doi: 10.1111/j.1751-3928.2008.00081.x Resource Geology Vol. 59, No.

1: 87–98

Review Article

Genetic Aspects of the Manto-type Copper Deposits Based

on Geochemical Studies of North Chilean Deposits

Shoji Kojima1, Dania Trista-Aguilera1,* and Ken-ichiro Hayashi2

1Department of Geological Sciences, North Catholic University, Antofagasta, Chile, 2Earth Evolution Sciences, Graduate School of

Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan

Abstract

Recent studies on mineralogy, geochronology, fluid inclusion and stable isotope (Pb, Os, S, C, O, Sr) character-
istics were reviewed to determine constraints for genetic models of the Chilean manto-type copper deposits.
The Chilean manto-type deposits are divided into the two geologic categories of the northern areas (Arica–
Iquique, Tocopilla–Taltal) and the central areas (Copiapó, La Serena, Santiago). The former is distributed in the
coastal range composed of Jurassic andesite-dominated volcano-sedimentary piles and younger plutonic in-
trusions, and yields chalcocite (-digenite) and bornite as the principal hypogene copper sulfides. The latter is
hosted mostly in Lower Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary sequences, and has chalcopyrite-rich mineral asso-
ciations. The fluid inclusion data indicate that the primary copper mineralization was commonly generated in
the temperature range 150–360°C under low-pressure conditions near the boiling curve, mediated with rela-
tively saline brines. Generally, homogeneous Pb and S isotope compositions for primary copper minerals im-
ply direct magma source or leaching of igneous rocks. Pb and Os isotope data published for some deposits,
however, suggest that ore-forming metals were derived mainly from the volcano-sedimentary host rocks. The
noticeably negative isotope ratios of primary sulfide sulfur and hydrothermal calcite carbon of some central
area deposits indicate influx of sedimentary rock components, and the high 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios of hydro-
thermal calcite from the Tocopilla–Taltal area deposits imply contribution of the contemporaneous seawater or
marine carbonates. These isotopic constraints imply a formation mechanism in which the Chilean manto-type
copper deposits formed epigenetically in the process of hydrothermal interaction of non-magmatic surface-
derived brine with the volcano-sedimentary host rocks, which is inferred to have been induced by a deep-
seated plutonic complex as the possible heat source.
Keywords:
Chilean manto-type deposits, coastal Cordillera, hydrothermal fluid–rock interaction, isotope
geochemistry, primary copper sulfides, volcano-sedimentary piles.

1. Introduction belt in Chile. Similar type of deposits in North Amer-

ica are named “volcanic redbed” (Kirkham, 1996;
In the Coastal Cordillera of Northern Chile (north Lefebure & Church, 1996; Cabral & Beaudoin, 2007),
of Santiago, <34°S), numbers of volcanic-hosted strat- and are distributed principally in the northwest
abound copper deposits termed “manto-type” are Canada and north Michigan district (e.g. White, 1968;
distributed (Ruiz et al., 1965; Camus, 1990), forming Wilton & Sinclair, 1988). Most of the aforementioned
an economically important cupriferous metallogenic deposits occur in andesitic to basaltic rock-dominated

Received 30 July 2007. Accepted for publication 14 December 2007.

Corresponding author: S. KOJIMA, Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Católca del Norte, Av. Angamos 0610, Casilla
1280, Antofagasta, Chile. Email: skojima@caliche.ucn.cl
*Present address: Empresa Minera de Mantos Blancos S.A., División Mantos Blancos, Antofagasta, Chile.

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Journal compilation © 2009 The Society of Resource Geology 87
S. Kojima et al.

volcano-sedimentary piles of Mesozoic age (Chile)

and much older Proterozoic to Triassic age (North
America). Unfortunately, the currently operating
mines producing significant copper are almost only
in Northern Chile. Thus, a variety of geological
information has been accumulated solely on Chilean
manto-type copper deposits, which are an important
object of mineral exploration (Yoshizawa et al., 2003).
In particular, studies on geochronology, fluid inclu-
sions and stable isotopes have greatly progressed,
and enable us to discuss ore-forming conditions and
origin of ore-forming elements. Despite such a con-
text, most studies are limited in local metallogeny,
and an effort to inclusively model the manto-type ore
formation has not yet been made. In this aspect, a
genetic model of the manto-type deposits still remains
in question, as compared with Chilean porphyry cop-
per deposits. The present study attempts to establish
a uniformly explainable formation model for the
Chilean manto-type copper deposits, based on recent
geological information, particularly on a variety of
isotope data, to determine constraints for the origin of
ore-forming elements.

2. General geology of ore deposits

Principal manto-type copper deposits in Northern Fig. 1
Spatial distribution of principal manto-type cop-
Chile are divided into the following five areas: Arica– per deposits in northern Chile (compiled from Sato,
1984; Camus, 1990; Maksaev et al., 2007).
Iquique, Tocopilla–Taltal, Copiapó, La Serena and
Santiago (Fig. 1). Most deposits of the areas occur in
Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary se- tion ages ranging from Early Upper Jurassic to Late
quences, and their geologic characteristics have been Lower Cretaceous (ca 100 Ma to ca 160 Ma; e.g. Wilson
summarized in review article by Sato (1984). The et al., 2003a; Tristá-Aguilera et al., 2006). Exceptionally,
deposits of the northern areas (Arica–Iquique and the Jardín and Amolanas deposits in the Copiapó area
Tocopilla–Taltal) are located in a lateral belt along the are hosted in Lower Tertiary (Eocene) felsic rocks (Sato,
coastal range, in contrast to those of the central areas 1984; Rodríguez X., pers. comm., XXX).
(Copiapó, La Serena, Santiago) distributed in the intra- The host rock volcanics are generally characterized by
continental back-arc basins (e.g. Camus, 1990; Sillitoe, monoclinal sheet-like extrusions with basaltic to rhyo-
2003). Furthermore, some geological differences are dacitic compositions. Typical bimodal volcanic rock
recognized between the two groups, as indicated by suites of basalt and rhyodacite association are observed
Sato (1984): the northern area deposits are hosted in in the Santiago area (e.g. Vergara et al., 1995; Boric et al.,
basaltic andesite to andesite-dominated Jurassic volcanic- 2002; Wilson et al., 2003a, b). This is regarded as the char-
sedimentary piles (Camaraca, Ofícina Viz and La acteristic of volcanism under extensional tectonic stress,
Negra Formations), except the Mantos Blancos deposit, as suggested for the Japanese Kuroko districts (Urabe,
which is hosted in the Jurassic felsic volcanics and sub- 1987). The host volcanic rocks show various textures,
volcanic intrusions (Cornejo et al., 2006; Ramírez et al., such as porphyritic (ocoitic), amygdaloidal and apha-
2006). In contrast, the central area deposits occur nitic, and consist of calc-alkaline to subordinate tholei-
in Lower Cretaceous (mainly Neocomian) volcano- itic and alkaline members (Levi et al., 1988; Klohn et al.,
sedimentary sequences including considerable amounts 1990; Morata & Aguirre, 2003; Kramer et al., 2005;
of sandstone, tuffaceous siltstone and limestone (Table 1). Lucassen et al., 2006). All of the volcano-sedimentary
This difference is reflected in the primary mineraliza- sequences hosting manto-type copper deposits have

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 Chilean Manto-type Copper Deposits

Table 1
Synopsis of geological characteristics of principal Chilean manto-type deposits

Area Host rock lithology Principal deposit Copper sulfides Age (Ma) Main references
Arica–Iquique Jurassic (Aalenian – Casa Grande- Cc, Cv> Bn > Cp — MINDES (1989);
Oxfordian) Camaraca Argolla Kramer et al.
and Oficina Viz F., (2005); Oliveros
andesitic rocks with et al. (2006)
subordinate marine
sediments
Tocopilla–Taltal Jurassic (Pliensbachian – Michilla (Lince– Cc, Bn, Cv > Cp ca 160 (Re-Os) Venegas et al. (1991);
Aaleian) La Negra F., Estefanía, Buena Kojima et al.
andesitic rocks with Vista) (2003); Tristá-
subordinate marine Aguilera et al.
sediments (2006)
Copiapó Lower Cretaceous Ocoita-Pabellón Cp, Bn > Cc, Cv, Tr — Marschik and
(Berremian Aptian) Metallotect Fontboté (2001);
Pabellón F., andesitic Cisterna and
rocks with marine Hermosilla (2006)
carbonates
La Serena Lower Cretaceous Talcuna Cp, Bn > Cc, Cv, Tr — Boric (1985); Camus
(Hauterivian – Albian) (1990); Oyarzun
Arqueros and Quebrada et al. (1998)
Marquesa F., andesitic
rocks with limestone
Santiago Lower Cretaceous El Soldado Bn, Cc, Cp 103 ± 3 (Ar-Ar) Boric et al. (2002);
(Berriasian – Barremian) Wilson et al.
Lo Prado and Veta Negra (2003a, b);
F., bimodal volcanic rocks Carrillo-Rosúa
with marine sediments et al. (2006)

Time scale after Gradstein et al. (2004).

Bn, bornite; Cc, chalcocite-digenite; Cp, chalcopyrite; Cv, covellite (secondary); F, Formation; Tr, tetrahedrite-tennantite.

considerable thickness over at least 2 km, and thus un- duction in the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous (e.g. Scheuber &
derwent prograde zeolite to lower greenschist facies re- Andriessen, 1990), and typical strike–slip duplex struc-
gional (or burial) metamorphism (Levi, 1969, 1970; tures of the main fault zone prevail in the Iquique to
Palacios, 1977; Wilson et al., 2003b; Shiba et al., 2006). Taltal districts (Cembrano et al., 2005). A transtensional
Voluminous plutonic complexes emplaced during sinistral strike–slip brittle shear system is also identi-
the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous are normally observed in fied in the Santiago area (Boric et al., 2002).
the mining districts of all the areas, and have intimate
spatial relations with the orebodies in the northern area 3. Characteristics of alteration and
deposits. In contrast, the plutonic intrusions are located primary mineralization
on sectors fairly separated from the orebodies in some
central area mining districts, such as Talcuna (Oyarzun Normally, host rocks in the vicinity of orebodies have
et al., 1998) and El Soldado (Boric et al., 2002). These com- experienced hydrothermal alteration genetically linked
plexes occur as basic to felsic stocks and dikes of calc- to primary copper mineralization. This event is com-
alkaline members, and are composed predominantly monly characterized by extensive sodic alteration (al-
of gabbro, diorite, monzonite, granodiorite and quartz bitization) and consecutive calcic alteration of epidote,
monzonite with the I-type magnetite-series character- calcite, chlorite, sericite, Ca-amphibole (actinolite) and
istics (Ishihara et al., 1984; Marschik et al., 2003). quartz (Elgueta et al., 1990; Klohn et al., 1990; Wolf et al.,
The northern area deposits in the Coastal Cordillera 1990; Oyarzun et al., 1998; Kojima et al., 2003; Cisternas &
are situated nearby the main branches of the N–S-trend- Hermosilla, 2006). Moreover, pervasive potassic alteration
ing Atacama fault zone, which extends >1000 km along as observed in the iron oxide–copper–gold (IOCG) de-
the Chilean coastal range between Iquique and La posits occurs in the Mantos Blancos deposit. This al-
Serena. This zone is characterized by the sinistral strike– teration is dominated by biotite and/or K-feldspar
slip faults formed during transtensional oblique sub- with minor tourmaline, and is regarded as an earlier

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S. Kojima et al.

event prior to the propylitic alteration at the Mantos Fluid inclusion studies were carried out on quartz
Blancos deposit (Ramírez et al., 2006). and calcite associated with primary copper minerals,
Primary copper mineralization usually occurs as and significant data on formation conditions of the
dissemination, amygdule-filling, stockwork and thin primary mineralization have been given (Table 2). Pri-
veinlet in host rocks (Sato, 1984; Kojima et al., 2003). mary fluid inclusions observed consist generally of
Sato (1984) classified the North Chilean manto-type CO2-free liquid + vapor and liquid + vapor + salt
deposits into the following three types according to (NaCl) inclusions, and vapor-dominant gaseous inclu-
their modes of occurrence: (1) stratabound tabular sions occasionally coexist with them (e.g. Nisterenko
type (e.g. Talcuna, Cerro Negro); (2) stacked tabular et al., 1973; Kojima et al., 2003; Ramírez et al., 2006). The
type (e.g. Buena Esperanza, Lince–Estefanía); and (3) coexistence of liquid (or polyphase) and gaseous
pseudostratiform type (e.g. Mantos Blancos, El inclusions is evidence for fluid boiling, and suggests
Soldado, Lo Aguirre). The type 1 deposits have many that the hypogene mineralization occurred under rela-
fine laminae in a singular stratigraphic horizon of host tively low-pressure conditions. This effect could ex-
rocks, while in the type 2 deposits many stratiform plain the marked difference in salinity shown in
orebodies occur selectively in porous units, such as Table 2. In the deposits of the Ocoita-Pabellón Metal-
amygdaloidal flows. In several type 2 deposits (e.g. lotect district, crude oil is reported in liquid-rich fluid
Buena Esperanza, Lince–Estefanía), breccia pipe de- inclusions (Cisternas & Hermosilla, 2006). Recently,
velops surrounding unmineralized gabbroic to dio- Tristá-Aguilera (2007) applied the chlorite geother-
ritic dike, and also the breccia zone is partially mometer of Cathelineau (1988) to the primary miner-
mineralized. The type 3 deposits are composed of alization of the Lince–Estefanía deposit (Michilla
irregularly-shaped ore zones, structurally controlled district), and gave mineralization temperatures rang-
by localization of lateral faults and associated feeder ing 230–299°C. This is consistent with the result of the
dikes (e.g. Boric et al., 2002). Thus, the types 2 and 3 fluid inclusion study (Table 2). Thus, hydrothermal
deposits exhibit epigenetic modes of occurrence. In brines with temperatures mostly in the range 150–360°C
the case of the type 1 deposits, the mineralized zones common to most hydrothermal copper deposits are
are intimately associated with other modes of orebod- regarded to have been responsible for the manto-type
ies, such as veinlets and breccia fillings as the mineral- copper mineralization.
ization channel ways, and generally occur in permeable
horizons favorable to mineralization (Camus, 1990;
4. Constraints from isotope geochemistry
Elgueta et al., 1990). These features suggest that the
type 1 deposits could also be epigenetic. Current progresses of isotope studies could contribute
In the copper mineral species occurring in the depos- to the manto-type deposit metallogeny, but it appears
its, certain differences are recognized in the respective that those have not yet led to a uniform conclusion on
areas (Table 1): chalcocite (-digenite)–bornite associa- the source of ore-forming elements and hydrothermal
tion is predominant in the northern areas, but chalcopy- water. In this chapter we review recent isotope studies
rite occurs as a principal mineral in the central areas. In on the Chilean manto-type deposits.
addition to the aforementioned minerals, lesser amounts
of pyrite, native copper, native silver, tetrahedrite–
tennantite, galena, sphalerite, magnetite and hematite are 4.1 Heavy metallic element isotopes
sporadically observed as the primary minerals (Camus, 207Pb/204Pb – 206Pb/204Pb isotopic characteristics of pri-
1990; Wolf et al., 1990; Oyarzun et al., 1998; Kojima et al., mary copper minerals from representative deposits,
2003; Ramírez et al., 2006; Tristá-Aguilera, 2007), and associated igneous rocks and contemporaneous sedi-
arsenopyrite, marcasite, enargite, safflorite, carrollite mentary rocks for the northern (Jurassic) and central
and stromeyerite are rarely reported in several central (Lower Cretaceous) areas are depicted, respectively, in
area deposits (Carrillo-Rosúa et al., 2006; Rodríguez, Figure 2. The Pb isotopic ratios of the central area de-
pers. comm.). In the El Soldado deposit and Ocoita- posits hosted in volcanic-dominant piles (El Soldado,
Pabellón Metallotect district (Copiapó area), such organic Lo Aguirre) and in volcano-sedimentary piles (Talcuna,
matter as solid bitumen and pyrobitumen are found in Cerro Negro) are markedly homogeneous, and are
close relation with primary ore minerals (Zentilli et al., close to the isotope ranges of the related igneous
1997; Wilson & Zentilli, 1999; Wilson et al., 2003b; rocks (Tosdal & Munizaga, 2003). The igneous rocks
Cisternas & Hermosilla, 2006). (Early Cretaceous volcanic and plutonic rocks) are

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 Chilean Manto-type Copper Deposits

Table 2
Summary of primary fluid inclusion data for principal Chilean manto-type deposits
Deposit Mineral used Inclusion type TH range (°C) Salinity† References
Buena Esperanza Calcite, Quartz L + V, V + L 64–235 — Nisterenko et al.
(1973)
Quartz L + V + S (NaCl) 440–500 52–59 Palacios (1990)
Mantos de La Luna Calcite L + V, V + L, L + V + S (NaCl) 163–350 25–34 Kojima et al. (2003)
Michilla

Lince–Estefanía Quartz, Calcite L + V, V + L 151–509 3.7–20.5 Kojima et al. (2003)

Buena Vista Quartz L+V 214–360 16–21 Kojima et al. (2003)
Mantos Blancos Quartz L + V, V + L, L + V + S (NaCl) 187–601 2.5–62 Ramírez et al. (2006)
Ocoita-Pabellón Calcite L + V, V + L, L + V + oil 116–404 3.5–25.3 Cisternas and
Hermosilla (2006)
Metalotect

Talcuna Calcite L+V 120–205 11–19 Oyarzun et al. (1998)

El Soldado Quartz, Calcite L + V, L + V + S 93–303 3–31 Holmgren (1987);
Klohn et al. (1990);
Boric et al. (2002)

El Salado Quartz L + V, V + L, L + V + S (NaCl) 249–430 High Nisterenko et al.
(1973)

Lo Aguirre Quartz, Calcite L + V, L + V + S (NaCl) 140–240 1.5–34 Saric et al. (2003)

†Equivalent to wt. % NaCl.L, liquid; S, solid; TH, homogenization temperature; V, vapor.

also isotopically homogeneous, and have slightly A similar feature has been also detected in Os isotope
lower 207Pb/204Pb values than the ore leads. These fea- as a good proxy to estimate origin of ore-forming chal-
tures suggest that the central area ore lead is mostly of cophile metals (Ruiz et al., 1997; Tristá-Aguilera et al.,
igneous origin with a slight contribution of Cretaceous 2006). Table 3 lists the initial 187Os/188Os ratios of pri-
sediment-derived lead (Tosdal & Munizaga, 2003). mary copper sulfides from the Lince–Estefanía (1.06)
By contrast, the Pb isotope ratios of the Tocopilla– and El Soldado (3.94977), which are much higher than
Taltal area deposits are fairly scattered, and show sig- those of the continental mantle (0.128 ± 0.006; Brandon et
nificantly more radiogenic compositions than those al., 1996). These radiogenic compositions indicate that
of the Lower Cretaceous areas. This phenomenon is the crustal source Os was responsible for the manto-type
interpreted as due to contamination of Jurassic sediment- ore mineralization. Particularly, the El Soldado ore lead
derived lead, which has a wide range of uranogenic has an extremely high 187Os/188Os ratio, which could be
compositions (Fig. 2). The presence of pre-Mesozoic accounted for by contribution of high Re/Os crustal res-
(Paleozoic) basement (Arequipa-Antofalla terrane), ervoir, such as black shale (Ruiz et al., 1997). This inter-
which is composed predominantly of gneiss and gran- pretation is consistent with the aforementioned geologic
itoids, is seen in the northern areas (e.g. Bahlburg & features of the area, and also the sulfur and carbon iso-
Hervé, 1997; Lucassen et al., 1999). Ore lead contami- tope characteristics mentioned in the following section.
nation with the Paleozoic basement should be also as-
sumed, but the Pb isotope range of the basement rocks
is separated from that of the ore lead values (Fig. 2). 4.2 Light element isotopes
In consequence, the Paleozoic basement rocks are re- In contrast to the Pb isotopes, sulfur isotope compo-
garded to be unlikely as an origin of the ore lead. The sitions of primary copper sulfides from the northern
Tocopilla–Taltal area ore leads fall close to the average areas are fairly homogeneous, displaying mostly slightly
crustal growth curve (Stacey & Kramers, 1975), sug- negative ranges (Table 4). These uniform isotopic
gesting that the ore leads could be identified as crustal compositions strongly suggest a singular igneous
lead in their origin. By contrast, the central area ore source of ore-forming sulfur. In contrast, the copper
leads have slightly lower ranges in both 207Pb/204Pb sulfides from several deposits of the central areas
and 206Pb/204Pb ratios than those of the Tocopilla– (Ocoita-Pabellón Metallotect, Talcuna, Cerro Negro, El
Taltal area deposits. This suggests less assimilation of Soldado) have an extremely wide range of isotopic
crustal lead, and may reflect the minor thickness of the compositions from negative values (minimum ␦34S =
central area continental crust (Macfarlane et al., 1990). −44.7‰) to positive values (maximum ␦34S = +19.0‰).

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Journal compilation © 2009 The Society of Resource Geology 91
S. Kojima et al.

comparison is not adequate because of the lack of data

for a few deposits, a marked difference in ␦13C range is
observed: the calcite carbons of the northern area depos-
its generally display less negative ␦13C, that is, −6.9 to
−0.8‰, but those of the central area deposits are widely
distributed in a noticeably negative value range, partic-
ularly in the El Soldado (␦13C = −20.2 to −4.2‰). In the
case of the El Soldado deposit, most calcite carbons fall
in the organic carbon range (Fig. 3). This suggests a major
contribution of biogenic carbon, such as pyrobitumen-
associated oxidized matter (Wilson et al., 2003b).
Kojima et al. (2003) have suggested, based on isoto-
pic fractionation of carbon at temperatures inferred
from fluid inclusion data, that the Lince–Estefanía
calcite carbon is derived from either igneous carbon or
sedimentary carbonate intercalated in the host rocks
(La Negra Formation). In contrast, the ␦18O of calcite
from the northern area deposits, particularly from the
Mantos Blancos, have wide ranges extending toward
18O-rich compositions. It is not clear whether the phe-

nomenon depends on thermal effect on isotopic frac-

tionation between calcite and mineralizing fluid or
Fig. 2
Lead isotope diagrams showing isotopic ranges of
ore lead and associated rocks in (a) Lower Cretaceous incorporation of sediment-derived 18O-rich compo-
and (b) Jurassic areas. Data from Vivallo and Henríquez nents, because formation temperatures for the corres-
(1998), Lucassen et al. (1999, 2006), Tosdal and ponding calcite have not been obtained. Figure 3
Munizaga (2003), Thompson et al. (2004) and Kramer shows that most ␦13C and ␦18O of the northern area
et al. (2005). Sample localities of the Jurassic (Tocopilla– calcites analyzed are distributed between those of
Taltal) area deposits are not shown clearly in Vivallo
and Henríquez (1998). Average crustal growth curve igneous carbonates and marine carbonates. This relation
(S & K) is after Stacey and Kramers (1975). (
) Volca- leads us to infer that the carbonate components would
nic-dominant pile-hosted deposits: Lo Aguirre–El Sol- be from both igneous and sedimentary sources.
dado; (○) volcano-sedimentary pile-hosted deposits: Furthermore, some 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios of hydro-
Talcuna–Cerro Negro. thermal calcites are reported for El Soldado deposit
(Wilson et al., 2003b) and three Tocopilla–Taltal area de-
This wide range of ␦34S is generally considered to be posits (Vivallo & Henríquez, 1998). Their composition
due to a contribution of evolved biogenic sulfur medi- ranges are shown in Figure 4, together with those of the
ated kinetically by bacterial sulfate reduction (Wilson associated igneous rocks and contemporaneous seawa-
et al., 2003b); indeed, the central area districts are geo- ter. The 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the El Soldado and Mantos
logically characterized by evaporate-rich sedimentary de la Luna are close to those of the igneous rocks, and
basins (Oyarzun et al., 1998). so their calcite-forming fluids are inferred to have been
Principal carbon and oxygen isotope data of hydro- equilibrated with the associated volcanic rocks. By con-
thermal calcite associated with primary copper minerals trast, the Mantos Blancos and Santo Domingo calcites
are summarized in Figure 3, together with the composi- display much higher 87Sr/86Sr ratios than those of the
tion ranges of igneous carbonates, marine carbonates associated igneous rocks. This is explained by a certain
and organically derived carbon. Although simple contribution of surface-derived Sr as included in the

Table 3
Os isotopic compositions of primary copper sulfide minerals from Chilean manto-type deposits
Deposit Mineral Initial 187Os/188Os References
Lince–Estefanía (Michilla) Chalcocite (+bornite) 1.06 ± 0.09 Tristá-Aguilera et al. (2006)
El Soldado Chalcopyrite 3.94877 Ruiz et al. (1997)
Continental mantle 0.122–0.134 Brandon et al. (1996)

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 Chilean Manto-type Copper Deposits

Table 4
Summary of sulfur isotope compositions for primary copper sulfide minerals from principal Chilean manto-type
deposits
Deposit Copper phase ␦34S (‰) range (no. analyses) References
Buena Esperanza composite −0.3 (1) Sasaki et al. (1984)
Mantos de La Luna cc-dg −2.1 to −1.6 (2) Present study
Mantos del Pacífico bn −6.6 to −6.2 (2) Vivallo and Henríquez (1998)
Michilla

Lince–Estefanía cc −5.7 to −3.0 (3) Vivallo and Henríquez (1998)
cc-dg (-bn) −5.2 to +2.1 (12) Sasaki et al. (1984); Munizaga and
Zentilli (1994); Vivallo and Henríquez
(1998); Tristá-Aguilera (2007)
Cp 0.0 (1) Sasaki et al. (1984); Munizaga and
Zentilli (1994); Vivallo and Henríquez
(1998); Tristá-Aguilera (2007)
Buena Vista cc-dg −3.8 to −3.1(3) Present study
Mantos Blancos cc-dg −3.2 to −0.1 (7) Sasaki et al. (1984); Munizaga and
Zentilli (1994); Ramírez et al. (2006)
cp-py −4.5 to +1.2 (6) Sasaki et al. (1984); Ramírez et al. (2006)
Santo Domingo bn −2.3 (1) Vivallo and Henríquez (1998)
Ocoita-Pabellón bn-cp-tr −44.7 to −25.4 (6) Cisternas and Hermosilla (2006)

Metalotect cc-cv −21.9 to −17.9 (2)
Talcuna cc-bn-cp −38.3 to −16.0 Puig and Spiro (1988); Carrillo-Rosúa
et al. (2006)
Cerro Negro bn −21.2 to −15.7 (3) Munizaga et al. (1994)
cp −21.2 to −15.6 (3) Munizaga et al. (1994)
El Soldado cc −12.7 to −4.6 (2) Villalobos (1995); Wilson et al. (2003b)
cc-bn −2.2 to +15.2 (6) Villalobos (1995); Wilson et al. (2003b)
bn −6.9 to +10.5 (10) Klohn et al. (1990); Wilson et al. (2003b)
bn-cp −4.1 to +19.0 (5) Klohn et al. (1990); Wilson et al. (2003b)
cp −6.8 to +7.7 (13) Klohn et al. (1990); Villalobos (1995);
Wilson et al. (2003b)
cp-py −5.2 to +12.6 (6) Klohn et al. (1990); Wilson et al. (2003b)
El Salado bn-cc −1.3 (1) Sasaki et al. (1984)
Lo Aguirre bn-cc-cp-py −3.6 to +1.4 (4) Puig and Spiro (1988); Saric et al. (2003)
Melipilla cc-bn-cp −36.9 to −16.0 Carrillo-Rosúa et al. (2006)
bn, bornite; cc, chalcocite; cp, chalcopyrite; cv, covellite; dg, digenite; py, pyrite; tr, tetrahedrite.

contemporaneous seawater (87Sr/86Sr = 0.7067–0.7076; Those are summarized in the following three theories:
Veizer et al., 1999) and the aforementioned sedimentary (i) syngenetically formed volcanogenic deposits (Ruiz
carbonate (87Sr/86Sr = 0.7067; Venegas et al., 1991). et al., 1965, 1971); (ii) epigenetic deposits formed by
Hydrogen and oxygen isotope data are indispens- magmatic emanation of associated plutonic intrusions
able to estimate origin of hydrothermal water respon- (e.g. Palacios, 1986, 1990; Vivallo & Henríquez, 1998);
sible for the primary copper mineralizations. Available and (iii) epigenetic deposits formed by fluid–rock in-
data on the isotopes, however, have not yet been ob- teraction involving Cu-bearing host rocks (Losert, 1973,
tained, and thus this is an important subject that should 1974; Sato, 1984; Tosdal & Munizaga, 2003).
be solved in the future. Congruent sets of all of the isotope data have been
obtained for only several deposits, but those could pro-
vide key information for the formation mechanism of
5. Discussion primary copper ores.

Historically, syngenetic versus epigenetic theories have

been debated (e.g. Ruiz et al., 1965, 1971; Sato, 1984; 5.1 Volcanic-derived syngenetic theory
Boric, 1985; Camus, 1990; Vivallo & Henríquez, 1998; Based on the presence of discrete copper sulfide grains
Kojima et al., 2003), and several genetic models have been with no gangue minerals in the groundmass of andes-
proposed for the Chilean manto-type copper deposits. itic host rocks, Ruiz et al. (1965, 1971) insisted on the

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Journal compilation © 2009 The Society of Resource Geology 93
S. Kojima et al.

Fig. 3
Carbon and oxygen isotope compositions of hy-

drothermal calcites from principal Chilean manto-type Fig. 4
87Sr/86Sr ratios of hydrothermal calcites from the El
copper deposits. Data from Vivallo and Henríquez Soldado deposit and three Tocopilla–Taltal area deposits,
(1998), Wilson et al. (2003b), Kojima et al. (2003) and compared with those of associated igneous rocks and
Ramírez et al. (2006). Fields for normal igneous carbon, contemporaneous seawater. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the
marine carbonates and organically derived carbon are La Negra Formation limestone (Viruca at the southern
from Valley (1986) and Longstaffe (1989). Michilla district; Venegas et al., 1991) is included in the
seawater range (Koepnick et al., 1985; Veizer et al., 1999).
syngenetic–magmatic theory for all the types of manto-type Other data from McNutt et al. (1975), Rogers and
deposits. For the disseminated copper mineralization in Hawkesworth (1989), Tassinari et al. (1993), Pichowiak
sediment-rich horizons, they suggested contemporane- (1994), Vivallo and Henríquez (1998), Lucassen et al. (2002,
2006), Wilson et al. (2003b) and Tristá-Aguilera (2007).
ous cupriferous volcanic exhalations. The geochrono-
logic data in Table 1, however, indicate that the ages of theory 2. A clear spatial relationship, however, between
primary mineralization are generally younger that those ore zone and intrusion is not confirmed in the central
of the host rocks, and the primary fluid inclusion data area deposits (e.g. Camus, 1990). Furthermore, all of the
clearly indicate hydrothermal temperatures. In conse- isotope data presented in the previous chapter strongly
quence, this “syngenetic” theory (theory 1) is discarded. suggest contribution of crustal components including
sedimentary rock units. Thus, it is not favorable to re-
gard the intrusion magma as the main source of ore-
5.2 Pluton-derived epigenetic theory
forming components, although local incorporation of
The epigenetic formation processes of theories 2 and 3, magmatic fluid and thermal effect of the intrusion
as illustrated in Figure 5, are detailed. should be taken into account (Kojima et al., 2003).
Magmatic source (theory 2) or leaching of igneous
components (theory 3) is supported by the uniform Pb
and S isotope compositions of primary copper minerals. 5.3 Host rock-derived epigenetic theory
As noted earlier, the gabbroic to dioritic dike intrusions Theory 3, which estimates the host rocks as the source of
are closely associated with primary mineralized zones the ore-forming components, appears to be most prob-
in the stacked tabular type of deposits, such as the Buena able at present. The reason for this lies in the appreciable
Esperanza and Lince–Estefanía in the Tocopilla–Taltal influx of sedimentary rock components, as inferred
area. Moreover, it has been known that a zonal distribu- from Pb, Os, S and C isotope data for the principal de-
tion of primary copper minerals occurs in spatial con- posits and the Sr isotope data for a few Tocopilla–Taltal
cordance with the gabbro-dioritic intrusion in the Buena area deposits. Furthermore, several geochemical stud-
Esperanza and Santo Domingo deposits (Definis, 1985; ies on the host volcanics also support the host-rock ori-
Espinoza et al., 1996). These features seem to support gin theory; for example Zentilli (1974) noted that Chilean

© 2009 The Authors

94 Journal compilation © 2009 The Society of Resource Geology
 Chilean Manto-type Copper Deposits

Shiba et al. (2006) carried out detailed phase analyses of

metamorphic minerals for the La Negra Formation host
rocks distributed in the coastal range of the Tocopilla
to Antofagasta province, and estimated P-T conditions
of 200–310°C and approximately 1.75 kb for the burial
metamorphism. The temperature range is nearly iden-
tical to that inferred from the fluid inclusion studies.
The pressure of approximately 1.75 kb, however, is too
high to cause the fluid boiling, which is observed in the
fluid inclusions studied (Table 2). It is still unknown
whether or not fluid boiling is the principal mechanism
of precipitation of primary copper ores, but the afore-
mentioned discrepancy shows that the metamorphic
water related to the burial metamorphism could not be
the direct mineralizing fluid responsible for the pri-
mary copper ore formation.
Alternatively, it is more likely that the mineralizing
fluid was essentially generated in the process of surface-
derived water circulation in the volcano-sedimentary
sequence induced by a deep-seated intrusion. Particu-
larly, basinal brine is regarded as the important fluid
source, judging from the high salinities of observed pri-
Fig. 5
Schematic illustration showing alternative genetic mary fluid inclusions (Oyarzun et al., 1998; Kojima et al.,
models for Chilean manto-type copper deposits. (A,B) 2003; Wilson et al., 2003a). Wilson et al. (2003a) detected
Flow paths of magmatic emanation and surface water high levels of atmospheric Ar in hydrothermally pre-
leaching, respectively. Host rock is volcano-sedimen- cipitated K-feldspar samples associated with primary
tary piles composed of andesite-dominant volcanic copper sulfides. This indicates that connate meteoric
rocks, tuffaceous sandstone and limestone. Local faults
are not shown. water was incorporated into the basinal brine. Kojima et
al. (2003) suggested mixing of high-temperature mete-
oric water with cooler basinal brines, based on the nega-
Jurassic andesites had high Cu contents (90–375 ppm) tive correlation in the temperature–salinity relation of
compared with Cenozoic andesites (10–32 ppm), and fluid inclusions from the Mantos de la Luna, Lince–
Campano and Guerra (1975) indicated that Cu amounts Estefanía and Buena Vista deposits.
in the La Negra Formation basaltic rocks decreased sig-
nificantly after hydrothermal epidotization. These re- 6. Summary and conclusions
sults suggest that high amounts of Cu were initially
contained in the Mesozoic host rocks, and that those This study summarizes the general geology, mineral-
were leached during the hydrothermal alteration. ogy, fluid inclusion data and stable isotope characteris-
The following two distinct ideas are presented re- tics of the Chilean manto-type (volcanic redbed) copper
garding the source of hydrothermal water responsible deposits, and suggests a possible mechanism con-
for the primary copper mineralization. First, metamor- strained particularly from the isotope data.
phic water generated in the low-grade regional (burial) Not only the modes of occurrence but also the geo-
metamorphism was assumed as the main source (Losert, chronologic and fluid inclusion data indicate that the
1973, 1974; Sato, 1984). In this condition the thermal manto-type deposits are epigenetic hydrothermal de-
effect of the associated intrusions is not particularly re- posits occurring mostly in the Early Upper Jurassic
quired to be taken into account. A second possible (northern areas) to Late Lower Cretaceous (central ar-
source is surface-derived fluids such as meteoric water eas). The uniform Pb and S isotope compositions of
and seawater including deeper basinal brine (Kojima primary copper minerals imply signature of magmatic
et al., 2003; Tosdal & Munizaga, 2003). This case source or leaching of igneous components. All the Pb
requires a heat source such as an igneous body to drive isotope data, however, lie on a range between the as-
thermal convection of the surface-derived waters. sociated igneous and sedimentary host rocks, suggesting

© 2009 The Authors

Journal compilation © 2009 The Society of Resource Geology 95
S. Kojima et al.

that ore-forming metals were derived from the vol- Alexandre, Quebec Appalachians, Canada. Mineral. Deposita,
cano-sedimentary host rocks. The influx of sedimen- 42, 901–912.
Campano, P. and Guerra, N. (1975) Distribución de Cr, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn
tary rock components is strongly suggested from the
y Pb en rocas ígneas y sedimentarias del norte de Chile (Unpub-
extremely negative isotope ratios of primary sulfide lished Master Thesis). University of Norte, Antofagasta, Chile.
sulfur and hydrothermal calcite carbon, given for sam- Camus, F. (1990) Geological characteristics of stratabound depos-
ples from several central area deposits. In addition, the its associated with lacustrine sediments, central Chile. In
high 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios of hydrothermal calcite Fontboté, L., Amstutz, G. C., Cardozo, M., Cedillo, E. and
Frutos, J. (eds.) Stratabound ore deposits in the Andes.
from a few Tocopilla–Taltal area deposits suggest Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 449–462.
influx of seawater or marine carbonates. Thus, hydro- Carrillo-Rosúa, F. J., Molares-Ruano, S., Morata, D., Boyce, A. J.,
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sedimentary host rocks appears to be a highly probable (Ag) estratoligados tipo manto del cretácico inferior de la cor-
dillera de la costa (área de La Serena y Melipilla), Vol. 2. Actas
genetic mechanism for the normal manto-type depos- XI Congreso Geológico Chileno, Antofagasta, 199–202.
its. A regional heat source is needed to circulate the Cathelineau, M. (1988) Cation site occupancy in chlorites and
surface-derived water within the host rocks, and a illites as a function of temperature. Clay Miner., 23, 471–485.
deep-seated plutonic complex could be regarded to Cembrano, J., González, G., Arancibia, G., Ahumada, I., Olivares,
have played a significant role as the probable heat V. and Herrera, V. (2005) Fault zone development and strain
partitioning in an extensional strike-slip duplex: A case study
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be well clarified to specifically model the manto-type Cisternas, M. G. and Hermosilla, J. (2006) The role of bitumen in
copper deposits in the respective areas. strata-bound copper deposit formation in the Copiapó area,
Northern Chile. Mineral. Deposita, 41, 339–355.
Cornejo, P., Latorre, J. J., Matthews, S., Marquardt, C., Toloza, R.,
Acknowledgments Basso, M., Rodoríguez, J. and Ulloa, C. (2006) U/Pb and
40Ar/39Ar geochronology of volcanic and intrusive events at

We wish to thank many mining geologists of the north the Mantos Blancos copper deposit, II Region, Chile, Vol. 2.
Chilean manto-type deposits, including Andres Definis Actas XI Congreso Geológico Chileno, Antofagasta, 223–226.
Definis, A. D. (1985) Antecedentes geológicos del yacimiento de
and Ricardo Valenzuela of Minera Tocopilla, the for- cobre Santo Domingo, Taltal, y discusión acerca de su relación
mer chief geologists of Minera Michlla, Jorge Camacho con un sistema de filones gabro-dioríticos, Vol. 3. Actas XI
and Fernando Ferraris, José Rodríguez of Minera Congreso Geológico Chileno, Antofagasta, 3, 204–215.
Mantos Blancos and an ex-geologist of the Copiapó Elgueta, S., Hodgkin, A., Rodriguez, E. and Schneider, A. (1990)
area, Oscar Rodríguez, for their kind cooperation. Also The Cerro Negro mine, Chile: Manto-type copper mineraliza-
tion in a volcaniclastic environment. In Fontboté, L., Amstutz,
we would like to thank L. Jofré of Universidad Católica G. C., Cardozo, M., Cedillo, E. and Frutos, J. (eds.) Stratabound
del Norte who completed figures of this study. We are ore deposits in the Andes. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 463–471.
indebted to Dr Y. Kajiwara and an anonymous reviewer Espinoza, S., Véliz, H., Esquivel, J., Arias, J. and Moraga, A. (1996)
for their constructive suggestions. The cupriferous province of the Coastal Range, northern
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