Dnyansagar Institute of Management and Research

DNYANSAGAR INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Course No: 210 GE-UL: 10
Sem-II
Qualitative Research
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-
ended and conversational communication. This method focuses on the “why” rather than the
“what” people think about you.
Let’s say you have an online shop that addresses a general audience. You do a demographic
analysis and you find out that most of your customers are male. Naturally, you will want to find
out why women are not buying from you. And that’s what a qualitative research will help you find
out.
Quantitative vs. qualitative research
Quantitative research is concerned with measurement and numbers, while qualitative research is
concerned with understanding and words.
Quantitative research is used to quantify the problem. Its main goal is to generate numerical data or
data that can be turned into statistics. It uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover
patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys (online
surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys, kiosk surveys, etc.), face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.
On the other hand, qualitative research is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons,
opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or
hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative data collection methods include focus
groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observation.
The statistical data of quantitative methods obtained from many people reveal a broad,
generalizable set of findings. In contrast, qualitative methods produce a large amount of detailed
information about a smaller number of people that results in rich understanding but reduces
generalizability.
Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Improve Customer Experience through Qualitative Research by asking for feedback at each key
point in the user journey. Be user & customer centric.
Once the marketer has decided that their research questions will provide data that is qualitative in
nature, the next step is to choose the appropriate qualitative approach. The approach chosen will
take into account the purpose of the research, the role of the researcher, the data collected, method
of data analysis and how the results will be presented. The most common approaches include:
• Narrative: explores the life of an individual, tells their story;
• Phenomenology: attempts to understand or explain life experiences or phenomena;
• Grounded theory: investigates the process, action, or interaction with the goal of
developing a theory “grounded” in observations;
• Ethnography: describes and interprets an ethnic, cultural, or social group;
• Case study: examines episodic events in a definable framework, develops in-depth analyses
of single or multiple cases, generally explains “how”.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that they help reveal the behavior and
perception of a target audience regarding a particular topic. The most frequently used qualitative
research methods are one-on-one interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, case study
research, record keeping, and qualitative observation.
1. One-on-one interviews
Conducting one-on-one interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. One
of the advantages of this method is that it provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about
what people think and their motivations.
These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on the phone and usually last between half an
hour and two hours or more. When a one-on-one interview is conducted face-to-face, it also gives
the marketer the opportunity to read the body language of the respondent and match the responses.
2. Focus groups
Focus groups are another commonly used qualitative research method. The ideal size of a focus
group is usually between five and eight participants. If the topic is of minor concern to

participants, and if they have little experience with the topic, then a group size of 10 could be
productive. But, as the topic becomes more important, if people have more expertise on the topic,
or if they are likely to have strong feelings about the topic, then the group size should be restricted
to five or six people.
The main goal of a focus group is to find answers to the “why”, “what”, and “how” questions. One
advantage that focus groups have is that the marketer doesn’t necessarily have to interact with the
group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent as online surveys on various devices.
Focus groups are an expensive option compared to the other qualitative research methods, which is
why they are typically used to explain complex processes. Focus groups are especially useful when
it comes to market research on new products and testing new concepts.
3. Ethnographic research
Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies individuals in their
naturally occurring environment. This method aims at understanding the cultures, challenges,
motivations, and settings that occur. Ethnographic research requires the marketer to adapt to the
target audiences’ environments (a different organization, a different city, or even a remote
location), which is why geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.
This type of research can last from a few days to a few years. It’s challenging and time-consuming
and solely depends on the expertise of the marketer to be able to analyze, observe, and infer the
data.
4. Case study research
The case study method has grown into a valuable qualitative research method. This type of
research method is usually used in education or social sciences. Case study research may seem
difficult to operate, but it’s actually one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves
a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.
5. Record keeping
Record keeping is similar to going to the library: you go over books or any other reference material
to collect relevant data. This method uses already existing reliable documents and similar sources
of information as a data source.
6. Qualitative observation
Qualitative observation is a method that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic

information or data. This method deals with the five major sensory organs and their functioning,
sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or
numbers but instead characteristics.

The Pros & Cons of the Qualitative approach
By its nature, qualitative research is far more experiential and focussed on capturing people’s
feeling and views. This undoubtedly has value, but it can also bring many more challenges than
those simply capturing quantitative data. Here are a few challenges and benefits to consider.
ADVANTAGES
1. Qualitative Research can capture changing attitudes within a target group such as
consumers of a product or service, or attitudes in the workplace.
2. Qualitative approaches to research are not bound by the limitations of quantitative methods.
If responses don’t fit the researcher’s expectation that’s equally useful qualitative data to add
context and perhaps explain something which numbers alone are unable to reveal.
3. Qualitative Research provides a much more flexible approach. If useful insights are not
being captured researchers can quickly adapt questions, change the setting or any other variable to
improve responses.
4. Qualitative data capture allows researchers to be far more speculative about what areas they
choose to investigate and how to do so. It allows data capture to be prompted by a researcher’s
instinctive or ‘gut feel’ for where good information will be found.
Qualitative research can be more targeted. If you want to compare productivity across an entire
organization, all parts, process, and participants need to be accounted for. Qualitative research can
be far more concentrated, sampling specific groups and key points in a company to gather
meaningful data. This can both speed the process of data capture and keep the costs of data-
gathering down.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Sample size can be a big issue. If you seek to infer from a sample of, for example, 200
employees, based upon a sample of 5 employees, this raises the question of whether sampling will
provide a true reflection of the views of the remaining 97.5% of the company?
2. Sample bias – HR departments will have competing agendas. One argument against
qualitative methods alone is that HR tasked with finding the views of the workforce may be
influenced both consciously or unconsciously, to select a sample that favors an anticipated
outcome.
3. Self-selection bias may arise where companies ask staff to volunteer their views. Whether
in a paper, online survey or focus group, if an HR department calls for participants there will be
the issue of staff putting themselves forward. The argument goes that this group, in self-selecting
itself, rather than being a randomly selected snapshot of a department, will inevitably have

narrowed its relevance to those that typically are willing to come forward with their views.
Quantitative data is gathered whether someone volunteered or not.
4. The artificiality of qualitative data capture. The act of bringing together a group is
inevitably outside of the typical ‘norms’ of everyday work life and culture and may influence the
participants in unforeseen ways.
5. Are the right questions being posed to participants? You can only get answers to questions
you think to ask. In qualitative approaches, asking about “how” and “why” can be hugely
informative, but if researchers don’t ask, that insight may be missed.
LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The disadvantages of qualitative research are quite unique. The techniques of the data collector and
their own unique observations can alter the information in subtle ways. That being said, these are
the qualitative research’ limitations:
1. It’s a time-consuming process
The main drawback of qualitative research is that the process is time-consuming. Another problem
is that the interpretations are limited. Personal experience and knowledge influence observations
and conclusions.
Thus, a qualitative research might take several weeks or months. Also, since this process delves
into personal interaction for data collection, discussions often tend to deviate from the main issue
to be studied.
2. You can’t verify the results of qualitative research
Because qualitative research is open-ended, participants have more control over the content of the
data collected. So the marketer is not able to verify the results objectively against the scenarios
stated by the respondents.
3. It’s a labor-intensive approach
Qualitative research requires a labor-intensive analysis process such as categorization, recoding,

etc. Similarly, qualitative research requires well-experienced marketers to obtain the needed data
from a group of respondents.
4. It’s difficult to investigate causality
Qualitative research requires thoughtful planning to ensure the obtained results are accurate. There
is no way to analyze qualitative data mathematically. This type of research is based more on
opinion and judgment rather than results. Because all qualitative studies are unique they are
difficult to replicate.

5. Qualitative research is not statistically representative
Because qualitative research is a perspective-based method of research, the responses given are not
measured. Comparisons can be made and this can lead toward duplication, but for the most part,
quantitative data is required for circumstances which need statistical representation and that is not
part of the qualitative research process.
While doing a qualitative research, it’s important to cross-reference the data obtained with the
quantitative data. By continuously surveying prospects and customers marketers can build a
stronger database of useful information.
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Below are the three key elements that define a qualitative research study and the applied forms
each take in the investigation of a research problem.
The Design
• Naturalistic -- refers to studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally;

nonmanipulative and noncontrolling; the researcher is open to whatever emerges [i.e., there is a
lack of predetermined constraints on findings].
• Emergent -- acceptance of adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations

change; the researcher avoids rigid designs that eliminate responding to opportunities to pursue
new paths of discovery as they emerge.
• Purposeful -- cases for study [e.g., people, organizations, communities, cultures, events,
critical incidences] are selected because they are “information rich” and illuminative. That is, they
offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest; sampling is aimed at insight about the
phenomenon, not empirical generalization derived from a sample and applied to a population.
The Collection of Data
• Data -- observations yield a detailed, "thick description" [in-depth understanding];

interviews capture direct quotations about people’s personal perspectives and lived experiences;
often derived from carefully conducted case studies and review of material culture.
• Personal experience and engagement -- researcher has direct contact with and gets close to
the people, situation, and phenomenon under investigation; the researcher’s personal experiences
and insights are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon.
• Empathic neutrality -- an empathic stance in working with study responents seeks vicarious
understanding without judgment [neutrality] by showing openness, sensitivity, respect, awareness,
and responsiveness; in observation, it means being fully present [mindfulness].

• Dynamic systems -- there is attention to process; assumes change is ongoing, whether the
focus is on an individual, an organization, a community, or an entire culture, therefore, the
researcher is mindful of and attentive to system and situationational dynamics.
The Analysis
• Unique case orientation -- assumes that each case is special and unique; the first level of
analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing the details of the individual cases being studied;
cross-case analysis follows from and depends upon the quality of individual case studies.
• Inductive analysis -- immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover
important patterns, themes, and inter-relationships; begins by exploring, then confirming findings,
guided by analytical principles rather than rules.
• Holistic perspective -- the whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex

system that is more than the sum of its parts; the focus is on complex interdependencies and
system dynamics that cannot be reduced in any meaningful way to linear, cause and effect
relationships and/or a few discrete variables.
• Context sensitive -- places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; researcher
is careful about [even dubious of] the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time
and space; emphasizes careful comparative case analyses and extrapolating patterns for possible
transferability and adaptation in new settings.
• Voice, perspective, and reflexivity -- the qualitative methodologist owns and is reflective
about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and
trustworthiness; complete objectivity being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining
credibility, the researcher's focus reflects a balance between understanding and depicting the world
authentically in all its complexity and of being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in
consciousness.
ETHICS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Some important ethical concerns that should be taken into account while carrying out
qualitative research are: anonymity, confidentiality and informed consent (22). ... The researcher
must endeavor to minimize the possibility of intrusion into the autonomy of study participants by
all means.
What are the five ethics of research?
Each of these basic principles of research ethics is discussed in turn:
• Principle One: Minimising the risk of harm.
• Principle Two: Obtaining informed consent.

• Principle Three: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality.
• Principle Four: Avoiding deceptive practices.
• Principle Five: Providing the right to withdraw.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to
develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research
Quantitative data are measures of values or counts and are expressed as numbers. Quantitative data
are data about numeric variables (e.g. how many; how much; or how often). Qualitative data are
measures of 'types' and may be represented by a name, symbol, or a number code.
II. Uses of Mixed Methods Research Designs
1. Validate findings using quantitative and qualitative data sources. ...
2. Use qualitative data to explore quantitative findings. ...
3. Develop survey instruments. ...
4. Use qualitative data to augment a quantitative outcomes study. ...
5. Involve community-based stakeholders.
CAN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS BE USED TOGETHER?
Yes, as a mixed method approach you may use both qualitative and quantitative; however, mixed
method should be viewed as a single method that uses both qualitative and quantitative versus two
separate studies - one qualitative and one quantitative.
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to
develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research
Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data
Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data can improve an evaluation by ensuring
that the limitations of one type of data are balanced by the strengths of another. This will ensure
that understanding is improved by integrating different ways of knowing. as a mixed method

approach you may use both qualitative and quantitative; however, mixed method should be viewed
as a single method that uses both qualitative and quantitative versus two separate studies - one
qualitative and one quantitative.
COMBINING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN SOCIAL INQUIRY
The early roots of mixed-method social inquiry are found partly in the construct of triangulation,
which involves the use of multiple methods – each representing a different perspective or lens – to
assess a given phenomenon in order to enhance confidence in the validity of the findings. If, for
example, data from a self-report instrument and data from an external observation converge, the
overall results are more likely to be valid, credible and warranted. Interestingly, triangulation has
an honoured history in multiple methodological traditions.
TRIANGULATION
Triangulation is a method whereby data from at least three different perspectives (for example,
teacher, students and observer) are collected on the same issue/event so that they can be cross-
validated. Alternatively, three or more different kinds of data (for example video, interview and
questionnaire) are collected on the same issue/event and used to shed light on each other.
Qualitative Research Design
Basic Qualitative Research Design
The design of qualitative research is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative
research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role
of the researcher(s), the stages of research, and the method of data analysis. A qualitative research
design is probably the most flexible of the various experimental techniques, encompassing a
variety of accepted methods and structures. Here, four of the major qualitative research designs
namely phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory and case study are introduced.
Types of qualitative research designs
Case Study Method
The purpose of the case study method is to obtain information from one or a few situations that are
similar to the researcher’s problem situation. For example, a bank in India may intensively
investigate the computer-security activities of an innovative bank in Delhi. An academic researcher
interested in doing a nationwide survey among union workers-may first look at a few union locals
to identify the nature of any problems or topics that should be investigated.
Conducting a case study often requires the cooperation of the person whose history is being
studied for example, a franchisee who allows the franchiser access to the former’s records and

reports. Again, intensive interviews or long discussions with the franchisee and his or her
employees may provide an understanding of a complex situation. Researchers, however, have no
standard procedures to follow. They must be flexible and attempt to glean information and insights
wherever they find them. The freedom to search for whatever data an investigator deems important
makes the success of any case study highly dependent on the alertness, creativity, intelligence, and
motivation of the individual performing the case analysis. Like all exploratory research, the results
from case analysis should be seen as tentative. Generalizing from a few cases can be dangerous
because most situations are atypical in some sense. A bank in Montana may not be in a situation
comparable to one in California. But even if situations are not directly comparable, a number of
insights can be gained and hypotheses suggested for future research.
Comparative study
Comparative study is used to determine and quantify relationships between two or more variables
by observing different groups that either by choice or circumstances is exposed to different
treatments. Comparative study looks at two or more similar groups, individuals, or conditions by
comparing them.
Comparative research is a research methodology in the social sciences that aims to make
comparisons across different countries or cultures. A major problem in comparative research is
that the data sets in different countries may define categories differently or may not use the same
categories.
Prospective Study
A prospective study watches for outcomes, such as the development of a disease, during the study
period and relates this to other factors such as suspected risk or protection factor(s). The study
usually involves taking a cohort of subjects and watching them over a long period. The outcome of
interest should be common; otherwise, the number of outcomes observed will be too small to be
statistically meaningful (indistinguishable from those that may have arisen by chance). All efforts
should be made to avoid sources of bias such as the loss of individuals to follow up during the
study. Prospective studies usually have fewer potential sources of bias and confounding than
retrospective studies.
Retrospective Study
A retrospective study looks backwards and examines exposures to suspected risk or protection
factors in relation to an outcome that is established at the start of the study. Many valuable case-
control studies, such as Lane and Claypon's 1926 investigation of risk factors for breast cancer,
were retrospective investigations. Most sources of error due to confounding and bias are more
common in retrospective studies than in prospective studies. For this reason, retrospective
investigations are often criticised. If the outcome of interest is uncommon, however, the size of

prospective investigation required to estimate relative risk is often too large to be feasible. In
retrospective studies the odds ratio provides an estimate of relative risk. You should take special
care to avoid sources of bias and confounding in retrospective studies.
Prospective investigation is required to make precise estimates of either the incidence of an

outcome or the relative risk of an outcome based on exposure.
longitudinal Study
A longitudinal study is an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same
subjects repeatedly over a period of time. Longitudinal research projects can extend over years or
even decades. In a longitudinal cohort study, the same individuals are observed over the study
period.
Combined, longitudinal qualitative research endeavors to understand how people successively

make meaning about the trajectories of their lives, or specific conditions of their lives, by
following them through time. ... It is also a key to understanding how people experience and
respond to developmental change.
Theoretical sampling
Theoretical sampling is a process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst
jointly collects codes and analyses data and decides what data to collect next and where to find
them, in order to develop a theory as it emerges Just as with purposeful (or purposive) qualitative
sampling, theoretical sampling involves selecting participants based on specific characteristics. ...
In grounded theory studies,
The Principles of Qualitative Approach
Researchers should understand in depth the fundamental principles of the

methodology of qualitative research in order to conduct studies with low bias. Data collection
methods in qualitative research include observation, interviews, focus groups and the
Delphi method.
A popular and helpful categorization separate qualitative methods into five groups: ethnography,
narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, and case study.
• Narrative: explores the life of an individual, tells their story;

• Phenomenology: attempts to understand or explain life experiences or phenomena;
• Grounded theory: investigates the process, action, or interaction with the goal of
developing a theory “grounded” in observations;
• Ethnography: describes and interprets an ethnic, cultural, or social group;

• Case study: examines episodic events in a definable framework, develops in-depth analyses
of single or multiple cases, generally explains “how”.
Sampling Design
A sampling design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sampling
design is determined before any data are collected. While developing a sampling strategy, the
researcher must pay attention to the following points:
i) The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the population to be sampled.
ii) A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit
may be of some geographical area such as a state, district, village, etc., or construction units such
as house, flat, etc. It may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or an individual.
iii) Frame should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for
the frame to be as representative of the population as possible.
iv) The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An
optimum sample is one which fulfils the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability
and flexibility.
v) In determining the sample design, one must take into consideration the specific population para
meters, which are of interest.
vi) Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major, impact upon decisions relating
to not only the size of the sample but also to the sample design. Cost constraint can even lead to
the use of a non-probability sample.
Criteria of Selecting a Sampling Procedure
In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the cost
of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data. Researcher
must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and sampling error.
A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for these errors can be
detected and corrected. Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following
factors:
1.Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation
of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in
systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is
biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the
data collected through such a measuring device.
3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample,
there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of
establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is often correlated with the measure
of what is to be estimated.
4. Indeterminancy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers are
aware that somebody is observing them in course of a work study on the basis of which the
average length of time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set
for piece work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they
work if kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminancy principle may also be a cause of a systematic
bias.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is
often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward bias in the
income data collected by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the
income data collected by some social organisation. People in general understate their incomes if
asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their
affluence.
Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’ answer
rather than revealing their true feelings.
Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population
parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction, their nature
happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value of such errors happens to be equal to
zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample, and it happens to be of a
smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population.
Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and size. The measurement of sampling
error is usually called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’. If we increase the sample size, the
precision can be improved. But increasing the size of the sample has its own limitations viz., a
large sized sample increases the cost of collecting data and also enhances the systematic bias.
Thus the effective way to increase precision is usually to select a better sampling design which has
a smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost. In practice, however, people prefer

a less precise design because it is easier to adopt the same and also because of the fact that
systematic bias can be controlled in a better way in such a design.
In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure
causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better
way.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample design as
under:
(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
Different Types of Sample Designs
Sample designs are basically of two types viz., non-probability sampling and probability sampling.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance

sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion
in the sample.
Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the researcher

selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection. It
is a less stringent method.
Types of Probability sampling:
Random Sampling
The simplest of the methods of probability sampling is known as the method of simple random
sampling, often known as the method of random sampling. In this method an equal probability of
selection is assigned to each available unit of the population at the first and each subsequent draw.

(i) Systematic sampling: In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every
ith item on a list. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of
randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit
with which to start. For instance, if a 4 per cent sample is desired, the first item would be selected
randomly from the first twenty-five and thereafter every 25th item would automatically be
included in the sample. Thus, in systematic sampling only the first unit is selected randomly and
the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed intervals. Although a systematic sample is
not a random sample in the strict sense of the term, but it is often considered reasonable to treat
systematic sample as if it were a random sample.
(ii) Stratified sampling: If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample. Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-
populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total population (the different sub-
populations are called ‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample.
Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total population, we are able to get more precise
estimates for each stratum and by estimating more accurately each of the component parts, we get
a better estimate of the whole. In brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed
information.
(iii) Cluster sampling: If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in
which a sample can be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas
and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the
ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas or clusters. Thus in
cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number of relatively small subdivisions
which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of these clusters are randomly
selected for inclusion in the overall sample.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling:
Purposive sampling,
Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling, is a form of non-
probability sampling in which researchers rely on their own judgment when choosing members of
the population to participate in their study.
In other words, under non-probability sampling the organisers of the inquiry purposively choose
the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that
they so select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole. For instance, if
economic conditions of people living in a state are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be
purposively selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the
entire state.

Thus, the judgement of the organisers of the study plays an important part in this sampling design.
In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample.
The investigator may select a sample which shall yield results favourable to his point of view and
if that happens, the entire inquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there is always the danger of bias
entering into this type of sampling technique. But in the investigators are impartial, work without
bias and have the necessary experience so as to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an
analysis of deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a sampling,
there is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included. Sampling
error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element of bias, great or small, is always
there. As such this sampling design in rarely adopted in large inquires of importance. However, in
small inquiries and researches by individuals, this design may be adopted because of the relative
advantage of time and money inherent in this method of sampling.
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota sampling the
interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with some restrictions on
how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of the items for the sample is left to
the interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively inexpensive.
But the samples so selected certainly do not possess the characteristic of random samples. Quota
samples are essentially judgement samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to
statistical treatment in a formal way the form of groups, composed of smaller units.
Quota sampling is a method of sampling widely used in opinion poll surveys and market research.
The quota sampling starts with the idea that a sample should be well spread geographically over
the population and that it should contain the same fraction of individuals having a certain
characteristics, as does the population. In this technique the population is divided into a number of
strata whose weights are obtained from a recent census or a large-scale survey. Interviewers are
then assigned quotas for the number of interviews to be taken from each stratum.
Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample from somewhere
convenient to you: the mall, your local school, your church. Sometimes called accidental sampling,
opportunity sampling or grab sampling.
How to select a random sample?
With regard to the question of how to take a random sample in actual practice, we could, in simple
cases like the one above, write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these slips
thoroughly in a container and then draw as a lottery either blindfolded or by rotating a drum or by
any other similar device. Such a procedure is obviously impractical, if not altogether impossible in
complex problems of sampling.
In fact, the practical utility of such a method is very much limited.

Fortunately, we can take a random sample in a relatively easier way without taking the trouble of
enlisting all possible samples on paper-slips as explained above. Instead of this, we can write the
name of each element of a finite population on a slip of paper, put the slips of paper so prepared
into a box or a bag and mix them thoroughly and then draw (without looking) the required number
of slips for the sample one after the other without replacement. In doing so we must make sure that
in successive drawings each of the remaining elements of the population has the same chance of
being selected.
This procedure will also result in the same probability for each possible sample. We can verify this
by taking the above example. Since we have a finite population of 6 elements and we want to
select a sample of size 3, the probability of drawing any one element for our sample in the first
draw is 3/6, the probability of drawing one more element in the second draw is 2/5, (the first
element drawn is not replaced) and similarly the probability of drawing one more element in the
third draw is 1/4. Since these draws are independent, the joint probability of the three elements
which constitute our sample is the product of their individual probabilities and this works out to
3/6 × 2/5 × 1/4 = 1/20.This verifies our earlier calculation.
Saturation
Saturation denotes the point in the research process when no new concepts or further properties or
dimensions of existing concepts emerge from data. Although some additional properties and
dimensions may continue to be found, as a general rule, when the researcher reaches a point when
the data seem repetitive, one might say that saturation has occurred. Some researchers continue
data collection until they discover the ‘negative case’. If one thinks in terms of concepts and
dimensional ranges rather than cases, the negative example represents an extreme point on a
dimensional range of a concept. It does not necessarily contradict the theory but adds to its breadth
by expanding its possibilities. For example, in studying control, if an example emerges where little
or no control seems to be exerted this does not invalidate the notion of control but only leads one
to ask, why or how come in this instance it is absent. This constant questioning of incoming
findings is how theory is modified and extended.
Qualitative Research Methods
Focused Interview
Focused (Semi-structured) Interviews. In this method Interviewer focuses attention upon a given
experience and its effects. This technique is used to collect qualitative data by setting up a situation
(the interview) that allows a respondent the time and scope to talk about their opinions on a
particular subject.

Focus Group Interview
Focus group interview is a tool for qualitative market research where a group of people are
selected and asked about their opinion or perceptions about a particular topic. The environment is
interactive where the participants are free to discuss with each other.
The focus group interview is a more elaborate exploratory pilot study. Increasingly popular in
recent years, the focus group gathers six to ten people for a group dynamics session. This loosely
structured
discussion assumes that individuals are more willing to share their ideas as they share in the ideas
of others. Qualitative information obtained in these studies serves as a basis for subsequent
quantitative study.
For example, the Philadelphia Museum used focus groups to investigate how well its exhibits and
shows catered to the public. A local resident who had never visited the museum mentioned that he
was not aware of any important artwork there. Another participant in the same focus group voiced
the opinion that the museum would be filled with “pictures I would not understand … I’ve seen art
where it looked like kids splashed paint”. These findings (confirmed by other research) influenced
the museum to reinstate an image of van Gogh’s sunflowers on the cover of its brochures.
Since the purposes of exploratory research are to gain insights and to discover new ideas,
researchers may use considerable creativity and flexibility. It is common to collect data with se
Semi-structured interview
A semi-structured interview is a method of research used most often in the social sciences. While a
structured interview has a rigorous set of questions which does not allow one to divert, a semi-
structured
A semi-structured interview is a meeting in which the interviewer does not strictly follow a
formalized list of questions. They will ask more open-ended questions, allowing for a discussion
with the interviewee rather than a straightforward question and answer format.
The semi-structured interview is a qualitative data collection strategy in which the researcher asks
informants a series of predetermined but open-ended questions. Researchers who use semi-
structured interviewing develop a written interview guide in advance.
Problem-centered interview
The problem-centered interview (PZI) is a theory-generating method that tries to neutralize the
alleged contradiction between being directed by theory or being open-minded so that the interplay
of inductive and deductive thinking contributes to increasing the user's knowledge.

Non-participant and participants observation
A non-participant observation is one where the researcher chooses not to play any part in what is
being observed. An advantage of this is that it allows for a more objective view of what is
occurring.
A research technique whereby the researcher watches the subjects of his or her study, with their
knowledge, but without taking an active part in the situation under scrutiny. ... To overcome this,
researchers normally observe a number of similar situations, over a period of time.
Participant observation means the presence of the researcher in the field interacting with people
and local events (this interaction can have multiple zoom levels.
Participant observation is one type of data collection method by practitioner-scholars typically

used in qualitative research and ethnography. This type of methodology is employed in many
disciplines, particularly anthropology, sociology, communication studies, human geography, and
social psychology.
ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe and/or interact with a
study's participants in their real-life environment. Ethnography was popularised by anthropology,
but is used across a wide range of social sciences.
Definition:
Wolcott (1999) defines ethnography is a description of “the customary social behaviors of an

identifiable group of people”. Ethnography is often referred to as “culture writing,” and it refers to
a type of documentation often employed by Anthropologists in their field work.
Ethnography was a term originally used (in anthropology) to mean the study of the institutions and
customs in small, well-defined communities in societies with little technological advance.
The purpose of ethnographic research is to attempt to understand what is happening naturally in

the setting and to interpret the data gathered to see what implications could be formed from the
data. Ethnographic research is also known as qualitative research.
The social science that studies the origins and social relationships of human beings is known as
anthropology. Ethnography is a branch of anthropology that provides scientific description of
individual human societies. The term means “portrait of a people” and it is a methodology for
descriptive studies of cultures and peoples. According to Van Maanen, "ethnography fieldwork
usually means living with and living like those who are studied. In its broadest, most conventional
sense, fieldwork demands the full-time involvement of a researcher over a lengthy period of time
(typically unspecified) and consists mostly of ongoing interaction with the human targets of study
on their home ground".

GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the construction of
theories through methodical gathering and analysis of data. This research methodology uses
inductive reasoning, in contrast to the hypothetico-deductive model of the scientific method.
Grounded theory involves the collection and analysis of data. The theory is “grounded” in actual
data, which means the analysis and development of theories happens after you have collected the
data. It was introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research.
Grounded theory is a theory generating research methodology. The end product of the research
endeavour is not a set of findings or a few themes. Rather it is an integrated theoretical formulation
that gives understanding about how persons or organizations or communities experience and
respond to events that occur. Before going further, it is important to define what is meant by
theory. In simple language, a theory is a set of concepts that are integrated through a series of
relational statements (Hage, 1972).
Since the purpose of the research is to generate theory, the user of grounded theory method does
not enter the field guided by a predefined theoretical formulation, though a researcher may have an
underlying general perspective or belief system, such as feminism or symbolic interactionism.
These perspectives often influence the questions that are raised and the take on analysis. Any
theory that results from such a process represents participants’ responses and interpretation of
events (which when retold by participants’ become reconstructions of actual events). As data the
reconstructions are filtered once more through the eyes of the researcher who then constructs a
theoretical formulation. The formulation may then be brought back to participants for validation of
interpretations. Thus one might say that the theory is not only a reconstruction of events, but also a
co-construction between researcher and participants.

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DNYANSAGAR INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Course No: 210 GE-UL: 10

WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative vs. qualitative research

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Narrative: explores the life of an individual, tells their story;

• Phenomenology: attempts to understand or explain life experiences or phenomena;

• Ethnography: describes and interprets an ethnic, cultural, or social group;

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

4. Case study research

Qualitative observation is a method that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

The Pros & Cons of the Qualitative approach

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. It’s a time-consuming process

2. You can’t verify the results of qualitative research

3. It’s a labor-intensive approach

Qualitative research requires a labor-intensive analysis process such as categorization, recoding,

4. It’s difficult to investigate causality

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

5. Qualitative research is not statistically representative

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Naturalistic -- refers to studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally;

• Emergent -- acceptance of adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations

The Collection of Data

• Data -- observations yield a detailed, "thick description" [in-depth understanding];

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

• Holistic perspective -- the whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex

ETHICS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

What are the five ethics of research?

Each of these basic principles of research ethics is discussed in turn:

• Principle One: Minimising the risk of harm.

• Principle Two: Obtaining informed consent.

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

• Principle Three: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality.

• Principle Four: Avoiding deceptive practices.

• Principle Five: Providing the right to withdraw.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH?

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

II. Uses of Mixed Methods Research Designs

1. Validate findings using quantitative and qualitative data sources. ...

2. Use qualitative data to explore quantitative findings. ...

3. Develop survey instruments. ...

4. Use qualitative data to augment a quantitative outcomes study. ...

5. Involve community-based stakeholders.

CAN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS BE USED TOGETHER?

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative data

Dr.Meena Sharma www.dimr.edu.in

COMBINING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN SOCIAL INQUIRY

Qualitative Research Design

Basic Qualitative Research Design

Types of qualitative research designs

Case Study Method