

Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 55

TROUBLE with PAINT

agents, the use of these materials is

now discouraged because of con-
cerns about their carcinogenicity.
Somewhat more limited are the op-
tions for changes in the basic epoxy
type. Bisphenol F resins and certain
phenolic novolacs decrease the vis-
cosity of the 100% solids mixes and
improve resistance to acids (not the
strong suit for epoxies). Vinyl esters
and unsaturated polyesters employ-
ing a free radical-initiated cure are
more acid-resistant than the epoxies
and have good general chemical re-
sistance. Vinyl esters built on novolac
intermediates are also used in these
applications for improving acid resis-
tance and solvent resistance com-
Fig. 5 - Delamination of a latex-modified cementitious waterproofing beneath an epoxy finish pared to Bisphenol A epoxy resins.
from a below grade gallery wall of a sewage treatment plant. Note concavity of epoxy Chlorinated polyesters give good re-
indicating tensile stress development as the driving force. sistance to mineral acids. The epox-
ies, including the fumarate esters of
stress dissipation and decreasing amine are the most widely used. Bisphenol A, have the best alkali re-
chemical resistance. For lining work, While the aromatic amines are the sistance. Furan resins, which are dark
the aliphatic amine and cycloaliphatic most chemical-resistant of all curing continued

56 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company

TROUBLE with PAINT

and have been used as polymer con- noted above.12 Polyurethanes are de- Cracking
crete binders, have even higher scribed as being useful in the protec- Under normal circumstances, con-
shrinkage than do vinyl esters. tion of concrete in high H2S environ- crete is much more dimensionally
Urethane elastomers based on ments such as those found in stable than metal. That is, concrete is
polyether polyols are applied at 40 to wastewater treatment facilities. Here, not as subject to dimensional defor-
200 mils (1 to 5 mm). They are used more conventional protection has mation resulting from environmental
on concrete surfaces, as are amine- been obtained from solvent-borne changes (humidity and especially
cured polyureas. These materials are epoxies, coal tar epoxies, and vinyl temperature) as are metals (especially
more effective crack-bridging agents systems, although again vinyl esters light metals and thin walled metal
than many of the polymer species and polyesters are used.13 sections). Stress from substrate move-
ment will generally not exceed more
than a few hundredths of a percent.
The exception is, of course, where
the substrate is cracked, or where it
cracks in service after coating. Crack-
ing due to shrinkage may be mini-
mized where the concrete is pre-
stressed (see box.). This practice
maintains the substrate in a perma-
nent state of compression. It is used
in the manufacture of tanks, cells,
pressure pipe, and similar items. In
other cases, tensile cracking is not an
unusual occurrence because of the
minimal tensile strength of concrete
(250 to 450 psi [1,700 to 3,100 kPa]).
The possibility of structural crack de-
velopment as a result of settlement,
impact, or other tensile stress effects
in service is very real.
Cracks are active when the width
of the crack will open in cold service
relative to the width of the crack
when the lining was applied. (Cold
service is service in temperatures
lower than those under which the
lining was applied.) When cracks are
active, strains will tend to result in
the propagation of the crack into the
lining. Active structural cracks, cer-
tainly those wider than 2 millimeters
(80 mils), must be fixed before appli-
cation of any topping or lining mater-
ial. Repair requires opening up the
crack, priming the concrete, and fill-
ing it with a flexible sealant (for ex-
ample polysulfide) using a caulking
gun. In one method, the cracked area
is then covered (3 in. [75 mm] on
both sides of the crack) with a glass
cloth embedded in the resin solution,
and the laminate is allowed to cure
before finishing. Flexible coatings
58 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
 TROUBLE with PAINT

and elastomers with glass transition Cracking and Chemical Attack in (generally less than 72 hours). Some
temperatures [Tg] well below service Secondary Containment of the chemicals involved (98% H2SO4
temperatures can deform with struc- In recent years, a major new market and glacial acetic acid, for example)
tural crack movement. This allows for chemical-resistant concrete coat- may be exceptionally aggressive. Most
the coating to bridge the opening ings, that of secondary containment of the same high-performance coating
without lowering adhesion or crack- applications, has emerged.8,15,16,17,18 systems employed on floors for chem-
ing themselves (Fig. 3). The phenom- Concern over toxicological and envi- ical process plants, pulp and paper
enon is discussed by Pfoehler, et al.14 ronmental contamination and regula- mills, and similarly aggressive indus-
Specially designed flexible base tions to enforce controls have greatly tries are also useful in secondary con-
coats such as polyurethane elas- tainment applications. These include
tomers, flexible epoxies, and neo- epoxies, the fumarate esters of
prene-based primers are also used Many chemical Bisphenol A, other unsaturated poly-
on these cracks. These materials ab- esters, vinyl esters, phenolics,
sorb the shear stresses of the crack resistance polyurethanes, and furan-based mate-
movement and dissipate the stress rials. Epoxies, including epoxy no-
effects over the much larger area of requirements volacs, are cured with aromatic amine
the repair. The more diffused stress and, more recently, cycloaliphatic
centers are tolerated more easily by for containment amine. Systems may range from thick
the high modulus finish layers. The (1⁄8 in. [3 mm]) fiberglass-reinforced
beneficial effects of such flexible are identical systems (such as those described
coatings are increased as their film above for tank linings) to thinner films
thicknesses increase. to those of (40-80 mils [1-2 mm]) with or without
Bond breaker tapes are also used, flaked filling and unfilled low-build
applied over the crack beneath more flooring. systems (10 mils [250 micrometers]).
rigid coatings. These bond breakers, Low-build systems may be employed
which may or may not be used with where the anticipated attack is less ag-
a reinforced coating, again accommo- expanded the use of secondary con- gressive although care is necessary to
date crack movement by distribution tainment dikes as preventatives ensure that all peaks and burrs are
of the stress over a wider section of a against the spill of virtually all chemi- ground away from the concrete be-
rigid coating. These and other crack- cals, solvents, oils, and fuels. fore the coating is applied. Thin film
bridging devices are described in ref- These containments (vaults, pits, spots over these peaks represent
erence 15. sumps, spillways) are designed as weaknesses in the barrier protection
backups to the primary storage units of the concrete.
Weakened Termination Point (usually tanks) in the event of leaks, Flake glass is attacked by caustic
Problems connection failures, gasket and seal and certain strong acids such as hy-
In monolithic flooring, special atten- problems, as well as more cata- drofluoric acid. Special synthetic mats
tion may also be necessary at floor strophic accidents. The containments instead of glass may be required. Se-
drains and termination points such must hold the spilled chemicals until lection of a coating system will de-
as doorways. In these areas, the they can be retrieved, neutralized, or pend upon the nature of the anticipat-
concrete may have chemically dete- permanently disposed of. Construct- ed spill, the projected contact time of
riorated or separated from the slab. ed primarily of concrete, secondary the spill, and the expected delay be-
It is necessary to renew the deterio- containment dikes are internally lined fore it can be neutralized or removed.
rated concrete around the drain, re- with coatings that are resistant to the In many systems, two or more materi-
moving the bad sections, and expos- chemicals involved and capable of als (in their respective primary con-
ing sound aggregate before filling protecting the concrete substrate. tainment tanks) may be contained to-
the concrete groove with topping Many of the chemical resistance re- gether. In this case, the coating system
material. Along termination points, quirements for containment are identi- for the common secondary contain-
the concrete is best V-grooved and cal to those of the flooring applica- ment area must resist all possible spill
the monolithic flooring led over the tions noted above, although combinations but as such, may com-
edge of the groove and into the val- containment, wear, and abrasion are plicate liner selection.
ley. The valley (the groove) may far less problematic. The coating Secondary containment facilities
then be filled with expansion joint should, however, be capable of sus- may also fail by cracking, which al-
compound. taining short-term immersion service continued

Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 59

TROUBLE with PAINT

lows the chemicals to escape and ac- sary to employ materials other than involves many of the same problems
cess the concrete. There, degeneration liquid-applied coatings. Sheet liners of surface preparation noted above.
and more severe containment wall of polyolefins, polyvinyl chloride, The service, however, is not general-
failure may follow. If perforation goes chlorosulfonated polyolefins, or fluo- ly extreme, and thinner, lower per-
unnoticed, some chemicals may quiet- ropolymers may be necessary. Such formance coating systems will usually
ly destroy the concrete beneath the liners are mechanically fastened or serve well. Form oils may prevent
coating. Anomalies of this type must bonded to the concrete at, or after, good bonding between concrete and
also be accommodated by coating sys- the time it is poured. Chemical-resis- coating, especially where latex
tem design. Small fixed cracks (from tant materials using thick polymer primers/coatings are to be employed.
hairline to 1 or 2 mm) may be easily concrete linings may also be used. Hot water solutions of trisodium
filled and bridged, especially where Sheet liners require sealing at the phosphate may be effective in re-
flexible liners and mat reinforcements seams (often with heat seals). Sheet moving the oils, but after-rinsing is a
are employed. Large cracks may need liners are often not mechanically critical step. Sweep blasting or other
special attention and may be treated bonded to the concrete, and, when procedures may be necessary where
as noted above or as expansion perforated, allow corrodents to get form oils are resistant to detergent
joints.15 More so than thick systems, into the cavity between the concrete cleaning.
thin films will tend to crack with the and the liner. This phenomenon re- After cleaning, the surfaces are
concrete. Thicker, more flexible films sults in serious destruction if the usually primed with acrylic latex
(polyurethanes, polyureas) will bridge leaks are not quickly detected. primers. A wide variety of finishes
and resist cracking more readily, but may be applied, including latex top-
chemical resistance is generally not as Adhesion Problems with the coats, alkyds, epoxies, epoxy esters,
good with flexible systems as it is with Finishing of Architectural and urethanes, both solvent-borne
the higher Tg systems such as the Concrete and water-borne. Epoxy primers may
vinyl esters. The finishing of unprotected concrete be used instead of latex primers
In extreme cases, it may be neces- in purely architectural applications where strong, more adhesive systems
with higher chemical resistance are
required.
The finishing of new concrete
floors for purely architectural service
involves much the same require-
ments as for heavier duty service.
Many of the same problems (laitance,
contamination) and failure manifesta-
tions are incurred. Coating thickness-
es are lower, however, and fewer
coating layers are used. As a result,
stresses are generally lower. Acid
etching is used more than mechani-
cal abrasion as a surface preparation
procedure. Mechanical abrasion is
typically used only on hardened con-
crete floors where acid etching is in-
effective. Various systems have been
employed on such floors, ranging
from older systems such as chlorinat-
ed rubbers, epoxy esters, alkyds, and
oil-modified urethanes to chemically
curing epoxies and urethanes (mois-
ture-cured and two-pack systems).
Latex floor paints have also been
used in light-duty service. They tend
to pick up dirt more easily. Also, they
may become soft, especially in warm
60 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company
 TROUBLE with PAINT

locations where film temperatures high-build coatings and overlay- most favored of all the latexes, al-
may exceed the Tg. On garage floors, ments. Applications include deck though homo- and co-polymerized
their thermoplasticity can cause film overlays (e.g., on bridges and ships); vinyl acetate and even acrylic latexes
disruption problems as films are soft- floorings and pavements; integral wa- have been used. Latex additives in
ened, marked, and even picked up terproofing (waterproofing agents modified mortars are made at levels
by hot tires. Brake, transmission, and that are added to concrete as admix- of one fifth to equal parts of cement
similar fluids may also soften and de- tures) and waterproofing membranes weight, while sand levels are higher,
stroy thermoplastic films. applied as liquids; anti-corrosive lin- generally two to three times the
Non-thermoplastic systems are less ings in drains, tanks, steel roofs, and weight of the cement. Application of
susceptible to this type of attack. these materials is made at thicknesses
Water-borne epoxies, and, more re- of 5 to 20 mm (0.2 to 0.8 in.), some-
cently, water-borne two-pack Water-borne times in several coats.
polyurethanes are gaining in-roads as The reaction of the polymer within
thin film floor finishes for concrete. epoxy resins the mortar (or concrete) during hard-
The urethanes20,21 are often entirely ening and in the fully cured matrix is
free of solvent (including coalescent) are finding discussed by Ohama.23 It appears that
and are very fast drying. Water-borne the polymer particles are confined to
epoxy polyamides have also been increased use the mixed capillaries. There, they coat
used quite widely on Jersey concrete the cement hydrate and condense to
road barriers, where they not only in latex- produce an interpenetrating network
protect the concrete but also enhance of polymer phase throughout the ce-
nighttime visibility. They are valued modified ment hydrate phase.
where short downtimes and minimum The properties of the modified sys-
paint odor are important. Initial coats mortars. tem will vary to some extent with the
are preferably thinned (1:1 by volume nature and degree of the modifica-
and even more). Thinning provides tion. Such modification, however, al-
for penetration into the concrete to similar structures; adhesives and re- most universally brings about a
prevent a stress plane from forming pair grouts; and decorative coatings marked improvement compared to
on top of the concrete and causing for walls. the properties of unmodified con-
delamination in service. Penetration is Most applications use latex modi- crete and mortar. Adhesion is im-
often more difficult with the higher fiers in the mortar. These include proved as are abrasion resistance,
energy water-borne systems. thermoplastic latexes, thermosetting tensile strength, and flexural strength.
Clear penetrating sealers that re- latexes, elastomeric latexes, and bitu- There is little or no change in com-
duce dusting and reduce wear on minous emulsions. Some water-solu- pressive strength. There may be
decorated concrete are also applied ble polymers such as the cellulosics, some loss in strength with increased
as thin coats. Reactive silanes may be polyvinyl alcohol, and polyacry- temperature, particularly tempera-
integrally blended into such sealers. lamide have also been used, mainly tures above the Tg of thermoplastic
As noted above, ester-based oleo- for improved workability. Epoxy sys- modifiers.
resinous products are still used, but tems are making significant gains in Latex-modified mortar and con-
these systems should be restricted to this industry. Water-borne epoxy crete display better workability than
floors that do not tend to become resins are also being used. The latter do the conventional materials. As the
wet. Otherwise, substrate alkalinity systems are mainly amine- and pores of the mortar or concrete are
may interfere with coating adhesion. amide-cured epoxy materials laced filled and sealed with polymer, the
with enough surfactant for water dis- water absorption and permeability of
Problems with Polymer-Modified persibility and selected additives such the material is lowered compared to
Cement (Concrete and Mortar) as defoamers to avoid excessive air the same characteristics in the un-
The use of polymer-modified con- entrapment. Initial work has been modified product. Modified mortars
crete and mortar has seen significant done using epoxies without conven- and concretes are, therefore, more
growth over the last 30 years. Mortars tional curing agents. The resin hard- desirable for waterproofing. Their
have achieved far wider usage than ens in the presence of the alkali in strength may diminish somewhat
has concrete because of the better the mortar (probably a base-induced when they are exposed to water.
cost-performance balance. Polymer- homopolymerization).22 This phenomenon results from the
modified mortars have been used as Styrene butadiene latex systems are continued

Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company JPCL – PMC / MAY 1999 61

TROUBLE with PAINT

hydrophilic nature of certain poly- creased porosity of polymer-modified In addition to latex systems, epox-
mers (polyvinyl acetate or polyvinyl concrete also provides improved re- ies, polyesters, polyurethanes, and
alcohol, for example). If latex-modi- sistance to frost damage. other resins have also been used to
fied cementitious waterproofing is re- Modifications with styrene butadi- modify cementitious materials. Redis-
coated with strong thermosets (high- ene have shown value in overlay- persible powders, initiated and radia-
build epoxies) in this wet condition, ments for bridge decks, reducing tive-cured monomeric systems have
some cohesive weakness may be chloride ion ingress to reinforcing also been examined. For details on
locked into the waterproofing. Cohe- steel; however, the use of polyvinyli- these effects, the reader is referred to
sive failure will occur within the ce- dene chloride latexes in mortar has the book by Ohama.23
mentitious waterproofing as the actually caused corrosion of structur-
epoxy shrinks on curing (Fig. 4). Less al steel supporting members.24 The Conclusion
hydrophilic polymers such as styrene propensity of such latex systems to Next, we will review wood as a sub-
butadiene latexes are less susceptible undergo dehydrochlorination and re- strate for paint and examine many of
to polymeric hydration and more re- lease HCl in such applications is the unique coating problems that are
sistant to such loss in strength. De- cause for discouraging such uses. encountered on it. ❏

References Floors for Positive Containment Epoxies for Secondary Contain-

and Protection,” in Protective ment” JPCL (December 1995),
1. T.I. Aldinger et al., “Problem Solv- Coatings for Floorings and Other p. 17.
ing Forum” JPCL (May 1991), Concrete Surfaces, Proceedings of 17. T. Aldinger and B.S. Fultz, “Select-
p. 17. SSPC 91 (Report #91-19), Long ing Coatings and Linings for Con-
2. T.I. Aldinger, “Coating New Con- Beach, CA, Nov. 10-15, 1991 crete in Chemical Environments”
crete—Why Wait 28 Days,” in (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, 1991), JPCL (August 1995), p. 64.
Protective Coatings for Flooring p. 151. 18. P.R. Nau and B.S. Fultz, “Coatings
and Other Concrete Surfaces, 10. R. Vogt et al., “Bright Conductive and Linings for Sealing Chemical
SSPC Publication 91-19 (Pitts- Pigments With Layer Substrate Containment in Power Plants”
burgh, PA: SSPC, 1991), pg. 1. Structure” European Coatings JPCL (October 1990), p. 42.
3. J. Kollmer et al., “Problem Solving Journal (July-August 1997), 19. P.J. Gay, “Coating Immersed Con-
Forum” JPCL (November 1988), p. 706. crete for Swimming Pools and
p. 63. 11. G. Hall, “Controlling Electrostatic Sewage Applications” JOCCA (July
4. A. Kessi, “Negative Side Water- Discharge with Static Control 1974), p. 252.
proofing” Concrete Repair Bulletin Floor Coatings” JPCL (August 20. S.L. Bassner and C.R. Hegedus, “A
(September/October 1996), p. 12. 1996), p. 56. Review of Two-Component Water-
5. R.F. Stanfield, “Protective Coat- 12. R.E. Foscante and H.H. Kline, borne Polyurethane Coatings for
ings for Concrete” JOCCA (April “Coating Concrete—An Overview” Industrial Applications” JPCL (Sep-
1989), p. 150. Materials Performance (September tember 1996), p. 52.
6. A.A. Boova, “A Guide to Selecting 1988), p. 34. 21. P. Jacobs, K. Best, M. Dvorchak, M.
Industrial Flooring Systems” JPCL 13. H.E. Hower, “Alternative Methods Schaffer, T. Wayt, and P. Yu, “Two
(February 1990), p. 36. for Protecting Concrete in Hydro- Component Waterborne
7. W.R. Slama, “Polyester and Vinyl gen Sulfide Environments” JPCL Polyurethane Coatings—Now and
Ester,” in Generic Coating Types, (July 1989), p. 30. Into the Next Century” Paint and
SSPC 95-08, ed. Lloyd M. Smith 14. P. Pfoehler, A. Zosel, and Baum- Coatings Industry (Oct. 1996), .
(Pittsburgh, PA: Technology Pub- stark, “Elastic Coating Systems for 22. Y. Ohama, K. Demura, and T.
lishing Co., 1996), pp. 237-256. the Renovation of Facades” Sur- Endo, STP 1176 Polymer-Modified
8. F. Hazan, “Monolithic Linings face Coatings Australia (May Hydraulic Cement Mixtures
and Coatings for Chemical Sec- 1995), p. 18. (Philadelphia, PA: ASTM, 1993),
ondary Containment Structures,” 15. SSPC-TU2/NACE 6G197, Design p. 90.
in Protective Coatings for Floor- Installations and Maintenance of 23. Y. Ohama, “Principles of Polymer
ing and Other Concrete Coating Systems for Concrete in Modification for Cement Composi-
Structures, Proceedings of SSPC Secondary Containment, Joint In- tions,” in Handbook of Polymer
91, Publication (Report # 91-19), formational Report and Technolo- Modified Concrete and Mortar
Long Beach, CA, Nov. 10-15, gy Update of SSPC and NACE, (Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publica-
1991 (Pittsburgh, PA: SSPC, SSPC Publication #97-04 (Pitts- tions, 1995), p. 11.
1991), p. 70. burgh, PA: SSPC and Houston, 24. “Dow Faces a Storm of Sarabond
9. F. Hazen, “Repair and Resurfac- TX: NACE International, 1997). Suits” Chemical Week (March
ing of Paper Mill Bleach Plant 16. C. Stanley, “Chemical Resistant 1983), 13 2(10) p. 14.

62 MAY 1999 / JPCL – PMC Copyright ©1999, Technology Publishing Company