This document discusses content analysis and provides details on its history, uses, steps, and different types including quantitative and qualitative content analysis. Some key points:
- Content analysis is an objective, systematic, and quantitative method for analyzing communication content to make inferences about specified characteristics.
- It has a long history dating back to studies in the 1920s-1940s on media influence and propaganda analysis.
- It is used widely across various disciplines to monitor media coverage of issues, describe media content, and test hypotheses about message characteristics.
- There are quantitative and qualitative approaches, with quantitative focusing on frequencies and statistical analysis, and qualitative prioritizing interpretation and meaning.
- Reliability testing of coding
This document discusses content analysis and provides details on its history, uses, steps, and different types including quantitative and qualitative content analysis. Some key points:
- Content analysis is an objective, systematic, and quantitative method for analyzing communication content to make inferences about specified characteristics.
- It has a long history dating back to studies in the 1920s-1940s on media influence and propaganda analysis.
- It is used widely across various disciplines to monitor media coverage of issues, describe media content, and test hypotheses about message characteristics.
- There are quantitative and qualitative approaches, with quantitative focusing on frequencies and statistical analysis, and qualitative prioritizing interpretation and meaning.
- Reliability testing of coding
This document discusses content analysis and provides details on its history, uses, steps, and different types including quantitative and qualitative content analysis. Some key points:
- Content analysis is an objective, systematic, and quantitative method for analyzing communication content to make inferences about specified characteristics.
- It has a long history dating back to studies in the 1920s-1940s on media influence and propaganda analysis.
- It is used widely across various disciplines to monitor media coverage of issues, describe media content, and test hypotheses about message characteristics.
- There are quantitative and qualitative approaches, with quantitative focusing on frequencies and statistical analysis, and qualitative prioritizing interpretation and meaning.
- Reliability testing of coding
This document discusses content analysis and provides details on its history, uses, steps, and different types including quantitative and qualitative content analysis. Some key points:
- Content analysis is an objective, systematic, and quantitative method for analyzing communication content to make inferences about specified characteristics.
- It has a long history dating back to studies in the 1920s-1940s on media influence and propaganda analysis.
- It is used widely across various disciplines to monitor media coverage of issues, describe media content, and test hypotheses about message characteristics.
- There are quantitative and qualitative approaches, with quantitative focusing on frequencies and statistical analysis, and qualitative prioritizing interpretation and meaning.
- Reliability testing of coding
Hermin Indah Wahyuni Departemen Ilmu Komunikasi Fisipol UGM Pusat Studi Sosial Asia Tenggara UGM Virtual Seminar LAN, 30 Juni 2022 What? • Metode penelitian yang bersifat objektif, sistematis, dan kuantitatif,berkait dengan isi manifest komunikasi • Content Analysis is any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages (Holsti 1969,25) Sejarah • Trivialisasi pers -- Massif pers • Payne Fund Studies : Analisis Isi 1500 film berkait dengan pengaruh film pada anak-anak • Paul Lazarsfeld: emigrasi, Analisis isi program radio • Analisis Propaganda pada perang dunia kedua ↓ Accuracy, Bias, Konstruksi Pemberitaan Pemanfaatan • Monitoring Isu Media, Monitoring Kebijakan • Deskripsi isi media mengenai isu tertentu • Tidak hanya digunakan pada disiplin ilmu komunikasi, tetapi juga pada ilmu sosiologi, politik, kebijakan, pendidikan, psikologi sosial dsb. • Ilmu komunikasi : Analisis berita tentang isu tertentu, person atau kelompok organisasi ttt, dsb Pertumbuhan Analisis Isi • Tendensi ekspansi pemanfaatan analisis isi untuk bidang ilmu lain • Pergeseran dari manifest --- latent • Dukungan penggunaan program Komputer dalam analisis isi : misalnya “textpack” --) Kombinasi dari analisis isi konvensional – computer software Content Analysis • Looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the central aspect of social interaction • Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations • Can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts • Allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text • Can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert systems (since knowledge and rules can both be coded in terms of explicit statements about the relationships among concepts) • Is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions • Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use Uses of CA • Describing Communication Content • Testing Hypotheses of Message Characteristics • Comparing Media Content To The Real World • Assessing The Image of Particular Groups in Society • Establishing a starting Point For Studies of Media Effects • Policy monitoring Steps in Content Analysis • Formulate the Research Question or Hypothesis • Define the population in question • Select an appropriate sample from the population • Select and Define a unit of analysis • Construct the categories of content to be analyzed • Establish a Quantification system • Train coders and conduct a pilot study • Code the content according to established definitions • Analyze the collected Data • Draw Conclusions and Search for Indications Jenis Analisis Isi Klaus Krippendorf, 2004 • Content Analysis: - Quantitative Content Analysis - Qualitative Content Analysis - Proponents call qualitative approaches to content analysis offer some alternative protocols exploring texts systematically • Mapping the general trend Content • Text as fieldwork • Describe general tendencies Analysis Quantitative
• Concerned with Process
Content • Interested in Meaning • Researcher Primary Instrument Analysis • Text as Fieldwork • Descriptive (words, pictures) Qualitative • Inductive (build concepts, hypotheses, theories from details) Analisis Isi Kuantitative/ Quantitative Content Analysis 1. Analisis Frekuensi: pokok-pokok materi tertentu dihitung dan sebagai indikator bagi sebuah substansi variabel 2. Analisis dokumen: Variabel-variabel diambil dari dokumen berdasarkan design tertentu (skala nominal:dikotomi-politomi, ordinal (rank skala), atau interval:lebih detil presisinya) 3. Analisis Valensi: Isi komunikasi berdasarkan kriteria tertentu dianalisis sedemikian rupa/polarisasi (pro-kontra) 4.Analisis Intensitas:Isi komunikasi dianalisis dengan kategorisasi yang lebih detil dari valensi 5.Analisis kontingensi: “analisis semantik dari komunikator” yang terkait dengan inferensi struktur perorangan 6.Analisis pemaknaan: sistematisasi, konsep,argumentasi yang muncul dalam teks bukanlah sebuah kebetulan tetapi menunjukkan cara berpikir struktural dari pembicara Teknik Analisis Isi Quantitative • Pendekatan kuantitatif lebih berfokus pada penghitungan (counting) frekuensi yang muncul dalam teks, atau dapat juga dikatakan bahwa kuantifikasi ini sangat diperlukan jika persoalannya dapat diselesaikan hanya dengan melihat kecenderungan pola muatan atau konten teks. Teknik analisis Quantitative • Sangat ditentukan oleh research question Misalnya: Bagaimana liputan Surat kabar Kompas dan Republika dalam memberitakan pemberantasan korupsi? • Pertanyaan penelitian ini membutuhkan uji beda yang biasanya dilakukan dengan menggunakan statistik misalnya chi-square • Bila pertanyaan penelitiannya: Bagaimana surat kabar lokal “X” dalam memberitakan dugaan korupsi Bupati “Y”? Analisis menggunakan teknik analisis sederhana, seperti tabel tunggal . Penyusunan Unit-Unit Kajian • Unit kajian merupakan jiwa dalam sebuah penelitian analisis isi • Dengan unit kajian yang kuat sebuah penelitian analisis isi juga akan dapat menjawab fokus permasalahan yang telah ditetapkan sejak awal Unit Kajian • Tentukan beberapa problem pokok yang hendak difokuskan dan dicari permasalahannya • Unit tersebut nantinya akan digunakan untuk membedah kebijakan yang telah ditentukan Coding Unit 1.Membentuk Coding unit --- Unit analisis Unit analisis ini sering disetarakan dengan variabel 2.Kategorisasi sebagai instrumen penelitian: Nilai unit analisis sebagai kategori variabel 3.Aplikasi instrumen penelitian pada unit analisis • Langkah untuk menjadikan isu sebagai variabel: Mencari pengertian yang komprehensif tentang isu yang bersangkutan • Langkah untuk menjadikan isu sebagai kategori variabel Identifikasi paradigma yang dipakai dalam merumuskan isu Tahap-Tahap Relevan untuk Kategorisasi 1.Persiapan Materi - relevan dengan pertanyaan penelitian 2.Analisis Kondisi Terkait (Kerangka sosiokultural) 3.Karakteristik Formal Material 4.Arah Analisis 5.Teori sebagai Panduan 6. Penetapan Teknik analisis: Summary, explication, dan structuration 7. Penetapan unit terteliti (Hard news, artikel, ataupun tajuk opini) 8. Analisis Materi Uji Reliabilitas Uji Reliabilitas • Peneliti yang menggunakan metode analisis isi kuantitatif umumnya akan menjadikan angka koefisien tertentu sebagai patokan tingkat reliabilitas Uji Reliabilitas:Kuantitative • Reliabilitas: Kehandalan cara pengumpulan data Melalui Intercoder Reliabilitas: Rumus: R = 2 (C1,2) ------------ C1 + C2 R = Koefisien relibialitas C1,2 = Jumlah kategori variabel yang disepakati oleh kedua peneliti C1+C2=Jumlah kategori variabel yang dianalisis oleh kedua peneliti • Angka koefisien reliabilitas yang memenuhi layak analisis adalah 90% • Sehingga jika kurang dari itu maka data yang diperoleh masih diragukan • Perlu perbaikan variabel, ataupun unit-unit analisis Analisis Isi Kualitatif / Qualitative Content Analysis • Pada fase eksplorasi, objek materi penelitian dikonstruksi melalui sistem kategorisasi tertentu • Design kategorisasi melalui teknik interpretasi, “summary, explication, dan strukturisasi” • Dalam melakukan karakterisasi sebuah kasus spesifik, dimunculkan kombinasi kode yang spesifik • Deskripsi Individu selanjutnya digeneralisasikan Strukturasi • Relationships • Entities: Actors involved • Configuration Uji Reliabilitas Qualitative: Jared J. Wesley • Tes intra-coder merupakan uji coba yang dilakukan terhadap peneliti itu sendiri. Peneliti melakukan recording (coding) atau pencatatan, re-recording atau pencatatan ulang, interpreting, dan re-interpreting atau interpretasi kembali secara berulang-ulang hingga mencapai hasil yang konsisten Triangulasi • Beberapa peneliti memaknai triangulasi sebagai penggunaan beberapa metode yang berbeda secara bersama-sama dalam sebuah penelitian, misalnya dengan mengkombinasikan analisis isi dengan wawancara, hasil dari observasi langsung, dan lain sebagainya. Dengan melibatkan berbagai teknik analisis, diharapkan hasil penelitian juga dapat dikuatkan U.H. Graneheim & B. Lundman. • Graneheim dan Lundman misalnya, juga menawarkan salah satu cara inter-coder testing berupa dialog antar co- researcher untuk mencapai kesepakatan mengenai bagaimana cara data diperoleh. Dialog tersebut dilakukan diiringi dengan re-recording atau coding ulang hingga mencapai hasil yang cenderung sama antara peneliti dengan coder yang ada. Uji Reliabilitas: Kualitative Focus Group Discussion • Focus group is a research strategy for understanding audience attitudes and behaviour • Form: 6-12 people are interviewed simultaneously, with a moderator leading the respondents in a relatively unstructured discussion about the focal topic Stages 1. Define the Problem 2. Select a sample 3. Determine the number of groups necessary 4. Prepare the study mechanisms 5. Prepare the focus group materials 6. Conduct the session 7. Analyze the data and prepare a summary repport Practice • Presession Questionaire • Shared experience so that the individuals have a common base from which to start the discussion • Funnel technique; starts off with a general question or two then moves to more specific topics one general method that is sometimes followed in sequencing focus group questions Important • The written summary of focus group interviews depends on the needs of the study The moderator/researcher may simply write a brief synopsis of what was said and offer an interpretation of the subjects’ responses For a more elaborate content analysis or a more complete description of what happened, the sessions can be transcribed so that the moderator or researcher can scan the comments and develop a category system, coding each comment into the appropriate category Validitas • Berkait dengan kesahihan • Biasanya berkait dengan pemakaian kerangka konseptual yang tepat • Perlunya sebuah definisi operasional yang jelas mengenai sebuah konsep tertentu Tampilan Data Analisis Isi Qualitative • Sementara itu pendekatan kualitatif lebih mengutamakan proses dan pengembangan data atau berfokus pada bagaimana “membunyikan” dan memaknai data klasifikasi unit-unitnya melalui catatan-catatan peneliti. • Analisis isi kualitatif dimaksudkan untuk maksimalisasi dalam mengeksplorasi data. Pengembangan Qualitative Content Analysis Methodology: Interpretive Perspectives • Reflect the complexity of both the social world and the social construction process • Foundational Theoretical Positions: ❖Hermeneutics: Does not blindly interpret the text which he or she presented, rather involves a process of tacking, going back and forth between theory, tacit knowledge the researcher takes into the project, and the textual data ❖ Phenomenology: Knowledge is not found in external experience but in individual consciousness ❖Symbolic Interactionism Qualitative • Have their roots in literary theory, the social sciences (symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology), and critical scholarship (marxist approaches, british cultural studies, feminist theory) • Sometimes they are given the label interpretive Characteristics • They require a close reading of relatively small amounts of textual matter • They involve the rearticulation (interpretation) of given texts into new (analytical, deconstructive, emancipatory, or critical) narratives that are accepted within particular scholarly communities that are sometimes opposed to positivist traditions of inquiry • The analysts acknowledge working within hermeneutic circles in which their own socially or culturally conditioned understandings constitutively participate Discourse Analysis • Generally, discourse defined as text above the level of sentences • Discourse analysis tend to focus on how particular phenomena are represented. • Van Dick (1991) studied manivestations of racism in the press: how ethnic conflicts are described, and how stereotyps permeate given accounts. • Other discourse analyses • How television news programs and other tv shows in the united states manifest a particular ideological vision of the us economy (Wonsek 1992) • The portrayal of the peace movement in news editorials during the gulf war Social constructivist analyses • Focus on discourse as well but less to criticize (mis)representation than to understand how reality comes to be constituted in human interactions and in language, including writen text. • Examples: How emotions are conceptualized , how facts are constructed, or they may explore changing notions of self Rhetorical analysis • Focuses on how messages are delivered and with what intended or actual effects • Rely on the identifications of structural elements, tropes, styles of argumentation, speech acts. • Effort to study negotiations,what works and what doesnt,might be described as rhetorical analyses as well Ethnographic content analyses • Advocated by Altheide (1987) • This approach works with categories as well as with narrative descriptions but focuses on situations, settings, styles, images, meanings and nuances presumed to be recognizable by the human actors/speakers involved Conversation analysis • Another approach that is considered to be qualitative • The work of Harvey Sacks • The researcher performing such an analysis tends to start with the recording of verbal interactions in natural settings and aims at analyzing the transcripts as records of conversational moves toward a collaborative construction of conversation • Numerous interactive phenomenon, including the collaboration among communicators in the telling of jokes Framing • Bagaimana wartawan memberikan setting besar pada pemberitaan mengenai isu tertentu? • Apakah problem diangkat sebagai problem individu, ataukah problem yang memerlukan penanganan bersama? • Bagaimana wartawan mengaitkan problem dengan penyebabnya yang mendasar, dan apa akibat yang akan terjadi jika mengabaikan permasalahan ini di masa mendatang? • Apa solusi yang ditawarkan terhadap permasalahan? • Apakah penyampai pesan yang dimunculkan dalam berita memperkuat koneksi sistemik dengan problem dan mengesankan berat-ringannya sebuah problem? • Bagaimana penempatan juru bicara dalam menyampaikan wacana kepada publik? • Siapa yang ditempatkan sebagai penyampai pesan dan bagaimana dengan kapabilitasnya (seorang eksekutif bisnis akan menyiratkan kompetensi managerial, innovator mengesankan bingkai solusi problem dsb)? • Bagaimana komposisi antara para juru bicara ataupun pihak yang berkonflik dalam mengasumsikan arah kecenderungan publik dalam suatu isu? • Elemen visual apa saja yang muncul dalam pemberitaan? • Bagaimana setting individu ataupun komunitas ditampilkan dalam pemberitaan? • Bagaimana sequence atau penempatan foto untuk mendemonstrasikan sebab dan akibat serta kecenderungan-kecenderungan berkait dengan peristiwa? • Apakah penggunaan angka-angka memiliki makna yang jelas untuk memperjelas fakta? • Apa yang terlebih dahulu diberikan oleh wartawan, interpretasi dulu baru data, atau sebaliknya? • Seberapa sering angka dimunculkan dalam pemberitaan? Apakah wartawan terlalu boros atau hemat dalam menyajikan angka sebagai data? Apa akibatnya? • Apakah wartawan menggunakan angka secara strategis? • Model dan metafora apa saja yang digunakan untuk menggambarkan sebuah isu? • Dalam kaitan apa model dan metafora digunakan? Menekankan pencegahan atau eskalasi problem? Pemanfaatan Untuk Agenda Setting Kebijakan • Personal agenda The list of issues most salient to a single person at a given time. • Media agenda The list of issues emphasized by the news media at a given time. • Agenda-setting Over time, the media agenda shapes the public agenda. • LEVEL 1: THE MEDIA TELL US WHAT TO THINK ABOUT The media influence which things are salient in the public agenda. • LEVEL 2 : THE MEDIA TELL US WHICH ATTRIBUTES OF ISSUES ARE MOST IMPORTANT The media make certain attributes of a media object salient; framing • LEVEL 3: THE MEDIA TELL US WHICH ISSUES GO TOGETHER The media indicate which issues are connected to each other. MELDING AGENDAS INTO COMMUNITIES • McCombs and Shaw suggest we can make sense of the media landscape if we sort outlets into two types. • One type is vertical media, which try to appeal to a broad, diverse audience. The theorists ask us to picture them “as if shouting from the top of an Egyptian pyramid to a vast audience below.” • In contrast, horizontal media “usually connect us via valued special interest and personal interest communities.” These include partisan talk shows, magazines devoted to particular hobbies and industries, and many sources of news on social media. • Agendamelding The social process by which we meld agendas from various sources to create pictures of the world that fit our experiences and preferences. WHO SETS THE AGENDA IN THE DIGITAL ERA? • McCombs and Shaw developed agenda-setting theory in the 1960s and 1970s, the news environment was much different. It was a period in time that one Wall Street Journal editorial writer called the “midcentury moment,” when the public held relatively homogenous views. • Even though there are many people alive today who remember that era, it’s so different from today’s world, where cable TV reports events 24/7 and social media offers more news morsels than we could ever hope to digest. • He cites studies of electronic message boards in the 1990s, online newspapers, and Twitter, noting that these demonstrate traditional agenda-setting effects. • In another article, he treats the social media agenda as just one more agenda in the mix that may influence, or be influenced by, other agendas Algorithmic gatekeepers • Modern websites and apps don’t merely reduce gatekeeping. Instead, they fundamentally change it by replacing human publishers with what tech executive Eli Pariser calls algorithmic gatekeepers • Every time you visit social media or use a search engine, a computer program filters the information and decides what you’ll see. The major tech companies don’t make their algorithms public, but most have to do with a number of personal factors, including your search history, the browser you’re using, your age and sex, and your geographic location • Computer programs that decide which material appears in search engines, social media feeds, and elsewhere on the Internet. Closing • Menjadikan media saat ini sebagai inspirasi agenda kebijakan tampaknya perlu disesuaikan dengan lingkungan dan konteks yang sedang berkembang terutama menguatnya dinamika media baru dan perluasan opini public menjadi demoscopic yang memungkinkan semua orang berpartisipasi dalam pertarungan opini • Seorang analis kebijakan dapat tetap menggunakan inspirasi media sebagai basis kebijakannya. Namun juga tetap perlu menyesuaikan konteks pertumbuhan ekosistem media yang telah mengalami pergeseran. WHO SETS THE AGENDA FOR THE AGENDA- SETTERS? • Intermedia agenda-setting One news source influences the agenda of another. • Interest aggregations : Clusters of people who demand center stage for their one overriding concern; pressure groups • Fake news : News articles that are intentionally and verifiably false and could mislead readers.