SAM User Guide

System Advisor Model (SAM)
User Guide
This user guide is a copy of SAM's Help system. To see the Help system, click Help, Contents in SAM, or press the F1 key (command-? in Mac OS) from any page in SAM.
Version 2011.5.23 Manual Release Date 5/23/2011
2011 National Renewable Energy Laboratory

The System Advisor Model ("Model") is provided by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ("NREL"), which is operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC ("Alliance") for the U.S. Department Of Energy ("DOE") and may be used for any purpose whatsoever. The names DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE shall not be used in any representation, advertising, publicity or other manner whatsoever to endorse or promote any entity that adopts or uses the Model. DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE shall not provide any support, consulting, training or assistance of any kind with regard to the use of the Model or any updates, revisions or new versions of the Model. YOU AGREE TO INDEMNIFY DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE, AND ITS AFFILIATES, OFFICERS, AGENTS, AND EMPLOYEES AGAINST ANY CLAIM OR DEMAND, INCLUDING REASONABLE ATTORNEYS' FEES, RELATED TO YOUR USE, RELIANCE, OR ADOPTION OF THE MODEL FOR ANY PURPOSE WHATSOEVER. THE MODEL IS PROVIDED BY DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO CLAIMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LOSS OF DATA OR PROFITS, WHICH MAY RESULT FROM ANY ACTION IN CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS CLAIM THAT ARISES OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE MODEL. Microsoft and Excel are registered trademarks of the Microsoft Corporation. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this document, the publisher and the author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of information contained in this document or from the use of programs and source code that may accompany it. In no event shall the publisher and the author be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damage caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by this document. Produced: May 2011
Solar Advisor Model 2011.5.23
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Contents
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 1.2 1.3
About SAM ...........................................................................................................................8 User Support ...........................................................................................................................10 Keep SAM Up to Date ...........................................................................................................................11
2 Getting Started
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11
12
Start a Project ...........................................................................................................................12 Welcome Page ...........................................................................................................................16 Main Window ...........................................................................................................................18 Input Pages ...........................................................................................................................19 Run Simulations ...........................................................................................................................21 Results Page ...........................................................................................................................22 Export Data and Graphs ...........................................................................................................................24 Manage ...........................................................................................................................27 Cases Menus ...........................................................................................................................28 Notes ...........................................................................................................................32
File Formats ...........................................................................................................................33
3 Systems
3.1 3.2 3.3
34
Overview ...........................................................................................................................34 Climate ...........................................................................................................................39 Photovoltaic Systems ...........................................................................................................................51 Getting Started with PV ............................................................................................................................51 Array ............................................................................................................................55 PVWatts Solar Array ............................................................................................................................70 Shading ............................................................................................................................71 Module ............................................................................................................................82 Inverter ............................................................................................................................99
3.4
Generic System ...........................................................................................................................104 Generic System Overview ............................................................................................................................104 Generic Plant ............................................................................................................................104
3.5
Dish Stirling ...........................................................................................................................105 System Library ............................................................................................................................106 Solar Field ............................................................................................................................106
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SAM Help Collector ............................................................................................................................109 Receiver ............................................................................................................................110 Stirling Engine ............................................................................................................................113 Parasitics ............................................................................................................................115 Reference Inputs ............................................................................................................................116 3.6 Parabolic Trough Empirical ...........................................................................................................................117 Solar Field ............................................................................................................................118 SCA ............................................................................................................................128 / HCE Power Block ............................................................................................................................135 Thermal Storage ............................................................................................................................140 Parasitics ............................................................................................................................148 3.7 Parabolic Trough Physical ...........................................................................................................................150 Solar Field ............................................................................................................................152 Collectors (SCAs) ............................................................................................................................169 Receivers (HCEs) ............................................................................................................................172 Power Cycle ............................................................................................................................176 Thermal Storage ............................................................................................................................180 Parasitics ............................................................................................................................188 3.8 Generic Solar System ...........................................................................................................................190 Solar Field ............................................................................................................................190 Power Block ............................................................................................................................191 Thermal Storage ............................................................................................................................191 3.9 Power ...........................................................................................................................191 Tower Heliostat Field ............................................................................................................................192 Optimization Wizard ............................................................................................................................197 Tower and Receiver ............................................................................................................................202 Power Cycle ............................................................................................................................207 Thermal Storage ............................................................................................................................210 Parasitics ............................................................................................................................217 3.10 Solar Water Heating ...........................................................................................................................219 SWH............................................................................................................................219 System 3.11 Geothermal Power ...........................................................................................................................223 Resource ............................................................................................................................224 Plant and Equipment ............................................................................................................................225 3.12 Geothermal Co-production ...........................................................................................................................227 Resource and Power Generation ............................................................................................................................227
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Contents 3.13
Small Scale Wind ...........................................................................................................................230 Small Scale Wind Overview ............................................................................................................................230 Wind Climate ............................................................................................................................230 Small Scale Wind System ............................................................................................................................242
3.14
Utility Scale Wind ...........................................................................................................................244 Utility Scale Wind Overview ............................................................................................................................244 Wind Resource ............................................................................................................................244 Wind Farm Specifications ............................................................................................................................248
4 Costs and Financing

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8
251
Financing Overview ...........................................................................................................................251 System...........................................................................................................................255 Summary Utility Rate ...........................................................................................................................256 Financing ...........................................................................................................................270 Tax Credit Incentives ...........................................................................................................................285 Payment Incentives ...........................................................................................................................288 Annual...........................................................................................................................291 Performance System...........................................................................................................................293 Costs PV System Costs ............................................................................................................................293 Trough System Costs ............................................................................................................................298 Tower System Costs ............................................................................................................................304 Dish ............................................................................................................................309 System Costs Generic Solar System Costs ............................................................................................................................314 Generic System Costs ............................................................................................................................317 SWH............................................................................................................................321 System Costs Small Scale Wind Capital Costs ............................................................................................................................326 Wind Farm Costs ............................................................................................................................328 Geothermal System Costs ............................................................................................................................331 Co-Production Costs ............................................................................................................................331
4.9 4.10
Energy...........................................................................................................................332 Payment Dispatch Electric Load ...........................................................................................................................334
5 Results
5.1
339
Metrics...........................................................................................................................339 Table Annual Energy ............................................................................................................................341 Annual Water Usage ............................................................................................................................341
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SAM Help Capacity Factor ............................................................................................................................342 Costs ............................................................................................................................342 Debt ............................................................................................................................342 Fraction First ............................................................................................................................343 year kWhac/kWdc First ............................................................................................................................343 Year PPA Price Gross to Net Conv Factor ............................................................................................................................345 Internal Rate of Return ............................................................................................................................345 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) ............................................................................................................................346 Minimum DSCR ............................................................................................................................352 Net Present Value ............................................................................................................................353 Payback Period ............................................................................................................................354 PPA ............................................................................................................................354 Escalation System Performance Factor ............................................................................................................................355 Total............................................................................................................................355 Land Area Year ............................................................................................................................355 1 Revenues 5.2 5.3 Graphs...........................................................................................................................356 and Charts Base Case Cash Flow ...........................................................................................................................359 Residential and Commercial ............................................................................................................................360 IPP and Commercial PPA ............................................................................................................................367 New ............................................................................................................................371 Utility Structures (Draft) 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Tabular Data Browser ...........................................................................................................................374 Sliders...........................................................................................................................376 Case Summary ...........................................................................................................................377 Hourly ...........................................................................................................................379 Results Hourly Pricing Data ............................................................................................................................379 PV Component Hourly Data ............................................................................................................................381 PVWatts Hourly Data ............................................................................................................................383 Physical Trough Hourly Data ............................................................................................................................384 Empirical Trough Hourly Data ............................................................................................................................386 5.8 Simulation Results File ...........................................................................................................................388 PV Component Simulation ............................................................................................................................388 Physical Trough Simulation ............................................................................................................................390 Empirical Trough Simulation ............................................................................................................................395
6 Time Series Data Viewer (DView)
399
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Contents
7 Advanced Topics
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9
401
Parametric Analysis ...........................................................................................................................401 Sensitivity Analysis ...........................................................................................................................406 Optimization ...........................................................................................................................410 Statistical ...........................................................................................................................414 Multiple Systems ...........................................................................................................................419 Excel Exchange ...........................................................................................................................421 Simulator Options ...........................................................................................................................423 User Variables ...........................................................................................................................424 SamUL...........................................................................................................................424 Data ............................................................................................................................428 Variables Flow............................................................................................................................431 Control Arrays of Data ............................................................................................................................435 Function Calls ............................................................................................................................438 Input, Output, and System Access ............................................................................................................................441 Interfacing with SAM Analyses ............................................................................................................................443 Case............................................................................................................................446 Study Library Reference ............................................................................................................................451
7.10 7.11
Generating Code ...........................................................................................................................464 Libraries ...........................................................................................................................466
8 References
474
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SAM Help
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1.1
Introduction
About SAM
SAM is a performance and economic model designed to facilitate decision making for people involved in the renewable energy industry, ranging from project managers and engineers to incentive program designers, technology developers, and researchers. SAM makes performance predictions for grid-connected solar, solar water heating, wind, and geothermal power systems and makes economic calculations for both projects that buy and sell power at retail rates, and power projects that sell power through a power purchase agreement. The model calculates the cost of generating electricity (or the value of energy saved by a solar water heating system) based on information you provide about a system's physical configuration, its location, and the cost of installing and operating the system. SAM's financial model accounts for different financing structures, taxes, and incentives. SAM consists of a performance model and financial model. The performance model calculates a system's energy output on an hourly basis (sub-hourly simulations are available for some technologies). The financial model calculates annual project cash flows over a period of years for a range of financing structures for residential, commercial, and utility projects. The user interface provides access the input assumptions and displays results in tables and graphs, which range from a table of basic metrics such as levelized cost of energy and total annual output, to tables of detailed hourly simulation results, and a cash flow table showing project income, expenses, financing costs, incentive payments and other details on a year-by-year basis over the analysis period. All graphs and tables in SAM can easily be exported to word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation software. The Excel-exchange feature also makes it possible to use Excel to calcualte values that SAM can automatically use to populate input variables. Advanced modeling options allow for parametric studies, optimization, sensitivity and other statistical analyses, optimization, and statistical analyses to investigate impacts of variations and uncertainty in performance, cost, and financial parameters on model results. SAM models system performance using the TRNSYS software developed at the University of Wisconsin combined with customized components. TRNSYS is a validated, time-series simulation program that can simulate the performance of photovoltaic, concentrating solar power, water heating systems, and other renewable energy systems using hourly resource data. TRNSYS is integrated into SAM so there is no need to install TRNSYS software or be familiar with its use to run SAM. The Department of Energy's Solar Energy Technologies Program (SETP) initially developed SAM for analysis to support the implementation of the SETP Systems Driven Approach. The model also has applications for the solar industry for planning research and development programs, and developing project cost and performance estimates. SAM is being used as part of the solicitation and evaluation process for SETP funding programs. SAM also includes a simple model of fuel-based electric generation that can be used to model baseline systems for comparison with the solar technologies. For help getting started using SAM, see Start a Project.
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About SAM
Model Structure
SAM consists of a user interface, calculation engine, and programming interface. The user interface is the part of SAM that you see, and provides access to input variables and simulation controls, and displays tables and graphs of results. SAM's calculation engine performs a time-step-by-time-step simulation of a power system's performance, and a set of annual financial calculations to generate a project cash flow and financial metrics. The programming interface allows external programs to interact with SAM.
The user interface performs three basic functions: 1. Provide access to input variables, which are organized into input pages. The input variables describe the physical characteristics of a system, and the cost and financial assumptions for a project. 2. Allow you to control how SAM runs simulations. You can run a basic simulation, or more advanced simulations for optimization and sensitivity studies. 3. Provide access to output variables in tables and graphs on the Results page, and in files that you can access in a spreadsheet program or graphical data viewer. SAM's scripting language SamUL allows you to automate certain tasks. If you have some experience writing computer programs, you can easily learn to write SamUL scripts to set the values of input variables by reading them from a text file or based on calculations in the script, run simulations, and write values of results to a text file. You can also use SamUL to automatically run a series of simulations using different weather files. Excel Exchange allows you to use Microsoft Excel to calculate values of input variables. With Excel Exchange, each time you run simulations, SAM opens a spreadsheet and, depending on how you've configured Excel Exchange, writes values from SAM input pages to the spreadsheet, and reads values from the spreadsheet to use in simulations. This makes it possible to use spreadsheet formulas to calculate values of SAM input variables.
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SAM Help
Calculation Engine
Each renewable energy technology in SAM has a corresponding performance model that performs calculations specific to the technology. Similarly, each financing option in SAM is also associated with a particular financial model with its own set of inputs and outputs. The financial models are as independent as possible from the performance models to allow for consistency in financial calculations across the different technologies. A performance simulation consists of a series of many calculations to emulate the performance of the system over a one year period in time steps of one hour for most simulations, and shorter time steps for some technologies. A typical simulation run consists of the following steps: 1. After starting SAM, you select a combination of technology and financing options for a case in the user interface. 2. Behind the scenes, SAM chooses the proper set of simulation and financial models. 3. You specify values of input variables in the user interface. Each variable has a default value, so it not necessary to specify a value for every variable. 4. When you click the Run button, SAM runs the simulation and financial models. For advanced analyses, you can configure simulations for optimization or sensitivity analyses before running simulations. 5. SAM displays graphs and tables of results in the user interface's Results page.
1.2
User Support
Press the F1 key (Command-? on a Mac).
For information about any page in the software, do one of the following:
Click the help button at the top right corner of each input page. Click Help Contents from the Help menu. In secondary windows, click the Help button for information about the window. For additional help, try: Click User Guide on the Help menu to open a user guide in PDF format. For general information about the model, including a discussion of project costs, references to related publications and a list of frequently asked questions, and other information visit the SAM website: https://www.nrel. gov/analysis/sam/.
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User Support
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To participate in the SAM discussion board, join Google Groups using your email address (a Gmail account is not required) at http://groups.google. com/group/sam-user-group. If you have questions comments about the software, please send an email to the support team at solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. You can also use the User Support command on the Help menu to contact the support team.
1.3
Keep SAM Up to Date
The SAM team releases new versions of SAM periodically. To find out if your version of SAM is the latest version, check the SAM website. SAM's welcome page also displays news from the SAM team, including announcements of new versions. SAM displays the version number in the title bar of the Main window:
You can also find the SAM version number along with version numbers of other components of the software by clicking About on the Help menu:
Checking for Updates

Updates may be available before a new release is available to address minor issues with the software.
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SAM Help
To check for updates: On the Help menu, click Check for updates to this version.
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2.1
Getting Started
Start a Project
The following procedure describes the basic steps to run a simulation of a project based on photovoltaic or parabolic trough technology using default input assumptions to help you get started using SAM. See also: Financing Overview Getting Started with PV
A. Create a project
Type a name for your project and click Create. For details, see Options for Starting a Project.
B. Choose a technology
For photovoltaic systems, choose Component-based Models if you want to choose a specific module and
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Start a Project
inverter from a list. Choose PVWatts System Model if you want to model the entire system using a single derate factor.
13
For parabolic trough systems, choose Physical Trough System under Concentrating Solar Power. If you are modeling a system with a configuration similar to the SEGS plants choose Empirical Trough System.
For other technologies, choose the appropriate option. For descriptions of the technology options, see Technologies.
C. Choose a financing option

For projects that buy and sell electricity at retail rates, choose either Residential or Commercial.
For power projects that sell power at a price negotiated through a power purchase agreement, choose either Commercial PPA or one of the options under Utility Market.
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SAM Help
To model the performance of a system without the financial model, choose No Financials. Note that the Power Tower model requires that you choose a financial model because the performance model includes an optimization algorithm that requires information about equipment costs.
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Start a Project
15
For a description of the financing options, see Financing Options.
D. Review inputs
After creating your file, open each input page and review the default assumptions. See Input Pages for details.
E. Run simulations
To run simulations, click the Run button.
See Run Simulations for details.
F. Review results
When simulations are complete, SAM displays a summary of results in the Metric table.
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SAM Help
You can display graphs and tables of detailed results data on the Results page.
2.2
Welcome Page
When you start SAM, it displays a Welcome window with three options for starting a project. Create a new file to start a project. Type the project name and click Create to display the Technology and Market window where you choose a technology and financing option before creating a new zsam file for your project. Open a sample file. The sample files illustrate how to model some common types of projects and how to use some of SAM's more advanced modeling techniques. Open a recent file. The Recent Files list contains project files that were saved during previous SAM sessions.
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Welcome Page
17
Note. When you install SAM, it creates the SAM Projects folder in your default documents folder and uses this as the default location for storing project files. You can change the default project file location by clicking Preferences in the File Menu.
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SAM Help
2.3
Main Window
The main window gives you access to the input pages for each of the cases in the project:
The case tabs display different cases in the project. A project may consist of a single case, or may contain more than one case. Click a tab to display the case. Click the 'x' on a tab to delete the case. The navigation menu displays a list of input pages available for the technology and market of the current case. Click an item in the navigation menu to display an input page. The active input page is indicated on the menu in blue. When the menu is too long to fit in the window, use the vertical scroll bar to move through the menu, or resize the Main window to make the entire menu visible. Each item on the navigation menu also displays key data the input pages. For example, the system costs item in the navigation menu shows the system's total installed cost.
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Input Pages
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2.4
Input Pages
SAM's input pages provide access to the input variables and options that define the assumptions of your analysis. When you start a project, whether from a sample file, by creating a new project, or opening an existing project, SAM populates all of the input variables with default values. This means that you can get started with your analysis even before you have final values for all of the input variables. Note. To see a list of all input variables and their values for a case, on the Results menu, click Case Summary, Send To Excel. SAM creates a workbook with a worksheet listing the input variables.
Colors of Input Variables

The text and data box colors on the input pages indicate the kind of information they contain: Note. The appearance of text and text boxes depends on whether you are running SAM on Windows or Mac OS. The screenshots below are for Windows. White data boxes display input variables that you can modify by typing values in the box:
Blue data boxes are for reference values that SAM either displays from other input pages, or calculates from other input variables. Data in blue cannot be modified. Press the F1 key on your keyboard (Command-? on a Mac) to see the Help topic with descriptions of the equations SAM uses to calculate these values:
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SAM Help
Gray data boxes show values for your reference. For example, these input variables on the Climate page show annual averages calculated from data stored in the weather file. You cannot modify data in gray:
Blue underlined text indicates links to websites with useful information related to the input page:
Informational text describing the input variables appears in orange font:
Library buttons populate input variables with values from a library of stored parameters. Modifying a value on an input page does not change the value stored in the library. See Working with Libraries for to learn more about libraries:
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Run Simulations
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2.5
Run Simulations
After reviewing and modifying inputs on the input pages, click the Run all Simulations button to run simulations:
SAM runs simulations based on the values of input variables that appear on the input pages and reports those values as "base case" results. In addition to the base case, SAM runs simulations for any additional simulations you may have set up on the Configure Simulations pages, such as parametric or sensitivity analyses. You can also run simulations from the Case menu (See Menus for a description of menu commands):
Run All Simulations Runs all of the simulations configured in the current case. Equivalent to clicking the Run button. This option does not save hourly results. Run Base Case Only Runs a single simulation based on the input values shown on the input pages, ignoring any parametric, sensitivity, optimization or other configurations requiring multiple simulation runs, and does not save hourly results.
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SAM Help
2.6
Results Page
When you run simulations based on inputs you specify on the Systems pages in SAM, the performance model creates a file of hourly data called the simulation results file. There are several options in SAM for viewing data from this file: The Metrics table displays key metrics that summarize the performance model results, such as total annual electrical output, capacity factor, etc. Graphs and charts display monthly electrical output and an annual energy flow graph. The Tabular Data Browser allows you to build a custom table of hourly, monthly, and annual results on the Results page. The Case Summary workbook includes a worksheets of hourly, monthly, and annual data. The Time Series Data Viewer (DView) displays time series and statistical graphs of hourly data from the simulation output file. SAM's financial model uses the sum of the performance model's 8,760 hourly output values in kWh as an input representing the system's total annual electrical output in kWh. The financial model then calculates the project's cash flow based on the inputs you specify on the Costs and Financing pages. SAM displays financial model results in the following places: The Metrics table displays key metrics including the LCOE, PPA price, IRR, payback period, etc. The Base Case Cash Flow table shows details of the project's cash flow. The Tabular Data Browser allows you to build a custom table of cost and cash flow data along with metrics. shows data from the cash flowAfter running simulations, SAM displays the Results page, which provides access to many graphs and tables of output data.
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Results Page
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Simulation Warning Messages

Under some conditions, SAM displays simulation warnings. When there are simulation warnings, the simulation warning button appears at the top right corner of the Results page. Click the Show Simulation Warnings button to view warning messages:
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SAM Help
2.7
Export Data and Graphs
SAM provides a several options for exporting images of graphs and results data to other applications for further analysis or inclusion in reports and other documents.
Results Page View Graphs and Charts

When the Results page is in the View Graphs and Charts mode, you can export the data in the graphs using one of the following methods: Click Copy Graph Data to copy data from the graph to your computer's clipboard. You can then paste the data into a spreadsheet or other program.
Right-click the graph to copy either data from the graph or an image of the graph to the clipboard, or export it to a file:
On the Results menu, click Graph Data to view a list of options for exporting graph data:
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Results Page Cash Flow and Tabular Data Browser

The base case cash flow table and tabular data browser provide three options for exporting data shown in the tables:
Copy to clipboard Copies the table to your clipboard. You can paste the entire table into a word processing document, spreadsheet, presentation or other software. Save as CSV Saves the table in a comma-delimited text file that you can open in a spreadsheet program or text editor. Send to Excel (Windows only) Saves the table in an Excel file.
Case Summary and Hourly Results

The case summary contains data for the current case. To open the case summary, either click the Export and view data button to display the options in the Export Data window:
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SAM Help
Or, click an option on the Results menu to display a the same list of export options in menus.
Note for Mac users. The Send to Excel and View Hourly Time Series (DView) options are not available on Mac computers. DView does not run on Mac OS, and SAM cannot control Microsoft Excel on Mac OS. For details on options for viewing data on a Mac, see Data Viewer (DView). Graph Data Exports data from all graphs currently visible on the Results page. Cashflow Exports data from the cash flow table. The exported data is the same as the data shown in the base case cash flow table on the Results page. Case Summary Exports hourly performance data with monthly and annual averages and the cash flow table for the current case. The Send to Excel option (Windows only) exports the data to separate worksheets in an Excel workbook, and includes a list of input variables. The Save as CSV and To Clipboard options exports some of the case summary data as commaseparated values in a single file. See Case Summary for details. Save as CSV Exports data to a comma-separated text file. To Clipboard Exports data to your computer's clipboard. Use the Paste command to copy the data to a spreadsheet
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or other file. Send to Excel
27
For Windows computers with Microsoft Excel installed only. Exports data to an Excel workbook and opens the file in Excel. View Hourly Times Series (DView) For Windows computers only. Opens the hourly results file in DView, which displays graphs of hourly data. See Data Viewer (DView) for details.
2.8
Manage Cases
A case is a complete set of input data and results. A project file contains at least one case. SAM uses tabs to display each case in the project, analogous to the way Excel displays worksheets in a workbook. SAM indicates the active case name in bold type:
Note. The number of cases that a project file can contain depends on the storage and computing resources available on your computer. SAM displays a warning if you try to add more than six cases to your project. Your computer may be able to handle projects with more than six cases, but for the model to run efficiently, it is best to keep the number of cases to less than seven.
Why Use Cases?

By creating more than one case in a file, you can easily compare the assumptions and results of different analysis scenarios. For example, you could use cases to compare the cost and performance of a residential photovoltaic system in several locations by defining a separate case for each location, or you could compare a utility-scale photovoltaic and concentrating solar power systems.
Creating and Deleting Cases

To add, remove, and rename cases, used the four commands on the Case menu:
Create Case Adds a new case to the project file. SAM displays the Technology and Market window for you to choose options for the case.
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SAM Help
Change the label identifying the case that appears on the case tab.
Rename Case Duplicate Case Creates a copy of the active case, with a duplicate set of input parameters and results. Delete Case Deletes the active case. You can also delete a case by clicking the 'x' on the case's tab.
For projects with more cases than can be displayed on tabs, the scroll and list controls allow you to access all of the cases in the project.
2.9
Menus
SAM's menus provide access to commands for managing projects, running simulations, exporting results, and getting more information about the model.
Contents File menu commands allow you to manage files, access component libraries, clear the simulation cache (advanced feature) and close SAM Case menu commands apply to the current case, which indicated by the active case tab in the main window. Results menu commands allow you to export results for the current case Developer commands for managing SamUL scripts. Help for accessing help and version information.
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Menus
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File
New Create a new file using default input values. SAM creates a zsam file with a single case and no results. Open Open an existing zsam file. Open Sample File Open a sample file that contains a complete set of inputs and results. The submenu lists the available sample files. SAM creates a zsam file with inputs and results for one or more cases. Open SCIF File Open a SCIF file created in Version 3.0 or 2.5 of the model. Contact SAM Support at solar.advisor. support@nrel.gov for help with files from old versions of SAM. Import one or more cases from another zsam file. Save Save the project as a zsam file in its current location. Save As Save the project as a zsam file in a different location or with a new name. Close Close the zsam file without exiting SAM. Clear Cached Simulations Clears stored results and other data from computer memory. Use this command if the program becomes sluggish after running a very large number of simulations, or if you are setting up very complex simulations and want to clear the cache before running them. Libraries Open the library editor to view or modify component libraries. See Libraries for details. Preferences Open the Preferences window. Recent Files Open a zsam file from the recent files list. Quit Close the zsam file and exit SAM.
Case
Create Case Create a new case in the project. SAM opens the Technology and Market window where you choose options for the case. The new case will open with default input values and no results. Rename Case Change the name of the current case.
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SAM Help
Duplicate Case Create a copy of the current case. Delete Case Delete the current case. You can also delete a case by clicking the 'x' in the case's tab. Run All Simulations Runs all of the simulations configured in the current case. Equivalent to clicking the Run button. Run Base Case Only Runs a single simulation based on the input values shown on the input pages, ignoring any parametric, sensitivity, optimization or other configurations requiring multiple simulation runs, and does not save hourly results. Reset to Tech/Market Default Inputs Replaces all values on input pages with default values. Clear Case Results Clears results from the current case. SAM removes any graphs and sliders you may have created for the case. Advanced The advanced options create lines of code in Excel VBA, ANSI C, or for MATLAB that you can use in your own programs to call SAM. See Generating Code for details.
Results
The Results menu commands allow you to export results for the current case to: The clipboard for pasting into documents. Comma-delimited text files. Excel files (PC computers running Windows only). The built-in DView data viewer for graphing hourly data (PC computers running Windows only). Note. If the current case includes simulations that involve multiple input values, such as for parametric and sensitivity analyses, SAM only exports results for input values shown on the input pages, not for ranges of values defined in simulation configurations. Graph Data Exports data from the graphs currently displayed on the Results page. Cashflow Exports cash flow data for the current case. Case Summary Exports all performance and cash flow data for the current case. If you choose the Send to Excel option, SAM creates a workbooks that includes a worksheet listing all of the input variables with their values. View Hourly Time Series (DView) Opens the DView data viewer and displays graphs of hourly data. See Time Series Data Viewer (DView)
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Menus
for details.
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Simulations
Parametrics Displays the parametric analysis page allowing you to assign multiple values to input variables for parametric studies and optimization. See Parametric Analysis for details. Sensitivity Displays the sensitivity analysis page allowing you to specify a range of values to input variables for sensitivity analyses. See Sensitivity Analysis for details. Optimization Displays the optimization page allowing you to specify an objective function and find the optimal value of input variables. See Optimization for details. Statistical Displays the statistical analysis page allowing you to explore uncertainty in input variables. See Statistical Analysis for details. Multiple Systems Displays the multiple systems page where you can build a system as a set of subsystems. See Multiple Systems for details. Excel Exchange Displays the excel exchange page where you can set up a data exchange between SAM and Excel when you want to use Excel to calculate values of SAM input variables. See Excel Exchange for details. Simulator Options Displays the simulator options page where you can specify the simulation time step and to configure SAM to run custom TRNSYS decks. See Simulator Optionsfor details
Developer
New SAMUL Script Opens the script editor to create a program in SAM User Language (SamUL) to automate SAM modeling tasks. See SamUL for details.
Help
Help Contents Opens SAM's help system. User Guide Opens the user guide, which is a version of the help system in PDF format. SamUL Guide Opens the instructions in PDF format for using the SAM User Language, a scripting language that allows you to automate SAM modeling tasks.
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Release Notes Displays SAM's version history. Web Site Opens the SAM website in your computer's default browser. (Requires an internet connection.) User Group Opens the SAM discussion board on the Google Groups website in your computer's default browser. (Requires an internet connection.) User Support Opens your computer's default email program to compose an email that you can send to the SAM support team at solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. (Requires an internet connection.) Financial Spreadsheets Displays a list of Excel workbooks that mimic SAM's financial model using Excel formulas that you can use to learn more about how the financial model works. Download New Versions of SAM Opens the SAM website's download page. See Keep SAM Up to Date for details. Check for updates to this version Checks for updates to the SAM, component libraries, and help system, and allows you to update your software when updates are available. (Requires an internet connection.) About Displays the legal disclaimer and information about the version of your copy of the software.
2.10
Notes
The Notes feature allows you to store text associated with each input page and with the Results page. To create notes: 1. From any input page or the Results page, click the Show Notes button at the top right of the window.
2. 3.
Type your text in the notes window. Click the Notes window's close button to hide the window and save your notes. For input page notes, SAM displays a Notes icon in the navigation menu indicating that there are notes associated with the input page.
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For Results page notes, SAM opens the notes whenever you navigate to the page and after running simulations. To delete notes: 1. 2. 3. Open the Notes window containing the notes you want to delete. Select all text in the Notes window and press the Delete key. Close the Notes window. SAM will remove the appropriate Notes icon from the navigation menu.
2.11
File Formats
SAM uses the following types of files to store and transfer data. The file formats are listed below by file extension in alphabetical order. Contact solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov for more information. BAS is a text file containing VBA code for use with Excel. BMP is a graphics file format used to export graph images. C is a text file containing ANSI C code for use in a C program. CSV is a text file containing a table comma-delimited columns that the model uses to export results data from graphs and tables. Weather files in TMY3 format also use the CSV extension. DVIEW is a file format used by SAM's time series data viewer, DView. EPW is a weather file format that SAM can read directly. M is a text file containing MATLAB code. OUT is a text file format generated by SAM's simulation engine (TRNSYS) to store hourly performance data. SAMLIB is a text file used to store data for a SAM library. SCIF (SAM compressed inputs file) is an obsolete compressed file format used in SAM versions 2.5 through 3.0. The current version of SAM can open SCIF files created by older versions of the model. SUL is a text file containing SamUL script for automating SAM analyses. TM2 and TM3 are weather file formats that SAM can read directly. XLS are Excel files used to export data from SAM and to exchange data between the model and Excel. Note that Excel files must be in Excel 2003-2007 XLS format, and not in the newer XLSX format. ZSAM files store project data, which includes inputs and results for one or more cases.
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3.1
Systems
Overview
Each renewable energy technology in SAM has a corresponding performance model that performs calculations specific to the technology. Most of the models perform hourly simulations to calculate the total annual electric output of the system, which is then used by the financial model to calculate project the project cash flow and financial metrics. Notes. The solar water heating model calculates the thermal output of the system, assuming that it displaces electricity that would normally heat water in a conventional water heating system. Because of the nature of the technology, the geothermal model calculates system performance over a period of years rather than hours. SAM can perform sub-hourly simulations for advanced analyses, but relies on interpolation to determine the solar resource based on hourly weather data.
Photovoltaic Systems: Component-based Models

SAM models grid-connected photovoltaic systems that consist of a photovoltaic array and inverter. The array can be made up of flat-plate or concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules with one-axis, two-axis, or no tracking. The current version of the software includes simple models of loads and storage for gridconnected systems with electric storage batteries. The Component-based Models option represents the performance of a photovoltaic system using separate models to represent the performance of the module and inverter. This is in contrast with the PVWatts System Model, which represents the entire system using a single model. The SAM Performance Models option allows you to choose between the Sandia, CEC, and single-point efficiency models for photovoltaic modules, and between the Sandia and single-point efficiency models for inverters. Modules Each of the four available module performance models uses a different algorithm to predict module performance: The Sandia PV Array Performance Model calculates hourly efficiency values based on data measured from modules and arrays in realistic outdoor operating conditions. The Sandia model tends to produce more accurate predictions of module performance than the CEC model. However, because of the time and effort required to make the field measurements, the Sandia module database is less upto-date than the CEC database. The California Energy Commission (CEC) Performance Model predicts module performance based on a database of module characteristics determined from module ratings. Like the Sandia model, the CEC model calculates hourly efficiency values, and allows you to select from a list of a commercially-
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available modules. The CEC module database tends to be more up-to-date than the Sandia database. For some types of modules, the CEC model predictions may be less accurate than the Sandia model. The Simple Efficiency Module model is a simple representation of module performance that requires you to provide the module area, a set of conversion efficiency values, and temperature correction parameters. The simple efficiency model is the least accurate of the three models for predicting the performance of specific modules. It is useful for preliminary performance predictions before you have selected a specific module, and allows you to specify a module efficiency and temperature performance parameters, which is useful for analyses involving sensitivity or parametric analysis. For concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules, use the Concentrating PV Module model unless you are modeling a CPV module available in the Sandia model, in which case, you can choose the module from the database in the Sandia model. The concentrating PV module model is similar to the simple efficiency model, except that it uses only the direct normal component of the incident solar radiation instead of the total radiation for performance predictions. Inverters The Sandia Performance Model for Grid-Connected PV Inverters is an empirically-based performance model that uses parameters from a database of commercially available inverters maintained by Sandia National Laboratory. The parameters are based on manufacturer specifications and laboratory measurements for a range of inverter types. The Sandia model consists of a set of equations that SAM uses to calculate the inverter's hourly AC output based on the DC input (equivalent to the derated output of the photovoltaic array) and a set of empirically-determined coefficients that describe the inverter's performance characteristics. The equations involve a set of coefficients that have been empirically determined based on data from manufacturer specification sheets and either field measurements from inverters installed in operating systems, or laboratory measurements using the California Energy Commission (CEC) test protocol. Because SAM does not track voltage levels in the system, it assumes that for each hour of the simulation, the inverter operates at the photovoltaic array's maximum power point voltage, given the solar resource data in the weather file for that hour. The inverter single-point efficiency model calculates the inverter's AC output by multiplying the DC input (equivalent to the array's derated DC output) by a fixed DC-to-AC conversion efficiency that you specify on the Inverter page. Unlike the Sandia inverter model, the single-point efficiency model assumes that the inverter's efficiency does not vary under different operating conditions.
Photovoltaic Systems: PVWatts System Model

The PVWatts System Model represents the entire photovoltaic system using a single model. This is in contrast with the Component-based Models option, which uses separate models to represent the performance of the module and inverter.
Parabolic Trough
A parabolic trough system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that collects direct normal solar radiation and converts it to thermal energy that runs a power block to generate electricity. The components of a parabolic trough system are the solar field, power block, and in some cases, thermal energy storage and fossil backup systems. The solar field collects heat from the sun and consists of parabolic, trough-shaped solar collectors that focus direct normal solar radiation onto tubular receivers. Each collector assembly consists of mirrors and a structure that supports the mirrors and receivers, allows it to track the sun on one axis, and can withstand wind-induced forces. Each receiver consists of a metal
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tube with a solar radiation absorbing surface in a vacuum inside a coated glass tube. A heat transfer fluid (HTF) transports heat from the solar field to the power block (also called power cycle) and other components of the system. The power block is based on conventional power cycle technology, using a turbine to convert thermal energy from the solar field to electric energy. The optional fossil-fuel backup system delivers supplemental heat to the HTF during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive the power block at its rated capacity. Physical Trough Model The physical trough system model is a new parabolic trough model for SAM introduced in March 2010. The model approaches the task of characterizing the performance of the many of the system components from first principles of heat transfer and thermodynamics, rather than from empirical measurements as in the empirical trough system model. The physical model uses mathematical models that represent component geometry and energy transfer properties, which gives you the flexibility to specify characteristics of system components such as the absorber emissivity or envelope glass thickness. The empirical model, on the other hand, uses a set of curve-fit equations derived from regression analysis of data measured from real systems, so you are limited to modeling systems composed of components for which there is measured data. While the physical model is more flexible than the empirical model, it adds more uncertainty to performance predictions than the empirical model. In a physical model, uncertainty in the geometry and property assumptions for each system component results in an aggregated uncertainty at the system level that tends to be higher than the uncertainty in an empirical model. We've included both models in SAM so that you can use both in your analyses. The following are some key features of the physical model: Includes transient effects related to the thermal capacity of the heat transfer fluid in the solar field piping, headers, and balance of plant. Allows for flexible specification of solar field components, including multiple receiver and collector types within a single loop. Relatively short simulation times to allow for parametric and statistical analyses that require multiple simulation runs. As with the other SAM models for other technologies, the physical trough model makes use of existing models when possible: Collector model adapted from NREL's Excelergy model. Receiver heat loss model by Forristall (2003). Field piping pressure drop model by Kelley and Kearney (2006). Power cycle performance model by Wagner (2008) for the power tower (also known as a central receiver) CSP system model in SAM. Empirical Trough Model The empirical parabolic trough model uses a set of equations based on empirical analysis of data collected from installed systems (the SEGS projects in the southwestern United States) to represent the performance of parabolic trough components. The model is based on Excelergy, a model initially developed for inernal use at at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Power Tower
A power tower system (also called a central receiver system) is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that consists of a heliostat field, tower and receiver, power block, and optional storage system. The field of flat, sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats focus direct normal solar radiation onto a receiver at the
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top of the tower, where a heat-transfer fluid is heated and pumped to the power block. The power block generates steam that drives a conventional steam turbine and generator to convert the thermal energy to electricity. SAM's power tower performance model uses TRNSYS components developed at the University of Wisconsin and described in Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants, Wagner (2008) http://sel.me.wisc.edu/publications/theses/wagner08.zip (32 MB). For a description of the type of system the power tower model can represent, see About SAM. The solar field optimization algorithm is based on the DELSOL3 model developed at Sandia National Laboratory, and described in A User's Manual for DELSOL3: A Computer Code for Calculating the Optical Performance and Optimal System Design for Solar Thermal Central Receiver Plants, Kistler (1986), (SAND86-8018) http://www.prod.sandia.gov/cgi-bin/techlib/access-control.pl/1986/868018.pdf (10 MB).
Dish Stirling
A dish-Stirling system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that consists of a parabolic dish-shaped collector, receiver and Stirling engine. The collector focuses direct normal solar radiation on the receiver, which transfers heat to the engine's working fluid. The engine in turn drives an electric generator. A dish-Stirling power plant can consist of a single dish or a field of dishes. SAM's dish-Stirling performance model uses the TRNSYS implementation of the energy prediction model described in the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel. gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB). For a description of the type of system the dish-Stirling model can represent, see About SAM.
Generic Solar
The generic solar model allows you to model a system that consists of a solar field, power block with a conventional steam turbine, and optional thermal energy storage system. The model represents the solar field using a set of optical efficiency values for different sun angles and can be used for any solar technology that uses solar energy to generate steam for electric power generation.
Generic System
The generic system model is a basic representation of a conventional fossil-fuel power plant. The Generic technology option makes it possible to compare analyses of renewable energy project to a base case conventional fossil fuel plant using consistent financial assumptions. The generic system model allows you to characterize the plant's performance either using one of two options: Specify a nameplate capacity and capacity factor value: Assumes that the plant generates power at a constant rate over the year. Specify an hourly our sub-hourly generation profile: Assumes that the plant generates power according to the generation profile you specify.
Solar Water Heating

SAM's Solar Water Heating model was developed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and models residential or commercial solar water heating systems. Simple Glycol and Tank Sytem The simple model represents a two-tank glycol system with an auxiliary electric heater and storage
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tank for residential or commercial applications. The model allows you to vary the location, hot water load profiles, and characteristics of the collector, heat exchanger, and solar tanks.
Detailed System The detailed model includes options for direct, drainback, and glycol systems, and can model either an electric or gas auxiliary water heater. The financing models are not available for the detailed system model -- it does not calculate levelized cost of energy and other economic or financial metrics.
Wind
SAM's two wind models allow you to model the performance of small wind turbines for residential or commercial applications, or of large wind turbines for a utility-scale wind farm project. Small Scale Wind The small-scale wind model can model one or a few small wind turbines for residential or commercial applications. Utility Scale Wind The utility-scale wind model can model a single large wind turbine, or a wind farm of large wind turbines that sells power to the grid.
Geothermal
Geothermal Power The geothermal power plant model calculates the output of a power plant that uses heat from below the surface of the ground to drive a steam electric power generation plant. SAM analyzes the plant's performance over its lifetime, assuming that changes in the resource and electrical output occur monthly over a period of years, rather than over hours over a period of one year as in the solar and other technologies modeled by SAM. SAM can be used to answer the following kinds of questions: What is the levelized cost of a geothermal power plant, given a known configuration and resource? How does changing the design of the plant affect its output and levelized cost of energy? What plant size is required to meet an electric capacity requirement? Given a known number of wells, what would the plant's electric capacity be? SAM models the following types of systems: Hydrothermal resources, where the underground heat reservoir is sufficiently permeable and contains sufficient groundwater to make the resource useful without any enhancements. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) that pump water or steam underground to collect heat stored in rock. These systems involve drilling or fracturing the rock to improve heat transfer. Over time (typically years), as heat is collected from the rock, its the temperature decreases, and more drilling is required. SAM's recapitalization cost accounts for the cost of these improvements to reach new resources. Both flash and binary conversion plants. Geothermal Co-Production The co-production model is for relatively small commercial-scale projects that generate electricity from a geothermal resource available at the site of an oil or gas well.
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3.2
Climate
To view the Climate page, click Climate in the main window's navigation menu. The Climate page allows you to choose a weather file in TMY3, TMY2 or EPW format, download satellitederived weather data from the Internet, create your own weather file in TMY3 format, and review your weather data. Note. This topic describes the Climate page for solar power systems. For small scale wind systems see the Wind Resource page. For geothermal systems, see the geothermal Resource page.
Contents Overview of the Climate Page describes the options for choosing weather data and the variables displayed on the Climate page. Input Variable Reference describes the variables and buttons on the Climate page. Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths explains how to add your own weather files to the Location list. Copying Weather Data to a Project explains how to embed weather data in your project file for sharing with other people. Creating a Weather File from Your Own Data describes SAM's TMY3 weather file creator to use your own weather data in SAM. Using Location Lookup explains how to automatically download satellite-derived data for any location in the United States using a street address, zip code, or latitude and longitude. Downloading Weather Files from the Internet explains how to download TMY3, EPW, and satellite-derived data from the internet.
Overview
The Climate page allows you to choose the weather file that SAM uses for simulations in the current case. The Climate page displays a summary of the weather data, and also allows you to view the actual data in the time series data viewer (DView). The weather files are text files, so you can also examine the data using a text editor, a spreadsheet program, or other software.
Weather Data Guidelines

For U.S. locations, use the Best weather data for the U.S. web link on the Climate page to download a TMY3 file. If the TMY3 database does not include a file for a location at or very near your project site, try to find TMY3 files for locations near the site. You can run simulations for the different locations and compare them to get a sense of what the resource might be at the project site. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for instructions. SAM comes with the complete set of the 239 TMY2 weather files. To use a TMY2 file, simply choose it from the Location list. See instructions below.
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If no TMY3 or TMY2 data is available for your project site, you can download typical year data from NREL's Solar Prospector website using SAM's Location Lookup feature. The Solar Prospector website provides access to satellite-derived weather data for the entire U.S. at a 10-km geographic resolution in files using the TMY2 format. See Using Location Lookup for details. For locations outside of the U.S., EPW files are available for over 1000 locations in 100 countries. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for instructions. If you have weather data from a resource measurement program or from meteorological weather station, you can use SAM's TMY3 creator to create a TMY3 formatted file with the data. See Creating a Weather File from Your Own Data for details. Some companies sell weather data and weather data processing software. For example, see Weather Analytics TMY Anywhere http://weatheranalytics.com/globaltmy.html, or http://www.meteonorm.com/ pages/en/meteonorm.php.
To choose a weather data file from the Location list: 1. 2. Download the weather file from the Internet. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for details Place the file in your weather file folder. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details. Or, you can use one of the TMY2 files included with SAM. See below for a description of file formats and guidelines for specifying weather data. In the Location list, click the weather file's name.
3.
If you cannot find a file for your project site on the Internet, or have data from another source that is not in one of the file formats SAM recognizes, See Specifying Weather Data below for a list of options. Note. You can compare results for a system using more than one weather file in a single case by using SAM's parametric simulation option.
File Formats
A SAM weather file is a file that contains hourly data describing the solar resource, wind speed, temperature, and other weather characteristics at a particular location in one of three text formats: TMY3 comma-delimited text file format (.csv), http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/1991-2005/ tmy3/ TMY2 non-delimited text file format (.tm2), http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/tmy2/ EPW comma-delimited text file format (.epw), http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/ weatherdata_format_def.html The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's typical year data represents average weather data over a range of years: 1961-1990 for TMY2 data, and 1991-2005 for TMY3 data. Each typical year file may contain data from different years within the range, for example a TMY3 file might contain 1995 data for the month of February, 2001 data for March, 1998 data for April, etc. The NREL typical year data is based on analysis of weather data measured at each location and is appropriate for economic and performance predictions of a
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project over a long analysis period. The EPW data was developed for the U.S. Department of Energy's EnergyPlus building simulation model, and is a source of non-U.S. weather data for SAM. The EPW data on the EnergyPlus website is also typical year data. TMY3 files are available for 1020 U.S. locations, and are based on more recent data and better modeling techniques than the TMY2 data. However, the TMY3 data was developed using data from a shorter time period than the TMY2 data, so may be less representative of the resource over the long term. (Although the TMY2 data includes effects from the Mt Pinatubo volcanic eruption, which may distort solar energy output predictions based on the data.) If both TMY2 and TMY3 files are available for your project site, you may want to run SAM with both sets of data to compare results. SAM will read a weather file containing data from any source, as long as it is correctly formatted. You can create your own weather file with data collected from a resource measurement program, or from meteorological stations. SAM may not be able to read weather files that contain formatting errors or erroneous data elements. In some cases, you can use a text editor to compare a problematic file with one in the same format that works correctly in SAM to find problems with the file. Refer to the documentation available in the websites listed above for each file format for details.
Single Year Weather Data

Single year data represents the weather at a location for a specific year. Single year data is appropriate for analysis of a project's economics and performance in a particular year, and for analyses involving timedependent electricity pricing or electric loads for a given year. Single-year weather data can be developed from on-site measurements or from satellite-derived measurements. Single-year data for U.S. locations is available from NREL's Solar Prospector website, follow the link on the Climate page under Web Links. The Solar Prospector data is satellite-derived data formatted using the TMY2 file format, so SAM can read the data directly. NREL also publishes the specific-year data used to develop the TMY2 and TMY3 data sets on the websites listed above, but that data must be formatted to work with SAM, either using external software or SAM's TMY3 Creator feature.
Time Convention
The time convention of the weather data determines the time convention of SAM's simulations. For example, TMY2 and TMY3 data both use local standard time, and the radiation data values represent the total energy received during the 60 minutes preceding the indicated hour. The global horizontal radiation shown for hour 1 represents the total radiation incident on a horizontal surface between midnight and 1:00 am of the first hour of the year. Both data sets assume that there are 8,760 hours in one year and do not account for leap years. SAM assumes that the solar angle at the middle of the hour (at 30 minutes past the hour) applies to the entire hour.
Weather Data Elements

SAM uses the following data from the weather file: Atmospheric pressure: CSP, wind Dew point temperature: CSP Diffuse horizontal radiation: PV Direct normal radiation: PV, CSP Dry bulb temperature: All technologies Global horizontal radiation: PV, CSP Hour of the day: All technologies
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Latitude: All technologies Longitude: All technologies Percent relative humidity: CSP, wind Site elevation: All technologies Wet bulb temperature: CSP Wind direction: Wind Wind velocity: All technologies
Note. For the component-based PV model, you can specify the solar radiation elements from the weather file that SAM uses on the Array page. By default, SAM uses the global horizontal and direct normal radiation values and ignores the diffuse horizontal radiation from the weather file.
Input Variable Reference

Choose Climate/Location
Location The name of the weather file. A filename preceded by "SAM/" is a standard weather data file included with SAM and stored in the \exelib\climate_files folder. A filename preceded by "USER/" is a file in a folder that you have added to the weather file search path list. Add/Remove Add or remove a folder on your computer from the list of folders SAM searches for files with the TMY2, TMY3, or EPW file extension. SAM will list all weather files in folders that you add to the search list in the location list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details. Refresh List Refreshes the list of files in the location list. SAM automatically refreshes the list each time you visit the Climate page. If you add a weather file to one of the folders in the search list, you may need to refresh the list for the file to be visible in the location list. Copy to project Embeds the data from a weather file to the project (.zsam) file. This useful when you share your project file with another person and do not want to send the weather file separately. Embedding weather data in a project increases the size of the project file. When you copy data to a project, SAM indicates the data with "USER/" in the location list. See Copying Weather Data to a Project for details. Remove from project Remove embedded weather data. The button is only active when the active location in the location list is preceded by "USER/." Create TMY3 file Use the TMY3 Creator to convert your own weather data into the TMY3 format. See Creating a TMY3 file From Your Own Data for details. Location Lookup Type an address or coordinates for a U.S. location to download specific-year satellite-derived data from the Solar Prospector website. See Using Location Lookup for details.
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Location Information
The location information variables display data from the weather file header that describes the location. An empty variable indicates that the information does not exist in the weather file's header. The location information variables cannot be edited. City The name of the city. When you use Location Look up to download weather data, SAM displays "satellitedata" in the City field because the database does not provide a city name with the weather data. State The state abbreviation. When you use Location Look up to download weather data, SAM displays "??" in the State field because the database does not provide a state name with the weather data. Timezone The location's time zone, relative to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). A negative number indicates the number of time zones west of GMT. A positive number indicates the number of time zones east of GMT. Elevation (m) The location's elevation above sea level in meters. Latitude (degrees) The location's latitude in degrees. A positive number indicates a location north of the equator. Longitude (degrees) The location's longitude in degrees. A negative number indicates the number of degrees west of the Prime Meridian.
Weather Data Information (Annual)

SAM calculates and displays the annual totals and averages of four of the hourly data columns from the weather file in the weather data information variables. Weather data information variables cannot be edited. Direct Normal (kWh/m2) The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the direct normal radiation data in the weather file, expressed in kWh per square meter. Direct normal radiation is solar energy that reaches the ground in a straight line from the sun. To convert this number to kWh per square meter per day, divide it by 365 days/yr. Global Horizontal (kWh/m2) The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the global horizontal radiation data in the weather file, expressed in kWh per square meter. The global horizontal radiation is the total amount of direct and diffuse solar radiation incident on a horizontal surface over the period of one year. To convert this number to kWh per square meter per day, divide it by 365 days/yr. Dry-bulb Temp (C) The annual average of the ambient temperature data in the weather file in degrees Celsius.
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The annual average wind speed in meters per second. For NREL TMY2 and TMY3 data, and EPW from the EnergyPlus website, wind speed data is at 10 meters above the ground.
Wind Speed (m/s)
View hourly data Displays graphs of data from the weather file in SAM's built-in data viewer, DView. See Viewing Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.
Web Links
Links to websites with weather files on the internet. Each link opens one of three website in your computer's default web browser: Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) takes you to NREL's National Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB) page for the Typical Meteorological Year 3 data. Best weather data for international locations (in EPW format) takes you to the EnergyPlus weather file page. U.S. satellite-derived weather data (10 km grid cells in TMY2 format) takes you to NREL's Solar Power Prospector website.
Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths

SAM allows you to use weather files that you download from the Internet or generate from another source. Weather files must meet the following requirements: Be stored in a folder on your computer that you have specified in SAM as containing weather files. Be in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format. To specify a folder as containing weather files: On the Climate page, click Add/Remove. In the Library Settings window, click Add. Navigate to the folder on your computer that contains the weather file. You can add as many file search paths as you wish. 4. Click Close to return to the Climate page. SAM displays the search paths you added in the Location list. To remove a search path from the list, click Add/Remove to open the Library Settings window, select the search path and then click Remove. Note that removing a search path does not delete any weather files. The default path for the complete set of TMY2 weather files included with SAM is \exelib\climate_files in the SAM installation folder. SAM can read weather files stored in any folder on your computer. Because the default location can be difficult to find, if you plan to use weather files other than the default TMY2 files, we recommend that you create an easy-to-find folder to store your weather files. You can then add the location to the weather file search path using the instructions below, and SAM will automatically find all weather files that you add to the folder. 1. 2. 3.
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Copying Weather Data to a Project

When you want to share a SAM project with another person, and the project uses one or more weather files that the other person does not have, you can include a copy of the data from the weather files in the SAM file. Including weather data in a SAM file increases the size of the file, but also makes it more portable. For example, the size of the photovoltaic sample file with no weather files is 35 kB, with one weather file 274 kB, and with two weather files is 503 kB. To copy data from a weather file to the project file: 1. 2. On the Climate page, choose the weather file from the Location list. Click Copy to project. SAM adds the file to the location list with the "USER/" prefix, indicating that the data is included in the SAM project file. To remove a file from the list, select it, and click Remove from project.
Creating a TMY3 File from Your Own Data

If you have hourly weather data that is not in one of the three formats (TMY3, TMY2, EPW) that SAM can read, you can use the Create TMY3 File feature to create your own weather file in the TMY3 format. TMY3 files are comma-separated text files and use the csv extension, e.g., my_weather_file.csv. Note. Unless you have a complete set of weather data for your location that you can use with confidence, using your own data introduces uncertainty into your analysis, and may result in inaccurate results or simulation errors. To use the feature, you must have the following: A "base" TMY3 file, which is an existing file in TMY3 format that SAM modifies by replacing only the columns that SAM needs for simulations with your data. If you have a complete data set that includes all of the columns shown in the table below, then you can use any TMY3 file as a base file. If you do not have data for all of the categories listed in the table below, you may want to use a base file with data for the same or a nearby location with similar weather characteristics. For a link to the TMY3 website and documentation, see the link on the Climate page under Web Links. Hourly data (8,760 rows) for each of the data columns shown in the table below. If you do not have data for one or more of the columns, you can choose to not replace data for those columns, and instead use data from the base file. This will result in a data set that SAM can read but with mismatched elements that may cause inaccurate results or errors in the simulation. To create a TMY3 weather file: 1. If you do not have a TMY3 file to use as the base file, download a TMY3 file to use at the base file from the NREL TMY3 website. You can do so by clicking the appropriate link on the Climate page under Web Links. Open the file or files containing your weather in a text editor, spreadsheet program, or any software that allows you to copy columns of 8,760 rows to your computer's clipboard. On the Climate page, click Create TMY3 file. In the TMY3 Creator window, click Open base TMY3 file, and navigate to the folder containing the base file. Type values in the header fields as appropriate, using the table below for reference.
2. 3. 4. 5.
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In your weather data file, copy the column of global horizontal radiation data. Be sure to copy all 8,760 rows of data, but do not include the row header. The column should contain 8,760 rows of numbers. In the TMY3 Creator window, click the GHI (W/m^w) column heading. SAM should highlight the entire column in dark gray. Click Paste. Repeat the copy and paste procedure for each column until you have pasted all of your data into the table. Click Save as new TMY3 file. Save the file in a folder that you have included in the weather file search list (see Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths). Click Close to return to the Climate page. Click Refresh list. SAM may take a moment or two to refresh the location list. In the Location list, select the new TMY3 file. You should find it toward the end of the list. Click View Hourly Data to open the DView data viewer and visually inspect the data. See Viewing Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
After creating and loading your weather file, run some test simulations and examine the hourly results in the tabular data browser or DView to see if there are any problems with the data.
Header Data
Site Identifier Code A number identifying the location. This element is not required. Station Name A text description identifying the location. This element is not required. Station State A two-letter text abbreviation for the location's state. This element is not required. Site Time Zone (GMT) The location's time zone offset from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) with no daylight savings adjustment. A positive value indicates a time zone east of the Prime Meridian. Decimals indicate fractions of hours. A negative value indicates a time zone west of the prime meridian. For example, Chicago is -6; India is 5.5. Latitude Location's latitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 90 indicates a latitude north of the equator. A negative value between 0 and -90 indicates a latitude south of the equator. For example, Durban (South Africa) is -29.97; New York City is 40.71. Longitude Location's longitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 180 indicates a longitude east of the Prime Meridian. A negative value between zero and -180 indicates a longitude west of the Prime Meridian. For example, Durban (South Africa) is 30.95; New York City is -74.01. Elevation Location's height above sea level in meters.
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Climate
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Hourly Data
GHI (W/m^2) Global horizontal irradiance: Total amount of direct and diffuse solar radiation received on a horizontal surface for the hour in Watt-hours per square meter. DNI (W/m^2) Direct normal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour within a limited field of view centered on the sun in Watt-hours per square meter. DHI (W/m^2) Diffuse horizontal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour from the sky, excluding the solar disk on a horizontal surface in Watt-hours per square meter. Dry-bulb (C) Average dry bulb temperature for the hour in degrees Celsius.. Dew-point (C) Average dew point temperature for the hour in degrees Celsius. RHum (%) Average relative humidity for the hour. Pressure (mbar) Station pressure or measured atmospheric pressure in millibars corrected for temperature and humidity for the hour. Wspd (m/s) Average speed of the wind for the hour in meters per second. Albedo Ratio of reflected solar radiation to global horizontal radiation. Use -99 for null.
Using Location Lookup

SAM's Location Lookup feature allows you to type an address, zip code, or latitude and longitude to download a typical year data weather file for any location in the United States. Location Lookup uses the Google Maps API Geocoding Service service to identify the geographic coordinates of a location, and downloads data from NREL's Solar Power Prospector database. To use the Location Lookup feature, your computer must be connected to the Internet.
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Notes. When you download weather data with Location Lookup, SAM displays "satellitedata" for the city and "??" for the state because the Solar Prospector database does not include city and state names. Location Lookup downloads typical year data, representing the typical solar resource over the period 1998-2005. To download specific-year data within that range, visit the Solar Power Prospector site at http://maps.nrel.gov/prospector. For information about downloading TMY3 and EPW files from the internet, see Downloading Weather Files from the Internet. To download data from Solar Power Prospector: On the Climate page, click Location Lookup. Type a street address zip code, or latitude and longitude. Any of the following will return results for the same location: 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden CO 80401 39 44 N 105 09 W 39.75 -105.15 SAM searches the Solar Power Prospector database for a weather file and download it to the weather file folder specified on the Preferences page. To change the default weather file folder for downloaded files: 1. 2. On the File menu, Click Preferences. Under Folder for automatically downloaded weather files, type a path name or click to navigate to the folder. Note that the folder for automatically downloaded weather files is different from the weather file search path. On the Climate page click Add/Remove. In the Library Settings window, click Add to add the folder to the weather file search path list. Click Close to return to the Climate page. 1. 2.
3. 4. 5.
Sources of Weather Data on the Internet

The three links on the Climate page under Web Links to open websites where you can download and find more information about weather data in TMY3, TMY2, and EPW formats. Note. If you cannot find weather data for your location on one of those websites, you may want to try using data from either of the following companies, who provide data and software for a fee: Weather Analytics (TMY Anywhere) at http://weatheranalytics.com/globaltmy.html, or Meteonorm at http://www. meteonorm.com.
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Climate
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NSRDB Typical Meteorological Year 3 (TMY3) data: Best data for U.S. Locations
The NSRDB maintains two sets of TMY data. The TMY2 data represent data from 1961 to 1990. The complete TMY2 data is included with SAM: To use TMY2 data, you simply select a location from the list on the Climate page. The updated TMY3 data set is based on data from 1991 to 2005. To use TMY3 data in SAM, you must download the data from the NSRDB website. For information about the TMY3 data, see: http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/1991-2005/tmy3/ To download a TMY3 file: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Click the Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) link to open the NSRDB TMY3 database page. On the NSRDB website, click the In alphabetical order by state and city link. Scroll to the state and city at or nearest your location. Click the identification code link for the location to download the TMY3 file. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions. In SAM, on the Climate page, click Refresh. The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.
EnergyPlus Weather (EPW) files: Data for locations outside the United States
You can download weather data in EPW format for locations around the world at no cost from the EnergyPlus weather data website at the following website: http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data.cfm. For information about the EPW weather files, see the following websites: For a description of the file format: weatherdata_format.cfm For a description of data sources: weatherdata_sources.cfm To download an EPW file: Click Best weather for international locations (in EPW format) and navigate to the region and location you want to model. 2. Download the EPW file for the location you are modeling. If there is not an EPW file for the location, download the ZIP file and extract the EPW file. 3. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions. 4. In SAM, on the Climate page, click Refresh. The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list. For some regions, you can download an EPW file directly for a location. For example, for Bangladesh, you can download the data for Dhaka by right-clicking the blue square next to the word EPW for Dhaka. Be sure to save the file with the .epw extension. 1. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/ http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/
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For other regions, you must first download a zip file containing the EPW file and then extract the EPW file. For example, for Malaysia, you can download the data for Kuala Lumpur by right-clicking the red square next to the word ZIP for Kuala Lumpur. After downloading the zip file, you can extract the EPW file.
Satellite-derived (NREL Solar Prospector) Weather Data: Data for locations in the continental United States
The NREL Solar Prospector website provides access to satellite-derived files in TMY2 format for specific years between 1998 and 2005, and in typical year data for locations in the U.S. at a geographical resolution of 10 km. For information about the Solar Power Prospector website, see: http://maps.nrel.gov/node/10/ For a description of the data used for the Solar Prospector website, see: http://www.asrc.cestm.albany.edu/perez/publications/Solar%20Resource%20Assessment%20and% 20Modeling/Papers%20on%20Resource%20Assessment%20and%20Satellites/A%20New% 20Operational%20Satellite%20irradiance%20model-02.pdf Although the files you download from the Solar Power Prospector website are in TMY2 format, you can download files containing either specific year data or typical year data from the website. The easiest way to use typical year data from Solar Power Prospector in SAM is to use Location Lookup. To download single year data, you can use the Solar Prospector map at http://maps.nrel.gov/prospector. To download data from the NREL Solar Prospector Website: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Visit the Solar Prospector website at http://maps.nrel.gov/prospector. Use the map to find your location. Click Download in the toolbar above the map. Choose a year for specific year data, or "TDY" for typical year data. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions. In SAM, on the Climate page, click Refresh. The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.
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Photovoltaic Systems
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3.3
3.3.1
Getting Started with PV
SAM models grid-connected photovoltaic systems that consist of a photovoltaic array and inverter. The array can be made up of flat-plate or concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules with one-axis, two-axis, or no tracking. The procedure below describes the basic steps to get started modeling a project based on photovoltaic technology. For general getting started topics, see Getting Started. For more detailed information about the photovoltaic model input pages, see the following topics: PV System Costs Array PVWatts Solar Array Shading Module Inverter For photovoltaic systems with residential or commercial financing, SAM also makes the Electric Load page available. You only need to specify load data if you model a project with a utility rate structure that includes different buy and sell rates for energy charges, demand charges, or tiered rates. For systems with Utility Market financing, SAM makes the Energy Payment Dispatch page available. You only need to use this page for for projects that specify a power purchase price using a set of payment allocation factors. The User Variables page is for analyses involving Excel Exchange or custom TRNSYS decks.
A. Choose a photovoltaic model

When you create a new file or case, SAM offers two options for modeling PV systems: Component-based Models models and PVWatts System Model.
Component-based Models The Component-based Models option represents the performance of a photovoltaic system using separate models to represent the performance of the module and inverter. You specify the module and
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inverter characteristics, array layout, derating factors, and optional shading, temperature correction, and backtracking parameters. Component-based Models calculates and reports detailed results, including the array's DC output, system's AC output, cell temperature, and the hourly efficiency of the array and inverters. Use the Component-based models to model crystalline or thin-film modules, and for arrays with open rack, flush, gap, or building-integrated mounting. The SAM Performance Models option allows you to choose between the Sandia, CEC, and single-point efficiency models for photovoltaic modules, and between the Sandia and single-point efficiency models for inverters.
PVWatts System Model The PVWatts System Model represents the entire photovoltaic system using a single derate factor and accounts for the effects of temperature on the system's performance. The PVWatts model is appropriate for modeling rack-mounted systems with crystalline silicon modules. The PVWatts model calculates and reports the array DC output, system AC output (based on a fixed derate factor), and cell temperature. The following table summarizes the two options: Component-based Models Array output (DC) Inverter output (AC) Temperature effects Array shading Row-to-row shading Backtracking Mounting options Tracking options PVWatts System Model
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B. Choose a financing option
Note. SAM does not impose a size limit based on the financing option you choose. You can use any financing option with any size of system. For a project on the customer side of a utility meter that buys and sells power at retail rates, choose either Residential or Commercial financing: Commercial allows you to model depreciation as a tax deduction (MACRS or custom). Residential allows you to choose between a standard loan in which interest payments are not tax deductible, and mortgage, in which interest payments are tax deductible. For a power generation project that sells electricity at a negotiated price, choose either Commercial PPA or one of the Utility Market options: Commercial PPA calculates a power purchase price (PPA price) based on a target internal rate of return (IRR) that you specify. You can either specify a debt fraction and annual PPA price escalation rate, or allow SAM to find optimal values. The Utility Market Options allow you to either specify a target IRR (SAM calculates a PPA price), or specify a PPA price (SAM calculates the IRR). The Independent Power Producer option is similar to Commercial PPA, but allows you to add constraints for minimium debt-service coverage ratio (DSCR) and positive cash flow. The other Utility Market options allow you to model projects with a single owner, or with two parties with different structures for sharing project costs and revenues. Note. The Commercial PPA and Utility Indepdendent Power Producer financing options are legacy options to allow you to model projects consistently with older versions of SAM. The parnership flip, sale leaseback, and single owner options are more representative of actual financing structures for renewable energy projects. See Financing Options for details.
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C. On the Climate page, choose a weather file to represent the solar resource at the project location.
SAM offers four weather data options. You can: Choose a location from the list at or near your project site. SAM will simulate the system using a file from NREL's TMY2 database. Use Location Lookup to download data for your site from the online database. SAM will simulate the system using a file from NREL's database of satellite-derived solar resource data. Download a file from NREL's TMY3 database. Create a weather file in TMY3 format with your own data For preliminary analyses in the United States either use a TMY2 file if there is a file in the database with similar weather to the project site, or use Location Lookup to find satellite-derived data for the site location. For more robust analysis, download TMY3 data, or use your own data. You may also want to analyze your project using weather data from different sources to develop an understanding of how uncertainty in the weather data affects the metrics of interest for your project. See Climate for details.
D. For Component-based models:

1. On the Array page, specify the system's size and tracking options. Enter the system's DC nameplate capacity for Desired Array Size. After you choose modules and inverters, SAM will display the number of modules and inverters required for the system size you specified under Actual Layout. Under Tracking and Orientation, choose a tracking option and specify the array tilt angle. On the Inverter page, choose an inverter. On the Module page, choose a model option and module.
2. 3. 4.
For the PVWatts System model

1. 2. On the PVWatts Solar Array page, enter the system's DC nameplate capacity for Nameplate Capacity. Choose a tracking option and specify the tilt angle.
E. On the PV System Costs page, specify the project costs.

The capital costs (direct and indirect) are construction and installation costs that SAM applies to year zero of the cash flow. The operation and maintenance costs apply in years one and later of the cash flow. See PV System Costs for details.
F. Run a simulation and review results.
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See Results Page for details.
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3.3.2
Array
The Array page displays variables and options that specify the number of modules and inverters in the system, derate factors, array tracking and orientation, and allows you to choose from several radiation model options. SAM uses the array properties to calculate the array's DC output and the system's AC output. To view the Array page, click Array on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Array page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics - SAM Performance Models.
Contents Overview explains how to specify the photovoltaic array. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Array page. Specifying the Array Size describes how to choose values for the Modules per String, Strings in Parallel and Number of Inverters variables to avoid mismatching the array and inverter. About Array Sizing Error Messages describes the pre- and post-simulation error checking and warning messages. Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation describes the four tracking options and array angles. About Derate Factors describes how SAM uses the derate factors in calculations, and provides guidelines for choosing appropriate values.
Overview
The Array page is where you build the photovoltaic system from the module and inverter you specify on the Module page and Inverter page. SAM provides two options for sizing the array: You can specify the system's rated DC capacity and let SAM calculate an appropriate number of modules and inverters for you, or you can specify the values yourself. See Specifying the Array Size for details. Note. Before specifying parameters on the Array page, you should specify the module characteristics on the Module page, and the inverter characteristics on the Inverter page. The Tracking and Orientation options are where you specify whether modules in the array move to track the motion of the sun across the sky, and at what angle from the horizontal modules are mounted in the array. See Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation for details. The Land Area variables are for reference only and do not affect results. You can ignore the Packing Factor variable unless you are interested in knowing how much land your array requires. See Input Variable
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Reference for a description of the two Land Area variables. The Radiation Model and Tilt Radiation Type options allow you to choose how SAM calculates the solar radiation incident on the array from the data in the weather file. For most analyses, you can use the default values of Total and Beam and Perez Model 1990. For a description of the different options, see Input Variable Reference. SAM uses the derate factors to adjust the DC electric input to the inverter model, and the inverter model's AC electric output to account for losses in the system that the module and inverter models do not account for. For example, the module and inverter models do not account for losses in the DC and AC wiring that connects modules in the array, and that connects the inverter output to the grid and any external power conditioning equipment. See About Derate Factors for details.

Layout
Array Sizing The array sizing variables determine the number of modules in the array. SAM uses the module numbers under Actual Layout, which may be different from values that you type. Mode The two layout modes allow you to choose from either specifying an array size in DC kilowatts so that SAM calculates the number modules and inverters in the system, or specifying those values yourself. See Specifying the Array Size for details. Desired Array Size When the mode is Specify desired array size, type the array DC rated capacity in kilowatts. The array's DC rating should be based on the same reference conditions used to specify the module power rating on the Module page. The desired array size variable is inactive when the mode is Specify number of modules and inverters. In that case, you must type values for the number of modules per string, strings in parallel, and inverters. Modules per String Modules per string is the number of modules connected in series in a single string. SAM assumes that all strings in the array have the same number of modules connected in series. The number of modules per string determines the array's open circuit voltage (Voc). For most analyses, you should ensure that the array Voc is less than the inverter's maximum input voltage, shown as MPPT_hi on the Inverter page. If the inverter does not have a value for MPPT_hi, you can find the value on inverter manufacturer's specification sheet, which you may be able to find on the manufacturer or equipment supplier website. See Specifying the Array Size for more information. Note. If you are using a module from the Sandia database on the Module page with the word "array" in its name, the module represents an array, so the Modules per String variable represents the number of arrays in the system rather than number of modules. The modules per string variable is inactive when the layout mode is Specify desired array size. In that case, SAM uses the value shown in the Actual Layout column. If you want to change the value, change the mode to Specify numbers of modules and inverters and type a value for the number of
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modules in each string. Strings in Parallel
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Strings in parallel is the number of strings of modules connected in parallel to form the array. A string of modules is a number of modules connected in series. Once you specify the number of modules per string to determine the array's open circuit voltage, the number of strings in parallel determines the array's rated DC power. SAM displays a warning message if the array's rated DC power is either greater than the total inverter capacity, or less than about 75% of the system's total inverter capacity. You can run simulations with values that fall outside of these guidelines; the warning message is intended to help you ensure that the array and inverter sizes are matched. See Specifying the Array Size for more information. The strings in parallel variable is inactive when the layout mode is Specify desired array size. In that case, SAM uses the value shown in the Actual Layout column. If you want to change the value, change the mode to Specify numbers of modules and inverters and type a value for the number of parallel strings in the array. Number of Inverters Number of inverters is the total number of inverters in the system and determines the total inverter capacity. The number of inverters variable is inactive when the layout mode is Specify desired array size. In that case, SAM uses the value shown in the Actual Layout column. If you want to change the value, change the mode to Specify numbers of modules and inverters and type a value for the number of inverters in the system. Note. If you are modeling a system with microinverters, see Modeling Microinverters for instructions. Actual Layout These calculated values are the values that SAM uses for simulations. The variables listed below the Array Sizing group are calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for reference. Total Modules The number of modules in the array: Total Modules = Modules per String Strings in Parallel The numbers of modules and strings are the values listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing. Total Area, m2 The array's total area in square meters, not including space between modules: Total Area = Module Area Total Modules The module area is shown on the Module page. The number of modules is the value listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing. Nameplate Capacity (at reference conditions), Wdc The maximum DC power output of the array at the reference conditions shown on the Module page: Nameplate Capacity = Module Maximum Power Total Modules The module's maximum power rating is from the Module page. The number of modules is the value listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing.
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The open circuit DC voltage of each string of modules: Voc = Module Open Circuit Voltage Modules per String The module open circuit voltage and reference conditions are from the Module page. The number of modules per string is the value listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing. For the Sandia and CEC model, the open circuit voltage is assumed to be for 1,000 W/m2 incident radiation and 25 C cell temperature. For the simple efficiency model, SAM displays a zero because the model does not include voltage ratings.
Voc (String, at 1000 W/m2 Tc=25'C), Vdc
Vmp (String, at reference conditions), Vdc The maximum power point DC voltage of each string of modules: Vmp = Module Max Power Voltage Modules per String The module's maximum power point voltage is at reference conditions as specified on the Module page. The number of modules per string is the value listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing. SAM displays a maximum power point voltage of zero for the simple efficiency module performance model because the model does not include voltage ratings. Vdco (dc-inverter), Vdc The inverter's rated input DC voltage displayed from the Inverter page. SAM assumes that inverters are connected in parallel so that the rated voltages of the inverter bank are the same as those of a single inverter. SAM displays an inverter voltage of zero for the single-point efficiency inverter performance model because the model does not include voltage ratings. Total Inverter Capacity, kWac The total inverter capacity in AC kilowatts: Total Inverter Capacity = Inverter Power ACo Number of Inverters The inverter's nominal AC power rating is from the Inverter page. The number of inverters is the value listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing.
Tracking and Orientation

The tracking and orientation options determine whether the system is modeled with a tracking system that allows modules in the array to follow the sun's movement across the sky. See Choosing a Tracking Option for details. Notes. The tracking and orientation options apply to all modules in the array. To model a system that consists of sub-arrays with different tracking and orientations, use the Multiple Systems option. This option does not allow you to model sub-arrays connected to a single inverter. The current version of SAM does not allow you to limit the tracking angle. SAM assumes that trackers can follow the full movement of the sun from sunrise to sunset. Fixed The array is fixed at the tilt and azimuth angles defined by the values of Tilt and Azimuth and does not
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follow the sun's movement. 1 Axis
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The array is fixed at the angle from the horizontal defined by the value of Tilt and rotates about the tilted axis from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the sky. Azimuth determines the array's orientation with respect to a line perpendicular to the equator. 2 Axis The array rotates from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the sky, and north-south to track the sun's seasonal movement throughout the year. Azimuth Axis The array rotates in a horizontal plane to track the daily movement of the sun. Force Tilt = Latitude Assigns the array tilt value with the latitude value stored in the weather file and displayed on the Climate page. Note that SAM does not display the tilt value on the Array page, but does use the correct value during simulations. Tilt (degrees) Applies only to fixed arrays and arrays with one-axis tracking. The array's tilt angle in degrees from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal, and 90 degrees is vertical. As a rule of thumb, system designers often use the location's latitude (shown on the Climate page) as the optimal array tilt angle. The actual tilt angle will vary based on project requirements. Azimuth (degrees) Applies only to fixed arrays with no tracking. The array's east-west orientation in degrees. An azimuth value of zero is facing the equator in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Positive 90 degrees is facing due west and negative 90 degrees is facing due east in both hemispheres. As a rule of thumb, system designers often use an array azimuth of zero, or facing the equator. Max/Min Rotation The maximum and minimum allowable rotation angle for one-axis tracking. The default value of 360 degrees allows the tracker to follow the full movement of the sun from horizon to horizon. Max/Min Tilt The maximum and minimum allowable tilt angle for two-axis tracking. The default value of 360 degrees allows the tracker to follow the full movement of the sun from horizon to zenith. Max/Min Azimuth The maximum and minimum allowable azimuth angle for two-axis tracking. The default value of 360 degrees allows the tracker to follow the full movement of the sun.
System Derates
SAM uses the derate factors to adjust the array's hourly DC output value before passing it to the inverter model, and to adjust the inverter model's AC electric output to calculate the system's AC output. The derate factors account for losses in the system that the module and inverter models do not account for, such as losses in the DC wiring that connects modules in the array, and AC wiring that connects the inverter to the grid and any external power conditioning equipment. SAM only uses the total pre-inverter derate factor and the total post-inverter derate factor in calculations. The derate factor categories (mismatch, diodes and connections, AC wiring, etc) are to help you keep track
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of factors influencing the total derate factor. Each total derate factor is the product of the DC or AC derate categories, as appropriate. See About Derate Factors for details. You can see the effect of the derate factors in the hourly results (and in the monthly and annual averages) in the tabular data browser on the Results page: The derated DC output is the product of the gross DC output and the pre-inverter derate factor, and the derated AC output is the product of the gross AC output and the post-inverter derate factor. Note. SAM applies additional factors to the derated AC output to calculate the system's net annual output based on the values you specify on the Annual Performance page. Total Pre-Inverter Derate The total pre-inverter derate factor is the product of the six DC derate factors. In the hourly simulation, SAM calculates the DC power at the inverter's input for each hour by multiplying the array's DC output by the total pre-inverter derate factor. A derate factor of 100% is equivalent to no derating. A derate factor of 75% would reduce the calculated array DC output by 25%. Total Post-Inverter Derate The total pre-inverter derate factor is the product of the two AC derate factors. In the hourly simulation, SAM calculates the derated AC power at the inverter's output for each hour by multiplying the inverter's AC output by the total post-inverter derate factor. A derate factor of 100% is equivalent to no derating. A derate factor of 75% would reduce the calculated inverter AC output by 25%. Total Derate Factor The product of the pre- and post-inverter derate factors. This value is useful for comparing to handcalculated performance estimates, but SAM does not use the value in calculations.
Radiation Model
Note. The radiation model and tilt radiation type options are for advanced users. Use the default Total and Beam and Perez Model 1990 options unless you have a reason to change them. The radiation model options determine how SAM uses the global horizontal radiation, direct normal radiation, and diffuse horizontal radiation data in the weather file in radiation calculations. Beam and Diffuse SAM reads the direct normal radiation (beam) and diffuse horizontal radiation data, and to ignore the global horizontal radiation data from the weather file. SAM calculates the global incident radiation. Total and Beam This is the default option, and is best for most analyses. SAM reads the global horizontal radiation (total) and direct normal radiation (beam) data, and to ignore the diffuse horizontal radiation from the weather file. SAM calculates the diffuse incident radiation. Total and Diffuse SAM reads the global horizontal radiation (total) and diffuse horizontal radiation, and ignores the direct normal radiation from the weather file. SAM calculates the direct incident radiation.
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Tilt Radiation Type

Note. The radiation model and tilt radiation type options are for advanced users. Use the default Total and Beam and Perez Model options unless you have a reason to change them. SAM allows you to choose the method it uses to convert global horizontal solar radiation data to global solar radiation incident on the array. Each method uses information about the global horizontal solar radiation and either the direct normal or diffuse solar radiation, and about the sun's position and orientation of the array. The four methods differ in how they estimate the diffuse radiation incident on the array. The isotropic sky model tends to under-predict the global radiation on a tilted surface, and is included as an option for analysis wanting to compare SAM results with those from other models using this approach. The remaining three methods provide comparable estimates of the incident global radiation. For references describing the different radiation models, see References, Weather Data. Isotropic Sky Model Assumes that diffuse radiation is uniformly distributed across the sky, called isotropic diffuse radiation. Hay and Davies Model Accounts for the increased intensity of diffuse radiation in the area around the sun, called circumsolar diffuse radiation, in addition to isotropic diffuse radiation. Reindl Model Accounts for the effect of horizon brightening, in addition to circumsolar diffuse radiation. Perez Model 1988 and 1990 The Perez 1990 method is the default value and is best for most analysis. Accounts for horizon brightening, circumsolar and isotropic diffuse radiation using a more complex computational method than the Reindl and Hay and Davies methods. The 1990 method is an updated version of the 1988 method.
Land Area
Note. The land area variables are for reference only and do not affect results. You can ignore the packing factor variable unless you are interested in knowing how much land your array requires. SAM does not use the land area variable to account for land costs. You must specify any land costs explicitly on the PV System Costs page. Packing Factor The packing factor is a multiplier that makes it possible to estimate the land area required by a project based on the array's total area. SAM multiplies the array area (Total Area) by the packing factor to calculate the total land area. Note that the array area is simply the module area multiplied by the number of modules in the array: Use the packing factor to account for spacing between modules in the array, and for the module tilt angle. Total Land Area The total land area is an estimate of the land area required by the PV system: Total Land Area = Module Area from Module page Total Modules on the Array page Packing Factor.
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Ground Reflectance
Ground Reflectance The ground reflectance value for hours when the weather data indicate that there is no snow on the ground. A value of zero means that the ground is completely non-reflective, and a value of 1 means that it is completely reflective. A typical value for grassy ground is 0.2. Ground Reflectance with Snow The ground reflectance value for hours when the weather data indicate that there is snow on the ground. A value of zero means that the ground is completely non-reflective, and a value of 1 means that it is completely reflective. A typical value for snowy ground is 0.6.
Backtracking
The backtracking options allow you to specify parameters for an array consisting of multiple rows of modules wth one-, two-, or azimuth-axis trackers programmed to adjust the tracker angle to minimize selfshading. See Backtracking Overview for a general description. Note. SAM's backtracking and self-shading models are independent. If you run simulations with both models, SAM will calculate self-shading losses even with backtracking. Subarrays per Row Number of subarrays in one row of the total array layout. An array is normally made up of many rows, and each row may have multiple sections. The number of sections in each row is represented by this number. For a two-axis tracking situation, this number specifies the number of 2 axis tracking units in the vertical (North-South) direction. Number of Rows The number of rows in the total array layout. A row is considered to run North-South, so the number of rows represents an East-West dimension. For a one axis tracking system, this is the number of module rows that track together. For a two axis tracking system, this is the number of tracking units in the horizontal (East-West) direction. Subarray Spacing The physical distance between the centers of the subarrays in the vertical (North-South) direction in meters. SAM only allows for fixed spacing on a grid-type layout. Row Spacing The physical distance between the row centers in the horizontal (East-West) direction, in meters. SAM only allows for fixed spacing on a grid-type layout. Row Offset The subarrays in each row can be horizontally offset by this amount, specified in meters. An offset of zero will result in a rectangular grid of subarrays. Offset Type The row offset (above) can be applied to each row (resulting in a parallelogram-like subarray layout, or to every other row, resulting in a staggered layout. Row Orientation The overall array rotation (from a birds-eye view), specified in degrees.
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Subarray Length
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The vertical (North-South) dimension of a subarray. This dimension is parallel to the primary axis of rotation, hence N-S for a one axis tracking system. Subarray Width The horizontal (East-West) dimension of a subarray. This dimension is perpendicular to the primary axis of rotation, hence E-W for a one axis tracking system.
Specifying the Array Size

The three array sizing variables, Modules per String, Strings in Parallel, and Number of Inverters determine the system's rated capacity in kilowatts. SAM considers the array's rated capacity in DC kilowatts to be the system's rated capacity for capacity-related calculations. SAM uses the following sizing rules when possible (see below for details): Voc < Vdcmax: The array's maximum rated open circuit DC voltage (Voc) is less than the inverter's maximum rated DC voltage (Vdcmax). MPPT_low < Vmp < MPPT_hi: The array's rated maximum power point DC voltage (Vmp) is less than the inverter's maximum operating DC voltage (MPPT_hi), but greater than the inverter's minimum operating DC voltage (MPPT_low). Total Inverter Capacity ~ Array Power: The inverter and array capacities are matched to avoid situations where either the array generates more power than the inverter can handle, or the inverter is oversized. SAM provides two modes for specifying the array size: Specify desired array size: SAM's array sizing calculator allows you to specify the array's DC capacity in kilowatts, and SAM automatically calculates the number of modules per string and strings in parallel in the array, and the number of inverters. The Modules per String, Strings in Parallel, and Number of Inverters variables are inactive. Use this option unless you have a reason to specify the numbers of modules and inverters by hand. Specify numbers of modules and inverters: You specify the values of Modules per String, Strings in Parallel, and Number of Inverters by hand. The Desired Array Size variable is inactive. Specify a desired array capacity (array sizing calculator): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Choose an inverter for the system on the Inverter page. Choose a module on the Module page. On the Array page, for Mode, choose Specify desired array size for Mode. Type a DC capacity value in kilowatts for the array in Desired Array Size. SAM disables the three array sizing variables because it will calculate those values automatically. Press the Enter key. SAM calculates values for Modules per String, Strings in Parallel, and Number of Inverters, and displays them in the Actual Layout column. Verify that Array Power is acceptably close to the desired array capacity value you specified. SAM will never choose array sizing values that result in an array capacity greater than the desired array capacity value. In some cases, if the array power value is significantly less than the desired value, you may want to change the values by hand to specify an array capacity slightly greater than the desired value. See below for instructions on specifying the array size by hand. Specify the tracking and orientation and system derate factors as appropriate. See Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation for details.
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When you run simulations, SAM will check the system sizing variables and display a message if there appear to problems. See About Array Sizing Error Messages for details.
Notes for Array Sizing Calculator. For some of the inverters in the Sandia inverter database, the Vdcmax, MPPT_low, and MPPT_hi values are not included in the database, and SAM displays zeros for those variables on the Inverter page. For those inverters, there is insufficient information for SAM to determine whether the array rated voltages are within the acceptable ranges for the inverter. To properly size the array, you must refer to the inverter manufacturer specifications outside of SAM, and manually size the array by choosing the Specify numbers of modules and inverters mode. Similarly, the single-point efficiency inverter model, simple efficiency module model, and concentrating photovoltaic model, do not include information about rated voltage levels, so there is insufficient information for SAM to determine whether the array rated voltages are within the acceptable ranges for the inverter. SAM assigns 1 to Module per String, and chooses a number of inverters and strings in parallel that results in matching array and inverter capacities. This approach is suitable for basic analyses that do not involve the shading model. Specify numbers of modules and inverters by hand: 1. 2. 3. 4. Choose an inverter for the system on the Inverter page. Choose a module on the Module page. On the Array page, for Mode, choose Specify numbers of modules and inverters. Type a number of inverters that results in a total inverter DC capacity close to the system's DC capacity. SAM displays the total inverter AC capacity on the Array page. To see the rated DC capacity of a single inverter, see the Inverter page: Power DCo for the Sandia model or Power (DC) for the single-point efficiency model. The total inverter rated DC capacity is the product of the inverter's DC capacity from the Inverter page and the number of inverters from the Array page. Type a number of modules per string that results in an array maximum power rated DC voltage (Vmp) less than the inverter's maximum operating DC voltage level (MPPT_hi) shown on the Inverter page, but greater than the inverter's minimum operating DC voltage level (MPPT_low) so that MPPT_low < Vmp < MPPT_hi. If the array open circuit rated DC voltage (Voc) on the Array page is greater than the inverter's maximum rated DC voltage (Vdcmax) from the Inverter page, reduce the number of modules per string so that Voc < Vdcmax. Type a number of strings in parallel that results in a total array DC power value close to the system's rated DC capacity. Specify the tracking and orientation and system derate factors as appropriate. See Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation for details. When you run simulations, SAM will check the system sizing variables and display a message if there appear to problems with the sizes you specified. See About Array Sizing Error Messages for details.
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Notes for Specifying Array Size by Hand.
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For some of the inverters in the Sandia inverter database, the Vdcmax, MPPT_low, and MPPT_hi values are not included in the database, and SAM displays zeros for those variables on the Inverter page. For those inverters, there is insufficient information for you to determine whether the array rated voltages are within the acceptable ranges for the inverter. To properly size the array, you must refer to the inverter manufacturer specifications outside of SAM to find the voltage ratings. Similarly, the single-point efficiency inverter model, simple efficiency module model, and concentrating photovoltaic model, do not include information about rated voltage levels, so there is insufficient information for you to determine whether the array rated voltages are within the acceptable ranges for the inverter. In that case, you can only ensure that the array and inverter rated capacities are matched.
About Array Sizing Error Messages

Pre-simulation Size Checking and Error Messages
When you run simulations, before starting the simulations, SAM does a series of checks to make sure that the array sizing variable values meet a set of rules based on the module and inverter ratings. If it finds any problems with the array sizing variables, it displays a warning message. You can either go back to the Array page and change values of the array sizing variables, or ignore the warnings and continue with the simulations. If you chose either the the Sandia or CEC model option on the Module page, SAM checks for the following before starting simulations: Voc < Vdcmax: Array open circuit voltage (Voc String) is less than the inverter maximum rated DC voltage (Vdcmax on the Inverter page). Vmp > MPPT_low: Array rated voltage at maximum power (Vmp String) is greater than the inverter minimum rated operating DC voltage (MPPT_low on the Inverter page). Vmp < MPPT_hi: Array rated voltage at maximum power (Vmp String) is less than the inverter maximum rated operating DC voltage (MPPT_hi on the Inverter page). Array Power ~ Desired Array Size: Array rated capacity (Array Power) in DC kilowatts is as close as possible to the desired array capacity in DC kilowatts. (The actual array capacity must be an integer multiple of the module's rated power (Pmp on the Module page.) The sizing calculator will not allow the array capacity to be greater than the desired array capacity. Total Inverter Capacity ~ Array Power: Inverter rated capacity (Total Inverter Capacity) in AC kilowatts is as close as possible to the array capacity in DC kilowatts (Array Power). Note. For some of the inverters in the Sandia inverter database, the Vdcmax, MPPT_low, and MPPT_hi values are not included in the database, and SAM displays zeros for those variables on the Inverter page . For those inverters, SAM cannot ensure that the array's rated voltages are within the acceptable ranges for the inverter. To properly size the array, you must refer to the inverter manufacturer specifications, and manually size the array by choosing the Specify numbers of modules and inverters mode. If you chose the simple efficiency model or concentrating photovoltaics model on the Module page, SAM does not have enough information to determine the array's open circuit and maximum power DC voltage levels, so it only performs last two checks listed above to ensure that the array and inverter rated capacities
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are as close as possible.
Post-simulation Size Checking and Error Messages

After completing simulations, SAM does another series of checks to see whether the inverter is over- or under-sized based on the actual output of the array. If it finds any problems, SAM displays the Show Simulation Warnings button in the notification area at the top right corner of the main window. Click the button to display the warning message. Post-simulation checks include: Array output greater than inverter rated capacity: SAM counts the number of hours that the array's simulated DC output is greater than the inverter's AC rated capacity, and displays a simulation warning if the number of hours is greater than zero. Inverter output less than 75 percent of inverter rated capacity: SAM also compares the inverter's maximum AC output to the total inverter AC capacity and displays a simulation warning if the inverter's maximum AC output is less than 75% of the total inverter rated AC capacity.
Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation

The tracking options allow you to choose from one of four options for specifying whether and how modules on the array follow the movement of the sun across the sky. Fixed: The array is fixed at the tilt and azimuth angles defined by the values of Tilt and Azimuth and does not follow the sun's movement. 1 Axis: The array is fixed at the angle from the horizontal defined by the value of Tilt and rotates about the tilted axis from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the sky. Azimuth determines the array's orientation with respect to a line perpendicular to the equator. 2 Axis: The array rotates from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the sky, and north-south to track the sun's seasonal movement throughout the year. Azimuth Axis: The array rotates in a horizontal plane to track the daily movement of the sun. Note. SAM does not adjust installation or operating costs on the System Costs page based on the tracking options you specify. Be sure to use appropriate costs for the type of tracking system you specify. To specify array tracking and orientation: 1. Choose a tracking option: Fixed, 1 axis, 2 axis, or azimuth tracking. If you use a tracking system, be sure that the Balance of System cost category on the PV System Costs page includes the cost of installing the tracking system, and that the Operation and Maintenance cost includes the cost of maintaining the system. Type a value for the array tilt angle in degrees from horizontal. Zero degrees is horizontal, 90 degrees is vertical. If you are unsure of a value, use the location's latitude (displayed in the navigation menu under Climate and on the Climate page), or check Force Tilt = Latitude if you want SAM to automatically assign the value of the latitude from the weather file to the array tilt angle. Note that SAM does not display the tilt angle when you choose this option, but it does use the correct value in simulations.
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If the array is oriented away from due south in the northern hemisphere (or oriented away from due north in the southern hemisphere), change the default azimuth angle to the desired value. An azimuth angle of 0 (facing the equator) normally maximizes energy production. For the northern hemisphere, increasing the azimuth angle favors afternoon energy production, and decreasing the azimuth angle favors morning energy production. The opposite is true for the southern hemisphere.
About Derate Factors

An AC photovoltaic system typically consists of a DC side that includes modules, diodes, and DC wiring and fuses, and an AC side that includes AC wiring, fuses, and transformers. SAM allows you to enter two derate factors, a pre-inverter derate factor to account for electrical losses on the DC side of the system, and post-inverter derate factor to account for losses on the AC side.
Derate Factors in Performance Simulation Calculations

SAM calculates hourly conversion efficiency values for the module and inverter types included in the system using the hourly simulation models that you specify on the Module page and Inverter page. The derate factors allow you to account for losses outside of the modules and inverters. During simulation, SAM calculates the solar radiation incident on the array for each hour, and calculates the array DC output using equations in the Module model. For each hour in the simulation, SAM applies the pre-inverter derate factor to the array's DC output before passing it to the inverter model. SAM calculates the inverter's AC output using equations in the Inverter model, and applies the post-inverter derate factor to the inverter's AC output to calculate the derated AC power. The total array power shown on the Array page is the array's rated power based on the module's power from the Module page and the number of modules shown on the Array page. SAM does not apply the derate factor to this rated capacity value. During simulations, SAM multiplies the array's DC power output by the pre-inverter derate factor to calculate the inverter's DC input power for each hour of the simulation:
Similarly, to calculate the system's gross hourly output, it multiplies the inverter's output by the post-inverter derate factor:
You can see these values in the hourly results. To calculate the system's net annual energy output, SAM adds up the 8,760 hourly gross system output values and adjusts this gross annual energy output value using the degradation and availability factors from the Annual Performance page.
Choosing Derate Factors

One source of information on derate factors is the website for NREL's PVWatts model, which includes a table of derate factor components for various sources of losses. Because SAM's performance model already accounts for some of the losses listed in the PVWatts table, it is not appropriate to use some of the PVWatts derate factor components in your SAM analysis. Note. The PVWatts derate changing_parameters.html factors are described at http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/pvwatts/
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If you are in doubt about the value to use for the derate factors, you can use the default values supplied with the SAM sample files. The following information is based on the information provided on the PVWatts website, and can be used as a reference for choosing values for the derate factors in SAM. The total pre-inverter derate factor is the product of the six DC derate factor categories. The following derate factor components described on the PVWatts website are accounted for by SAM and should not be included in the pre- or post-inverter derate factors. Inverter and Transformer: SAM's inverter performance models calculate the inverter output based on the output of the module (as determined by the performance model) and parameters defined on the Inverter page, and not based on a derate factor. System availability: The system availability is an input variable on the Annual Performance page, and should not be included as a derate factor. Shading: SAM accounts for shading based on the parameters specified on the Shading page. Age: SAM's degradation factor on the Annual Performance page accounts for performance losses over time due to aging of modules. The following derate factor components described on the PVWatts website are not accounted for by SAM.
Table 1. Pre-inverter (DC) derate factors not accounted for by the module performance model.
Derate Factor Component Mismatch Diodes and Connections DC Wiring Soiling Sun Tracking PVWatts Default Value 98.0 99.5 98.0 95.0 100.0 PVWatts Range 97.0 - 99.5 99.0 - 99.7 97.0 - 99.0 30.0 - 99.5 95.0 - 100.0
Cause of Loss Slight differences in performance of different modules in the array. Voltage drops across blocking diodes and electrical connections. Resistive losses in wiring on the DC side of the system. Dirt, snow, or other matter on the module surface blocking solar radiation from reaching cells. Inaccuracies in the tracking mechanisms ability to keep the array oriented toward the sun. The default value of 100% assumes a fixed array with no tracking. Applies only to systems with one- or two-axis tracking arrays. Accounts for accuracy of the manufacturer's nameplate rating, often for the performance degradation modules may experience after being exposed to light.
Nameplate
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0.80-1.05
Table 2. Post-inverter (AC) derate factors not accounted for by the inverter performance model.
Derate Factor Component AC wiring PVWatts Default Value 99.0 PVWatts Range 98.0 - 99.3
Cause of Loss Resistive losses in wiring on the AC side of the system.
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Transformer Transformer efficiency. If you use the Sandia inverter model, then the transformer losses are accounted for by the model parameters and you should set the Transformer derate factor to 100%. If you use the simple efficiency inverter model, you can specify a value to account for transformer losses if your inverter efficiency value does not include transformer losses. The PVWatts model combines the inverter and transformer derate factor into a single value. 100% --
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Backtracking Overview
Backtracking is a PV array tracking strategy that attempts to avoid row-to-row shading of modules in an array. Without backtracking, a tracking array typically points the modules directly at the sun. However, for an array with closely spaced rows, modules in adjacent rows may shade each other at certain sun angles angles, which can dramatically reduce the array's power output. With backtracking, under these conditions, the tracker will orient the modules away from the sun to avoid shading.
SAM's backtracking algorithm divides the array into subarrays. Each subarray has the same orientation as all the others, meaning that the entire array is driven by a single tracking scheme. Each subarray has a physical location (origin: x, y, z) and a length l and width w. The length is parallel to the axis of rotation. For a typical one-axis tracking system, the length represents the north-south dimension of each tracking subarray, and the width represents the east-west dimension. Note. The subarray layout for backtracking is not linked to the modules per string and strings in parallel values you specify under Layout on the Array page. SAM uses the subarray layout values for backtracking calculations, but not for array sizing calculations. The backtracking algorithm is an iterative process that determines whether a subarray is shaded, and subsequently adjusts the angle of rotation until there is no more array shading. Once a suitable angle is found, the module power output is calculated for the array at the given rotation angle and known sun position.
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3.3.3
PVWatts Solar Array
The PVWatts Solar Array page displays variables for SAM's implementation of NREL's PVWatts model. SAM includes an implementation of NREL's PVWatts model to facilitate comparing results calculated by SAM's three other photovoltaic module performance models with PVWatts results, and to generate results based on the PVWatts performance model but using SAM's cost and financial model and assumptions. Note. NREL's PVWatts model is a web-based simulation model for grid-connected photovoltaic systems. To use the model or find out more about it, visit the PVWatts website at http://www.nrel.gov/ rredc/pvwatts/. The model is also described in Marion W et al, 2002. PVWatts Version 2: Enhanced Spatial Resolution for Calculated Grid-Connected PV Performance. http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/ codes_algs/PVWATTS/pvwatts2.pdf. To view the PVWatts Solar Array page, click PVWatts Solar Array on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the PVWatts Solar Array page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics - PVWatts Performance Model.
PVWatts System Inputs

The system inputs define the size of the system, derate factor, and the array orientation. For information about choosing values for the PVWatts input variables, see the PVWatts website at http://www.nrel.gov/ rredc/pvwatts/changing_parameters.html. DC Rating The array's nameplate DC power rating in kilowatts under standard test conditions (STC). The DC rating is equal to a single module's DC power rating in watts at 25C and 1,000 W/m2 multiplied by the number of modules in the array divided by 1,000.
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A factor accounting for conversion of the array's DC nameplate capacity to the system's AC power rating at STC. The default value is 0.77. For help calculating the derate factor, see the PVWatts derate factor calculator at http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/calculators/PVWATTS/derate.cgi. Array Tracking Mode The three array tracking modes are: A fixed array is fixed at the tilt and azimuth angles defined by the Tilt and Azimuth variables. A one-axis tracking array is fixed at the tilt angle defined by the Tilt variable and rotates from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the sky. A two-axis tracking array rotates from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the sky, and from north to south to track the sun's seasonal movement throughout the year. Tilt (degrees) Applies only to fixed arrays and arrays with one-axis tracking. The array's tilt angle in degrees from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal, and 90 degrees is vertical. As a rule of thumb, system designers often use the location's latitude as the optimal array tilt angle. The actual tilt angle will vary based on project requirements. Force Tilt = Latitude Populates the array tilt value with the latitude value stored in the weather file and displayed on the Climate page. Note that SAM does not display the tilt value on the Array page, but does use the correct value during simulations. Azimuth (degrees) Applies only to fixed arrays with no tracking. The array's east-west orientation in degrees. An azimuth value of zero or 360 degrees is facing north, 90 degrees = east, 180 degrees = south, and 270 degrees = west, regardless of whether the array is in the northern or southern hemisphere. For systems north of the equator, a typical azimuth value would be 180 degrees. For systems south of the equator, a typical value would be 0 degrees. Note that this convention is different from the convention for the other SAM photovoltaic model options.
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Shading
The Shading page provides access to options for modeling shading of the array using any of three shading model options, or by importing shading data from SunEye shading device or PVsyst simulation software. To view the Shading page, click Shading on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Shading page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics SAM Performance Models.
Contents Overview describes the Shading model and its limitations. Enabling and Disabling Array Shading explains how to turn on and off array
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shading. Defining the Shading Factors explains how to edit the shading factor matrix. Importing and Exporting Shading Factor Data explains how to use text files to store shading matrix data.
Overview
SAM models two types of shading: Shading that affects the entire array uniformly, and shading of modules within the array by neighboring modules. To model the first kind of shading, SAM reduces the solar radiation incident on the array. To model self shading of modules within the array, SAM adjusts the array's DC output: Beam Radiation Shading Shading objects block the direct normal component of radiation incident on the entire array. You can either specify your own shading factors, or import shading factors from the SunEye shading device or PVsyst simulation software. See Specifying Beam Shading Factors for details. Sky Diffuse Shading A reduction in the diffuse component of the radiation incident on the entire array for all hours of the year. You can either specify your own shading factor, or import the factor from the PVsyst simulation software. See Specifying a Sky Diffuse Shading Factor for details. Self Shading Estimates the reduction in the array's DC output due to row-to-row shading of modules within the array. Unlike the beam radiation shading and sky diffuse shading models, which reduce the amount of radiation incident on the array, the self-shading model reduces the DC output of the array. To use the self-shading model, you must describe the configuration of cells in modules and modules in the array. See Specifying Self Shading Parameters for details. Notes. The self-shading model only works when the model option on the Module page is either CEC Performance Model or Sandia PV Array Performance Model. If the Simple Efficiency Module or Concentrating PV Module option is active, the self-shading parameters on the Shading page have no effect on simulation results. The self shading model is disabled for the PVWatts modeling option.
Beam and Sky Diffuse Shading Factors

Each shading factor is a value between zero and one that represents the fraction of radiation (either beam or diffuse) allowed to reach the array. A shading factor of one represents no shading. A shading factor of zero represents complete blockage of either the beam or sky diffuse radiation from the array. The value of the shading factor in each hour depends on the method you use to specify the values on the Shading page. To calculate the effect of shading on the array, SAM adjusts the incident beam and diffuse radiation value that it calculates from the data in the weather file and solar angles in each hour as appropriate:
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SAM multiplies the the incident normal radiation in each hour by the beam shading factor for that hour. The incident normal radiation is the solar radiation that reaches the array in a straight line from the sun. SAM the incident sky diffuse radiation for each hour by the sky diffuse shading factor. Sky diffuse radiation is radiation that reaches the array from the sun indirectly after being reflected by clouds and particles in the atmosphere. Sky diffuse radiation does not include diffuse radiation reflected from the ground. Note that you can only specify a single value that applies to all hours of the year for the sky diffuse shading factor.
Enabling and Disabling Shading Models

SAM provides options for five different shading models. To enable a shading model, click its check box. For example, to enable the beam shading model using month-by-hour shading factors, enter values in the beam shading factor table and check Enable Month by Hour Beam Shading Factors.
Notes. You must enable at least one shading option using one of the Enable checkboxes for SAM to include shading. SAM does not prevent you from enabling more than one shading option even if that results in an unrealistic shading model. Be sure to verify that you have enabled the set of options you intend before running SAM.
Beam Radiation Shading Factors

SAM provides three options for specifying beam shading factors: Hourly 8760, Month by Hour, and Azimuth by Altitude. If you enable more than one option, SAM multiplies the shading factors to calculate the total shading factor for each hour.
Hourly 8760
The Hourly 8760 option allow you to use a set of hourly (8,760 hours/year) beam shading factors for the project location. You can cut and paste the data from a spreadsheet if the data is organized into a single column of 8,760 values, or you can import the data from a text file that contains a single column of data with no header in the first row. See Overview for a description of shading factors. To specify hourly beam shading factors: 1. 2. 3. Check Enable Hourly 8760 Beam Shading Factors. Click Edit Data. To copy data from a spreadsheet, select and copy a column of 8,760 beam shading factors in the spreadsheet and click Paste in the Edit Data window. To import data from a text file, click Import and navigate to the file. The file must contain a single column of 8,760 beam radiation values with a header in the first row.
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Month by Hour
To define the month-by-hour shading factor matrix, you assign a value to each cell in the matrix. The shading factor in a cell applies to a given hour for an entire month. For example, a shading factor of 0.90 in the 6 a.m. cell for May would mean that 90% of the beam radiation value in the weather file for each hour beginning at 6 a.m. and ending at 7 a.m. in May would be used to calculate the global solar radiation incident on the array. Note. The time convention for the matrix is determined by the convention used in your weather file. For example, TMY2 and TMY3 data use local standard time. As you work with the shading factor matrix, keep the following in mind: The first column in the matrix is for the hour beginning at 12:00 a.m. and ending at 1:00 a.m. A red cell indicates a value of zero, or full shading (beam radiation completely blocked). A white cell indicates a value of one, or no shading. A dark shade of red indicates more shading (more beam radiation) than a light shade of red. To define a shading factor for a single cell: Click the cell and type the shading factor. To replace the value in a cell, click the cell and type a replacement value. To delete the value from a cell, double-click the cell and press the Delete key. To define a single shading factor for multiple cells: Select the cells to which you want to apply the shading factor. Type a value between zero and one. Press the Enter key or click Apply to selected cells. To import or export month-by-hour beam shading factors: Solar Advisor allows you to import and export the shading factor matrix as a comma-delimited text file that contains 12 rows of 24 hourly shading factors separated by commas. The file should not have row or column headings. To export the shading matrix as a text file, click Export. To import a data from a comma-delimited text file, click Import.
Azimuth by Altitude
The azmiuth-altitude shading factors for beam radiation are represented as a two-dimensional lookup table, where solar azimuth values are given across the top and solar altitude values are given along the side of the table. Azimuth values must increase monotonically from left to right. Altitude values must increase monotonically from bottom to top. For each hour in the simulation, SAM calculates the position of the sun as a set of azimuth and altitude angles. SAM uses a linear interpolation method to estimate the value of the beam shading factor for the hour based on the nearest values in the lookup table. To define the azimuth-altitude shading factor table, first enter the number of rows and columns in the table.
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The number of rows is one greater than the number of azimuth values specified. The number of columns is one greater than the number of altitude values specified. Second, enter the headings for the table, with azimuth values increasing along the top and altitude values decreasing down the left side. Finally, enter the shading factors for beam radiation. Note: Azimuth values use the component based conventions. 0 = equator, 90 = west, -90 = east. This convention is different from the convention used on the PVWatts Solar Array page. Solar Advisor allows you to import and export the azimuth-altitude lookup table as a comma-delimited text file that contains shading factors separated by commas. The file should have row or column headings. To import or export azimuth-by-altitude beam shading factors: To export the shading matrix as a text file, click Export. To import a data from a comma-delimited text file, click Import.
Sky Diffuse Shading Factor

A shading factor for sky diffuse radiation may be used. This factor is applied to every hour in the year. This value is considered to be the fraction of the sky that is obstructed, and is therefore constant.
Import from External Software

SAM allows you to import shading data from either PVPVsyst, photovoltaic system design software from the University of Geneva in Switzerland (http://www.pvsyst.com), or from the SunEye, an electronic shading analysis device from Solmetric (http://www.solmetric.com/).
Importing Data from PVsyst

You can import a "Near Shadings" table generated by PVsyst into SAM. SAM automatically imports data from the text file generated by PVsyst into the Azimuth-Altitude Shading Factors for Beam Radiation table and Diffuse Shading Factor value. Notes. We have tested the following procedure with Version 5 of PVsyst. The "Near Shadings" table in PVsyst looks like this:
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The "Near Shadings" data exported to a text file looks like this (in this example with semicolon delimiters):
To import a "Near Shadings" table from PVsyst: 1. In PVsyst, follow the procedure to create and export a "Near Shadings" table. The table in PVsyst should look similar to the one below. SAM will recognize any of the delimiter options: tab, comma, or semicolon. In SAM, click the Import PVsyst Near Shading and navigate to the folder containing the shading file. When SAM imports data from the file, it displays the message "Azimuth-Altitude Table and Diffuse Factor update" and populates the azimuth-altitude shading table, the sky diffuse shading factor, and enables both options. Disable any shading options that do not apply to your analysis.
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Importing Data from SunEye

The Solmetric SunEye software generates shading data in two formats: The obstruction table, which characterizes shading using an altitude-azimuth angle table to indicate solar positions that are blocked by nearby obstructions, and the hourly shading file, which lists hourly beam radiation shading factors. SAM can read data from both tables. Use the obstruction table if you plan to model the system for different locations (assuming the same shading obstructions). Use the hourly shading factor table if you plan to model the system for a single location. Note. If you use the hourly shading factor table, be sure that the weather data specified on the Climate page is for the same location as the one where the SunEye measurements were made. To import a SunEye obstruction table: 1. In the Solmetric SunEye software (not the PV Designer software), on the File menu, click Export Session Report and Data. The SunEye software creates a set of files, and assigns a default name like Sk y01ObstructionElevations.csv to the obstruction data file. By default, the files are in a folder named ExportedFiles in the exported report folder. In SAM, on the Shading page, click Import Suneye Obstruction File, and navigate to the folder containing the file you want to import. Open the obstruction data file for any of the available skies (Sk y01ObstructionElevations, Sk y02ObstructionElevations, etc.). If the average or worst case obstruction data from multiple skylines will be used, then an extra step is required. In a spreadsheet program, open the ObstructionElevation file containing the average and maximum values as well as all skylines in the SunEye session. Make sure that the desired
2. 3.
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data (average or maximum) is in the third column, delete the other columns, and save the file as . csv with a name like ObstructionElevationsAVG.csv. Use this file as the obstruction data file in SAM. SAM displays the message "Azimuth-Altitude Table updated," populates the azimuth-altitude shading factor table, and enables the Enable Azimuth-Altitude Shading Factors for Beam Radiation option. Be sure to enable and disable the other shading options as appropriate.
To import a SunEye hourly shading file: 1. In the Solmetric SunEye software (not the PV Designer software), on the File menu, click Export Session Report and Data. The SunEye software creates a set of files, and assigns a default name like Sk y01Shading.csv to the hourly shading file. By default, the files are in a folder named ExportedFiles in the exported report folder. In SAM, on the Shading page, click Import Suneye Hourly Shading File, and navigate to the folder containing the shading file. Open the shading file for any of the the available skies (Sk y01Shading, Sk y02Shading, etc.). To use average shading for multiple skylines, open AverageShading.csv. SAM displays the message "Hourly Shading Factors for Beam Radiation updated," populates the hourly shading factor table, and enables the Enable Hourly Beam Shading Factors option. To see the hourly data, click Edit Data under Hourly Shading Factors for Beam Radiation. Be sure to enable and disable the other shading options as appropriate. On the Climate page, choose a weather file for the same location represented by the SunEye shading data.
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4. 5. 6.
Self Shading Calculator for Fixed Tilt Arrays

Overview and Requirements
The self-shading model calculates the effect of row-to-row shading in the array, where shadows from modules in neighboring rows of the array block sunlight from parts of other modules in the array during certain times of day. The response of a real photovoltaic module to shading is complex, and depends on several factors including the cell material, shape and layout of cells in the module, and configuration of bypass diodes in the module. For a description of the effect of module shading on system performance, see Deline C, Partially Shaded Operation of a Grid-Tied PV System, NREL/CP-520-46001, June 2009: www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/46001. pdf. SAM's self-shading model has several limitations, and only works under the following conditions: The performance model option on the Module page is either Sandia PV Array Performance model or CEC Performance Model. The self-shading model does not work for the simple efficiency model or the concentrating PV model. The self-shading model is disabled for the PVWatts modeling option. The cell material is crystalline silicon, either mono-crystalline or poly-crystalline. The self-shading model does not work for modules with thin film cells. SAM indicates the cell material on the Module page under Physical Characteristics. See Module page for a list of abbreviations used to indicate cell material.
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Each module in the array consists of square cells arranged in a rectangular grid with one or more bypass diodes and can be described using the input variables described below. The self-shading model does not work for modules with rectangular, circular, or triangular shaped cells. The array uses fixed tracking, as specified on the Array page. The self-shading model does not work for one-axis, two-axis, or azimuth-axis tracking. The the number of modules per string and strings in parallel specified on the Array page is consistent with the array configuration specified on the Shading page.
Note. To use the self-shading model, you need information about the module's dimensions, cell layout, and number of bypass diodes. This information is not available in SAM, but you should be able to find it on the manufacturer's data sheet for the module. SAM's Sandia and CEC photovoltaic performance models assume that modules operate at the maximum power point for the level of incident radiation in each hour. The self-shading model calculates a single derating factor that estimates the effect of shading on the array's output.The self-shading model calculates and applies hourly DC derating factors to the entire array's output using the following algorithm: 1. Calculate the array's derated DC output at the maximum power point based (without shading) on the inputs you specify on the Module page and Array page. 2. Calculate the size and position of rectangles of shade on the array using information about the relative positions of the sun and modules in the array. 3. Determine the reduction in output of each module in the array based on the number of shaded cells and bypass diodes. 4. Calculate an overall derate factor to apply to the array's maximum power point DC output that represents the reduction of output caused by the shadows. 5. Recalculate the array's derated DC output. Note. For hours when both 20% or more of module strings and 25% or more of all cell strings in the array are shaded, the self-shading algorithm reduces the array DC output to near zero, which exaggerates the impact of shading for those hours. This typically only occurs for arrays with closely spaced rows, and could cause SAM to overestimate self-shading impacts. If this situation occurs, SAM reports the overestimated shading impacts in a simulation warning message on the Results page.
Module
The module input variables describe the properties of the module required by the self-shading model. Note that the values of these variables should be consistent with those shown on the Module page. Orientation The module orientation determines whether the short or long side of the module is parallel to the ground or at the bottom of the module, assuming that all modules in the array are mounted at an angle from the horizontal equal to the tilt angle specifed on the Array page. Portrait orientation means the short end of the module is parallel to the ground, or at the bottom of the module. Landcape orientation means the long end of the module is parallel to the ground, or at the bottom of the module. Length Long side of a module. SAM calculates this value based on the width (short side) you specify and area
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from the Module page. Length (m) = Module Area (m2) / Width (m) Width
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Short side of a module. The product of the width and length should be equal to the module area on the Module page. Number of cells along length The number of cells along the long side of the module. SAM calculates this value based on the number of cells along width that you specify and the number of cells from the Module page. Number of Cells Along Length = Number of Cells / Number of Cells Along Width Number of cells along width The number of cells along the short side of the module. The product of the number of cells along the length and width should equal the total number of cells on the Module page. Number of bypass diodes The number of bypass diodes in each module. The images below show examples of a module with four cells along its width and in portrait orientation. Because the module is in portrait orientation, SAM would consider it to have four cells along the bottom of the module, and would assume the diode connections shown in the diagrams for the module with two, four, and eight diodes. Note. SAM only uses the diode connections to estimate the DC power output reduction of the array due to shading. The model does not consider diode polarity or current flow through the modules.
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The number of diodes determines what portion of the module output is reduced. In the following images, the grey square indicates the shaded cell for each of the combinations of numbers of diodes, and rectangle with broken lines indicates the portion of the module affected by the shaded cell. For example, for a module with four cells along the bottom and two diodes, when any single cell is shaded, SAM reduces the module's power output by 50%.
Array
The array input variables describe how modules are oriented in the array, and should be consistent with the values specified on the Array page.
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Note. The self-shading model assumes that the array consists of module strings that are both electrically connected in series and physically laid out in a single line. String Wiring Describes the orientation of strings of modules in the array. Horizontal: Strings are parallel to the ground. Vertical: Strings are inclined at the array's tilt angle. Number of modules along bottom The number of modules along the edge of the array parallel to the ground. This is a calculated value that you cannot edit. Number of modules along side The number of modules along the edge of the array perpendicular to the bottom of the array as defined above. Number of rows One row consists of one or more strings and is inclined from the horizontal at the tilt angle specified on the Array page. Layout from Array Page The Modules per String and Strings in Parallel values from the Array page for your reference to facilitate calculating the correct shading layout values described below. As you type values for the shading layout variables, SAM performs checks to ensure that the values meet the criteria described below for horizontal and vertical string wiring. If they do not, SAM displays a message but does not prevent you from running simulations with the incorrect values. For horizontal string wiring:
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For vertical string wiring:
Row spacing The distance in meters between rows. Slope E/W The east-west ground slope in degrees, where zero is horizontal and 90 is vertical. An east-west slope of 10 degrees would be inclined uphill from east to west at a 10 degree angle from horizontal. SAM assumes that the ground under the array is uniformly inclined. Slope N/S The north-south ground slope in degrees, where zero is horizontal and 90 is vertical.
3.3.5
Module
The Module page allows you to choose a photovoltaic module performance model and either choose a module from a list or to specify module characteristics. SAM assumes that the system consists of one or more of the same type of module. Specify the number of modules in the system on the Array page. To view the Module page, click Module on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Module page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics SAM Performance Models.
Contents Overview describes the Module page options and general guidelines for choosing a photovoltaic module model. Choosing a Module Performance Model explains guidelines for choosing the best performance model for your analysis and for modeling thin-film modules. Sandia PV Array Performance Model describes the Sandia model in more detail, explains the model parameters, and suggests resources for learning more about the model. CEC Performance Model describes the CEC model in more detail (including
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temperature correction), explains the model parameters, and suggests resources for learning more about the model. Simple Efficiency Module describes the input variables and algorithms for the simple efficiency model for flat-plate modules. Concentrating PV Module describes the concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) model and its input variables and algorithms. It also explains how to use the Sandia model the CPV modules included in the Sandia database. Temperature Correction (Except CEC Model) describes how SAM calculates module temperature and a temperature correction factor for the Sandia, simple efficiency, and CPV moduel model.
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Overview
The Module page allows you to choose a photovoltaic module performance model from four options: Simple Efficiency Module CEC Performance Model Sandia PV Array Performance Model Concentrating PV Module Note. To model a photovoltaic system using the PVWatts model, you must choose PVWatts System Model in the Technology and Market window. To specify a photovoltaic module model: 1. Choose the model name from the list.
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For the Sandia or CEC models, choose a module from the database of available models. For the simple efficiency model and concentrating PV Module, specify the module characteristics.
Hourly Simulation
Each of the four module performance models calculates the hourly DC electrical output of a single module based on the hourly incident solar radiation (plane-of-array irradiance) calculated by the climate model using data in the weather file as specified on the Climate page and array orientation and tracking information from the Array page. The photovoltaic array output depends on the number of modules and the pre-inverter derate factor specified on the Array page. SAM passes the array's hourly DC power output to the inverter model, whose characteristics appear on the Inverter page. Note. SAM assumes that the array operates at its maximum power point. SAM does not track changes in voltage and current levels in the system.
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Choosing a Module Performance Model

Each of the four available module performance models uses a different algorithm to predict module performance. In general, if you are modeling a system that uses a particular brand and type of flat-plate PV module, you should first look for the module in the Sandia database, and then in the CEC database. If you do not find the module in either database, you can either choose a similar module, or use the simple efficiency model. The simple efficiency and concentrating PV models are ideal for analyses involving explorations of the relationship between module efficiency and the system's performance and cost of energy. Both models allow you to define a curve of the module's efficiency versus incident radiation. The Sandia and CEC models do not allow you to modify module parameters such as efficiency, although advanced users with and understanding of the model algorithms can add their own modules to the database. The Sandia PV Array Performance Model calculates hourly efficiency values based on data measured from modules and arrays in realistic outdoor operating conditions. The Sandia model tends to produce more accurate predictions of module performance than the CEC model. However, because of the time and effort required to make the field measurements, the Sandia module database is less up-to-date than the CEC database. The California Energy Commission (CEC) Performance Model predicts module performance based on a database of module characteristics determined from module ratings. Like the Sandia model, the CEC model calculates hourly efficiency values, and allows you to select from a list of a commerciallyavailable modules. The CEC module database tends to be more up-to-date than the Sandia database. For some types of modules, the CEC model predictions may be less accurate than the Sandia model. The Simple Efficiency Module model is a simple representation of module performance that requires you to provide the module area, a set of conversion efficiency values, and temperature correction parameters. The simple efficiency model is the least accurate of the three models for predicting the performance of specific modules. It is useful for preliminary performance predictions before you have selected a specific module, and allows you to specify a module efficiency and temperature performance parameters, which is useful for analyses involving sensitivity or parametric analysis. For concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules, use the Concentrating PV Module model unless you are modeling a CPV module available in the Sandia model, in which case, you can choose the module from the database in the Sandia model. The concentrating PV module model is similar to the simple efficiency model, except that it uses only the direct normal component of the incident solar radiation instead of the total radiation for performance predictions.
Table 3. Guidelines for choosing a photovoltaic module performance model.

Use this model... Sandia Model based on field test data. CEC Model based on module ratings. ...if your analysis involves... Comments
estimates of module performance If your module is in both the for crystalline or thin-film Sandia and CEC lists, use the modules. Sandia model. estimates of module performance for crystalline-silicon modules or for new modules recently available on the market. Use the CEC model when your analysis involves a particular module that is not available in the Sandia database.
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Simple Efficiency Module Simple efficiency curve with temperature correction. sensitivity or parametric studies on module efficiency or temperature coefficients, or for preliminary analyses before you have chosen a specific module. Modeling concentrating photovoltaic modules. See Modeling Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) Modules for details.
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Concentrating PV Module Simple efficiency curve with temperature correction.
Modeling Thin-film Modules

For modules based on thin-film cell technology, including amorphous silicon, copper indium diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT), the Sandia model may provide more accurate results than the CEC and simple efficiency models, which do not adequately represent module performance at low-light levels. For best results, if you are modeling a thin-film module, look for the module in the Sandia database. If the module is not available in the Sandia database, you may want to use a module from the database with similar characteristics to the one you are modeling. Use the table below to help identify the thin-film modules in the Sandia database.
Table 4. Thin-film module manufacturers and model numbers available in the Sandia module database.
Cell Type amorphous tandem junction (2-aSi) amorphous silicon triple junction (3-a-Si) cadmium telluride (CdTe) copper indium diselenide (CIS) amorphous silicon heterojunction (HIT-Si) Manufacturer Solarex Uni-Solar BP Solar First Solar Shell Solar Siemens Solar Sanyo Model Series or Number MST PVL, SHR, US, USF BP980, BP990 FS ST ST HIP
Sandia PV Array Performance Model

The Sandia PV Array Performance model consists of a set of equations that provide values for five points on a module's I-V curve and a database of coefficients for the equations whose values are stored in the Sandia Modules library. The coefficients have been empirically determined based on a set of manufacturer specifications and measurements taken from modules installed outdoors in real, operating photovoltaic systems. Note. If you are a module manufacturer and would like to add your module to the Sandia database, you should contact Sandia National Laboratories directly. See http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/testing_eval. htm. The Sandia model is described in King et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND2004-3535. http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/docs/PDF/King%20SAND.pdf
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To use the Sandia photovoltaic model: 1. 2. On the Module page, choose Sandia PV Array Performance Model. Choose a module from the list of available modules. SAM displays the module's characteristics and model coefficients. When you choose a module from the list, SAM displays the module characteristics at reference conditions on the Module page. Internally, the model applies a set of coefficients from the Sandia Modules library to the simulation equations. Choose a module structure from the three available options (displayed as front material / cell / back material). See Temperature Correction for details. Module manufacturers typically include a description of the front material, and frame or back material in a mechanical characteristics section of module specification sheets.
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Notes. The current version of the Sandia database contains a single concentrating PV module, listed as Entech 22X Concentrator [1994]. The first several items in the module list are arrays instead of single modules. The arrays are indicated by the word "Array" in the name. The array coefficients account for some losses not accounted for in the single module parameters, including module mismatch, diodes and connections, and DC wiring losses. When you use an array from the database, you should be sure that the Pre-Inverter derate factor on the Array page does not include these losses.
Module Characteristics at Reference Conditions

SAM displays the module characteristics so that you can compare modules in the database to manufacturer specifications or to different modules in the database. Reference Conditions The reference conditions describe the incident solar radiation, air mass, ambient temperature, and wind speed that apply to the module characteristics. The module efficiency, power, current, voltage, and temperature coefficients values are those for the module operating at the reference conditions. Efficiency (%) The module's rated efficiency at reference conditions. SAM displays this value for reference only. During simulations, the model calculates an efficiency value for each hour, which you can see in the hourly output data in the tabular data browser on the Results page. Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc The module rated power in DC Watts. Equal to the product of the maximum power voltage and maximum power current. Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp), Vdc Maximum power voltage in DC Volts under reference conditions. Maximum Power Current (Imp), Adc Maximum power current in DC Amps under reference conditions. Defines the maximum power point on the module's I-V curve.
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Open Circuit Voltage (Voc), Vdc
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Open circuit voltage under reference conditions. Defines the open circuit point on the module's I-V curve. Short Circuit Current (Isc), Adc Short circuit current under reference conditions. Defines the short circuit point on the module's I-V curve. Temperature Coefficients SAM displays the temperature coefficients in %/C and W/C at the different points on the power curve. Module Structure and Mounting This option determines the coefficients that SAM uses to calculate the cell temperature in each hour of the simulation. The default option is User Database Values, which displays the coefficients from the measured data at reference conditions. See Temperature Correction for details.
Physical Characteristics
Material A description of the semiconductor technology used in the photovoltaic cells. 2-a-Si: dual-junction amorphous silicon 3-a-Si: triple-junction amorphous silicon CdTe: cadmium telluride CIS: copper indium diselenide HIT-Si: amorphous silicon heterojunction c-Si: single-crystal silicon mc-Si: multi-crystalline silicon Vintage The year that module coefficients were added to the database. The letter "E" indicates that the coefficients were estimated from a combination of published manufacturer specifications and data from the outdoor testing of a similar module. Entries without an "E" are for modules whose coefficients were derived entirely from outdoor tests involving one more or more modules of that type. Because the tested modules (listed without an "E") may have had different average power ratings than production versions of the same module, the database typically also includes an "E" entry for each of the tested modules that represents the average power rating specified by the manufacturer. Module Area, m2 The total area of the module, including spaces between cells and the frame. Number of Cells Total number of cells in the module, equal to the product of the number of cells in series and number of cell strings in parallel. Number of Cells in Series Number of cells connected in series per cell string.
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Number of cell strings connected in parallel per module.
Number of Cell Strings in Parallel
References
A link to King et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND20043535 document describing the Sandia PV Array Performance Model in detail. You can find links to more documents in References.
CEC Performance Model

The California Energy Commission (CEC) Performance Model uses the University of Wisconsin-Madison Solar Energy Laboratory's five-parameter model with a database of module parameters for modules from the database of eligible photovoltaic modules maintained by the California Energy Commission (CEC) for the California Solar Initiative. The five-parameter model calculates a module's current and voltage under a range of solar resource conditions (represented by an I-V curve) using an equivalent electrical circuit whose electrical properties can be determined from a set of five reference parameters. These five parameters, in turn, are determined from standard reference condition data provided by either the module manufacturer or an independent testing laboratory, such as the Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory. Note. If you are a module manufacturer and would like to add your module to the CEC database, you should contact the CEC directly. See http://www.gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov/equipment/add.php. The five-parameter model is described in brief in De Soto 2003, "Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance," Solar 2003 Conference Proceedings, American Solar Energy Society. A more detailed description can be founcec cd in De Soto 2004, Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance, Master of Science Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://minds. wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/7602. For information about the CEC list of eligible photovoltaic modules, see http://www.gosolarcalifornia.org/ equipment/pvmodule.html. Note. To make sure that you have the latest CEC module library, on the Help menu, click Check for updates. SAM will connect to NREL servers on the Internet and, if a more recent version of the library is available, automatically update your current library. Updating the library only affects the standard CEC module library, and will not affect any modules you may have added to the library. To use the CEC photovoltaic model: 1. 2. On the Module page, choose CEC Performance Model. Choose a module from the list of available modules. SAM displays the model's characteristics and model coefficients. When you select a module from the CEC database on the Module page, SAM displays module's parameters. You can see the complete set of parameters in the Module library by using SAM's library editor.
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Module Characteristics at Reference Conditions

Efficiency, % The module's rated efficiency at reference conditions. SAM displays this value for reference only. During simulations, the model calculates an efficiency value for each hour, which you can see in the hourly output data. Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc The module rated power. Equal to the product of the maximum power voltage and maximum power current. Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp), Vdc Reference maximum power voltage at the reference conditions. Maximum Power Current (Imp), Adc Reference maximum power current at the reference conditions. Open Circuit Voltage (Voc), Vdc Reference open circuit voltage at the reference conditions. Short Circuit Current (Isc), Adc Reference short circuit current at the reference conditions. Temperature Coefficients SAM displays the temperature coefficients in %/C and W/C at maximum power, open circuit, and short circuit. The temperature coefficients are based on data collected from laboratory test results and may not match coefficients provided by the manufacturer on the module's data sheet.
Temperature Correction
The CEC model provides two options for modeling the effect of cell temperature on module performance. The NOCT method determines the cell temperature based on the nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) specified in the module parameters. In SAM 2010.11.9 and earlier versions, this was the only available temperature correction option for the CEC mode. The mounting-specific method uses a steady state heat transfer model to calculate cell temperatures, and is described in Neises T, 2011. Development and Validation of a Model to Predict the Temperature of a Photovoltaic Cell. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/ publications/theses/neises11.zip
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Notes. The temperature correction algorithms use wind speed and ambient temperature data from the weather file. SAM assumes that the ambient temperature and wind speed data in the weather file are mid-hour values and that the radiation values are end-of-hour values. SAM interpolates temperature and wind speed values by averaging the current hour value with the previous hour value. When you specify a vertical or horizontal mounting structure option, SAM also uses wind direction data in the cell temperature calculation. Note that for the NREL TMY weather data files, the degree of uncertainty in the wind direction data is high. NOCT Temperature Correction Choose this option to use the nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) method from the original fiveparameter model. Mounting Specific Temperature Correction Choose this option to use the steady state heat transfer model for calculating the cell temperature, and when you want to model different module mounting options. Mounting Configuration Describes how the module is installed. The mounting configuration affects the movement of air around the module and the transfer of heat between the module and the building surface or ground. SAM assumes that all modules in the array use the same mounting configuration. Rack: Modules are mounted on open racks that allow ambient air to flow freely over the front and back of the modules. Flush: Modules are in direct contact with a roof or wall, preventing air from flowing over the back of the module. Integrated: Modules form part of the roof or wall so that the back of the module is in contact with the indoor air. When you specify integrated mounting, you must also specify Temperature behind the module. Gap: Modules are mounted with a space between the module and building surface that allows limited air flow over the back of each module. When you specify Gap mounting, you must also specify the Mounting Structure Orientation and Gap Spacing. Heat Transfer Dimensions Module Dimensions: SAM calculates cell temperature using the module dimensions you specify. Array Dimensions: SAM calculates cell temperature using the array dimensions you specify. The Array Dimensions option assumes that modules in the array are in direct contact with each other and results in a higher calculated cell temperatures than the Module Dimensions option. Use the Array Dimensions option for more conservative array output estimates. Mounting Structure Orientation This option describes how the mounting structure interferes with airflow under the modules for the gap mounting configuration. None: The mounting structure does not impede air flow over the back of the modules. Vertical supporting structures: Mounting structures on module back are perpendicular to the roof ridge and impede air flow parallel to the ridge.
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Horizontal supporting structures: The mounting structures are parallel to the roof ridge and impede air flow perpendicular to the ridge. Module Width Length of side of module parallel to the ground. Module Height SAM calculates this value by dividing the module area from the parameter library by the module width that you specify. Rows of modules in array Assuming a rectangular array, the number of rows of modules, where a row is parallel to the line defined by the Module Width variable. Columns of modules in array Assuming a rectangular array, the number of modules along the side perpendicular to the line defined by the module width variable. Note. The rows and columns of modules variables are independent of the similar variables on the Array page and Shading page. Before running simulations, verify that the values on the different pages are consistent. Temperature behind the module The indoor air temperature for the flush mounting configuration option. SAM assumes a constant indoor air temperature. Gap spacing The distance between the back of the modules and the roof or wall surface for the gap mounting configuration option.
Physical Characteristics
Material A description of the semiconductor technology used in the photovoltaic cells. 1-a-Si: single-junction amorphous silicon 2-a-Si: dual-junction amorphous silicon 3-a-Si: triple-junction amorphous silicon a-Si/nc: amorphous silicon - microcrystalline silicon tandem module CdTe: cadmium telluride CIGS: copper indium gallium sulfide CIS: copper indium diselenide HIT-Si: amorphous silicon heterojunction Mono-c-Si: single-crystal silicon Multi-c-Si: multi-crystalline silicon Module Area The total area of the module, including spaces between cells and the frame.
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Number of cells per module.
Number of Cells
Additional Parameters
T_noct Nominal operating cell temperature A_ref Modified ideality factor at reference conditions I_L_ref Photocurrent at reference conditions I_o_ref Reverse saturation current at reference conditons R_s Series resistance (constant) R_sh_ref Shunt resistance at reference conditions
References
A link to De Soto W, 2004. Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/theses/desoto04.zip. You can find links to more documents in References.
Simple Efficiency Module

The flat-plate photovoltaic simple efficiency module model calculates the module's hourly DC output assuming that the module efficiency varies with radiation incident on the module as defined by the radiation level and efficiency table. The model makes an adjustment for cell temperature, See Temperature Correction for details. To use the simple efficiency module model: 1. 2. 3. On the Module page, choose Simple Efficiency Module. Enter a temperature coefficient. This is the number typically reported on manufacturer specification sheets as the maximum power coefficient. See Temperature Correction for suggested values. Choose a module structure from the three available options (displayed as front material / cell / back material). See Temperature Correction for details. Module manufacturers typically include a description of the front material, and frame or back material in a mechanical characteristics section of module specification sheets. Enter the module's total cell area in square meters, equivalent to the product of the cell area and number of cells. In the Radiation Level and Efficiency Table, enter an efficiency value for each of the five incident global radiation reference values in increasing order. If you are defining the efficiency curve with fewer than five efficiency values, you must include five radiation values, but you can assign the same efficiency value to more than one radiation value. For example, to represent a module with
4. 5.
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13.5% constant efficiency, you would assign the value 13.5 to each of the five radiation values 200, 400, 600, 850, 1000. 6. Choose the radiation level that represents the reference value, often 1000 W/m2 for flat-plate modules. SAM uses the reference value to calculate the module's rated power, displayed as the Power variable on the Module page.
Characteristics
The module characteristics define the module's capacity, efficiency, and thermal characteristics. Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc The module's rated maximum DC power at the reference radiation indicated in the radiation level and efficiency table. SAM uses this value to calculate the array cost on the PV System Costs page, but not in simulation calculations. The module power is the product of the reference radiation, reference efficiency, and area. Temperature Coefficient (Pmp), %/C The rated maximum-power temperature coefficient as specified in the module's technical specifications. See Temperature Correction for details. Area, m2 The module collector area in square meters. To calculate the area for a given module power rating at a given reference radiation level, divide the power rating by the module efficiency and radiation level. For example, a module with a 100 W rating and 13.5% efficiency at 1000 W/m2 would requires an area of 100 W / (0.135 1000 W/m2) = 0.74074 m2. Module Structure and Mounting The module's front and back materials (front material/cell/back material) used in the temperature correction algorithm described below. See Temperature Correction for details.
Radiation Level and Efficiency Table

Radiation (W/m2) The incident global (beam and diffuse) radiation level at which the given efficiency value applies. Efficiency (%) The module conversion efficiency at a given incident global radiation level. SAM calculates an efficiency value for each hour in the simulation using linear extrapolation to determine the value based on radiation data from the weather file. The efficiency values represent the efficiency of conversion from incident global radiation to DC electrical output. Reference Indicates the value to use for the reference calculations. SAM uses the reference values to calculate the module's rated power on which module costs are based. For each hour of the year, the flat-plate single-point efficiency model calculates the module DC output as the product of the total incident global radiation, module area, and temperature correction factor:
Where,
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Total incident radiation from the Climate model. The module area in square meters. Module efficiency at a given incident global radiation level, calculated by extrapolating values from the Radiation Level and Efficiency Table. Temperature correction factor. See Temperature Correction for details.
ETotalIncident (W/m2) AModule (m2) n Module FTempCorr
Concentrating PV Module
The Concentrating PV Module model uses a simple algorithm that calculates the module's hourly DC output by multiplying the hourly direct normal component of the solar radiation data from the weather file by the module's area and efficiency as specified on the Module page, and makes a correction for the cell's temperature. Note. If you are modeling the Entech 22X Concentrator (c-Si), you can use the Sandia PV Array Performance model instead of the Simple Efficiency model. The Entech module is modeled using a set of coefficients determined by analyzing field test measurements. To use the Entech module, choose the Sandia model option and select the Entech 22X Concentrator [1994] module from the list of available modules. To use the Concentrating PV module model: 1. 2. 3. 4. On the Module page, choose Concentrating PV Module. Enter a temperature coefficient. This is the number typically reported on manufacturer specification sheets as the maximum power coefficient. See Temperature Correction for suggested values. Enter the module's total collector area in square meters. If you have a set of temperature correction coefficients, enter values for a, b, and dT. If you do not have a set of values, use the default values (click Default Temperature Inputs to populate the variables with their default values). See Temperature Correction for details. In the Radiation Level and Efficiency Table, enter an efficiency value for each of the five incident global radiation reference values in increasing order. If you are defining the efficiency curve with fewer than five efficiency values, you must include five radiation values, but you can assign the same efficiency value to more than one radiation value. For example, to represent a module with 20% constant efficiency, you would assign the value 20 to each of the five radiation values 200, 400, 600, 850, 1000.
5.
Concentrating PV Module Characteristics

Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc The module's rated maximum DC power at the reference radiation value indicated in the efficiency table below. SAM uses this value to calculate the array cost shown on the PV System Costs page, but not in simulation calculations. The rated module power is the product of the reference radiation, reference efficiency and area. Temperature Coefficient (Pmp), %/C The rated maximum-power temperature coefficient as specified in the module's technical specifications. The default value is -0.15. See Temperature Correction for details.
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Area, m2 The module collector area in square meters. a, b, and dT
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Temperature correction coefficients, a=-3.2, b=-0.09, dT=17 by default. See Temperature Correction for details. Default Temperature Inputs Resets the a, b, and dT coefficients to their default values. Cell Temperature The calculated cell temperature at the reference radiation level specified in the Radiation Level and Efficiency Table. See Temperature Correction for a description of the equations used for the calculation.
Radiation Level and Efficiency Table

Radiation (W/m2) The incident beam radiation level at which the given efficiency value applies. Efficiency (%) The module conversion efficiency at a given incident global radiation level and cell temperature shown under Concentrating PV Module Characteristics. Duing simulations, SAM calculates an efficiency value for each hour in the simulation using linear extrapolation to determine the value based on radiation data from the weather file. The efficiency values represent the efficiency of conversion from incident global radiation to DC electrical output. Reference Indicates which value to use for the reference calculations. The module's hourly DC output is the product of the hour's direct normal solar radiation from the weather file as defined on the Climate page, collector area, and module efficiency from the Module page:
Where,
Pmp,CPVModule (Wdc) EDirectNormal (W/m2) ACollector (m2) n Module FTempCorr
The module's average DC electric output for the hour. The direct normal solar radiation from weather processor. The collector area in square meters. The module's conversion efficiency at the incident beam radiation for the current hour, extrapolated from the efficiency curve defined by the table on the Module page. Temperature correction factor. See Temperature Correction for details.
Temperature Correction (Except CEC Model)

The Sandia, Simple Efficiency, and Concentrating PV models all use the temperature correction algorithm originally developed for the Sandia model to calculate a temperature correction factor that accounts for efficiency losses due to heating of the module during the day when the sun is shining. The algorithm
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calculates an hourly module temperature as a function of the solar radiation, ambient temperature, and wind speed in a given hour, and a set of properties describing the thermal characteristics of the cell and module. The CEC model provides two options for calculating cell temperature. See CEC Performance Model for more information. For more details about the algorithm, see King et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND2004-3535. http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/docs/PDF/King%20SAND.pdf The CEC model uses a different temperature correction algorithm. For a description of the CEC temperature correction approach, see De Soto 2004, Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance, Master of Science Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/theses/ desoto04.zip. Note. The SAM temperature correction algorithms do not account for cooling strategies used in some innovative photovoltaic systems.
Guidelines for choosing the Module Structure - Mounting (a, b, dT) parameters
The a, b, and dT parameters determine the relationship between ambient temperature and module temperature. See the equations below for details. For the Sandia and Simple Efficiency models for flat-plate modules, you can choose from a set of predetermined values of the parameters for different module mounting options, or specify your own values for the parameters. For the Concentrating PV model, you can assign a set values to the parameters, or specify your own. For most analyses involving flat-plate modules mounted on open racks, choose Use Database Values. These are the values determined empirically during testing of the module. Most of the modules in the database were tested on open racks. To see how a flat-plate module might perform under different mounting conditions, choose an appropriate option from the list. Be sure to choose an option that is consistent with the module you are modeling. You may need to refer to the module's specification sheet for information about its structure. For the Concentrating PV model, use the default values (click Default Temperature Inputs) unless you have a set of a, b, and dT values for your module. See the equations below for details. If you understand the Sandia model well enough to generate your own temperature correction coefficients, choose User Defined, and type your own values for a, b, and dT. See the equations below for details.
Table 5. Description of the module structure and mounting options.

Module Structure and Mounting Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet Open Rack Glass/Cell/Glass Open Rack Polymer/Thin Film/Steel Open Rack Description Solar cells are between a glass front and polymer back, and the module is mounted on an open rack allowing air to circulate freely around the module. Solar cells are between a glass front and glass back, and the module is mounted on an open rack allowing air to circulate freely around the module. Solar cells are between a transparent polymer front and steel back, and the module is mounted on an open rack allowing air to circulate freely around the module.
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Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet Insulated Back Glass/Cell/Glass Close Roof Mount Solar cells are between a glass front and polymer back, and the module is mounted directly to a building surface in a building-integrated PV (BIPV) application preventing air from flowing over the module back. Solar cells are between a glass front and glass back, and the module is mounted on a rack with little clearance between the building surface and module back allowing little air to flow over the module back.
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Temperature Correction for Sandia, Simple Efficiency, and Concentrating PV Models

SAM uses the method described below to calculate a module and cell temperature and temperature correction factor for the Sandia, Simple Efficiency and Concentrating PV models. The model uses the temperature correction factor to adjust each hour's module efficiency value: The higher the module's temperature in a given hour, the lower the module's efficiency in that hour. You can explore temperature effects on the array's performance in the hourly output data. The data shows the hourly cell temperature, along with the solar radiation, wind speed, and ambient temperature. The temperature correction equations use the following input values from the Module page: Temperature coefficients. The Sandia model uses the four values listed in the Temperature Coefficients column. The Simple Efficiency and Concentrating PV models use the single temperature coefficient of power value. Temperature correction coefficients: a , b , and dT. For the Sandia and Simple Efficiency models, the three values appear under the Module Structure - Mounting option. For the Concentrating PV model, the values appear below the temperature coefficient variable. The equations use four hourly data sets from the weather file. You can see the hourly data by either viewing the climate data from the Climate page, or viewing the hourly results data after running simulations: Incident direct normal radiation Incident diffuse radiation Ambient temperature Wind speed
Table 6. Empirically-determined coefficients from the Sandia database for each of the module structure and mounting options available on the Module page.
Module Structure and Mounting Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet Open Rack Glass/Cell/Glass Open Rack Polymer/Thin Film/Steel Open Rack Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet Insulated Back Glass/Cell/Glass Close Roof Mount Concentrating PV Module a -3.56 -3.47 -3.58 -2.81 -2.98 -3.2 b -0.0750 -0.0594 -0.113 -0.0455 -0.0471 -0.09 dT C 3 3 3 0 1 17
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User Defined
Note. The default values for the User Defined option effectively remove temperature correction from the model so that the cell temperature is equal to the ambient temperature.
Table 7. Sample temperature coefficient values for different cell types based on an informal survey of manufacturer module specifications.
Cell Type Monocrystalline Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Amorphous Silicon Amorphous Silicon Triple Junction Copper Indium Gallium DiSelenide (CIGS) Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient (%/C) -0.49 -0.49 -0.24 -0.21 -0.45 -0.25
Temperature Correction Equations

The temperature correction algorithm first calculates the module back temperature based on the incident solar radiation, a and b coefficients, and the ambient temperature and wind speed:
Note. SAM assumes that the ambient temperature and wind speed data in the weather file are mid-hour values and that the radiation values are end-of-hour values. SAM interpolates temperature and wind speed values by averaging the current hour value with the previous hour value. Next, the cell temperature is calculated based on the module back temperature, incident radiation, and dT:
The temperature correction factor FTempCorr is:
In general, the temperature corrected module power is the the product of the power calculated by the module model and the temperature correction factor. Each module model (Sandia, Simple Efficiency, Concentrating PV) uses a different algorithm to calculate the module power before temperature correction:
Where,
EIncident (W/m2) E0 (W/m2)
The sum of the direct normal and diffuse radiation for the current hour in the weather data. SAM determines this value based on the data in the weather file. The reference total incident radiation, equal to 1000 W/m2.
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Photovoltaic Systems Tref (C) gamma (%/C) a, b

The reference temperature in degrees Celsius, equal to 25C. The maximum power temperature coefficient from Module page.
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dT
vWind (m/s) TAmbient (C) FTempCorr PBeforeTempCorr PTempCorr
Values from the Module page. They are empirically-determined coefficients accounting for the effect of wind on the module temperature: a defines the module temperature upper limit (at low wind speed and high solar radiation levels), and b defines the rate at which module temperature decreases as wind speed increases. The values depend on the module's construction, which determines its ability to absorb and shed heat. See the table above for typical values. Value from the Module page. The temperature difference between the cell and module back surface at the reference incident radiation of 1000 W/m2. The value depends on how the module is mounted in the system, which determines how much air comes into contact with the module back surface. See the table above for typical values. Wind speed from the weather file in meters per second. Ambient temperature from weather file. Temperature correction factor Module power before temperature correction Temperature-corrected module power
3.3.6
Inverter
The Inverter page allows you to choose an inverter performance model and either choose an inverter from a list or to specify the inverter capacity and efficiency. SAM assumes that the system consists of one or more of the same type of inverter. Specify the number of inverters in the system on the Array page. To view the Inverter page, click Inverter on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Inverter page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics SAM Performance Models.
Contents Overview describes the two inverter model options and how to choose one for your analysis. Sandia Inverter Performance Model describes the Sandia describes the model in more detail and explains the meanings of the input variables. Single-point Efficiency Inverter Model describes in the input variables and algorithms for the single-point efficiency model for inverters. Modeling Microinverters microinverters. provides instructions for modeling systems with
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Overview
The Inverter page allows you to choose an inverter performance model from two options, and displays the characteristics of the of the inverter. On the Inverter page, you specify the characteristics of a single inverter. To enter the number of inverters in the system, use the input variables on the Array page. SAM calculates the AC output of the total number of inverters in the system based on the DC output of the photovoltaic array calculated by the module performance model. The current version of SAM includes two inverter performance models, the Sandia Performance Model for Grid-Connected PV Inverters model and the single-point efficiency model. The Sandia model allows you to choose an inverter from a list of commercially-available inverters. The single-point efficiency model allows you to model inverters that are not in the list. To specify an inverter model: 1. Choose the model name from the list.
2.
For the Sandia model, choose an inverter from the database of available models. For the Single Point Efficiency Model, enter inverter characteristics.
Sandia Inverter Performance Model

The Sandia Performance Model for Grid-Connected PV Inverters is an empirically-based performance model that uses parameters from a database of commercially available inverters maintained by Sandia National Laboratory. The parameters are based on manufacturer specifications and laboratory measurements for a range of inverter types. The Sandia model consists of a set of equations that SAM uses to calculate the inverter's hourly AC output based on the DC input (equivalent to the derated output of the photovoltaic array) and a set of empiricallydetermined coefficients that describe the inverter's performance characteristics. The equations involve a set of coefficients that have been empirically determined based on data from manufacturer specification sheets and either field measurements from inverters installed in operating systems, or laboratory measurements using the California Energy Commission (CEC) test protocol. Because SAM does not track voltage levels in the system, it assumes that for each hour of the simulation, the inverter operates at the photovoltaic array's maximum power point voltage, given the solar resource data in the weather file for that hour. Note. If you are an inverter manufacturer and would like to add your module to the Sandia database, you should contact the California Energy Commission or Sandia National Laboratories directly. The Sandia inverter model is described in King D et al, 2007. Performance Model for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Inverters. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND2007-5036. http://infoserve.sandia.gov/ sand_doc/2007/075036.pdf The CEC inverter test protocol is described in Bower W et al, 2004. Performance Test Protocol for
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Evaluating Inverters Used in Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems. http://bewengineering.com/docs/index. htm To use the Sandia inverter model: On the Inverter page, choose Sandia Performance Model for Grid Connected PV Inverters. Choose an inverter from the list of available inverters. SAM displays the inverter's characteristics and model coefficients for your reference. If you are modeling an inverter not included in the database and want to use the Sandia model, you can try to find an inverter with similar characteristics to your inverter's specifications. Each inverter listing shows the manufacturer name, model number and AC voltage rating, and information in brackets about the organization responsible for generating the test data and the year the data was generated. "CEC" indicates that test data was generated by the California Energy Commission. 1. 2.
Inverter Characteristics
When you select an inverter from the Sandia database on the Inverter page, SAM displays the inverter's parameters for your reference. You can see the complete set of parameters in the Inverter library by using SAM's library editor. The Sandia inverter library includes parameters for modules that have been tested by Sandia National Laboratory. Manufacturers wishing to add their inverters to the Sandia database should contact Sandia National Laboratory directly. Because the parameters involve data from field and test measurements, it is not possible to generate parameters based only on manufacturer specifications. The following table describes the parameters in the Sandia inverter library, which are explained in more detail in the King 2004 reference cited above. AC Voltage (Vac) Rated output AC voltage from manufacturer specifications. Power ACo (Wac) Maximum output AC power at reference or nominal operating conditions. Available from manufacturer specifications. Power DCo (Wdc) Input DC power level at which the inverter's output is equal to the maximum AC power level. Available from manufacturer specifications. PowerSo (Wdc) DC power required for the inverter to start converting DC electricity to AC. Also called the inverter's selfconsumption power. Sometimes available from manufacturer specifications, and not to be confused with the nighttime AC power consumption. PowerNTare (Wac) AC power consumed by the inverter at night to operate voltage sensing circuitry when the photovoltaic array is not generating power. Available from manufacturer specifications. Vdcmax (Vdc) The inverter's maximum DC input voltage. Idcmax (Adc) The maximum DC voltage input, typically at or near the photovoltaic array's maximum power point
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current.
Coefficient 0 (1/V) Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the relationship between AC and DC power levels at the reference operating condition. Coefficient 1 (1/V) Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the value of the maximum DC power level. Coefficient 2 (1/V) Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the value of the self-consumption power level. Coefficient 3 (1/V) Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the value of Coefficient 0. MPPT-low (Vdc) Manufacturer-specified minimum DC operating voltage, as described in CEC test protocol (see reference above). Vdco (Vdc) The average of MPPT-low and MPPT-high, as described in the CEC test protocol (see reference above). MPPT-hi (Vdc) Manufacturer-specified maximum DC operating voltage, as described in CEC test protocol (see reference above). The test protocol specifies that the inverter's maximum DC voltage should not exceed 80% of the array's maximum allowable open circuit voltage.
Single Point Efficiency Inverter Model

The inverter single-point efficiency model calculates the inverter's AC output by multiplying the DC input (equivalent to the array's derated DC output) by a fixed DC-to-AC conversion efficiency that you specify on the Inverter page. Unlike the Sandia inverter model, the single-point efficiency model assumes that the inverter's efficiency does not vary under different operating conditions. To use the single-point efficiency inverter performance model: On the Inverter page, choose Single Point Efficiency Inverter. 1. Enter the inverter's rated AC power output in Watts. This information is available on manufacturer specifications sheets. 2. Enter the inverter's conversion efficiency as a percentage. Note that manufacturer specifications may include both a peak efficiency, which is the inverter's maximum efficiency; and a CEC weighted efficiency value, which is an average value that better represents the efficiency over a range of operating conditions. SAM calculates the inverter's rated DC power input using the following equation: Power DC (Wdc) = Power AC (Wac) / Efficiency (%)
Modeling Microinverters
The Sandia inverter model's library includes measured coefficients for several Enphase microinverters. A microinverter is an inverter designed to be connected to a single module. A PV system with
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microinverters has a single inverter for each module, rather than the more traditional single inverter connected to the array or to individual string of modules. Microinverters track each modules maximum power point independently, and minimize shading and module mismatch losses associated with string inverters. Notes. SAM assumes that all modules in the array operate at their maximum power point. The derate factor associated with module mismatch losses is an input on the Array page. When you model a system with microinverters, you should change the mismatch derate factor to 100% as described in the procedure below. SAM's self shading model on the Shading page does not account for MPPT tracking of individual modules and is not suitable for use with microinverters. For an example of a PV system with microinverters, see the Sample PV Systems sample file, which includes a 3.22 kWdc residential system with the Enphase M210 microinverter paired with SunPower SPR230 230 Wdc modules. To model a system with using microinverters in SAM: 1. 2. Choose an Enphase inverter from the Sandia Inverter list. On the Module page, choose a module matched with the microinverter. For the Enphase microinverters, choose a module with rated maximum DC power ratings (Pmp) in the range of 200-240 Wdc, and a nominal maximum power DC voltage (Vmp) in the 30-60 Vdc range. Consult the Enphase datasheet for more specific details. On the Array page, choose the Specify number of modules and inverters mode. For Modules per String, enter 1. To calculate the number of Strings in Parallel, divide the system's nameplate capacity by the module maximum power rating (Pmp) from the Module page: Strings in Parallel = System Nameplate Capacity (Wdc) / Module Maximum Power (Wdc) For Number of Inverters, enter the value you calculated for the number of strings in parallel: Number of Inverters = Strings in Parallel Under System Derates, for Mismatch, enter 100. Microinverters avoid system losses due to module-to-module mismatch. On the PV System Costs, be sure that the inverter cost is appropriate for the microinverter. On the Shading page, clear the Enable Self-Shading Calculator check box.
3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8. 9.
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3.4
3.4.1
Generic System
Generic System Overview
The generic system model is a basic representation of a conventional fossil-fuel power plant. The Generic technology option makes it possible to compare analyses of photovoltaic and concentrating power systems to a base case conventional fossil fuel plant in the residential, commercial and central generation markets. This section describes the system input pages that are available when the technology option in the Technology and Market window is Generic Fossil System. Fossil System Costs Fossil Plant User Variables
3.4.2
Generic Plant
To view the Fossil Plant page, click Fossil Plant on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the generic fossil system input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Generic Fossil System. The parameters for the generic fossil system are for a simple model of a fossil fuel power plant. Unlike the photovoltaic and concentrating solar power models, the generic model is not based on an hourly simulation engine. The first year annual energy output of the generic plant is based on a simple equation using the four System variables: Nameplate Capacity, Capacity Factor, Availability, and Derate. The First Year Annual Generation is calculated using the following equation:
Where,
EFirstYearOutput (kW) ENamePlate (%) FCapacityFactor (%)
First Year Annual Generation: The generic system's total output in the first year, before annual degradation applies. Nameplate Capacity: The rated capacity of the generic system. Capacity Factor: The expected net generated electricity over one year (8760 hours) divided by the electricity that could have been generated at continuous full rated power over the year. Base load plants typically operate at capacity factors of about 90%, with capacity factors of less than 100% due to curtailed output. Load following plants and peaking plants will have lower capacity factors. The Availability factor from the Annual Performance page: the number of hours per year that the generic system is able to produce electricity divided by the number of hours in one year (8760 hours). Availability factors of less than 100% are typically due to plant down time for maintenance and repair. A derating factor applied to the generic system rated capacity to account for output reductions caused by inefficiencies in the system from wiring losses or other causes.
FAvailability (%)
FDerate (%)
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SAM also applies the system degradation factor from the Annual Performance page to represent an annual reduction in system output due to equipment aging that applies to year two and subsequent years. The heat rate determines the cost of fuel reported as Fuel O&M Expense in year one of the project cash flow, and accounted for in the output metrics reported on the Results page. SAM uses the heat rate to calculate the first year fuel cost as follows:
Where,
CFirstYearFuel ($/yr) CCostOfFuel ($/MMBtu) FHeatRate (MMBtu/MWh) EFirstYearOutput ()
The total cost of fuel for year one of the project cash flow, shown as the Fuel O&M Expense reported for Year 1 in the project cash flow. Cost of Fuel from the Fossil System Costs page. The generic system's heat rate, or conversion efficiency, equivalent to the number of MMBtu of heat required to produce one MWh of electricity. The generic system's total electricity output in the first year.
3.5
Dish Stirling
A dish-Stirling system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that consists of a parabolic dish-shaped collector, receiver and Stirling engine. The collector focuses direct normal solar radiation on the receiver, which transfers heat to the engine's working fluid. The engine in turn drives an electric generator. A dish-Stirling power plant can consist of a single dish or a field of dishes. SAM's dish-Stirling performance model uses the TRNSYS implementation of the energy prediction model described in the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel. gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB). This user guide describes the dish-Stirling system input variables and some basic calculations in SAM, and is intended to be used with the Fraser publication, which describes dish-Stirling systems and the model algorithms in more detail. This section describes the system input pages that are available when the technology option in the Technology and Market window is Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System. For an example of a dish-Stirling system, open the sample file Sample Dish Stirling Systems: On the File menu, click Open Sample Template and select the file from the list. The file contains two cases. The first case represents a 25 kW system consisting of a single collector-receiver-engine unit. The second case represents a 100 MW field of collector-receiver-engine units. The dish-Stirling input pages are: Dish System Costs System Library Solar Field Collector Receiver Stirling Engine Parasitics
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Reference Inputs User Variables
3.5.1
System Library
To view the System Library page, click System Library on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System. For dish-Stirling systems, a complete set of default values for the parameters on the system pages (except costs) are stored in the system library. There is a set of default input values for two systems: SES and WGA-ADDS. When you choose one of these systems, SAM populates the input pages with parameters appropriate for the system. You can modify variable values on the input pages without affecting the values stored in the library. Note: These systems are discussed in the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB).
3.5.2
Solar Field
To view the Solar Field page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.
Contents Overview describes the Solar Field page and lists references for more detailed information. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the solar field page. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the calculated values on the Solar Field page.
Overview
The parameters on the Solar Field page define the size of the solar field and the layout of the dish network. To explore the impact of these parameters on the system's costs and performance, change the value of the parameter. The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB) are: 3.1 Parabolic Collector Model, p 63
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Appendix A: TRNSYS Parabolic Collector Model, p 152
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Field Layout
The solar field is assumed to be a rectangular field with collectors oriented north-south and east-west. Number of Collectors North-South Number of collectors oriented along north-south lines. Used to calculate the total number of collectors. Number of Collectors East-West Number of collectors oriented along east-west lines. Used to calculate the total number of collectors. Number of Collectors Total number of collectors in the field. Used to calculate the predicted system output, the shading factor, and piping distance for pumping loss calculation. Collector Separation North-South (m) Center-to-center distance between collectors along north-south lines. Used to calculate the solar field area, shading factor, and piping distance for pumping loss calculation. Collector Separation East-West (m) Center-to-center distance between collectors along east-west lines. Used to calculate the solar field area, shading factor, and piping distance for pumping loss calculation. Total Solar Field Area (m 2) The total ground area occupied by the collectors. Used in area-related cost calculations.
System Properties
Wind Stow Speed (m/s) When the wind velocity from the weather file for the current hour is greater than or equal to this value, the concentrator moves into stow position to prevent wind damage. The solar power intercepted by the receiver is zero during this hour. Total Solar Field Capacity (kWe) Nominal electric output capacity of the solar field. Used in capacity-related cost calculations.
Array Shading Parameters

SAM uses the shading parameters to calculate the shading of the concentrator mirror by the dish components and by neighboring dish systems. SAM's approach to modeling shading is different from the Osborn approach described in the Fraser thesis. Ground Slope, North-South (%) Slope of the ground in percent (rise over run) along a north-south line. A positive slope indicates that for two dishes aligned north-south, the dish to the south is lower than the dish to the north. Used to calculate shading factor. Ground Slope,East-West (%) Slope of the ground in percent (rise over run) along a east-west line. A positive slope indicates that for
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two dishes aligned east-west, the dish to the east is lower than the dish to the west. Used to calculate shading factor.
Slot Gap Width (m) Average width of the slot in the mirror perpendicular to the vertical support post. Used to calculate shading factor. Slot Gap Height (m) Average height of the slot in the mirror parallel to the vertical support post. Used to calculate shading factor.
Equations for Calculated Values

Number of Collectors
The total number of collectors is calculated based on the numbers of north-south and east-west oriented collectors.
Where,
NColl NColl,N-S NColl,E-W
Number of Collectors Number of Collectors North-South Number of Collectors East-West
Total Solar Field Area

The total solar field area is the product of the north-south and east west dish collector separation distances and the number of collectors.
Where,
ASF (m2) d CollSep,N-S

(m)
Total Solar Field Area Collector Separation North-South Collector Separation East-West Number of Collectors
d CollSep,E-W
(m)
NColl
Total Capacity
The total solar field capacity is the product of the number of collectors and the engine nameplate capacity on the Stirling Engine page.
Where,
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Total Capacity Singe Unit Nameplate Capacity from the Stirling Engine page. Number of Collectors
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3.5.3
Collector
To view the Collector page, click Collector on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System
Contents Overview describes the Collector page and lists references for more detailed information. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Collector page. Default Parameter Values shows a table of default values for different systems.
Overview
The collector consists of parabolic mirrors, a support structure, and two-axis tracking system. The mirrors focus direct normal solar radiation on the aperture of the receiver. The receiver aperture size is typically optimized to maximize the quantity of reflected solar radiation that enters the receiver and minimize convection and radiation losses out of the aperture. The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB) are: 2.1 Parabolic Concentrator, p 7 3.1 Parabolic Collector Model, p 63 Appendix A: TRNSYS Parabolic Collector Model, p 150 Appendix A: TRNSYS Parasitic Power Model, p 158

The parameters on the Collector page are used to calculate the power output of the collector. The parameters are for a single dish collector, and are assumed to apply to each dish in the solar field.
Mirror Parameters
Projected Mirror Area (m 2) Area of one concentrator's mirror projected on the aperture plane. Used to calculated the solar power intercepted by the receiver, and the shading factor.
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Area of mirrored parabolic surface. Used to calculate collector diameter, which is used in the rim angle calculation and in the shading factor calculation.
Total Mirror Area (m 2)
Mirror Reflectance The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs, typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0..906 (silvered polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface).
Performance
Insolation Cut In (W/m 2) Direct normal radiation value above which the cooling system fan operates. Used to calculated parasitic losses.
Default Parameter Values

Table 8. Collector default parameter values.
Variable Projected Mirror Area Total Mirror Area Insolation Cut In Wind Stow Speed Receiver Aperture Diameter for Reference Intercept Factor Reference Intercept Factor Reference Focal Length of Mirror SES 87.7 91.0 200 16 0.184 0.995 7.45 WGA 41.2 42.9 275 16 0.14 0.998 5.45 SBP 56.7 60 250 16 0.15 0.93 4.5 SAIC 113.5 117.2 375 16 0.38 0.90 12.0
3.5.4
Receiver
To view the Receiver page, click Receiver on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.
Contents Overview describes the Receiver page and lists references for more detailed information. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Receiver page.
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Default Parameter Values shows a table of default values for different systems.
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Overview
The receiver absorbs thermal energy from the parabolic concentrator and transfers the energy to the working fluid of the Stirling engine. The receiver consists of an aperture and absorber. The receiver aperture is located at the parabolic concentrator's focal point. The current version of SAM models one receiver type, direct illumination receivers, in which solar radiation is directly absorbed by absorber tubes containing the working fluid. Direct illumination receivers are the receiver type most commonly used for dish-Stirling systems. The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB) are: 2.2 Receiver, p 14 6.1 Modifying the Receiver Aperture Diameter, p 133 6.2 Receiver Cover versus no Cover, p 134 Appendix A: TRNSYS Receiver Model, p 153 SAM uses the receiver parameters to calculate thermal losses from the receiver, which typically account for over 50% of the system's total losses. Other system losses include collector losses due to mirror reflectivity, receiver intercept losses, and Stirling engine losses. Receiver thermal losses are due to conduction, convection, and radiation: Conductive losses through the receiver housing. Natural convection from the cavity in the absence of wind. Forced convection in the presence of wind. Emission losses due to thermal radiation emitted from the receiver aperture. Radiation losses reflected off of the receiver cavity surfaces and out of the receiver through the aperture.

Aperture
Receiver Aperture Diameter (m) Diameter of the opening in the receiver that allows solar radiation to reach the absorber, and radiation and convection losses to escape the receiver cavity. Typical values range from 0.14 m to 0.20 m.
Insulation
Thickness (m) Thickness of the receiver housing insulation. Typically about 75 mm. Used to calculate conduction losses. Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K) Thermal conductivity of the receiver cavity wall at 550 degrees Celsius. For high-temperature ceramic fiber, the value is 0.061 W/m-K. Used to calculate conduction losses.
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Absorber
The absorber is a component of the receiver that absorbs solar radiation and transfers thermal energy to the Stirling engine. Absorber Absorptance The ratio of energy absorbed by the receiver absorber to the solar radiation reaching the absorber. Used to calculate radiation losses. Absorber Surface Area (m 2) Area of the absorber surface. Used to calculate the internal cavity area.
Cavity
The cavity parameters determine the cavity's geometry. The internal cavity area is the sum of the cavity wall surface area and absorber area and is used to calculate radiation, conduction and convection losses. Cavity Absorptance The ratio of energy absorbed by the cavity wall to radiation reaching it. Used to calculated reflected radiation losses. Cavity Surface Area (m 2) Area of the cavity wall surface. Used to calculate the internal cavity area. Internal diameter of the Cavity Perp. to Aperture (m) Average diameter of the cavity perpendicular to the receiver aperture. Used to calculate the internal cavity area. Internal Cavity Pressure with Aperture covered (kPa) Applies only to receivers with a cover. Used to calculate convection losses. Internal Depth of the Cavity Perpendicular to the Aperture (m) Equivalent to the cavity's characteristic length, which is used to calculate convection losses.

Table 9. Receiver default parameter values.
Variable Absorber Absorptance Absorber Surface Area Cavity Wall Absorptance Cavity Wall Surface Area Internal Diameter of the Cavity Perpendicular to the Receiver Aperture Internal Depth of the Cavity Perpendicular to the Aperture Receiver Insulation Thickness Insulation Thermal Conductivity Delta Temp. for DIR Receiver SES 0.90 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.46 0.46 0.075 0.06 90 WGA 0.90 0.15 0.6 0.15 0.35 0.35 0.075 0.06 70 SBP 0.90 0.15 0.6 0.15 0.37 0.37 0.075 0.06 70 SAIC 0.90 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.075 0.06 90
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3.5.5
Stirling Engine
To view the Stirling Engine page, click Stirling Engine on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System. Contents Overview describes the Stirling Engine page and lists references for more detailed information. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Stirling Engine page. Default Parameter Values shows a table of default values for different systems.
Overview
The Stirling engine converts heat from the receiver's absorber to mechanical power that drives an electric generator. The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB) are: 2.3 Stirling Engine Design, p 29 2.4 Stirling Engine Analysis Methods, p 40 3.3 Stirling Engine/System Models, p 82 6 TRNSYS Model Performance Predictions, p 132 Appendix A: TRNSYS Stirling Engine and Generator Model, p 156 The Stirling engine model is based on the Beale curve-fit equation with temperature correction described in Fraser (2008). The model calculates the average hourly engine power output in Watts as a function of the Beale curve-fit equation, pressure curve-fit equation, the engine displacement and operating speed, and expansion space (heater head) temperatures. The Beale curve-fit equation calculates the engine's gross output power as a function of the input power calculated by the collector and receiver models. SAM determines the compression space temperature from the ambient temperatures in the weather data file.

Estimated Generation
Single Unit Nameplate Capacity (kW) The nominal electrical power output of the engine-generator set for a single dish-Stirling unit. Used for capacity-related cost calculations.
Engine Parameters
Heater Head Set Temperature (K) Expansion space temperature set point.
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The expansion space temperature in an engine with multiple cylinders of the heater head with the lowest temperature. The heater head temperature is equivalent to the expansion space temperature.
Heater Head Lowest Temperature
Engine Operating Speed (rpm) The rotational speed of the engine drive shaft. Used to calculate the engine output power. Displaced Engine Volume (m 3) The volume displaced by the pistons. Used to calculate the engine output power.
Beale Curve Fit Coefficients

The Beale numbers are a set of coefficients for the Beale curve-fit equation that describes the engine's power output as a function of its input power and the engine pressure.
Pressure Curve Fit Coefficients

The pressure curve-fit equation expresses the engine pressure as a function of engine input power for a constant volume system.

Table 10. Stirling engine default parameter values.
The following parameter values are based on values developed for the model. The SBP and SAIC engines are not included in the SAM standard library and require a different set of equations (see Fraser 35). Variable Heater Head Set Temperature Heater Head Lowest Temperature Engine Operating Speed Displaced Engine Volume Beale Constant Coefficient Beale First-order Coefficient Beale Second-order Coefficient Beale Third-order Coefficient Beale Fourth-order Coefficient Pressure Constant Coefficient SES 993 973 1800
-4 3.80 10 -2 4.247 10 -5 1.682 10 -10 -5.105 10 -15 7.07260 10 -20 -3.586 10 -1 6.58769 10
WGA 903 903 1800

-4 1.60 10 -2 8.50686 10 -5 1.94116 10 -10 -3.18449 10 0 0 -1 -7.36342 10
SBP 903 903 1800

-4 1.60 10 -3 -1,82451 10 -5 2.60289 10 -10 -4.68164 10 0 0 -2 -2.00284 10
SAIC 993 973 2200

-4 4.80 10 -2 -1.6 10 -5 1.5 10 -10 -3.50 10 -15 3.85 10 -20 -1.6 10 -5 3.47944 10
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Pressure First-order Coefficient
-4 2.34963 10 -4 3.6416 10 -4 3.52522 10 -9 5.26329 10
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3.5.6
Parasitics
To view the Parasitics Costs page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.
Contents Overview describes the Parasitics page and lists references for more detailed information. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Parasitics page.
Overview
The input variables on the Parasitics page are used to calculate the compression space temperature and the electrical power consumption of pumps, cooling fans, and tracking controls. The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB) are: 2.5 Cooling System, p 55 3.4 Cooling System Analysis for Total System Optimization, p 92 Appendix A: TRNSYS Parasitic Power Model, p 158

Parasitic Parameters
Control System Parasitic Power, Avg. (W) Average power required by the tracking control system. Cooling System Pump Speed (rpm) Cooling fluid pump operating speed. Used to calculated parasitic losses due to cooling fluid pumping. Cooling System Fan Speed 1 (rpm) Fan operating speed when the cooling fluid temperature is less than the fan speed 2 cut-in temperature below. Cooling System Fan Speed 2 (rpm) Fan operating speed when the cooling fluid temperature is greater than the fan speed 2 cut-in and less than fan speed 3 cut-in temperature below.
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Fan operating speed when the cooling fluid temperature is greater than fan speed 3 cut-in temperature below.
Cooling System Fan Speed 3 (rpm)
Cooling Fluid Temp. for Fan Speed 2 Cut-In (C) Cooling fluid temperature set point. Used to determine fan operating speeds. Cooling Fluid Temp. for Fan Speed 3 Cut-In (C) Cooling fluid temperature set point. Used to determine fan operating speeds. Cooling Fluid Type Fluid used in the cooling system. Options are water, 50% ethylene glycol (EG), 25% ethylene glycol, 40% propylene glycol (PG), and 40% propylene glycol. Percentages are by volume. Cooler Effectiveness Used to calculate working fluid temperatures in the cooling system as part of the compression space temperature calculation. Radiator Effectiveness Used to calculate cooling fluid temperature at the cooling system outlet as part of the compression space temperature calculation.
3.5.7
Reference Inputs
To view the Reference Inputs page, click Reference Inputs on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.
Contents Overview describes the Reference Inputs page and lists references for more detailed information. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Reference Inputs page. Parasitic Variable Reference Conditions lists the reference conditions for different systems.
Overview
SAM uses the reference condition parameters in an iterative process to calculate the total collector error for a given set of values for the aperture diameter, focal length, and collector diameter. Once the collector error is calculated, that value can be used to calculate a new intercept factor for different aperture diameters (See Fraser, p 150-151).
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Collector Reference Condition Inputs
Intercept Factor Fraction of energy reflected from the parabolic mirror that enters the receiver aperture. The intercept factor can be increased by increasing the concentration ratio or by increasing the size of the aperture. Intercept factors typically range between 0.94 and 0.99. Focal Length of Mirror (m) Parabolic mirror focal length.
Parasitic Variable Reference Conditions

The reference condition parameters given in the table below and as user inputs in SAM are used in the pump law calculations that are part of the parasitic loss equations. Variable Pump Parasitic Power Pump Speed (rpm) Cooling Fluid Type Cooling Fluid Temperature (K) Cooling Fluid Volumetric Flow Rate (gal/min) Cooling System Fan Test Power (W) Cooling System Fan Test Speed (rpm) Fan Air Density (kg/m3) Fan Volumetric Flow Rate (CFM) SES 150 1800 50% EG 288 WGA 100 1800 50% EG 288 SBP 175 1800 water 288 SAIC 300 1800 50% EG 288
7.5
7.5
12
1000 890 1.2 6000
410 890 1.2 4000
510 890 1.2 4500
2500 850 1.2 10000
3.6
Parabolic Trough Empirical
A parabolic trough system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that collects direct normal solar radiation and converts it to thermal energy that runs a power block to generate electricity. The components of a parabolic trough system are the solar field, power block, and in some cases, thermal energy storage and fossil backup systems. The solar field collects heat from the sun and consists of parabolic, trough-shaped solar collectors that focus direct normal solar radiation onto tubular receivers.
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Each collector assembly consists of mirrors and a structure that supports the mirrors and receivers, allows it to track the sun on one axis, and can withstand wind-induced forces. Each receiver consists of a metal tube with a solar radiation absorbing surface in a vacuum inside a coated glass tube. A heat transfer fluid (HTF) transports heat from the solar field to the power block (also called power cycle) and other components of the system. The power block is based on conventional power cycle technology, using a turbine to convert thermal energy from the solar field to electric energy. The optional fossil-fuel backup system delivers supplemental heat to the HTF during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive the power block at its rated capacity. The empirical parabolic trough model uses a set of equations based on empirical analysis of data collected from installed systems (the SEGS projects in the southwestern United States) to represent the performance of parabolic trough components. The model is based on Excelergy, a model initially developed for inernal use at at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. For information about the physical parabolic trough model, see Parabolic Trough Physical. Note. Many of the input variables in the parabolic trough model are interrelated and should be changed together. For example, the storage capacity, which is expressed in hours of thermal storage, should not be changed without changing the tank heat loss value, which depends on the size of the storage system. Some of these relationships are described in this documentation, but not all. If you have questions about parabolic trough input variables, please contact SAM Support at solar.advisor. support@nrel.gov. To use the parabolic trough empirical model: Open the sample parabolic trough sample file: On the File menu, click Open Sample Template and choose Sample Parabolic Trough Systems from the list, or In the Technology and Market window, choose Concentrating Solar Power, Empirical Trough System. The sample file contains four cases. The first three cases use the physical trough model, and the fourth case uses the empirical model. The fourth case represents a 100 MW baseline system with a medium temperature heat-transfer fluid and an indirect 2-tank thermal energy storage system. The parabolic trough input pages for this option described in this section are: Trough System Costs Solar Field SCA / HCE (solar collector assembly / heat collection element) Power Block Thermal Storage Parasitics User Variables
3.6.1
Solar Field
To view the Solar Field page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.
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Contents Overview describes the Solar Field page and where to find more information about the solar field model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Solar Field page. Choosing the Field Layout Mode explains the two field layout options: Solar multiple and solar field area. About the Solar Multiple Reference Conditions explains how to choose an appropriate reference direct normal radiation value for a given location. About the Heat Transfer Fluid Properties explains the role of the heat transfer fluid in the system and describes the properties of the HTFs available in the default library. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the calculated values on the Solar Field page.
Overview
The Solar Field page displays variables and options that describe the size and properties of the solar field, properties of the heat transfer fluid, reference design specifications of the solar field, and collector orientation. For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the SAM website's support page: https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/support.html.

Field Layout
Option 1: Solar Multiple and Option 2: Solar Field Area For option 1, (solar multiple mode), SAM calculates the solar field area and displays it in Solar Field Area (calc). For option 2 (solar field area mode), SAM calculates the solar multiple and displays it in Solar Multiple (calc). Note that SAM does not use the value that appears dimmed for the inactive option. Distance Between SCAs in Row (m) The end-to-end distance in meters between SCAs (solar collection elements, or collectors) in a single row, assuming that SCAs are laid out uniformly in all rows of the solar field. SAM uses this value to calculate the end loss. This value is not part of the SCA library on the SCA / HCE page, and should be verified manually to ensure that it is appropriate for the SCA type that appears on the SCA / HCE page. Row spacing, center-to-center (m) The centerline-to-centerline distance in meters between rows of SCAs, assuming that rows are laid out uniformly throughout the solar field. SAM uses this value to calculate the row-to-row shadowing loss factor. This value is not part of the SCA library, and should be verified manually to ensure that it is
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appropriate for the SCA type that appears on the SCA / HCE page.
Number of SCAs per Row The number of SCAs in each row, assuming that each row in the solar field has the same number of SCAs. SAM uses this value in the SCA end loss calculation. Deploy Angle (degrees) The SCA angle during the hour of deployment. A deploy angle of zero for a northern latitude is vertical facing due east. SAM uses this value along with sun angle values to determine whether the current hour of simulation is the hour of deployment, which is the hour before the first hour of operation in the morning. SAM assumes that this angle applies to all SCAs in the solar field. Stow Angle (degrees) The SCA angle during the hour of stow. A stow angle of zero for a northern latitude is vertical facing east, and 180 degrees is vertical facing west. SAM uses this value along with the sun angle values to determine whether the current hour of simulation is the hour of stow, which is the hour after the final hour of operation in the evening.
Heat Transfer Fluid

Solar Field HTF Type Name of the heat transfer fluid type. The Minimum HTF Temp value depends on the HTF type. The available fluid types are limited to those described in the HTF Properties section. Property table for user-defined HTF When the Solar Field HTF type is "User-defined," click Edit to enter properties of a custom HTF. Solar Field Inlet Temp (C) Design temperature of the solar field inlet in degrees Celsius used to calculate design solar field average temperature, and design HTF enthalpy at the solar field inlet. SAM also limits the solar field inlet temperature to this value during operation and solar field warm up, and uses this value to calculate the actual inlet temperature when the solar field energy is insufficient for warm-up. Solar Field Outlet Temp (C) Design temperature of the solar field outlet in degrees Celsius, used to calculate design solar field average temperature. It is also used to calculate the design HTF enthalpy at the solar field outlet, which SAM uses to determine whether solar field is operating or warming up. SAM also uses this value to calculate the actual inlet temperature when the solar field energy is insufficient for warm-up. Solar Field Initial Temp (C) Initial solar field inlet temperature. The solar field inlet temperature is set to this value for hour one of the simulation. Piping Heat Losses @ Design Temp (W/m 2) Solar field piping heat loss in Watts per square meter of solar field area when the difference between the average solar field temperature and ambient temperature is 316.5C. Used in solar field heat loss calculation. See Equations for Calculated Values for details. Piping Heat Loss Coeff (1-3) These three values are used with the solar field piping heat loss at design temperature to calculate solar field piping heat loss. See Equations for Calculated Values for details.
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Solar Field Piping Heat Losses (W/m 2)
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Design solar field piping heat losses. This value is used only in the solar field size equations. This design value different from the hourly solar field pipe heat losses calculated during simulation. See Equations for Calculated Values for details. Minimum HTF Temp (C) Minimum heat transfer fluid temperature in degrees Celsius. SAM automatically populates the value based on the properties of the solar field HTF type, i.e., changing the HTF type changes the minimum HTF temperature. The value determines when freeze protection energy is required, is used to calculate HTF enthalpies for the freeze protection energy calculation, and is the lower limit of the average solar field temperature. HTF Gallons Per Area (gal/m 2) Volume at 25C of HTF per square meter of solar field area, used to calculate the total mass of HTF in the solar field, which is used to calculate solar field temperatures and energies during hourly simulations. The volume includes fluid in the entire system including the power block and storage system if applicable. Example values are: SEGS VI: 115,000 gal VP-1 for a 188,000 m2 solar field is 0.612 gal/m2, SEGS VIII 340,500 gal VP-1 and 464,340 m2 solar field is 0.733 ga/m2.
Solar Multiple (Design Point)

Note. The ambient temperature, direct normal radiation, and wind velocity reference variables differ from the hourly weather data that SAM uses for system output calculations. SAM uses the reference ambient condition variables to size the solar field. Hourly data from the weather file shown on the Climate page determine the solar resource at the site. Solar Multiple (calc) The solar field area expressed as a multiple of the exact area (see "Exact Area" below). SAM uses the calculated solar multiple value to calculate the design solar field thermal energy and the maximum thermal energy storage charge rate. Solar Field Area (calc) (m 2) The solar field area expressed in square meters. SAM uses this value in the delivered thermal energy calculations. The solar field area is the total collection aperture area, which is less than the mirror area. The solar field area does not include space between collectors or the land required by the power block. Ambient Temp (C) Reference ambient temperature in degrees Celsius. Used to calculate the design solar field pipe heat losses. Direct Normal Radiation (W/m 2) Reference direct normal radiation in Watts per square meter. Used to calculate the solar field area that would be required at this insolation level to generate enough thermal energy to drive the power block at the design turbine thermal input level. SAM also uses this value to calculate the design HCE heat losses displayed on the SCA / HCE page. The appropriate value depends on the system location. For example, 950 W/m2 is an appropriate value for the Mohave Desert and typical locations under consideration for development in the U.S., and 800 W/m2 is appropriate for southern Spain. See below for more information.
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Reference wind velocity in meters per second. SAM uses this value to calculate the design HCE heat losses displayed on the SCA / HCE page.
Wind Velocity (m/s)
Exact Area (m 2) The solar field area required to deliver sufficient solar energy to drive the power block at the design turbine gross output level under reference weather conditions. It is equivalent to a solar multiple of one, and used to calculate the solar field area when the Layout mode is Solar Multiple. Exact Num. SCAs The exact area divided by the SCA aperture area. SAM uses the nearest integer greater than or equal to this value in the solar field size equations to calculate value of the Solar Field Area (calc) variable described above. The exact number of SCAs represents the number of SCAs in a solar field for a solar multiple of one. Aperture Area per SCA (m 2) SCA aperture area variable from the SCA / HCE page. SAM uses this value in the solar field size equations to calculate the value of the Solar Field Area (calc) variable described above. HCE Thermal Losses (W/m 2) Design HCE thermal losses based on the heat loss parameters from the SCA / HCE page. SAM uses this value only in the solar field size equations. This design value is different from the hourly HCE thermal losses calculated during simulation. Optical Efficiency Weighted optical efficiency variable from the SCA / HCE page. SAM uses this design value only in the solar field size equations. This design value is different from SCA efficiency factor calculated during simulations. Design Turbine Thermal Input (MWt) Design turbine thermal input variable from the Power Block page. Used to calculate the exact area described above.
Orientation
Collector Tilt (degrees) The collector angle from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal. A positive value tilts up the end of the array closest to the equator (the array's south end in the northern hemisphere), a negative value tilts down the southern end. Used to calculate the solar incidence angle and SCA tracking angle. SAM assumes that the SCAs are fixed at the tilt angle. Collector Azimuth (degrees) The azimuth angle of the collector, where zero degrees is pointing toward the equator, equivalent to a north-south axis. Used to calculate the solar incidence angle and the SCA tracking angle. SAM calculates the SCAs' tracking angle for each hour, assuming that the SCAs are oriented 90 degrees east of the azimuth angle in the morning and track the daily movement of the sun from east to west.
Choosing the Field Layout Mode

SAM provides two options for defining the size of the solar field: Solar Multiple (Option 1) and Solar Field Area (Option 2).
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Note. The field layout mode options are similar to the options for the physical trough model. For details about choosing between the two options, and optimizing the solar multiple for systems with and without storage, see Sizing the Solar Field for the physical trough model. In Solar Multiple mode, SAM calculates the solar field area based on the solar multiple, the power block's rated thermal input capacity, reference weather conditions, and design heat loss parameters. For a solar multiple of one, SAM calculates the solar field area that, under reference weather conditions and accounting for heat losses from the field, generates a thermal energy amount equal to the design turbine thermal input value from the Power Block page. In Solar Field Area mode, SAM uses the user-defined solar field area, and calculates the equivalent solar multiple. The solar multiple mode is useful for determining the optimal solar field area for a given location. By varying the solar multiple, you can find the value that minimizes the levelized cost of energy for a given power block capacity. The levelized cost of energy metric captures the tradeoff between the benefit of higher annual electricity output and the cost of increased capital expenditures associated with increasing the solar field area. Using the Solar Multiple mode is best for analyses involving a known or fixed power block capacity because SAM automatically calculates the solar field area based on the power block capacity. The Solar Field Area mode is best for analyses involving a known or fixed solar field area, but requires that the power block capacity be manually adjusted to match the solar field output. The third case in the Sample Parabolic Trough System file "Phys Trough - Parameterized Storage," illustrates this approach using the physical trough model. The case compares the levelized cost of energy for systems with different solar multiple values with and without storage. You can use the same approach with the empirical model. For a description of the approach, see Sizing the Solar Field.
About the Solar Multiple Reference Conditions

The three reference condition variables, ambient temperature, direct normal radiation, and wind velocity, are the ambient conditions at which the solar field thermal output is equal to the power block's design thermal input multiplied by the solar multiple. In other words, under reference conditions, the system operates at the system's design capacity. Note that these reference condition variables are system design parameters, and do not describe the weather conditions at the project site. Weather conditions are determined by the data in the weather file shown on the Climate page. The reference ambient temperature and reference wind velocity variables are used to calculate the design heat losses, and do not have a significant effect on the solar field sizing calculations. Reasonable values for those two variables are the average annual measured ambient temperature and wind velocity at the project location. The reference direct normal radiation value, on the other hand, does have a significant impact on the solar field size calculations. For example, a system with reference conditions of 25C, 950 W/m2, and 5 m/s (ambient temperature, direct normal radiation, and wind speed, respectively), a solar multiple of 2, and a 100 MWe power block, requires a solar field area of 871,940 m2. The same system with reference direct normal radiation of 800 W/m2 requires a solar field area of 1,055,350 m2. Note that with a solar multiple of 2, both systems would produce two times the thermal energy required to drive the power block at its rated capacity during hours in which the direct normal radiation, temperature, and wind speed from the weather file are equal to the reference conditions. For systems in the Mohave Desert of the United States, a value of 950 W/m2 is reasonable, and for
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southern Spain, a value of 800 W/m2 is reasonable. Four factors affect the choice of a reference direct normal radiation value for a given system: Location defined on the Climate page. Storage capacity defined on the Thermal Storage page. Maximum storage charge rate defined on the Thermal Storage page. Variability of the solar resource over the year, determined by the weather data as defined on the Climate page. Using too low of a reference direct normal radiation value results in excessive dumped energy: The actual direct normal radiation from the weather data is frequently greater than the reference value so that the solar field sized for the low reference radiation value often produces more energy than required by the power block, and excess thermal energy is either dumped or put into storage. On the other hand, using too high of a reference direct normal radiation value results in an undersized solar field that produces sufficient thermal energy to drive the power block at its design point only during the few hours when the actual direct normal radiation is at or greater than the reference value.
Method 1 for Choosing the Reference Direct Normal Radiation Value

The first approach to choosing a value for the reference direct normal radiation value is to set the value to the maximum value of the incident direct normal radiation (Q_nipCosTh) reported in the hourly simulation results. To display the cumulative distribution function for the direct normal radiation data: 1. 2. 3. 4. On the Solar Field page, choose the collector tilt and azimuth values you plan to use for your analysis. Click Run. The values you use for the other inputs are not important at this stage, so you can use default or preliminary values. On the Results menu, click View Hourly Time Series. In the data viewer (DView), click the CDF tab and choose Q_nipCosTh in the variable list to display the "CDF of Q_nipCosTh" graph. You can either read the maximum value off of the graph as the right-most value on the x-axis, or right-click the graph to export values to a text file and read the maximum value there. You can also find the maximum Q_nipCosTh in the simulation output file (.out) as described in Viewing Hourly Output Data. Use this option if you are running SAM on a Mac.
Method 2 for Choosing the Reference Direct Normal Radiation Value

Another approach to determine the reference direct normal radiation value for a given location is to find the value that minimizes the amount of thermal energy that the system dumps. To minimize dumped thermal energy: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Use Option 1 (Solar Multiple) for the field layout option and set the value to one. Enter an arbitrary value for the reference direct normal radiation, such as 950 W/m2. Run a simulation. In the hourly simulation results, examine the amount of dumped thermal energy QDump. You can view the variable's hourly values either in the time series data viewer or in Excel. If the amount of dumped thermal energy is excessive, try a lower value for the reference direct
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normal radiation value and repeat the above steps. To determine the reference solar radiation value based on dumped thermal energy: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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On the Solar Field page use the Solar Multiple option under Layout and set its value to one. Enter an arbitrary value for the reference solar radiation value. Run a simulation. In the hourly simulation results, examine the amount of dumped thermal energy QDump. You can view the variable's hourly values by clicking either Spreadsheet or Time Series Graph. If the amount of dumped thermal energy is excessive, try a lower value for the reference solar radiation and repeat the above steps.
About the Heat Transfer Fluid Properties

The solar field heat transfer fluid (HTF) absorbs heat as it circulates through the heat collection elements in the solar field and transports the heat to the power block where it is used to run a turbine. Several types of heat transfer fluid are used for trough systems, including hydrocarbon (mineral) oils, synthetic oils, silicone oils and nitrate salts. When you choose a heat transfer fluid, SAM populates the minimum HTF temperature variable with that oil's minimum operating temperature value. SAM will not allow the system to operate at a temperature below the minimum HTF temperature. Electric heaters in the system maintain the fluid temperature. SAM accounts for the electric power requirement for heating on the Parasitics page. The remaining heat transfer fluid parameters describe characteristics of the solar field that affect the performance of the heat transfer fluid. The two area-related parameters refer to square meters of solar field area. If you are unsure of what values to use for these parameters, refer to the Solar Field page for the case in Sample Parabolic Trough Systems.zsam. Note. Solar field outlet temperature and solar field area data for U.S. parabolic trough power plants are available on the Troughnet website at http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/power_plant_data.html.
Table 11. Heat transfer fluids.

Min HTF Temp C 260 -20 Max Operating Temp C 600 300
Name Solar Salt Caloria Salt
Type mineral hydrocarbon oil Nitrate salt mixture of biphenyl and diphenyl oxide Nitrate salt
Freeze Point 220 -40
Comments used in first Luz trough plant, SEGS I New generation Standard for current generation oil HTF systems For hightemperature systems
Hitec XL Therminol VP-1
150 50
500 400
120 12
Hitec
175
500
140
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Synthetic oil Synthetic oil -30 -20 330 350 -50 -40 New generation New generation
Dowtherm Q Dowtherm RP
To define a custom heat transfer fluid: In the Field HTF fluid list, click User-defined. In the Edit Material Properties table, change Number of data points to 2 or higher. The number should equal the number of temperature values for which you have data. 3. Type values for each property in the table. You can also import data from a text file of comma-separated values. Each row in the file should contain properties separated by commas, in the same the order that they appear in the Edit Material Properties window. Do not include a header row in the file. Keep the following in mind when you define a custom heat transfer fluid: Each row in the materials property fluid table must be for a set of properties at a specific temperature. No two rows should have the same temperature value. SAM calculates property values from the table using linear interpolation. The rows in the table must sorted by the temperature value, in either ascending or descending order. 1. 2.

Calcualted values appear on the Solar Field page in blue type with blue backgrounds.
Solar Multiple and Solar Field Area

When the Layout option is Solar Multiple (Option 1), SAM calculates the solar field area based on the value you enter for the solar multiple:
When the Layout option is Solar Field Area (Option 2), SAM calculates the solar multiple based on the value you enter for the solar field area:
Where,
AExactArea (m2) ASolarField (m2) ASolarFieldCalculated (m2) FSolarMultiple FSolarMultipleCalculated
Exact Area Solar Field Area Solar Field Area (calc) Solar Multiple Solar Multiple (calc)
Exact Area and Exact Number of SCAs

The exact area is the solar field area for a solar multiple of one calculated as follows:
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The values used for these equations are displayed under Solar Multiple Reference Conditions and Values From Other Pages, except for the five FET factors, which are on the Power Block page. Where,
AExactArea (m2) FET0 ...FET4

OpticalEfficiency
Exact Area Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm from the Power Block page Optical Efficiency from the SCA / HCE page Design Turbine Thermal Input from the Power Block page Direct Normal Radiation HCE Thermal Losses from the SCA / HCE page Solar Field Piping Heat Losses
QDesignTurbineThermalInput (W) QDirectNormalRadiation (W/m2) QHCEThermalLosses (W/m2) QSolarFieldPipingHeatLosses (W/m2)
Note. Direct Normal Radiation does not represent weather conditions at the site, but is the reference radiation value used to calculate the solar field area when the solar multiple is one.
Where,
AApertureAreaPerSCA (m2) AExactArea (m2) NExactNumberOfSCAs
Aperture Area per SCA, equivalent to SCA Aperature Area on SCA / HCE page Exact Area Exact Number of SCAs
Solar Field Piping Heat Losses

SAM uses the design solar field piping heat losses QsolarFieldPipeHeatLosses value reported on the Solar Field page to calculate the solar field area for Field Layout Option 1, when you specify the solar field area using the solar multiple:
Where,
QSolarFieldPipeHeatLosses (W/m2)
Solar Field Piping Heat Losses
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Piping Heat Loss Temp Coeff 1 through 3. The default values (.001693, 1.683e-005, 6.78e-008) result in a scaling factor of one when Delta T = 316.5C. Solar Field Piping Heat Losses @ Design T, equivalent to the solar field piping heat losses when the difference between the average solar field temperature and ambient temperature is 316.5C. Ambient Temperature at reference conditions, 25C by default. Solar Field Inlet Temperature, 293C by default Solar Field Outlet Temperature, 391C by default.
FPHL1 ... FPHL3 QSFPipeHLDesign (W/m2) TAmbient (C) TSFinDesign (C) TSFoutDesign (C)
3.6.2
SCA / HCE
To view the SCA / HCE page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System. Contents Overview describes the SCA and HCE components and where to find more information about the components. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the SCA / HCE page. About the SCA Parameters describes the physical charateristics of the four SCAs included in the default library. About the HCE Parameters describes the four HCE (receiver) types and five HCE conditions included in the default library. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the calculated values on the SCA / HCE page.
Overview
The SCA / HCE page displays the characteristics of the solar collector assembly (SCA) and heat collection elements (HCE) in the solar field. Note that the SCA is often referred to as the collector. The HCE is often referred to as the receiver. A solar collector assembly (SCA) is an individually tracking component of the solar field that includes mirrors, a supporting structure, and heat collection elements or receivers. A heat collection element (HCE) is a metal pipe contained in a vacuum within glass tube that runs through the focal line of the trough-shaped parabolic collector. Seals and bellows ensure that a vacuum is maintained in each tube. Anti-reflective coatings on the glass tube maximize the amount of solar radiation that enters the tube. Solar-selective radiation absorbing coatings on the metal tube maximize the transfer of energy from the solar radiation to the pipe.
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Note. See http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/solar_field.html for more information on solar collector assemblies and heat collection elements. Also see relevant articles in the list of publications on the Troughnet website. For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the SAM website's support page: https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/support.html.

Solar Collector Assembly (SCA)
The solar collector assembly (SCA) input variables describe the dimensions and optical characteristics of the SCA or collector. Current SCA inputs The name of the collector in the SCA library SCA Length (m) The total length of a single SCA. Used in SCA end loss calculation. SCA Aperture (m) The structural width of a single SCA, including reflective area and gaps. Used in the row-to-row shadowing loss factor and HCE thermal loss calculations. SCA Aperture Area (m 2) The reflective area of a single SCA, not including gaps. Used in the solar field size calculations. Average Focal Length (m) Average trough focal length. Used in end gain and end loss factor calculations. Incident Angle Mod Coeff (1-3) Incident angle modifier coefficients. Used to calculate the incident angle modifier factor, which is used to calculate the HCE absorbed energy and the solar field optical efficiency. Tracking Error and Twist Accounts for errors in the SCA's ability to track the sun. Sources of error may include poor alignment of sun sensor, tracking algorithm error, errors caused by the tracker drive update rate, and twisting of the SCA end at the sun sensor mounting location relative to the tracking unit end. A typical value is 0.985. Used to calculate SCA field error factor. Geometric Accuracy Accounts for SCA optical errors caused by misaligned mirrors, mirror contour distortion caused by the support structure, mirror shape errors compared to an ideal parabola, and misaligned or distorted HCE. A typical range of values is between 0.97 and 0.98. Used to calculate SCA field error factor. Mirror Reflectance The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs, typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0..906
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(silvered polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface).
Mirror Cleanliness Factor (avg) Accounts for dirt and dust on the mirrors that reduce their effective reflectivity. Typically, mirrors are continuously cleaned, but a single mirror may be cleaned once each one or two weeks. The expected overall effect on the total solar field would be an average loss of between one and two percent. A typical value would be 0.985. Used to calculate SCA field error factor. Dust on Envelope (avg) Accounts for dust on the HCE envelope that affects light transmission. A typical value would be 0.99. Used to calculate HCE heat loss. Concentrator Factor A additional error factor to make it possible to adjust the SCE performance without modifying the other error factors. Useful for modeling an improved or degraded SCE. The default value is 1. Used to calculate SCA field error factor. Solar Field Availability Accounts for solar field down time for maintenance and repairs. Used to calculate absorbed energy.
Heat Collection Element (HCE)

The HCE variables describe the properties of up to four HCE types that can make up the solar field. This makes it possible to model a solar field with HCEs in different states. Each set of properties applies to one of the HCE types. The Fraction of Field variable determines what portion of the solar field is made up of a given HCE type. Current HCE inputs The name of the receiver and its condition. Vacuum refers to an HCE in good condition, lost vacuum, broken glass, and hydrogen refer to different problem conditions. You can define up to four HCE (receiver) conditions. Fraction of Field Fraction of solar field using this HCE type and condition. Used to calculate HCE field error factor and HCE heat loss. Bellows Shadowing The portion of the HCE tube that does not absorb solar thermal radiation. Used to calculate HCE field error factor. Envelope Transmissivity Used to calculate HCE field error factor. Absorber Absorption Accounts for inefficiencies in the HCE black coating. Used to calculate HCE field error factor. Unaccounted Allows for adjustment of the HCE performance to explore effect of changes in performance of the HCE without changing the values of other correction factors. A typical value is 1. Used to calculate HCE field error factor. Optical Efficiency (HCE) The design optical efficiency of each of the four receiver type and condition options. SAM uses the
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values to calculate the design weighted optical efficiency. Optical Efficiency (Weighted)
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The design weighted optical efficiency, representing the average optical efficiency of all receivers in the field (see equation for calculated values below). SAM uses the value to calculate the solar field area. Note that SAM also calculates a separate HCE optical efficiency value for each hour during simulation that counts for the loss factors on the SCA / HCE page that also accounts for the incident angle modifier factor, which depends on the time of day and collector orientation. Heat Loss Coefficient A0...A6 Used to calculate the HCE heat loss. The default values are based on NREL modeling and test results. (See Forristall R, 2003. Heat Transfer Analysis and Modeling of a Parabolic Trough Solar Receiver Implemented in Engineering Equation Solver. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/TP-55034169. http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/pdfs/34169.pdf., and Burkholder F et al, 2009, Heat Loss Testing of Schott's 2008 PTR70 Parabolic Trough Receiver. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/TP-550-45633. http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/pdfs/45633.pdf) Heat Loss Factor The design heat loss factor that applies to the active HCE type and condition. Used to calculate design HCE heat loss that is part of the solar field area equation. The heat loss factor scales the heat loss equation and can be used to fine tune the results when measured heat loss data are available. The default value of 1.0 is valid for the current version of SAM using the default heat loss coefficients. Min windspeed (m/s) Used to calculated the HCE heat loss for hours when the wind speed from the weather file is lower than the minimum wind speed. HCE Heat Losses (W/m), Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m), Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m2) These values are provided for reference. SAM calculates the HCE heat loss for each hour during simulation based on the loss factor coefficients on the SCA / HCE page and other values from the weather data.
About the SCA Parameters

The default SCA library includes a set of parameters for four types of SCAs described in the table below. These SCA types are either installed in currently operating systems, or were used in past system designs. See Working with Libraries for information about managing libraries.
Table 12. Default collector types.

Name Euro Trough ET150 Luz LS-2 Luz LS-3 Solargenix SGX-1 Description Torque box, galvanized steel Torque-tube, galvanized steel Bridge truss, galvanized steel Organic hubbing structure, extruded aluminum Location SEGS V, Kramer Junction, California SEGS I - VII, Kramer Junction, California SEGS VII - IX, Kramer Junction, California Nevada Solar One, Boulder City, Nevada
The values of input variables on the SCA / HCE page are stored in libraries. See Working with Libraries for information about managing libraries.
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About the HCE Parameters

The HCE library includes four HCE types, and for each HCE type, five HCE conditions. See Working with Libraries for information about managing libraries. For each HCE type and condition, you can assign a Percent of Field value. For example, in the figure below, the receiver type is Schott PTR70, and 98.5% percent of the HCEs are in normal condition, 1.0% have lost vacuum, 0.5% have glass damage, and 0% have allowed hydrogen to enter the tube. When you select a name from the Receiver Type and Condition list, SAM populates the optical and heat loss parameters using values stored in the library. When you change one or more of these values, SAM creates a copy of the parameter set and adds it to the library under the name "CUSTOM CUSTOM." The four HCE types are described in the table below.
Table 13. Default HCE types.

HCE Type Luz Cermet Schott PTR70 Vacuum Solel UVAC2 Solel UVAC3 Description Original HCE design. Low reliability of seals. Newer design with improved reliability. Two versions are available. Newer design with improved reliability. The newest HCE available as of May 2008.
The performance of the HCE is highly dependent on the quality of the vacuum in the glass tube. SAM models the HCE under the five conditions described in the following table.
Table 14. HCE conditions.

HCE Condition Broken glass Fluorescent Hydrogen Description Glass tube is damaged, increasing heat transfer between tube and atmosphere. Selective coating on metal tube is compromised, reducing absorption of solar radiation Hydrogen from hydrocarbon-based heat transfer fluid (e.g., mineral oil) has permeated through metal tube into the vacuum, increasing heat transfer between metal tube and glass. Glass-to-metal seal is compromised HCE is not damaged and is operating as designed.
Lost vacuum Vacuum

Optical Efficiency (HCE)
The design optical efficiency of each receiver type and condition option is a function of the efficiency and loss factors for each option.
Where,
FOptEffD,n
Optical Efficiency (HCE) for each of the four receivers types.
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Parabolic Trough Empirical FSCAFieldError,n
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FDustEnvelope,n FBellows,n FTransmissivity,n FAbsorption,n FUnaccounted,n n
The SCA field error factor, which is the product of Tracking Error and Twist, Geometric Accuracy, Mirror Reflectivity, Mirror Cleanliness Factor and Concentrator Factor. (Note that the Dust on Envelope factor is used for the HCE field error calculation above, not here.) Dust on Envelope (avg) specified in the SCA parameters above. The same value applies to each of teh four receiver types. Bellows Shadowing for the receiver type n . Envelope Transmissivity for the receiver type n . Absorber Absorption for the receiver type n . Unaccounted for the receiver type n . The receiver type number (1 through 4)
Optical Efficiency (Weighted)

The design weighted optical efficiency is a design value that SAM uses to calculate the solar field area. Note that the design optical efficiency equations differ from the optical efficiency factor equations used in the hourly simulation. It is a function of the four design optical efficiency factors and fraction of field values for each receiver type option:
Where,
FOptEffD FOptEffD,n FPercentOfField,n n
Optical Efficiency (Weighted) Optical Efficiency (HCE) for each of the four receivers Percent of Solar Field for each of the four receivers Receiver number (1 through 4)
HCE Heat Losses (W/m)

The heat loss for each of the four HCE types (Receiver 1 through 4) depends on the value of the six heat loss coefficients and heat loss factor for each HCE type, and on the design parameters specified on the Solar Field page:
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Where,
QHCEHLD,n (W/m) FHeatLoss,n FA0 ... FA6 TSFin (C) TSFout (C) TAmb (C) QDNIRef
Wind
HCE heat losses for HCE type n expressed in thermal Watts per meter Heat Loss Factor for HCE type n A0 Heat Loss Coefficient through A6 Heat Loss Coefficient Solar Field Inlet Temperature from the Solar Field page Solar Field Outlet Temperature from the Solar Field page Reference ambient temperature from the Solar Field page Reference direct normal radiation from the Solar Field page Reference wind velocity from the Solar Field page
(m/s)
Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m)

The total HCE losses are expressed in Watts per meter of SCA length:
Where,
QHCELossD(W/m) (W/m) QHCELosses,n (W/m) FPercentOfField,n
Thermal Losses per SCA aperture length. Receiver Heat Losses for receiver number n Percent of Solar Field for each of the four receivers
Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m2)

The total HCE losses are also expressed in Watts per square meter (the product of the aperture length (SCA Length) and aperture width (SCA Aperture):
Where,
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Parabolic Trough Empirical QHCELossD(W/m2) DSCAAperture (m)

Thermal losses per square meter
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QHCELossD(W/m) (W/m) Thermal losses per SCA aperture length (described above)
SCA Aperture (structural width of SCA)
3.6.3
Power Block
To view the Power Block page, click Power Block on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the Power Block page and where to find more information about the power block model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Power Block page. Power Cycle Library Options describes the reference steam turbines included in the default power block library. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the calculated values on the Power Block page.
Overview
The Power Block parameters describe the equipment in the system that converts thermal energy from the solar field or thermal energy storage system into electricity. The power block is based on a steam turbine that runs on a conventional Rankine power cycle and may or may not include fossil fuel backup. Power block components include a turbine, heat exchangers to transfer heat from the solar field or thermal energy storage system to the turbine, and a cooling system to dissipate waste heat. SAM considers the thermal energy storage system to be a separate component, which is described on the Thermal Storage page. The input variables on the Power Block page are divided into two groups. The turbine ratings group determines the capacity of the power block, and the power cycle group defines the performance parameters of the reference turbine. For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the SAM website's support page: https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/support.html.
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Plant Characteristics
Design Turbine Gross Output (MWe) The power cycle's design output, not accounting for parasitic losses. SAM uses this value to size system components, such as the solar field area when you use the solar multiple to specify the solar field size. Estimated Gross to Net Conversion Factor An estimate of the ratio of the electric energy delivered to the grid to the power cycle's gross output. SAM uses the factor to calculate the system's nameplate capacity for capacity-related calculations, including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the System Costs page, capacity-based incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the capacity factor reported in the results. Estimated Net Output at Design (MWe) The power cycle's nominal capacity, calculated as the product of the design gross output and estimated gross to net conversion factor. SAM uses this value to calculate the system's rated capacity for capacity-related calculations, including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the System Costs page, capacity-based incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the capacity factor reported in the results.
Power Cycle
The variables in the power cycle group describe a reference steam turbine. SAM uses the reference turbine specifications to calculate the turbine output, and then scales the actual output based on the turbine rating variables. Each set of reference turbine specifications is stored in the reference turbine library. Current power block Name of the reference turbine. Selecting a reference system determines the values of the other power cycle variables. Design Turbine Thermal Input (MWt) The thermal energy required as input to the power block to generate the design turbine gross (electric) output. SAM uses the design turbine thermal input to calculate several power block capacity-related values, including the solar field size, power block design point gross output, and parasitic losses. Design Turbine Gross Efficiency Total thermal to electric efficiency of the reference turbine. Used to calculate the design turbine thermal input. Max Over Design Operation The turbine's maximum output expressed as a fraction of the design turbine thermal input. Used by the dispatch module to set the power block thermal input limits. Minimum Load The turbine's minimum load expressed as a fraction of the design turbine thermal input. Used by the dispatch module to set the power block thermal input limits. Turbine Start-up Energy Fraction of the design turbine thermal input required to bring the system to operating temperature after a
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period of non-operation. Used by the dispatch module to calculate the required start-up energy. Boiler LHV Efficiency
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The back-up boiler's lower heating value efficiency. Used by the power block module to calculate the quantity of gas required by the back-up boiler. Max Thermal Input (MWt) The maximum thermal energy that can be delivered to the power block by the solar field, thermal energy storage system or both. Min Thermal Input (MWt) The minimum thermal energy that can be delivered to the power block by the solar field, thermal energy storage system or both. Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec Factors for the turbine thermal-to-electric efficiency polynomial equation. Used to calculate the design point gross output, which is the portion of the power block's electric output converted from solar energy before losses. Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm Factors for turbine's part load electric-to-thermal efficiency polynomial equation. Used to calculate the energy in kilowatt-hours of natural gas equivalent required by the backup boiler. SAM dispatches the backup boiler based on the fossil-fill fraction table in the thermal storage dispatch parameters on the Thermal Storage page. Cooling Tower Correction Cooling tower correction factor. Used to calculate the temperature correction factor that represents cooling tower losses. To model a system with no cooling tower, set F0 to 1, and F1 = F2 = F3 = F4 =0. Temperature Correction Mode In the dry bulb mode, SAM calculates a temperature correction factor to account for cooling tower losses based on the ambient temperature from the weather data set. In wet bulb mode, SAM calculates the wet bulb temperature from the ambient temperature and relative humidity from the weather data.
Power Cycle Library Options

The power cycle library includes six reference turbines. See Working with Libraries for information about managing libraries. The reference turbines include five conventional Rankine-cycle steam turbines in a range of sizes, and one organic Rankine-cycle turbine. Conventional Rankine-cycle turbines are similar to those used in coal, nuclear, or natural gas power plants. A heat exchanger transfers energy from the solar field's heat transfer fluid to generate steam that drives the turbine. The organic Rankine-cycle turbine operates on the same principle as the conventional turbine, but uses an organic fluid, typically butane or pentane, to run the turbine instead of water.
Table 15. Power cycle reference systems.

Approximate Solar Field Size Range m2 Approximate Operating Temperature C Suggested Modeling Application
Reference System
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10,000 180,000 - 230,000 460,000 - 480,000 300 450 500 300 - 400 400 400 Organic Rankine-cycle power block High-temperature heat transfer fluid (molten salt) High-temperature heat transfer fluid (molten salt) Typical applications Typical applications High-temperature heat transfer fluid
APS Ormat 1 MWe 300C Nexant 450C HTF Nexant 500C HTF SEGS 30 MWe Turbine SEGS 80 MWe Turbine Siemens 400C HTF
When you choose a turbine from the reference system library, SAM changes the values of the Power Cycle variables. The following table shows the power cycle parameters for the standard reference systems. Note that you can use any value for the Rated Turbine Net Capacity and Design Turbine Gross Output variables, SAM will use the reference system parameters with the rated and design turbine parameters.
Table 16. Reference system parameters.

Parameter Name Rated Turbine Net Capacity Design Turbine Gross Output Design Turbine Thermal Input Design Turbine Gross Efficiency Max Over Design Operation Minimum Load Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F0 Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F1 Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F2 Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F3 Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F4 Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F0 Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F1 Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F2 Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F3 Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F4 SEGS 30
30 35 93.3 0.3749 1.15 0.15 -0.0571910 1.0041000 0.1255000 -0.0724470 0.0000000 0.0565200 0.9822000 -0.0982950 0.0595730 0.0000000
SEGS 80
80 89 235.8 0.3774 1.15 0.15 -0.0377260 1.0062000 0.0763160 -0.0447750 0.0000000 0.0373700 0.9882300 -0.0649910 0.0393880 0.0000000
APS ORC
1 1.160 5.600 0.2071 1.15 0.15 -0.1593790 0.9261810 1.1349230 -1.3605660 0.4588420 0.1492050 0.8521820 -0.3247150 0.4486300 -0.1256020
Nexant 450
100 110 278.0 0.3957 1.15 0.15 -0.0240590 1.0254800 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0234837 0.9751230 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000
Nexant 500
100 110 269.9 0.4076 1.15 0.15 -0.0252994 1.0261900 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0246620 0.9744650 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.0000000
Siemens 400
50 55 147.2 0.3736 1.15 0.15 -0.0298 0.7219 0.7158 -0.5518 0.1430 0.044964 1.182900 -0.563880 0.467190 -0.130090
You can use any of the the built-in power cycle options to model most systems expected to run at or near the power block's design point for most operating hours. You can specify your own power cycle if you have a set of part load coefficients from the manufacturer, or if you have calculated coefficients using power plant simulation or equation solving software. The part load equation is a fourth-order or lower polynomial equation that describes the relationship between power cycle efficiency and operating load.
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Design Turbine Thermal Input
Where,
DesignTurbineGross
Design Turbine Gross Efficiency
QDesignTurbineGross (W) Design Turbine Gross Output Q

DesignTurbineThermalInput
(W)
Max Thermal Input
Where,
QtoPBMax (W) Max Thermal Input QPBDesign

(W) Design Turbine Thermal Input
FET(0-4) FPBMax
Turbine Part Load Elec To Therm coefficients Max Over Design Operation
Min Thermal Input
Where,
QtoPBMin (W) QPBDesign (W) FET(0-4) FPBMax
Min Thermal Input Design Turbine Thermal Input
Turbine Part Load Elec To Therm coefficients Minimum Load
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3.6.4
Thermal Storage
To view the Thermal Storage page, click Thermal Storage on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes thermal energy storage systems and explains where find more information about them. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Thermal Storage page. Estimating Tank Heat Loss Values describes how to choose values for the tank heat loss variable for different thermal energy storage capacities. Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls describes the dispatch controls that determine the timing of energy releases from the storage and fossil back up systems. Defining Dispatch Schedules explains how to assign dispatch periods to weekday and weekend schedules. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the calculated values on the Thermal Storage page.
Overview
A thermal energy storage system (TES) stores heat from the solar field in a liquid medium. Heat from the storage system can drive the power block turbine during periods of low or no sunlight. A TES is beneficial in many places where the peak demand for power occurs after the sun has set. Adding TES to a parabolic trough system allows the collection of solar energy to be separated from the operation of the power block. For example, a system might be able to collect energy in the morning and use it to generate electricity late into the evening. In direct systems, the heat transfer fluid itself serves as the storage medium. In indirect systems, a separate fluid is the storage medium, and heat is transferred from the HTF to the storage medium through heat exchangers. The TES system consists of one or two tanks, pumps to circulate the liquids, and depending on the design, heat exchangers. A thermocline system stores both the hot and cold storage medium in one tank. The zone in the tank where hot and cold fluids meet is called a thermocline. The storage tank in a thermocline system contains low-cost filler materials such as sand and rock. A two-tank system consists of a hot tank to store heat from the solar field, and a cold tank to store the cooled storage medium after the power block has extracted its energy. Note. For more information on thermal energy storage systems for parabolic trough systems, see http:// www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/thermal_energy_storage.html. The user inputs on the Thermal Storage page are divided into two groups. The thermal energy storage (TES) group defines the thermal energy storage capacity and type along with some efficiency parameters. The
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thermal storage dispatch controls group variables determine the the operation of the storage and fossil back up systems. For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the SAM website's support page: https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/support.html.

Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
Equiv Full Load Hours of TES hours The thermal storage capacity expressed in number of hours of thermal energy delivered at the power block's design thermal input level. The physical capacity is the number of hours of storage multiplied by the power block design thermal input. Used to calculate the TES maximum storage capacity. Storage System Configuration The current version of SAM models a two-tank TES consisting of a cold storage tank and hot storage tank. Storage Fluid Type The Storage fluid used in the TES. When the storage fluid and solar field heat transfer fluid (HTF) are different, the system is an indirect system with a heat exchanger. When the storage fluid and solar field HTF are the same, the system is a direct system that uses the solar field HTF as the storage medium. Used to calculate the heat exchanger duty. Turbine TES Adj Efficiency SAM applies the TES efficiency adjustment factor to the turbine efficiency for trough systems with storage to account for the lower steam temperature that results from imperfect heat exchange in the storage system. Used to calculate maximum TES discharge rate. Also used to calculate a TES correction factor. Turbine TES Adj Gross Output Efficiency adjustment factor. Used to calculate maximum TES discharge rate. Initial Thermal Storage (MWht) The amount of energy in storage when the simulation starts, at midnight on January 1. The default value is zero. Tank Heat Losses (MWht) Storage tank thermal losses. SAM subtracts value from the total energy in storage at the end of each simulation hour. See the table below for suggested values. Maximum Energy Storage (MWht) The maximum thermal energy storage capacity of the TES. Design Turbine Thermal Input (MWt) The thermal input requirement of the power block to operate at its design point. Used to calculate the following dispatch parameters: power block input limits, power block load requirement, TES maximum storage capacity, and the start-up requirement Max Power to Storage (MWt) Maximum TES charge rate. Used in the dispatch calculation when energy from the solar field exceeds
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the power block load requirement.
Max Power From Storage (MWt) Maximum TES discharge rate. Used in the dispatch calculation when energy from the solar field is less or equal to than the power block load requirement. Heat Exchanger Duty Applies only to indirect thermal storage systems that use a different storage fluid and solar field HTF. Used to calculate the maximum TES charge rate.
Thermal Storage Dispatch Control

The storage dispatch control variables each have six values, one for each of six possible dispatch periods. They determine how SAM calculates the energy flows between the solar field, thermal energy storage system, and power block. The fossil-fill fraction is used to calculate the energy from a backup boiler. Storage Dispatch Fraction with Solar The fraction of the TES maximum storage capacity (see table above) required for the system to start when the solar field energy is greater than zero. A value of zero will always dispatch the TES in any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch the TES. Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels. Storage Dispatch Fraction without Solar The fraction of the TES maximum storage capacity (see table above) required for the system to start when the solar field energy is equal to zero. A value of zero will always dispatch the TES in any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch the TES. Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels. Turbine Output Fraction A fraction of the design turbine thermal input adjusted by the turbine part load electric-to-thermal efficiency factors. Used to calculate the power block load requirement. Fossil Fill Fraction A fraction of the power block design turbine gross output from the Power Block page that can be met by the backup boiler. Used by the power block module to calculate the energy from the backup boiler. Payment Allocation Factor The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page.
Estimating Tank Heat Loss Values

An increase in the hours of thermal storage requires a both an increase in the solar field size to minimize the levelized cost of energy for the system, and an increase in the tank heat losses to account for the larger tank. The "100 MW Baseline - Parameterized Storage" case in Sample Parabolic Trough Systems.zsam illustrates these relationships. See Sizing the Solar Field for a discussion of an approach to optimize the solar field for system with storage. The following table shows suggested tank heat loss values for three sample systems over a range of thermal storage capacities. The relationship between tank heat losses and hours of thermal storage is linear, so you can extrapolate to estimate values for storage capacity values not on the table.
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Parabolic Trough Empirical Table 17. Suggested Tank Heat Losses (MWt) values for different thermal storage capacities (hours).
Hours of Thermal Storage System Description 100 MW Two Tank Indirect VP-1/Nitrate Salt 200 MW Two Tank Indirect VP-1/Nitrate Salt 200 MW Two Tank Direct Hitec Salt 0 0 0 0 3 0.62 1.0 0.34 6 0.96 1.61 0.64 9 1.23 2.21 0.93 12 1.56 2.81 1.24 15 1.87 3.56 1.52
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Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls

The thermal storage dispatch controls determine the timing of releases of energy from the thermal energy storage and fossil backup systems to the power block. When the system includes thermal energy storage or fossil backup, SAM can use a different dispatch strategy for up to six different dispatch periods.
Storage Dispatch
SAM decides whether or not to operate the power block in each hour of the simulation based on how much energy is stored in the TES, how much energy is provided by the solar field, and the values of the thermal storage dispatch controls parameters. You can define when the power block operates for each of the six dispatch periods. For each hour in the simulation, if the power block is not already operating, SAM looks at the amount of energy that is in thermal energy storage at the beginning of the hour and decides whether it should operate the power block. For each period, there are two targets for starting the power block: one for periods of sunshine (w/solar), and one for period of no sunshine (w/o solar). The turbine output fraction for each dispatch period determines at what load level the power block runs using energy from storage during that period. The load level is a function of the turbine output fraction, design turbine thermal input, and the five turbine part load electric to thermal factors on the Power Block page. For each dispatch period during periods of sunshine, thermal storage is dispatched to meet the power block load level for that period only when the thermal power from the solar field is insufficient and available storage is equal to or greater than the product of the storage dispatch fraction (with solar) and maximum energy in storage. Similarly, during periods of no sunshine when no thermal power is produced by the solar field, the power block will not run except when the energy available in storage is equal to or greater than the product of storage dispatch fraction (without solar) and maximum energy in storage. By setting the thermal storage dispatch controls parameters, you can simulate the effect of a clear day when the operator may need to start the plant earlier in the day to make sure that the storage is not filled to capacity and solar energy is dumped, or of a cloudy day when the operator may want to store energy for later use in a higher value period.
Fossil Backup Dispatch

When the fossil fill fraction is greater than zero for any dispatch period, the system is considered to include fossil backup. The fossil fill fraction defines the solar output level at which the backup system runs during each hour of a specific dispatch period. For example, a fossil fill fraction of 1.0 would require that the fossil backup operate to fill in every hour during a specified period to 100% of design output. In that case, during
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periods when solar is providing 100% output, no fossil energy would be used. When solar is providing less than 100% output, the fossil backup operates to fill in the remaining energy so that the system achieves 100% output. For a fossil fill fraction of 0.5, the system would use energy from the fossil backup only when solar output drops below 50%. The boiler LHV efficiency value on the Power Block page determines the quantity of fuel used by the fossil backup system. A value of 0.9 is reasonable for a natural gas-fired backup boiler. SAM includes the cost of fuel for the backup system in the levelized cost of energy and other metrics reported in the results, and reports the energy equivalent of the hourly fuel consumption in the hourly simulation results. The cost of fuel for the backup system is defined on the Trough System Costs page.
Payment Allocation Factor

The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page. For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors. When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the payment allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose. Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods to one.
Defining Dispatch Schedules

The storage dispatch schedules determine when each of the six periods apply during weekdays and weekends throughout the year. You can either choose an existing schedule from one of the schedules in the CSP trough TES dispatch library or define a custom schedule. For information about libraries, see Working with Libraries. The TES dispatch library only assigns period numbers to the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. The dispatch fractions assigned to each of the six periods are not stored in the library. To choose a schedule from the library: 1. 2. 3. Click Dispatch schedule library. Choose a schedule from the list of four schedules. The schedules are based on time-of-use pricing schedules from four California utilities. Click OK. You can modify a schedule using the steps described below. Modifying a schedule does not affect the schedule stored in the library. For each of the up to six periods used in the schedule, enter values for the dispatch fractions described above. Use the period number and color to identify the times in the schedule that each period applies.
4.
To specify a weekday or weekend schedule: 1. Assign values as appropriate to the Storage Dispatch, Turbine Output Fraction, Fossil Fill Fraction,
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2. 3. 4. 5.
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and Payment Allocation Factor for each of the up to nine periods. Click Dispatch schedule library. Choose a Uniform Dispatch. Click OK. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.
6.
Type the number 2.
7.
SAM shades displays the period number in the squares that make up the rectangle, and shades the rectangle to match the color of the period.
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8.
Repeat Steps 2-4 for each of the remaining periods that apply to the schedule.

Maximum Energy Storage
Where,
QMaximumStorage
(Wh)
Maximum Energy Storage
QDesignTurbineInput Design Turbine Thermal Input

(W)
NHoursOfStorage
(hours)
Equiv. Full Load Hours of TES

The thermal energy required by the power block to operate at its rated capacity, described on the Power Block page.
Maximum Power To and From Storage

The maximum power to and from storage depends on whether the TES includes a heat exchanger. When the TES fluid is different from the solar field fluid, the TES includes a heat exchanger. When the fluids are the same, there is no heat exchanger. For a TES with heat exchanger (TES fluid and solar field fluid are different):
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For a TES with no heat exchanger (TES fluid and solar field fluid are the same):
Where,
FHeatExchangerDuty FSolarMultiple FTESAdjustEfficiency FTESAdjustOutput FTurbineMaximumOverDesign NHoursOfStorage PMaximumFromStorage (W) PMaximumToStorage (W) QDesignTurbineInput (W) QMaximumStorage (W)
Heat Exchanger Duty Solar Multiple from Solar Field page Turbine TES Adj. - Efficiency Turbine TES Adjustment - Gross Output Max Over Design Operation from Power Block page Equiv. Full Load Hours of TES Maximum Power From Storage Maximum Power To Storage Design Turbine Thermal Input from Power Block page Maximum Energy Storage
Heat Exchanger Duty

The heat exchanger duty depends on the value of the solar multiple. When the solar multiple is greater than one:
When the solar multiple is equal to or less than one:
Where,
FHeatExchangerDuty FSolarMultiple
Heat Exchanger Duty Solar Multiple from Solar Field page
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3.6.5
Parasitics
To view the Parasitics page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.
Contents Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Parasitics page. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the calculated values on the Parasitics page.
Overview
The Parasitics page displays parameters describing losses due to parasitic electrical loads, such as drive motors, electronic circuits, and pump motors. SAM includes a set of default parasitic parameters for a range of solar trough power systems. Choose a reference parasitic system option that is the same or similar to the system you are modeling. SAM will automatically adjust the total parasitic load to match the size of the solar field and power block in the system you are modeling. The design point parasitic values are the maximum possible values for each parasitic loss category. SAM calculates the hourly parasitic loss value for each category during simulation based on the design point, the PF and F0-F2 coefficients, and the solar field thermal output and power block load in each hour, and reports them in the hourly simulation results. The calculated parasitic loss values are never as high as the total design point parasitic losses. For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the SAM website's support page: https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/support.html.

The values of input variables on the Parasitics page are stored in a library of reference solar fields. You can change the parameter values without changing the values stored in the library. For information about libraries, See Working with Libraries.
Parasitic Electric Energy Use

Current reference parasitic system The reference system from the CSP trough parasticis library. SAM stores a set of parasitic parameters for reference systems. Solar Field Area (m 2) The calculated solar field area from the Solar Field page. Used to calculate parasitic losses that are based on the solar field size with units of MWe/m2.
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Gross Turbine Output (MWe)
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The design turbine gross output value from the Power Block page. Used to calculate parasitic losses that are based on the power block capacity with units of MWe/Mwe. SCA Drives and Electronics (MWe) Electrical losses from electric or hydraulic SCA drives that position the collector to track the sun and from electronic SCA tracking controllers and alarm monitoring devices. Calculated as a function of the solar field area. Solar Field HTF Pumps Electrical losses from cold HTF pumping in the solar field. Calculated as a function of the solar field area. These losses are calculated only in hours when the solar field is operating, which is defined as when the solar field load is greater than zero. TES Pumps Electrical losses from pumps in the TES system. Calculated as a function of the design turbine gross output. Antifreeze Pumping (MWe) Electrical losses from HTF pumps in the solar field. Calculated as a function of the solar field area. These losses are used only in hours when the solar field is not operating, which is defined as when the solar field load is zero. Power Block Fixed (MWe) These fixed losses apply 24 hours per day, for all of the 8,760 hours of the year. Balance of Plant (MWe) Electrical losses that apply in hours when the power block operates at part or full load. Heater and Boiler (MWe) Losses that apply only when the back-up boiler is in operation. Cooling Towers (MWe) The cooling tower parasitic losses are electrical losses that occur when the power block operates at part or full load. Calculated either as a function of power block load or at a fixed 50% or 100% of the design cooling tower parasitic losses. Cooling Tower Operation Mode Determines how cooling tower parasitic losses are calculated. For "Cooling Tower at 50% or 100%," parasitic losses are calculated as 50% of the design cooling tower parasitic losses when the power block load is 0.5 or less, and as or 100% of the design parasitic losses when the power block load is greater than 0.5. For "Cooling Tower parasitics a function of load," cooling tower parasitic losses are calculated as a function of power block load. Total Design Parasitics (MWe) The sum of collector drives and electronics, solar field HTF pump, night circulation pumping, power block fixed, balance of plant, heater/boiler, and cooling towers design loss values. This value represents the maximum possible value if all parasitic losses were to occur simultaneously in a given hour, and is typically greater than the actual parasitic losses. SAM displays the value for reference only, and does not use it in simulation calculations.
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Each parasitic loss type has a set of parameters that includes a factor, PF and F0, F1, and F2 coefficient. The design point values are maximum values and are calculated using the factor and PF coefficient. SAM uses the F0-F2 coefficients in calculations for the hourly simulations, which are described in the reference manual.
Table . Design point parasitic loss equations for each parasitic loss category.
Source of Parasitic Loss SCA Drives and Electronics Solar Field HTF Pumps TES Pumps Antifreeze Pumping Power Block Fixed Balance of Plant Heater and Boiler Cooling Towers Equation Factor x PF x Solar Field Area Factor x PF x Solar Field Area Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output Factor x Solar Field HTF Pump losses Factor x Gross Turbine Output Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output
The Total Design Point Parasitics is the sum of the the design point parastic loss categories: SCA Drives and Electronics Solar Field HTF Pumps TES Pumps Power Block Fixed Balance of Plant Heater and Boiler Cooling Towers
3.7
Parabolic Trough Physical
A parabolic trough system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that collects direct normal solar radiation and converts it to thermal energy that runs a power block to generate electricity. The components of a parabolic trough system are the solar field, power block, and in some cases, thermal energy storage and fossil backup systems. The solar field collects heat from the sun and consists of parabolic, trough-shaped solar collectors that focus direct normal solar radiation onto tubular receivers. Each collector assembly consists of mirrors and a structure that supports the mirrors and receivers, allows it to track the sun on one axis, and can withstand wind-induced forces. Each receiver consists of a metal tube with a solar radiation absorbing surface in a vacuum inside a coated glass tube. A heat transfer fluid (HTF) transports heat from the solar field to the power block (also called power cycle) and other components of the system. The power block is based on conventional power cycle technology, using a turbine to convert thermal energy from the solar field to electric energy. The optional fossil-fuel backup system delivers supplemental heat to the HTF during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive the power block at its rated capacity.
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The physical trough system model is a new parabolic trough model for SAM introduced in March 2010. The model approaches the task of characterizing the performance of the many of the system components from first principles of heat transfer and thermodynamics, rather than from empirical measurements as in the empirical trough system model. The physical model uses mathematical models that represent component geometry and energy transfer properties, which gives you the flexibility to specify characteristics of system components such as the absorber emissivity or envelope glass thickness. The empirical model, on the other hand, uses a set of curve-fit equations derived from regression analysis of data measured from real systems, so you are limited to modeling systems composed of components for which there is measured data. While the physical model is more flexible than the empirical model, it adds more uncertainty to performance predictions than the empirical model. In a physical model, uncertainty in the geometry and property assumptions for each system component results in an aggregated uncertainty at the system level that tends to be higher than the uncertainty in an empirical model. We've included both models in SAM so that you can use both in your analyses. The following are some key features of the physical model: Includes transient effects related to the thermal capacity of the heat transfer fluid in the solar field piping, headers, and balance of plant. Allows for flexible specification of solar field components, including multiple receiver and collector types within a single loop. Relatively short simulation times to allow for parametric and statistical analyses that require multiple simulation runs. As with the other SAM models for other technologies, the physical trough model makes use of existing models when possible: Collector model adapted from NREL's Excelergy model. Receiver heat loss model by Forristall (2003). Field piping pressure drop model by Kelley and Kearney (2006). Power cycle performance model by Wagner (2008) for the power tower (also known as a central receiver) CSP system model in SAM. For publications describing the subcomponent models, see References, Parabolic Trough Technology and Modeling. To use the parabolic trough physical model: Open the sample parabolic trough sample file: On the File menu, click Open Sample Template and choose Sample Parabolic Trough Systems from the list, or In the Technology and Market window, choose Concentrating Solar Power, Physical Trough System. The sample file contains four cases. The first three cases use the physical trough model, and the fourth case uses the empirical model. The first case represents a 100 MW baseline system with a medium temperature heat-transfer fluid and an indirect 2-tank thermal energy storage system. The second case represents a similar 100 MW system with dry cooling. The third case shows how to optimize the solar field thermal energy storage system size to minimize the system levelized cost of energy, as described in Sizing the Solar field. The parabolic trough input pages for this option described in this section are: Trough System Costs Solar Field Collectors (SCAs)
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Receivers (HCEs) Power Cycle Thermal Storage Parasitics User Variables
3.7.1
Solar Field
To view the Solar Field page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the Solar Field page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Solar Field page. Sizing the Solar Field describes how to choose between Option 1 and Option 2, choose a field layout, choose an irradiation at design value, and optimize the solar multiple for systems with and without storage. Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid describes the steps for creating your own heat transfer fluid Specifying the Loop Configuration describes the single loop configuration diagram and how to specify collector-receiver assemblies in the loop. Defining Collector Defocusing describes the collector defocusing options Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values on the Solar Field page.
Overview
The Solar Field page displays variables and options that describe the size and properties of the solar field, properties of the heat transfer fluid. It also displays reference design specifications of the solar field. See Input Variable Reference for a description of the solar field input variables. SAM provides two options for specifying the size of the solar field: Option 1 specifies the field area as a multiple of the area required to drive the power cycle at its rated capacity under design conditions, and Option 2 specifies the field area as an explicit value in square meters. See Sizing the Solar Field for details. You can specify the heat transfer fluid by choosing from a list of pre-defined fluids, or by creating your own fluid. See Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid for details. SAM assumes that all collectors in the field use single-axis tracking with the collector tilt and azimuth defined by the collector orientation input variables. See the variable descriptions in Input Variable Reference for details.
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The mirror washing variables determine the quantity of water required for mirror washing. See the variable descriptions in Input Variable Reference for details.

Solar Field Parameters
Option 1 and Option 2 For Option 1 (solar multiple mode), SAM calculates the total required aperture and number of loops based on the value you enter for the solar multiple. For option 2 (field aperture mode), SAM calculates the solar multiple based on the field aperture value you enter. Note that SAM does not use the value that appears dimmed for the inactive option. See Sizing the Solar Field for details. Solar multiple The field aperture area expressed as a multiple of the aperture area required to operate the power cycle at its design capacity. See Sizing the Solar Field for details. Field aperture The total solar energy collection area of the solar field in square meters. Note that this is less than the total mirror surface area. Row spacing (m) The centerline-to-centerline distance in meters between rows of collectors, assuming that rows are laid out uniformly throughout the solar field. Stow angle (degrees) The collector angle during the hour of stow. A stow angle of zero for a northern latitude is vertical facing east, and 180 degrees is vertical facing west. Deploy angle (degrees) The collector angle during the hour of deployment. A deploy angle of zero for a northern latitude is vertical facing due east. Default is 10 degrees. Solar Field The two solar field layout options describe the location and shape of header piping that delivers heat transfer fluid to the power block. The "I" layout represents a field where two headers emerge from the power block in opposite directions, shown at left below. The "H" layout represents a system where two runner pipes emerge from the power block in opposite directions and feed into two headers each, where each header feeds one quarter of the total loops in the field, shown at right:
Header pipe roughness (m) The header pipe roughness is a measure of the internal surface roughness of the header and runner piping. SAM uses this value in calculation of the shear force and piping pressure drop in the headers.
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Surface roughness is important in determining the scale of the pressure drop throughout the system. As a general rule, the rougher the surface, the higher the pressure drop (and parasitic pumping power load). The surface roughness is a function of the material and manufacturing method used for the piping. A conservative roughness value for extruded steel pipe (the type often used for the absorber pipe) is about 3e-6 meters. The default value of 4.5e-5 m is based on this value and the absorber tube inner diameter value of 0.066 m: 3e-6 m / 6.6e-2 m = 4.5e-5.
HTF pump efficiency The electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion efficiency of the field heat transfer fluid pump. This value accounts for all mechanical, thermodynamic, and electrical efficiency losses. Freeze protection temp (C) The minimum temperature that the heat transfer fluid is allowed to reach in the field. The temperature at which freeze protection equipment is activated. The fluid temperature is maintained at this value during hours that freeze protection is operating. Irradiation at design (W/m 2) The design point direct normal radiation value, used in solar multiple mode to calculate the aperture area required to drive the power cycle at its design capacity. Also used to calculate the design mass flow rate of the heat transfer fluid for header pipe sizing. See Sizing the Solar Field for details. Allow partial defocusing Partial defocusing assumes that the tracking control system can adjust the collector angle in response to the capacity of the power cycle (and thermal storage system, if applicable). See Defining Collector Defocusing for details.
Heat Transfer Fluid

Field HTF fluid The heat transfer fluid (HTF) used in the heat collection elements and headers of the solar field. SAM includes the following options in the HTF library: Solar salt, Caloria, Hitec XL, Therminol VP-1, Hitec salt, Dowtherm Q, Dowtherm RP. You can also define your own HTF using the user-defined HTF fluid option User-defined HTF fluid To define your own HTF, choose User-defined for the Field HTF fluid and specify a table of material properties for use in the solar field. You must specify at least two data points for each property: temperature, specific heat, density, viscosity, and conductivity. See Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid for details. Design loop inlet temp (C) The temperature of HTF at the loop inlet under design conditions. The actual temperature during operation may differ from this value. SAM sets the power cycle's design outlet temperature equal to this value. Design loop outlet temp (C) The temperature of the HTF at the outlet of the loop under design conditions. During operation, the actual value may differ from this set point. This value represents the target temperature for control of the HTF flow through the solar field and will be maintained when possible. Min single loop flow rate (kg/s) The minimum allowable flow rate through a single loop in the field.
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Max single loop flow rate (kg/s) The maximum allowable flow rate through a single loop in the field. Min field flow velocity (m/s) The minimum allowable HTF flow velocity through the field. Max field flow velocity (m/s) The maximum allowable HTF flow velocity through the field. Header design min flow velocity (m/s)
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A calculated value that indicates the minimum flow velocity in the field corresponding to the specified minimum single loop flow rate. This value is calculated using the density of the HTF at the design inlet temperature and the maximum specified receiver diameter. Header design max flow velocity (m/s) A calculated value that indicates the maximum flow velocity in the field corresponding to the specified maximum single loop flow rate. This value is calculated using the density of the HTF at the design outlet temperature and the minimum specified receiver diameter. Initial field temperature (C) Temperature of the HTF in the solar field in the first time step of the simulation (Hour one, typically the hour beginning at midnight on January 1). The value affects the system's performance in the first hours of the simulation, but typically has little impact on subsequent hours and total annual plant performance.
Design Point
Single loop aperture (m 2) The aperture area of a single loop of collectors, equal to the product of aperture width, reflective area, times the structure length times the number of collector assemblies per loop according to the distribution of the up to four collector types in the field. This area does not include non-reflective surface on the collector or non-reflective space between collectors. Loop optical efficiency The optical efficiency when incident radiation is normal to the aperture plane, not including end losses or cosine losses. This value does not include thermal losses from piping and the receivers. Total loop conversion efficiency The total conversion efficiency of the loop, including optical losses and estimated thermal losses. Used to calculate the required aperture area of the solar field. Total required aperture, SM=1 (m 2) The exact mirror aperture area required to meet the design thermal output for a solar multiple of 1.0. SAM uses the required aperture to calculate the actual aperture. The actual aperture may be slightly more or less than the required aperture, depending on the collector dimensions you specify on the Collectors page. Required number of loops, SM=1 The exact number of loops required to produce the total required aperture at a solar multiple of 1.0. This number may be a non-integer value, SAM rounds this value to the nearest integer to caculate the value of the actual number of loops variable.
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The actual number of loops in the field, equal to the solar multiple times the required number of loops at a solar multiple of 1.0. The required number of loops is rounded to the nearest integer to represent a realistic field layout.
Actual number of loops
Actual aperture (m 2) The actual aperture area based on the actual number of loops in the field, equal to the single loop aperture times the actual number of loops. Actual solar multiple For Option 1 (solar multiple mode), the calculated solar multiple based on the actual (rounded) number of loops in the field. For Option 2 (field aperture mode), the solar multiple value corresponding to the thermal output of the field based at design point: The actual aperture divided by the field thermal output. Field thermal output (MWt) The thermal energy delivered by the solar field under design conditions at the actual solar multiple.
Collector Orientation
Collector tilt (degrees) The angle of all collectors in the field in degrees from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal. A positive value tilts up the end of the array closest to the equator (the array's south end in the northern hemisphere), a negative value tilts down the southern end. SAM assumes that the collectors are fixed at the tilt angle. Collector azimuth (degrees) The azimuth angle of all collectors in the field, where zero degrees is pointing toward the equator, equivalent to a north-south axis. West is 90 degrees, and east is -90 degrees. SAM assumes that the collectors are oriented 90 degrees east of the azimuth angle in the morning and track the daily movement of the sun from east to west.
Land Area
Note. SAM does not use the land area variables in any calculations. The values are presented for your reference. Solar Field Area (m2) The land area required for solar collectors, including space between the collectors. Non-Solar Field Land Area Multiplier Land area required for the system excluding the solar field land area, expressed as a fraction of the solar field land area. Total Land Area (m2) Land area required for the entire system including the solar field land area.
Mirror Washing
SAM reports the water usage of the system in the results based on the mirror washing variables. The annual water usage is the product of the water usage per wash and 365 (days per year) divided by the
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The volume of water in liters per square meter of solar field aperture area required for periodic mirror washing. Washing frequency The number of days between washing.
Single Loop Configuration

Number of SCA/HCE assemblies per loop The number of individual solar collector assemblies (SCAs) in a single loop of the field. Computationally, this corresponds to the number of simulation nodes in the loop. See Specifying the Loop Configuration for details. Edit SCAs Click Edit SCAs to assign an SCA type number (1-4) to each of the collectors in the loop. Use your mouse to select collectors, and type a number on your keyboard to assign a type number to the selected collectors. SAM indicates the SCA type by coloring the rectangle representing the collector in the diagram, and displaying the type number after the word "SCA." See Specifying the Loop Configuration for details. Edit HCEs Click Edit HCEs to assign a receiver type number (1-4) to each of the collectors in the loop. Use your mouse to select collectors, and type a number on your keyboard to assign a type number. SAM indicates the HCE type by coloring the line representing the receiver, and displaying the type number after the word "HCE." See Specifying the Loop Configuration for details. Edit Defocus Order Click Edit Defocus Order to manually define the defocus order of the collectors in the field. Click an assembly to assign the defocus order. You should assign each collector a unique defocus order number. See Defining Collector Defocusing for details. Reset Defocus Click to reset the defocus order to the default values, starting at the hot end of the loop and proceeding sequentially toward the cold end of the loop. See Defining Collector Defocusing for details .
Sizing the Solar Field

Sizing the solar field of a parabolic trough system in SAM involves determining the optimal solar field aperture area for a system at a given location. In general, increasing the solar field area increases the system's electric output, thereby reducing the project's LCOE. However, during times there is enough solar resource, too large of a field will produce more thermal energy than the power block and other system components can handle. Also, as the solar field size increases beyond a certain point, the higher installation and operating costs outweigh the benefit of the higher output. An optimal solar field area should: Maximize the amount of time in a year that the field generates sufficient thermal energy to drive the power block at its rated capacity. Minimize installation and operating costs.
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Use thermal energy storage and fossil backup equipment efficiently and cost effectively.
The problem of choosing an optimal solar field area involves analyzing the tradeoff between a larger solar field that maximizes the system's electrical output and project revenue, and a smaller field that minimizes installation and operating costs. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is a useful metric for optimizing the solar field size because it includes the amount of electricity generated by the system, the project installation costs, and the cost of operating and maintaining the system over its life. Optimizing the solar field involves finding the solar field aperture area that results in the lowest LCOE. For systems with thermal energy storage systems, the optimization involves finding the combination of field area and storage capacity that results in the lowest LCOE.
Option 1 and Option 2

SAM provides two options for specifying the solar field aperture area: Option 1 (solar multiple) allows you to specify the solar field area as a multiple of the power block's rated capacity (design gross output), and Option 2 (field aperture) allows you to specify the solar field aperture area as an explicit value in square meters. Option 1: You specify a solar multiple, and SAM calculates the solar field aperture area required to meet power block rated capacity. Option 2: You specify the aperture area independently of the power block's rated capacity. If your analysis involves a known solar field area, you should use Option 2 to specify the solar field aperture area explicitly. If your analysis involves optimizing the solar field area for a specific location, or choosing an optimal combination of solar field aperture area and thermal energy storage capacity, then you should choose Option 1, and follow the procedure described below to size the field.
Solar Multiple
The solar multiple makes it possible to represent the solar field aperture area as a multiple of the power block rated capacity. A solar multiple of one (SM=1) represents the solar field aperture area that, when exposed to solar radiation equal to the design radiation value (irradiation at design), generates the quantity of thermal energy required to drive the power block at its rated capacity (design gross output), accounting for thermal and optical losses. Because at any given location the number of hours in a year that the actual solar resource is equal to the design radiation value is likely to be small, a solar field with SM=1 will rarely drive the power block at its rated capacity. Increasing the solar multiple (SM>1) results in a solar field that operates at its design point for more hours of the year and generates more electricity. For example, consider a system with a power block design gross output rating of 111 MW and a solar multiple of one (SM=1) and no thermal storage. The following frequency distribution graph shows that the power block never generates electricity at its rated capacity, and generates less than 80% of its rated capacity for most of the time that it generates electricity:
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For the same system with a solar multiple chosen to minimize LCOE (in this example SM=1.5), the power block generates electricity at or slightly above its rated capacity almost 15% of the time:
Adding thermal storage to the system changes the optimal solar multiple, and increases the amount of time that the power block operates at its rated capacity. In this example, the optimal storage capacity (full load hours of TES) is 3 hours with SM=1.75, and the power block operates at or over its rated capacity over 20% of the time:
Note. For clarity, the frequency distribution graphs above exclude nighttime hours when the gross power output is zero.
Irradiance at Design
The irradiance at design value is a reference value that represents the solar resource at a given location for solar field sizing purposes. The value is necessary to establish the relationship between the field aperture area and power block rated capacity for solar multiple (SM) calculations: Total Required Aperture SM 1 = Design Gross Output (Irradiation at Design x Rated Cycle Conversion Efficiency x Total Loop Conversion Efficiency)
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The total loop efficiency conversion accounts for collector optical and thermal losses. Note. The irradiance at design value is different from the solar radiation data in the weather file. SAM uses the design value to size the solar field, but not in hourly simulations. The irradiance at design value should be close to the maximum direct radiation incident on the field expected for the location. For trough systems with horizontal collectors and a field azimuth angle of zero in the Mohave Desert of the United States, we suggest a design irradiance value of 950 W/m2. For southern Spain, a value of 800 W/m2 is reasonable for similar systems. However, for best results, you should choose a value for your specific location as described below. Parabolic trough collectors typically track the sun by rotating on a single axis, which means that the direct solar radiation rarely (if ever) strikes the collector aperture at a normal angle. Consequently, the total energy per square meter incident on the solar field in any given hour will always be less than the direct normal radiation (DNI) value in the resource data for that hour. The cosine-adjusted DNI value is a measure of the incident irradiance. One method for choosing a design irradiation value involves finding the maximum cosineadjusted direct normal irradiation (DNI) given a field orientation and weather data set. In order to determine the maximum cosine-adjusted DNI for a particular location in SAM, you choose the weather file on the Climate page, run a test simulation to generate a list of hourly cosine-adjusted DNI values, and find the maximum value in the list. To ensure that the values are appropriate for your system, you should set the collector orientation variables on the Solar Field page (collector tilt and azimuth) to the values you plan to use for your analysis. For this test simulation, the only important variables are: Location on the Climate page. Collector tilt on the Solar Field page. Collector azimuth on the Solar Field page. To find the maximum cosine-adjusted annual direct normal irradiation value: 1. 2. On the Climate page, choose a location for your system. See Climate page for details. On the Solar Field page, enter values of collector tilt and azimuth for the system. See Input Variable Reference for descriptions of the input variables. You can use default values for the remaining inputs. Click run all simulations, or press Ctrl-G.
3.
4. 5. 6.
On the Results menu, choose View Hourly Time Series (DView), or press Ctrl-T. On the Boxplot tab, choose Collector_DNI-x-CosTh. Read the maximum annual value from the graph. If you want to use an exact value, right-click the graph and click Export Data to export of values to a text file, which you can open in a text editor.
Optimizing the Solar Multiple

Representing the solar field aperture area as a solar multiple (Option 1) makes it possible to run parametric simulations in SAM and create graphs of LCOE versus solar multiple like the ones shown below. You can use this type of graph to find the optimal solar multiple.
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For a parabolic trough system with no storage, the optimal solar multiple is typically between 1.4 and 1.5. The graph shown below is for a system with no storage in Blythe, California, the optimal solar multiple is 2, meaning that the solar field aperture area should be chosen to be twice the area required to drive the power cycle at its rated capacity:
Because the optimal solar multiple depends on the LCOE, for accurate results, you should specify all of the project costs, financing, and incentive inputs in addition to the inputs specifying the physical characteristics of the solar field, power cycle and storage system before the optimization. However, for preliminary results, you can use default values for any variables for which you do not have values. The following instructions describe the steps for optimizing the solar multiple for a preliminary system design that mostly uses default values except for a few key variables. This example is for a 50 MW system, but you can use the same procedure for a system of any size. To optimize the solar field with no storage: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Create a new physical trough project with Utility IPP financing. On the Climate page, choose a location. Follow the instructions above to find an appropriate irradiation at design value for your weather data. Use zero for both the collector tilt and azimuth variables. On the Power Cycle page, for Design gross output, type 55 to specify a power block with a rated net electric output capacity of 50 MW (based on the default net conversion factor of 0.9). On the Thermal Storage page, for Full load hours of TES, type 0 to specify a system with no storage. On the Solar Field page, under Solar Field Parameters, choose Option 1 (solar multiple) if it is not already active. Click Configure simulations.
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8.
Click Parametrics.
9. 10. 11. 12.
Click Add Parametric Simulation. Click Add to open the Choose Parametrics window. Double-click the Physical Trough Solar Field category to show the list of solar field variables. Check Solar Multiple.
Note. Do not check Actual solar multiple. The actual solar multiple is a calculated value on the solar field page whose value you cannot change. 13. 14. 15. 16. Click Edit to open the Edit Parametric Values window. Type the following values: Start Value = 1, End Value = 2, Increment = 0.25. Click Update. The parametric simulation setup options should look like this: Click OK.
17. Click Run all simulations. SAM will run a simulation for each of the 5 solar multiple values you specified. The simulations may take a few minutes to run.
18. On the Results page, click Add a new graph. 19. Choose the following options: Choose Simulation = Parametric Set 1, X Value = {Solar Multiple}, Y1 Values = LCOE Nominal, Graph Type = Line Plot 20. Click Accept. SAM should display a graph that looks similar to the "Nominal LCOE vs Solar Multiple (No Storage)" graph above.
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21. On the graph, find the solar multiple value that results in the lowest LCOE. If the minimum LCOE occurs at either end of the graph, you may need to add more values to the solar multiple parametric variable to find the optimal value.
Optimal Solar Multiple for a System with Storage

Adding storage to the system introduces another level of complexity: Systems with storage can increase system output (and decrease the LCOE) by storing energy from an larger solar field for use during times when the solar field output is below the design point. However, the thermal energy storage system's cost and thermal losses also increase the LCOE. To find the optimal combination of solar multiple and storage capacity for systems with thermal storage, run a parametric analysis as described above, but with two parametric variables instead of one: Solar multiple and Full load hours of TES (storage capacity). The parametric setup options should look similar to this:
After running simulations, you will be able to create a graph like the one below that allows you to choose the combination of solar multiple and storage capacity that minimizes the LCOE. For example, the following graph shows that for a system in Blythe, California, the optimal combination of solar multiple and thermal storage capacity is SM = 1.75 and Hours of TES = 3.
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Each line in the graph represents a number of hours of thermal energy storage from the list we saw in the list of parametric values for the Equivalent Full Load Hours of TES variable: 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 hours of storage. For the no storage case (the dark green line, zero hours of storage), the lowest levelized cost of energy occurs at a solar multiple of 1.25. For a given storage capacity, as the solar multiple increases, both the area-dependent installation costs electricity output increase. The interaction of these factors causes the levelized cost of energy to decrease as the solar multiple increases from 1, but at some point the cost increase overwhelms the benefit of the increased electric energy output, and the levelized cost of energy begins to increase with the solar multiple.
Simplified Steps for Optimizing the Solar Field

If you are performing a preliminary analysis or learning to use SAM, you can use the following simplified steps, using default values for most of the inputs: 1. 2. 3. 4. Choose a location on the Climate page. Specify the power cycle capacity on the Power Cycle page. Choose an irradiation at design value on the Solar Field page. Optimize the solar field aperture area using Option 1.
Overall Steps for Optimizing the Solar Field

1. Choose a location on the Climate page. 2. Specify the power cycle capacity and other characteristics on the Power Cycle page. 3. Specify characteristics of the solar field components on the Receivers (HCEs) and Collectors (SCAs) pages. 4. If the system includes thermal energy storage, specify its characteristics on the Thermal Storage page. (Note. For systems with storage, use the optimization process in Step 8 below to find the optimal storage capacity.) 5. Define the project costs on the Trough System Costs page.
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6. Configure a single loop and specify solar field heat transfer fluid (HTF) properties on the Solar Field page. 7. Specify the collector orientation on the Solar Field page. 8. Choose an irradiation at design value on the Solar Field page. 9. Either optimize the solar field aperture area using Option 1, or specify the solar field area explicitly using Option 2 on the Solar Field page. 10.Refine your analysis by adjusting other model parameters.
Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid

If the heat transfer fluid you want to use in the solar field is not included in the Field HTF Fluid list, you can define a custom heat transfer fluid using the User-defined option in the list. To define a custom fluid, you need to know the specific heat, density, viscosity, kinematic viscosity, conductivity, and enthalpy of the fluid for at least two temperatures.
Table 18. Heat transfer fluids on the Field HTF Fluid list.
Min HTF Temp C 260 -20 Max Operating Temp C 600 300
Name Solar Salt Caloria Salt
Type mineral hydrocarbon oil Nitrate salt mixture of biphenyl and diphenyl oxide Nitrate salt
Freeze Point 220 -40
Comments used in first Luz trough plant, SEGS I New generation Standard for current generation oil HTF systems For hightemperature systems New generation New generation
Hitec XL Therminol VP-1
150 50
500 400
120 12
Hitec
175
500
140
Dowtherm Q Dowtherm RP
Synthetic oil Synthetic oil
-30 -20
330 350
-50 -40
To define a custom heat transfer fluid: In the Field HTF fluid list, click User-defined. In the Edit Material Properties table, change Number of data points to 2 or higher. The number should equal the number of temperature values for which you have data. 3. Type values for each property in the table. You can also import data from a text file of comma-separated values. Each row in the file should contain properties separated by commas, in the same the order that they appear in the Edit Material Properties window. Do not include a header row in the file. Keep the following in mind when you define a custom heat transfer fluid: Each row in the materials property fluid table must be for a set of properties at a specific temperature. 1. 2.
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No two rows should have the same temperature value. SAM calculates property values from the table using linear interpolation. The rows in the table must sorted by the temperature value, in either ascending or descending order. The physical trough model uses the temperature, specific heat, density, viscosity, and conductivity values. It ignores the enthalpy and kinematic viscosity values (the empirical trough model does use those values).
Specifying the Loop Configuration

The solar field consists of loops of collector-receiver assemblies. On the Solar Field page, you specify the characteristics of a single loop in the field.
When you configure a loop, you specify the following characteristics using the single loop configuration diagram: Number of assemblies in a single loop. Collector (SCA) type of each assembly in the loop. Receiver (HCE) type of each assembly in the loop. Collector defocusing order, if applicable. Each rectangle in the diagram represents a collector-reciever assembly. SAM allows you to specify a single loop of up to 35 collector-receiver assemblies, and up to four different receiver and collector types. Note. In the current version of SAM, it is not possible to specify more than one loop. If your field consists of different types of collectors and receivers, you must represent the proportion of different types in a single loop. Assembly #1, at the cold end of the loop, appears at the top left corner of the diagram. Depending on the collector defocusing option you use, you may need to know each assembly's number to assign a collector defocusing order. See Defining Collector Defocusing for details.
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The color of the rectangle and SCA number indicates the collector type of each assembly. Similarly, the color of the line representing the receiver and the HCE number indicates the receiver type. The "DF" number indicates the collector defocusing order:
The characteristics of each collector type are defined on the Collectors page, and of each receiver type on the Receivers page. To specify the loop configuration: 1. 2. In Number of SCA/HCE assemblies per loop, type a number between 1 and 32. SAM displays a rectangle for each assembly in the loop. If the loop has more than one type of collector, define each of up to four collector types on the Collectors page. At this stage in your analysis, you can simply make note of the type number for each collector type you plan to include in the loop and define its characteristics on the Collectors page later. Click Edit SCAs. Use your mouse to select all of the collectors to which you want to assign a type number. You can use the Ctrl key to select individual collectors. Use your keyboard to type the number corresponding to the collector's type number as defined on the Collectors page. SAM displays the collector (SCA) type number and color in the rectangle representing the collector type. Repeat Steps 4-5 for each collector type in the loop. If the loop includes more than one receiver type, click Edit HCEs, and follow Steps 4-6 for each
3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
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receiver (HCE) type. You can define up to four receiver types on the Receivers page.
Defining Collector Defocusing

During hours when the solar field delivers more thermal energy than the power cycle (and thermal storage system, if available) can accept, or when the mass flow rate is higher than the maximum single loop flow rate defined on the Solar Field page, SAM defocuses collectors in the solar field to reduce the solar field thermal output. Mathematically, the model multiplies the radiation incident on the collector by a defocusing factor. In a physical system, the collector tracker would adjust the collector angle to reduce the amount of absorbed energy. SAM provides three defocusing options: Option 1. No partial defocusing allowed: Collectors are either oriented toward the sun or in stow position. Collectors defocus in the order you specify. You should define a defocusing order as described below for this option. Option 2. Partial defocusing allowed with sequenced defocusing: Collectors can partially defocus by making slight adjustments in the tracking angle. Collectors defocus in the order you specify. You should define a defocusing order as described below for this option. Option 3. Partial defocusing allowed with simultaneous defocusing: Collectors can partially defocus by making slight adjustments in the tracking angle. All of the collectors in the field defocus by the same amount at the same time. You do not need to define a defocusing order for this option. To define collector defocusing option: In the Solar Field Parameters options, choose a defocusing option (see descriptions above): Option 1: Clear Allow partial defocusing. Option 2: Check Allow partial defocusing, and choose Sequenced. Option 3: Check Allow partial defocusing, and choose Simultaneous. If you choose Option 1 or Option 2, you should define the defocus order as described in the next procedure. If you choose Option 3, SAM ignores the defocusing order displayed in the single loop diagram. To define the defocus order: 1. 2. If you choose Option 1 or 2 for the defocusing option, under Single Loop Configuration, click Edit Defocus Order. Click each collector-receiver assembly in the loop, and type a number in the Defocus Order window. Assemblies are numbered starting at the top right corner of the diagram, at the cold end of the loop. Be sure to assign a unique defocus order number to each assembly. Click Reset Defocus if you want the defocus order to start at the hot end of the loop and proceed sequentially to the cold end of the loop.

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Solar Field page. It is currently under development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.
Min field flow velocity, Max field flow velocity

The minimum and maximum solar field HTF flow velocity depend on the minimum and maximum HTF mass flow rates, HTF density at the design loop inlet temperature, and the absorber tube inner diamater specified
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on the Receivers page. SAM calculates the field HTF flow velocity for the receiver type with the smallest diameter.
Single loop aperture Loop optical efficiency Total loop conversion efficiency Total required aperture, SM=1 Required number of loops, SM=1 Actual number of loops Actual aperture Actual solar multiple Field thermal output
3.7.2
Collectors (SCAs)
To view the Collectors page, click Collectors (SCAs) on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the Collectors page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Collectors page. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values on the Collectors page.
Overview
A collector (SCA, solar collector assembly) is an individually tracking component of the solar field that includes mirrors, a supporting structure, and receivers.
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Note. See the Troughnet website at http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/solar_field.html for more information about collectors. On the Collectors page, you can define the characteristics of up to four collector types. On the Solar Field page, you specify how the different collector types are distributed in each loop of the field, assuming that the field consists of identical loops. SAM only uses data for collector types that you have included in the single loop specification on the Solar Field page

Collector Type and Configuration Name
Collector Type Choose the active SCA type (1-4). SAM displays the properties of the active SCA type on the Collectors page. You can assign different properties to each of the up to four collector types. See Specifying the Loop Configuration for details on including different SCA types in the solar field. Configuration Name The name of library entry for the receiver type.
Collector Geometry
Reflective aperture area (m 2) The total reflective area of a single collector, used to calculate the loop aperture area of a loop, and number of loops required for a solar field with the aperture area defined on the Solar Field page. Aperture width, total structure (m) The structural width of the collector, including reflective and non-reflective area. SAM uses this value to calculate row-to-row shadowing and blocking effects. Length of collector assembly (m) The length of the collector assembly, used to calculate the length of a single assembly, and for a solar field with an "H" layout, the length of runner pipes. Number of modules per assembly The number of individual collector-receiver sections in a single collector. Average surface-to-focus path length (m) The average distance between the collector surface and the focus of the parabola. This value is not equal to the focal length of the collector. To calculate the value when you know the focal length and aperture width, use the following equation, where Favg is the average surface-to-focus path length:
Where a is the focal length at the vertex, and w is the aperture width
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Piping distance between assemblies (m)
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Length of pipes and hoses connecting collectors in a single row, not including the length of crossover pipes. Length of single module (m) The length of a single collector-receiver module, equal to the collector assembly length divided by the number of modules per assembly.
Optical Parameters
Incidence angle modifier coeff 1-3 Coefficients for a polynomial equation defining the Incidence Angle Modifier equation. The equation captures the degradation of collector performance as the incidence angle (theta) of the solar radiation increases. Tracking error Accounts for reduction in absorbed radiation error in collectors tracking caused by poor alignment of sun sensor, tracking algorithm error, errors caused by the tracker drive update rate, and twisting of the collector end at the sun sensor mounting location relative to the tracking unit end. Geometry effects Accounts for errors in structure geometry caused by misaligned mirrors, mirror contour distortion caused by the support structure, mirror shape errors compared to an ideal parabola, and misaligned or distorted receiver. Clean mirror reflectance The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs, typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0.906 (silvered polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface). Dirt on mirror Accounts for reduction in absorbed radiation caused by soiling of the mirror surface. This value is not linked to the mirror washing variables on the Solar Field page. General optical error Accounts for reduction in absorbed radiation caused by general optical errors or other unaccounted error sources.
Optical Calculations
Incidence angle modifier The incidence angle modifier equation calculated as a reference for the location in question at noon on the summer solstice. This value is not used in determining the design of the solar field. End loss at design Optical end loss at noon on the summer solstice due to reflected radiation spilling off of the end of the collector assembly. This value is provided as a reference and is not used in determining the design of the solar field.
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The collector's optical efficiency under design conditions.
Optical efficiency at design

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Collectors page. It is currently under development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.
Incidence angle modifier
Where,
IAM F0-2 Theta
incidence angle modifier incidence angle modifier coefficients that you specify on the Collectors page solar incidence angle (zero at normal incidence)
End loss at design Optical efficiency at design
3.7.3
Receivers (HCEs)
To view the Receivers page, click Receivers (HCEs) on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the Receivers page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Receivers page. Specifying Receiver Type Variations describes an example of using variant weighting fraction values and different receiver types. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values on the Receivers page.
Overview
A receiver (HCE, heat collection element) is a metal pipe contained in a vacuum within glass tube that runs
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through the focal line of the trough-shaped parabolic collector. Seals and bellows ensure that a vacuum is maintained in each tube. Anti-reflective coatings on the glass tube maximize the amount of solar radiation that enters the tube. Solar-selective radiation absorbing coatings on the metal tube maximize the transfer of energy from the solar radiation to the pipe. Note. See the Troughnet website at http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/solar_field.html for more information about receivers. On the Receivers page, you define the characteristics of up to four receiver types. On the Solar Field page, you specify how the different receiver types are distributed in each loop of the field, assuming that the field consists of identical loops. SAM only uses data for receiver types that you have included in the single loop specification on the Solar Field page. For each receiver type, you also specify up to four variations. You can use the variations to describe different conditions of the receiver type. For example, you may use one variation to describe the receiver type in good condition, and another to describe the receiver type with a damaged glass envelope.

Receiver Type and Configuration Name
Receiver Type Choose the active receiver type (1-4). SAM displays the properties of the active receiver. Configuration Name The name of library entry for the receiver type. Choose receiver from library Allows you to choose a receiver from the library of available receivers.
Receiver Geometry
Absorber tube inner diameter (m) Inner diameter of the receiver absorber tube, this surface in direct contact with the heat transfer fluid. Absorber tube outer diameter (m) Outer diameter of the receiver absorber tube, the surface exposed to the annular vacuum. Glass envelope inner diameter (m) Inner diameter of the receiver glass envelope tube, the surface exposed to the annular vacuum. Glass envelope outer diameter (m) Outer diameter of the receiver glass envelope tube, the surface exposed to ambient air. Absorber flow plug diameter (m) A non-zero value represents the diameter of an optional plug running axially and concentrically within the receiver absorber tube. A zero value represents a receiver with no plug. The plug allows for an increase in the receiver absorber diameter while maintaining the optimal heat transfer within the tube heat transfer fluid. For a non-zero value, be sure to use annular flow for the absorber flow pattern option.
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The surface roughness of the inner receiver pipe surface exposed to the heat transfer fluid, used to determine flow shear force and the corresponding pressure drop across the receiver. Surface roughness is important in determining the scale of the pressure drop throughout the system. As a general rule, the rougher the surface, the higher the pressure drop (and parasitic pumping power load). The surface roughness is a function of the material and manufacturing method used for the piping. A conservative roughness value for extruded steel pipe (the type often used for the absorber pipe) is about 3e-6 meters. The default value of 4.5e-5 m is based on this value and the absorber tube inner diameter value of 0.066 m: 3e-6 m / 6.6e-2 m = 4.5e-5.
Internal surface roughness
Absorber flow pattern (m) Use standard tube flow when the absorber flow plug diameter is zero. Use annual flow with a non-zero absorber flow plug diameter. Absorber material type The material used for the absorber tube. Choose from stainless steel or copper.
Parameters and Variations

Variant weighting fraction The fraction of the solar field that consists of the active receiver variation. For each receiver type, the sum of the four variations should equal one. See Specifying Receiver Type Variations for details. Absorber absorptance The ratio of radiation absorbed by the absorber to the radiation incident on the absorber. Absorber emittance The energy radiated by the absorber surface as a function of the absorber's temperature. You can either specify a table of emittance and temperature values, or specify a single value that applies at all temperatures. Envelope absorptance The ratio of radiation absorbed by the envelope to the radiation incident on the envelope, or radiation that is neither transmitted through nor reflected from the envelope. Used to calculate the glass temperature. (Does not affect the amount of radiation that reaches the absorber tube.) Envelope emittance The energy radiated by the envelope surface. Envelope transmittance The ratio of the radiation transmitted through the glass envelope to the radiation incident on the envelope, or radiation that is neither reflected nor refracted away from the absorber tube. Broken glass Option to specify that the envelope glass has been broken or removed, indicating that the absorber tube is directly exposed to the ambient air. Annulus gas type Gas type present in the annulus vacuum. Choose from Hydrogen, air, or Argon.
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Annulus pressure (torr) Absolute pressure of the gas in the annulus vacuum, in torr, where 1 torr = 133.32 Pa Estimated avg. heat loss (W/m)
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An estimated value representing the total heat loss from the receiver under design conditions. SAM uses the value to calculate the total loop conversion efficiency and required solar field aperture area for the design point values on the Solar Field page. It does not use the value in simulation calculations. Bellows shadowing An optical derate factor accounting for the fraction of radiation lost after striking the mechanical bellows at the ends of the receiver tubes. Dirt on receiver An optical derate factor accounting for the fraction of radiation lost due to dirt and soiling on the receiver.
Total Weighted Losses

The total weighted losses are used in the solar field sizing calculations as an estimate of the optical and thermal losses in the solar field at the design point. SAM does not use the weighted loss variables in hourly simulations. Heat loss at design The total thermal loss expected from the active receiver type under design conditions accounting for the weighting fraction of the four receiver variations. SAM uses the value to calculate the design point total loop conversion efficiency and the solar field aperture area shown on the Solar Field page. Optical derate Represents the total optical losses expected from the active receiver type under design conditions accounting for the weighting fraction of the four receiver variations. SAM uses the value to calculate the design point total loop conversion efficiency and the solar field aperture area shown on the Solar Field page.
Specifying Receiver Type Variations

You can use the receiver variations to model a solar field with receivers in different conditions. If you want all of the receivers in the field to be identical, then you can use a single variation and assign it a variant weighting fraction of 1. When you use more than one receiver variation, be sure that the sum of the four variant weighting fractions is 1. Here's an example of an application of the receiver variations for a field that consists of a two receiver types. The first type, Type 1, represents receivers originally installed in the field. Type 2 represents replacement receivers installed as a fraction of the original receivers are damaged over time. Over the life of the project, on average, 5 percent of the Type 1 receivers have broken glass envelopes, and another 5 percent have lost vacuum in the annulus. We'll also assume that degraded receivers are randomly distributed throughout the field -- SAM does not have a mechanism for specifying specific locations of different variations of a given receiver type. To specify this situation, we would start with Type 1, and use Variation 1 to represent the 90 percent of intact receivers, assigning it a variant weighting fraction of 0.90. We'll use Variation 2 for the 5 percent of receivers with broken glass envelopes, giving it a weighting fraction of 0.05, and Variation 3 for the other 5 percent of lost-vacuum receivers with a weighting fraction of 0.05.
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We'll assign appropriate values to the parameters for each of the two damaged receiver variations. Next, we'll specify Type 2 to represent intact replacement receivers. We will us a single variation for the intact Type 2 receivers. On the Solar Field page, we'll specify the single loop configuration (assuming a loop with eight assemblies), using Type 2 for the first and second assembly in the loop, and Type 1 receivers (with the variant weighting we assigned on the Receivers page) for the remaining six assemblies in the loop.

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Receivers page. It is currently under development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.
Heat loss at design Optical derate
3.7.4
Power Cycle
To view the Power Cycle page, click Power Cycle on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the power cycle model and where to find more information about the model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Power Cycle page. Modeling a Fossil-fired Backup Boiler describes the steps for including a backup boiler in the system. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values on the Power Cycle page.
Overview
The power cycle model represents a power block that converts thermal energy delivered by the solar field and optional thermal energy system to electric energy using a conventional steam Rankine cycle power plant. The power cycle can use either an evaporative cooling system for wet cooling, or an air-cooled system for dry cooling. The power cycle may include a fossil-fired backup boiler that heats the heat transfer fluid before it enters the
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power cycle during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive the power cycle at its design load.
The power cycle model for the SAM physical trough model is the same as that used for the power tower model. For a detailed description of the power cycle model, see Chapter 4 of Wagner M, 2008. Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/theses/wagner08.zip.

Plant Capacity
Design gross output (MWe) The power cycle's design output, not accounting for parasitic losses. SAM uses this value to size system components, such as the solar field area when you use the solar multiple to specify the solar field size. Estimated gross to net conversion factor An estimate of the ratio of the electric energy delivered to the grid to the power cycle's gross output. SAM uses the factor to calculate the power cycle's nameplate capacity for capacity-related calculations, including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the Trough System Costs page, capacity-based incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the capacity factor reported in the results. Estimated net output design (nameplate) (MWe) The power cycle's nameplate capacity, calculated as the product of the design gross output and estimated gross to net conversion factor.
Power Block Design Point

Rated cycle conversion efficiency The thermal to electric conversion efficiency of the power cycle under design conditions. Design inlet temperature (C) The heat transfer fluid temperature at the power cycle inlet under design conditions. Design outlet temperature (C) The heat transfer fluid temperature at the power cycle outlet under design conditions. Boiler operating pressure (bar) The steam pressure in the main Rankine cycle boiler at design, used to calculate the steam saturation temperature in the boiler, and thus the driving heat transfer temperature difference between the inlet heat transfer fluid and the steam in the boiler. Boiler LHV efficiency The back-up boiler's lower heating value efficiency, used to calculate the quantity of gas required by the back-up boiler. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details. Heat capacity of balance of plant (kWht/C-MWhe) A term to introduce additional thermal capacity into the solar field to account for thermal inertia effects
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not directly linked to the mass of heat transfer fluid in the solar field. The units for this value are thermal kilowatt-hours per megawatt of gross electric output capacity needed to raise the balance of plant temperature one degree Celsius.
Steam cycle blowdown fraction The fraction of the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle that is extracted and replaced by fresh water. This fraction is multiplied by the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle for each hour of plant operation to determine the total required quantity of power cycle makeup water. The blowdown fraction accounts for water use related directly to replacement of the steam working fluid. The default value of 0.013 for the wet-cooled case represents makeup due to blowdown quench and steam cycle makeup during operation and startup. A value of 0.016 is appropriate for dry-cooled systems to account for additional wet-surface air cooling for critical Rankine cycle components.
Plant Control
Fraction of thermal power needed for standby The fraction of the power cycle's design thermal input required from storage to keep the power cycle in standby mode. This thermal energy is not converted into electric power. SAM does not calculate standby energy for systems with no storage. Power block startup time (hr) The time in hours that the system consumes energy at the startup fraction before it begins producing electricity. If the startup fraction is zero, the system will operate at the design capacity during the startup time. Fraction of thermal power needed for startup The fraction of the turbine's design thermal input energy required during startup. This thermal energy is not converted to electric power. Min required startup temp (C) The temperature at which heat transfer fluid circulation through the power cycle heat exchangers begins, typically near the power block design heat transfer fluid outlet temperature. Max turbine over design operation The maximum allowable power cycle output as a fraction of the electric nameplate capacity. Whenever storage is not available and the solar resource exceeds the irradiation at design value from the Solar Field page, some collectors in the solar field are defocused to limit the power block output to the maximum load. Min turbine operation The fraction of the nameplate electric capacity below which the power cycle does not generate electricity. Whenever the power block output is below the minimum load and thermal energy is available from the solar field, the field is defocused. For systems with storage, solar field energy is delivered to storage until storage is full before the field is defocused.
Cooling System
Condenser type Choose either an air-cooled condenser (dry cooling), evaporative cooling (wet cooling), or hybrid cooling system. In hybrid cooling a wet-cooling system and dry-cooling share the heat rejection load. Although there are
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many possible theoretical configurations of hybrid cooling systems, SAM only allows a parallel cooling option. Hybrid Dispatch For hybrid cooling, the hybrid dispatch table specifies how much of the cooling load should be handled by the wet-cooling system for each of 6 period in the year. The periods are specified in the matrices on the Thermal Storage page. Each value in the table is a fraction of the design cooling load. For example, if you want 60% of heat rejection load to go to wet cooling in Period 1, type 0.6 for Period 1. Directing part of the heat rejection load to the wet cooling system reduces the total condenser temperature and improves performance, but increases the water requirement. SAM sizes the wet-cooling system to match the maximum fraction that you specify in the hybrid dispatch table, and sizes the air-cooling system to is sized to meet the full cooling load. Ambient temp at design (C) The ambient temperature at which the power cycle operates at its design-point-rated cycle conversion efficiency. For the air-cooled condenser option, use a dry bulb ambient temperature value. For the evaporative condenser, use the wet bulb temperature. Ref. Condenser Water dT (C) For the evaporative type only. The temperature rise of the cooling water across the condenser under design conditions, used to calculate the cooling water mass flow rate at design, and the steam condensing temperature. Approach temperature (C) For the evaporative type only. The temperature difference between the circulating water at the condenser inlet and the wet bulb ambient temperature, used with the ref. condenser water dT value to determine the condenser saturation temperature and thus the turbine back pressure. ITD at design point (C) For the air-cooled type only. Initial temperature difference (ITD), difference between the temperature of steam at the turbine outlet (condenser inlet) and the ambient dry-bulb temperature. Condenser pressure ratio For the air-cooled type only. The pressure-drop ratio across the air-cooled condenser heat exchanger, used to calculate the pressure drop across the condenser and the corresponding parasitic power required to maintain the air flow rate. Min condenser pressure The minimum condenser pressure in inches if mercury prevents the condenser pressure from dropping below the level you specify. In a physical system, allowing the pressure to drop below a certain point can result in physical damage to the system. For evaporative (wet cooling), the default value is 1.25 inches of mercury. For air-cooled (dry cooling), the default is 2 inches of mercury. For hybrid systems, you can use the dry-cooling value of 2 inches of mercury. Cooling system part load levels The cooling system part load levels tells the heat rejection system model how many discrete operating points there are. A value of 2 means that the system can run at either 100% or 50% rejection. A value of three means rejection operating points of 100% 66% 33%. The part load levels determine how the heat rejection operates under part load conditions when the heat load is less than full load. The default value is 2, and recommended range is between 2 and 10. The value must be an integer.
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Modeling a Fossil-fired Backup Boiler

To model a system with a fossil-fired backup boiler, set the boiler LHV efficiency input variable value to an appropriate value, and define the boiler's operating schedule on the Thermal Storage page. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details.

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Power Cycle page. It is currently under development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.
Estimated net output at design (nameplate) Design inlet temperature Design outlet temperature
3.7.5
Thermal Storage
To view the Thermal Storage page, click Thermal Storage on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the thermal storage model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Thermal Storage page. Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls describes the storage dispatch options, and the control parameters for a fossil-fired backup boiler. Defining Dispatch Schedules explains how to assign times to the six dispatch periods using the weekday and weekend schedules. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values on the Thermal Storage page.
Overview
A thermal energy storage system (TES) stores heat from the solar field in a liquid medium. Heat from the storage system can drive the power block turbine during periods of low or no sunlight. A thermal storage system is beneficial in many locations where the peak demand for power occurs after the sun has set. Adding thermal storage to a parabolic trough system allows the collection of solar energy to be separated
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from the operation of the power block. For example, a system might be able to collect energy in the morning and use it to generate electricity late into the evening. In direct storage systems, the solar field's heat transfer fluid itself serves as the storage medium. In indirect systems, a separate fluid is the storage fluid, and heat is transferred from the solar field's heat transfer fluid to the storage fluid through heat exchangers. The thermal storage system consists of one or more tank pairs, pumps to circulate the liquids, and depending on the design, heat exchangers. Each tank pair consists of a hot tank to store heat from the solar field, and a cold tank to store the cooled storage medium after the power block has extracted its energy. Note. For more information on thermal energy storage systems for parabolic trough systems, see http:// www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/thermal_energy_storage.html. The storage system variables describe the thermal energy storage system. The thermal storage dispatch control variables determine when the system dispatches energy from the storage system, and from a fossilfired backup system if the system includes one.

Storage System
Full Load Hours of TES (hours) The thermal storage capacity expressed in number of hours of thermal energy delivered at the power block's design thermal input level. The physical capacity is the number of hours of storage multiplied by the power cycle design thermal input. Used to calculate the system's maximum storage capacity. Storage volume (m 3) SAM calculates the total heat transfer fluid volume in storage based on the storage hours at full load and the power block design turbine thermal input capacity. The total heat transfer fluid volume is divided among the total number of tanks so that all hot tanks contain the same volume of fluid, and all cold tanks contain the same volume of fluid. TES Thermal capacity (MWt) The equivalent thermal capacity of the storage tanks, assuming the thermal storage system is fully charged. This value does not account for losses incurred through the heat exchanger for indirect storage systems. Parallel tank pairs The number of parallel hot-cold storage tank pairs. Increasing the number of tank-pairs also increases the volume of the heat transfer fluid exposed to the tank surface, which increases the total tank thermal losses. SAM divides the total heat transfer fluid volume among all of the tanks, and assumes that each hot tank contains an equal volume of fluid, and each cold tank contains and equal volume. Tank height (m) The height of the cylindrical volume of heat transfer fluid in each tank. Tank fluid min height (m) The minimum allowable height of fluid in the storage tank(s). The mechanical limits of the tank determine this value.
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The diameter of a storage tank, assuming that all tanks have the same dimensions. SAM calculates this value based on the specified height and storage volume of a single tank, assuming that all tanks have the same dimensions.
Tank diameter (m)
Min fluid volume (m 3) The volume of fluid in a tank that corresponds to the tank's minimum fluid height specified above. Tank loss coeff (W/m 2-K) The thermal loss coefficient for the storage tanks. This value specifies the number of thermal watts lost from the tanks per square meter of tank surface area and temperature difference between the storage fluid bulk temperature and the ambient dry bulb temperature. Estimated heat loss (MWt) The estimated value of heat loss from all storage tanks. The estimate assumes that the tanks are 50% charged, so that the storage fluid is evenly distributed among the cold and hot tanks, and that the hot tank temperature is equal to the solar field hot (outlet) temperature, and the cold tank temperature is equal to the solar field cold (inlet) temperature. Tank heater set point (C) The minimum allowable storage fluid temperature in the storage tanks. If the fluid temperature falls below the set point, the auxiliary heaters deliver energy to the tanks, attempting to increase the temperature to the set point. Aux heater outlet set temp (C) The temperature set point for the auxiliary heaters, assumed to be electric heaters. Tank heater capacity (MWt) The maximum rate at which heat can be added by the auxiliary electric tank heaters to the storage fluid in the tanks. Tank heater efficiency The electrical to thermal conversion efficiency of the auxiliary electric tank heaters. Hot side HX approach temp (C) Applies to systems with a heat exchanger only (indicated by a heat exchanger derate value of less than one). The temperature difference on the hot side of the solar-field-to-thermal-storage heat exchanger. During charge cycles, the temperature is the solar field hot outlet temperature minus the storage hot tank inlet temperature. During discharge cycles, it is defined as the storage hot tank temperature minus the power cycle hot inlet temperature. Cold side HX approach temp (C) Applies to systems with a heat exchanger only (indicated by a heat exchanger derate value less than one). The temperature difference on the cold side of the solar field-to-thermal-storage heat exchanger. During charge cycles, the temperature is the storage cold temperature (storage outlet) minus the heat exchanger cold temperature. During discharge cycles, it is the heat exchanger cold temperature minus the storage cold temperature (storage inlet). Heat exchanger derate A calculated value indicating the temperature derate caused by the heat exchanger approach temperatures. The derate factor is for reference only and not used in performance calculations. The derate is defined as the temperature difference between the hot and the cold field design temperatures
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minus the heat exchanger approach temperatures all divided by the difference between the hot and cold field design temperatures. A derate of one indicates a system that uses the same fluid for the solar field heat transfer fluid and for the storage fluid and therefore does not require a heat exchanger between the solar field and storage system. Initial TES Fluid temp (C) The temperature of the storage fluid in the thermal energy storage system in the first time step of the simulation. Storage HTF fluid The storage fluid used in the thermal energy storage system. When the storage fluid and solar field heat transfer fluid (HTF) are different, the system is an indirect system with a heat exchanger (heat exchanger derate is less than one). When the storage fluid and solar field HTF are the same, the system is a direct system that uses the solar field HTF as the storage medium (heat exchanger derate equals one). User-defined HTF fluid When you choose user-defined from the Storage HTF fluid list, you can specify a table of material properties of a storage fluid. You must provide values for two temperatures (two rows of data) of specific heat, density, viscosity, and conductivity values. See Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid for details. Fluid Temperature (C) A reference value indicating the temperature at which the substance properties are evaluated for thermal storage. TES fluid density (kg/m 3) The density of the storage fluid at the fluid temperature, used to calculate the total mass of thermal fluid required in the storage system. TES specific heat (kJ/kg-K) The specific heat of the storage fluid at the fluid temperature, used to calculate the total energy content of the fluid in the storage system.

The storage dispatch control variables each have six values, one for each of six possible dispatch periods. They determine how SAM calculates the energy flows between the solar field, thermal energy storage system, and power block. The fossil-fill fraction is used to calculate the energy from a backup boiler. Storage Dispatch Fraction with Solar The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start when the solar field energy is greater than zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage. Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels. Storage Dispatch Fraction without Solar The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start when the solar field energy is equal to zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage. Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels.
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The fraction of the power cycle design gross output from the Solar Field page at which energy from the storage system can drive the power cycle. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details.
Turbine Output Fraction
Fossil Fill Fraction Determines how much energy the backup boiler delivers during hours when there is insufficient energy from the solar field (and storage system, if available) to drive the power cycle at its design output capacity. A value of one for a given dispatch period ensures that the power cycle operates at its design output for all hours in the period: The boiler "fills in" the energy not delivered by the solar field or storage system. For a fossil fill fraction less than one, the boiler supplies enough energy to drive the power cycle at a fraction of its design point. To define a system with no fossil backup, use a value of zero for all six dispatch periods. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details. Payment Allocation Factor The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page. For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors. When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the payment allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose. Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods to one.

Storage Dispatch
SAM decides whether or not to operate the power cycle in each hour of the simulation based on how much energy is available in storage, how much energy is delivered by the solar field, and the values of the thermal storage dispatch control parameters. You can define a different dispatch strategy for each of six dispatch periods for weekdays and weekends. See Defining Dispatch Schedules for details. For each hour in the simulation, SAM looks at the amount of energy in storage at the beginning of the hour and decides whether or not to operate the power cycle in that hour. For each dispatch period, there are two dispatch targets for starting or continuing to run the power cycle: one for periods of sunshine (storage dispatch fraction w/solar), and one for periods of no sunshine (storage dispatch fraction w/o solar). The dispatch target for each dispatch period is the product of the storage dispatch fraction for that period and the thermal storage capacity defined by the TES thermal capacity input variable. During periods of sunshine when there is insufficient energy from the solar field to drive the power cycle at its load requirement, the system dispatches energy from storage only when energy in storage is greater than or equal to the dispatch target.
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During periods of no sunshine, the power cycle will not run unless energy in storage is greater than or equal to the dispatch target. The turbine output fraction for each dispatch period determines the power cycle output requirement for hours that fall within the dispatch period. A turbine output fraction of one defines an output requirement equivalent to the power cycle's design gross output defined on the Power Cycle page. For hours when the solar field energy is insufficient to drive the power cycle at the output requirement, the power cycle runs on energy from both the solar field and storage system. For hours when the solar field energy exceeds the output requirement, the power block runs at the required output level, and any excess energy goes to storage. If the storage system is at capacity, the collectors in the field defocus as specified on the Solar Field page to reduce the field's thermal output. By setting the thermal storage dispatch control parameters, you can simulate a dispatch strategy for clear days when storage is at capacity that allows the operator to start the plant earlier in the day to avoid defocusing collectors in the field, for cloudy days that allows the operator to store energy for later use in a time period when the value of power is higher.

When the fossil fill fraction is greater than zero for any dispatch period, the system is considered to include a fossil-fired boiler that heats the heat transfer fluid before it is delivered to the power cycle. The fossil fill fraction defines the backup boiler output as a function of the thermal energy from the solar field (and storage, if applicable) in a given hour and the power cycle design gross output defined on the Power Cycle page. For example, for an hour with a fossil fill fraction of 1.0 when solar energy delivered to the power cycle is less than that needed to run at the power cycle design gross output, the backup boiler would supply enough energy to "fill" the missing heat, and the power cycle would operate at the design gross output. If, in that scenario, solar energy (from either the field or storage system) is driving the power cycle at full load, the boiler would not operate. For a fossil fill fraction of 0.75, the boiler would only be fired when solar output drops below 75% of the power cycle's design gross output. The boiler LHV efficiency value on the Power Cycle page determines the quantity of fuel used by the backup boiler. A value of 0.9 is reasonable for a natural gas-fired backup boiler. SAM includes the cost of fuel for the backup system in the levelized cost of energy and other metrics reported in the results, and reports the energy equivalent of the hourly fuel consumption in the hourly simulation results. The cost of fuel for the backup boiler is defined on the Trough System Costs page.

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The weekday and weekend dispatch schedules determine when each of the six dispatch periods apply during throughout the year. You can either choose an existing schedule from one of the schedules in the dispatch schedule library or define a custom schedule. For information about libraries, see Working with Libraries. The dispatch schedule library only assigns period numbers to the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. The dispatch fractions that you specify are not stored in the library. Note. SAM also uses the dispatch schedules when you choose Hybrid Cooling on the Power Cycle page to assign hybrid dispatch fractions to the periods specified in the dispatch schedules.. To choose a schedule from the library: 1. 2. 3. Click Dispatch schedule library. Choose a schedule from the list of four schedules. The schedules are based on time-of-use pricing schedules from four California utilities. Click OK. You can modify a schedule using the steps described below. Modifying a schedule does not affect the schedule stored in the library. For each of the up to six periods used in the schedule, enter values for the dispatch fractions (see Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls) described above. Use the period number and color to identify the times in the schedule that each period applies.
4.
To specify a weekday or weekend schedule: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Assign values as appropriate to the Storage Dispatch, Turbine Output Fraction, Fossil Fill Fraction, and Payment Allocation Factor for each of the up to nine periods. Click Dispatch schedule library. Choose a Uniform Dispatch. Click OK. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.
6.
Type the number 2.
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7.
8.

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Thermal Storage page. It is currently under development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.
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Storage volume TES thermal capacity Tank diameter Min fluid volume Estimated heat loss Heat exchanger derate Fluid temperature TES fluid density TES specific heat
3.7.6
Parasitics
To view the Parasitics page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the purpose of the variables on the Parasitics page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Parasitics page. Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values on the Parasitics page.
Overview
The variables on the Parasitics page define electrical loads in the system. For each hour of the simulation, SAM calculates the parasitic load and subtracts it from the power cycle's gross electrical output to calculate the net electrical output.
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Parasitics
Piping thermal loss coefficient (W/m 2-K) The thermal loss coefficient that is used to calculate thermal losses from piping between receivers, crossover piping, header piping, and runner piping. The coefficient specifies the number of thermal watts lost from the system per pipe surface area, square meter of aperture area and temperature difference between the fluid in the piping and the ambient air (dry bulb temperature). The length of crossover piping depends on the row spacing variable on the Solar Field page, and the piping distance between assemblies on the Collectors page. Tracking power (W per collector) The amount of electrical power consumed by a single collector tracking mechanism. SAM only calculates tracking losses during hours when collectors are actively tracking the sun. The total field tracking power is calculated by multiplying this value by the number of loops in the field and number of assemblies per loop specified on the Solar Field page. Required pumping power for HTF through power block (kJ/kg) A coefficient used to calculate the electric power required to pump heat transfer fluid through the power cycle. SAM applies the coefficient to all heat transfer fluid flowing through the power cycle. The coefficient can alternatively be defined as the pumping power divided by the mass flow rate kW/kg-s, which is equivalent to the units kJ/kg. Required pumping power for HTF through storage (kJ/kg) A coefficient used to calculate the electric power consumed by pumps to move heat transfer fluid through the storage heat exchanger on both the solar field side and the storage tank side (for cases where a heat exchanger exists, specified on the Thermal Storage page). This coefficient is applied separately to the solar field flow and the tank flow. Fraction of rated gross power consumed at all times A fixed electric load applied to all hours of the simulation, expressed as a fraction of rated gross power at design from the Power Cycle page. Balance of plant parasitic (MWe/MWcap) A parasitic load that is applied as a function of the thermal input to the power cycle. Aux heater, boiler parasitic (MWe/MWcap) A parasitic load that is applied as a function of the thermal output of the auxiliary fossil-fired heaters. Applies only when the system includes fossil backup. See Modeling a Fossil-fired Backup Boiler for details. Design Point Total Tracking (W) A value displayed for reference indicating what the total tracking parasitic load would be if all collectors in the field were actively tracking simultaneously. Design Point Total Fixed (MWe) The value of the fixed parasitic load applied at all times. Design Point Total BOP (MWe) The value of the balance-of-plant parasitic load assuming design-point operation.
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The value of the auxiliary heater (for the backup gas boiler) parasitic load assuming the auxiliary heater is providing 100% of the thermal load required for the power cycle.
Design Point Total Aux (MWe)

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Parasitics page. It is currently under development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.
Tracking Fixed BOP Aux
3.8
Generic Solar System This topic is under construction.

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support: solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov.
This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System pages.
3.8.1
Solar Field
This topic is under construction.

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support: solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System Solar Field page.
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3.8.2
Power Block

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support: solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System Power Block page.
3.8.3
Thermal Storage

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support: solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System Thermal Storage page.
3.9
Power Tower
A power tower system (also called a central receiver system) is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that consists of a heliostat field, tower and receiver, power block, and optional storage system. The field of flat, sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats focus direct normal solar radiation onto a receiver at the top of the tower, where a heat-transfer fluid is heated and pumped to the power block. The power block generates steam that drives a conventional steam turbine and generator to convert the thermal energy to electricity. SAM's power tower performance model uses TRNSYS components developed at the University of Wisconsin and described in Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants, Wagner (2008) http://sel.me.wisc.edu/publications/theses/wagner08.zip (32 MB). The solar field optimization algorithm is based on the DELSOL3 model developed at Sandia National Laboratory, and described in A User's Manual for DELSOL3: A Computer Code for Calculating the Optical Performance and Optimal System Design for Solar Thermal Central Receiver Plants, Kistler (1986), (SAND86-8018) http://www.prod.sandia.gov/cgi-bin/techlib/access-control.pl/1986/868018.pdf (10 MB). This user guide describes the power tower system input variables and some basic calculations in SAM, and is intended to be used with the two publications, which describes power tower systems and the model algorithms in more detail. For an example of power tower systems, open the sample file Sample Power Tower System: On the File menu, click Open Sample Template and select the file from the list. The file contains three cases
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representing a 100 MW field of collector-receiver-engine units with and without thermal energy storage, and sample SamUL script for relative density calculation. For information about SamUL, on the Help menu, click SamUL Guide. This section describes the system input pages that are available when the technology option in the Technology and Market window is Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System. Tower System Costs Heliostat Field Tower and Receiver Power Cycle Thermal Storage Parasitics User Variables
3.9.1
Heliostat Field
To view the Heliostat page, click Heliostat Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Contents Overview describes the Heliostat Field page and explains where to find more information about the variables on the page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Heliostat Field page. Specifying the Field describes how to specify the number of heliostats and their locations in the field using either x-y coordinates, radial sections, or the optimization wizard. Working with Heliostat Field Files explains how to import heliostat location data from a text file, and how to export data to a text file.
Overview
The Heliostat Field page displays the variables that specify the position of the heliostats in the solar field along with the heliostat geometry and optical properties. Unlike parabolic trough and dish system designs, which can be based on modular designs of individual components, power tower system designs typically require optimization of the tower height, receiver geometry, and distribution of heliostats around the receiver as a complete system. Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are: Wagner p 10, 23-42, 49 Kistler p 25-37, 39-47, 74-75
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You can define the heliostat field layout in two ways: If you have a field layout in mind, you can enter values by hand. Or, you can use SAM's optimization wizard to determine the optimal layout for you.

Heliostat Properties
The heliostat properties define the area of a single heliostat mirrored surface, shape of the heliostat, and the boundaries of the solar field area. Note that SAM assumes that each heliostat employs a two-axis drive system with a pivot at the center of the mirrored surface. Heliostat Width (m) The width of the heliostat surface in meters, including the mirrored surface, edge supports and any cutouts or slots.Sandia 44 Heliostat Height (m) The height of the heliostat surface in meters, including the mirrored surface, edge supports and any cutouts or slots. Ratio of Reflective Area to Profile The fraction of the area defined by the heliostat width and height that actually reflects sunlight. This value determines the ratio of reflective area on each heliostat to the total projected area of the heliostat on a plane normal to the heliostat surface. The ratio accounts for non-reflective area on the heliostat that may cause shading of neighboring heliostats. Use Round Heliostats (D=W) Check the box to use round heliostats in place of the standard rectangular shape. For round heliostats, the heliostat diameter is equal to the value of the Heliostat Width variable. Heliostat Area (m 2) The area of the heliostat mirrored area. For rectangular heliostats, the area is the product of the heliostat width and height (or the product of the square of half the width and pi for round heliostats) and the ratio of reflective area to heliostat profile. Mirror Reflectance and Soiling The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs, typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0..906 (silvered polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface). Heliostat Availability An adjustment factor that accounts for reduction in energy output due to downtime of some heliostats in the field for maintenance and repair. A value of 1 means that each heliostat in the field operates whenever sufficient solar energy is available. SAM multiplies the solar field output for each hour by the availability factor. Image Error (radians) A measure of the deviation of the actual heliostat image on the receiver from the expected or ideal image that helps determine the overall shape and distribution of the reflected solar flux on the receiver.
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This value specifies the total conical error distribution for each heliostat at one standard deviation in radians. SAM applies the value to each heliostat in the field regardless of its distance from the tower. The image error accounts for all error sources, including tracking imprecision, foundation motion, mirror waviness, panel alignment problems, atmospheric refraction and tower sway.
Heliostat Stow Deploy Angle (degrees) Solar elevation angle below which the heliostat field will not operate. Wind Stow Speed (m/s) Wind velocity from the weather file at which the heliostats defocus and go into stowed position to protect them from possible wind damage.Wagner, 10 and 68. Mentions "ground level."
Circular Field Optimization Wizard

When the you are specifying the heliostat field using radial sections, SAM can find the optimal number of heliostats for each section automatically. See Optimization Wizard for more information. Note. The optimization wizard will not work if you are specifying the solar field using x-y coordinates.
Field Parameters
Total Reflective Area (m 2) Total mirrored area of the heliostat field, equal to the heliostat reflective area multiplied by the number of heliostats. SAM uses the total field area to calculate the site improvements and heliostat costs on the Tower System Costs page. Number of Heliostats The total number of individual heliostats in the field. SAM displays the number of heliostats based either on the results of the optimization wizard, or based on the data in the heliostat layout file when the heliostat locations are loaded from a text file. Radial Step Size for Layout (m) The radial distance between centers of heliostat field zones. The zone centers are indicated by the symbol + in the zone layout sample diagram shown on the Heliostat Field page. In the x-y coordinate mode, SAM disables the radial step size variable. When you define the number of heliostats per zone by entering values in the field layout table by hand or by loading a file, the radial step size is the difference between the initial maximum distance from the tower and initial minimum distance from the tower divided by the number of radial zones. When you use the optimization wizard to specify the field, SAM calculates the radial step size as a function of the initial minimum and maximum distances from the tower, which it in turn calculates as a function of the ratio of the optimized tower height to the minimum and maximum tower height specified on the Receiver/Tower Sizing tab of the optimization wizard.
Solar Field Layout Constraints

Max Heliostat Distance to Tower Height Ratio and Min Heliostat Distance to Tower Height Ratio The maximum and minimum ratio of the distance from the heliostat furthest and closest from the tower to the tower height.
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The maximum and minimum allowable radial distances in meters between the center of the tower base and heliostats furthest from the tower. Under certain conditions, SAM uses this value to calculate the radial step size. (See radial step size variable description below.) Tower Height (m) The height of the tower in meters. Specify this value on the Tower and Receiver page.
Mirror Washing
SAM reports the water usage of the system in the results based on the mirror washing variables. The annual water usage is the product of the water usage per wash and 365 (days per year) divided by the washing frequency. Water usage per wash The volume of water in liters per square meter of solar field aperture area required for periodic mirror washing. Washes Per Year Number of times per year that heliostats mirrors are washed.
Land Area
Note. SAM does not use the land area variables in any calculations. The values are presented for your reference. Non-Solar Field Land Area Land area in acres required for components other than solar field components, such as the power cycle, storage, buildings, etc. Solar Field Land Area Multiplier The ratio of the total solar field land area to land occupied by heliostats. Calculated Total Land Area The total land area required for the system.
Specifying the Field

SAM allows the heliostat locations in the field to be specified either by a set of rectangular coordinates (x-y) or as a number of heliostats per radial section of the field (number of radial and azimuthal zones).
Span Angle
For external receivers the span angle should be 360 degrees. For a cavity receiver, specify a span angle less than 180 degrees. The default value for cavity receivers is 120 degrees. Specify the receiver type on the Tower and Receiver page.
Radial and Azimuthal Zones

To specify the field as a number of heliostats per radial zone enter the number of radial zones and azimuthal zones to divide the heliostat field into radial zones shown in the field diagram. You can then specify the field
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manually or automatically. To specify the field manually, either type values in the Number of Heliostats Per Zone table or import the data as a text file. To specify the field automatically, use the optimization wizard to specify a set of optimization parameters and allow SAM to optimize the heliostat field design and calculate the optimal number of heliostats per zone, receiver tower height, receiver height and diameter, and other variables. The solar field is divided into evenly distributed sections of a circle called zones, as shown in the sample diagram on the Heliostat Field page. The rows of the table specify the radial position if each zone relative to the tower located at the center of the field. The zone closest to the tower is assigned the number one, with each successively farther zone incrementing by one. The columns specify the position of the zone's center in degrees east of due north, where zero is north, 90 degrees is east, 180 degrees is south, and 270 degrees is west. The number of heliostats per zone can be a non-integer value because SAM converts the value to a mirror surface area for each zone that is equivalent to the total mirrored surface of all heliostats in the zone.
Rectangular (x-y) Coordinates

To specify the field as a set of rectangular coordinates, change the value of Azimuthal Zones to 2, and enter the number of heliostats for # of Heliostats. You can then either type the x-y coordinates of each heliostat in the field, or import a text file of x-y coordinates. SAM displays the location of each heliostat on the field diagram. It models the system based on the heliostat locations specified by the set of x-y locations, and based on the values you specify for the tower height, receiver height, receiver diameter, and other input values. This approach is appropriate for predicting the output of a system with a known design. The optimization wizard does not work in the x-y coordinate mode. Each row specifies the position of an individual heliostat relative to the tower. The first column in the table specifies the x-coordinate along the east-west axis of the field, with negative values indicating positions west of the tower, and positive values indicating positions east of the tower. The second column specifies the y-coordinate along the north-south axis, with positive values indicating positions north of the tower, and negative values indicating positions south of the tower. The tower is assumed to be at 0,0. Note that this convention also applies to systems in the southern hemisphere. In the x-y coordinate mode, SAM requires that the field be symmetric about the north-south axis.
Working with Heliostat Field Files

SAM allows you to use text files to save and load field layout data when you specify the field layout by hand instead of relying on the optimization wizard to calculate the optimal layout. For radial zone data, each row in the file represents a radial step (distance away from the center of the circle), and each column represents an azimuthal division (distance clockwise around the circle from the zero degree line pointing north), as shown on the sample layout diagram. The first row must contain data for the radial step closest to the center of the field, and subsequent rows should be in consecutive order away from the center. The first column of each row must contain data for the azimuthal division containing the north line at zero degrees, and the second column the next division moving counterclockwise from the first column, and so on. Zones with no heliostats should be indicated by a zero. Each column in the file should be separated by a space, and each row by a new line. For example, a text file with the following contents would describe a field with three radial steps and four azimuthal divisions: 9.0 10.0 9.0 10.0 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 22.5 18.0 18.5 22.5
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For rectangular coordinate data, each row represents an individual heliostat position in the field, with the x coordinate in the first column and the y coordinate in the second column. A positive x value is east, and a positive y value is north of the tower. Use negative values for positions west and south of the tower. The heliostat coordinates do not have to be in a particular order in the file. Each column in the file should be separated by a space, and each row by a new line. A file with the following contents would describe a solar field with three heliostats at (x = 0.0, y = 75.0), (x = 7.5, y = 70.0), and (x = 15.0, y = 65.0): 0.0 75.0 7.5 70.0 15.0 65.0
3.9.2
Optimization Wizard
To start the power tower optimization wizard, first click Heliostat Field on the main window's navigation menu to view the Heliostat Field page, and then follow the instructions below. Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Contents Overview describes the optimization wizard. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Optimization Wizard window. Overview of the Optimization Process explains how SAM searches for the optimal solution and lists the input variables that are affected by the optimization. Guidelines for Choosing Variable Ranges for Optimization explains how to choose values for the variables in the Optimization Wizard window.
Overview
The power tower optimization wizard simplifies the task of choosing values for the relatively large number of input parameters required to specify the power tower solar field and receiver. Because the heliostat field is typically the most capital intensive part of a power tower project, often accounting for 30-40% of the total installation cost, optimizing the heliostat field size is a critical step in minimizing overall project cost. The optimization wizard searches for a set optimal system parameter values, where the optimal system defined as the one that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. Note that the optimization process separate from the simulation process. When you run the wizard, it populates some of the input variables the SAM input pages (listed below) with optimal values. Before running simulations, you can choose either keep the values generated by the wizard or modify them. is is in to
The wizard's underlying code is based on the DELSOL3 code from Sandia National Laboratory (Kistler
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1986, see References), and is implemented in SAM through the PTGen program described in the thesis Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants (Wagner 2008) http://sel.me.wisc.edu/theses/wagner08.zip (33 MB). To use the optimization wizard: 1. 2. On the Tower System Costs page, enter values for the capital costs. On the Heliostat Field page, click Start Wizard to start the wizard. SAM initially populates the variables in the wizard with values from the Heliostat Field, Tower and Receiver, and Power Cycle pages. SAM assigns values to variables that don't appear elsewhere, such as Minimum Tower Height and Maximum Tower Height, using either default values or values based on the last time the wizard ran. Enter values to define the parameters of the optimization. Click Optimize Solar Field. After the wizard finishes running, click Close. Review the variables on the input pages. Modify any values as needed, and then configure and run simulations to simulate the system(s) and display annual production, levelized cost of energy, and other results on the Results page.
3. 4. 5. 6.

Solar Field
Solar Multiple The ratio of of the receiver's design thermal output to the power block's design thermal input. For systems with no storage, the solar multiple should be close to or equal to one. Receiver and Tower The receiver and tower optimization variables determine the optimization search range and step size for the receiver and tower dimensions.
External Receiver and Tower

Note. The external receiver and tower variables are active when you specify External Receiver on the Tower and Receiver page. Min Receiver Diameter (m) The minimum value for the range of receiver diameter values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Max Receiver Diameter (m) The maximum value for the range of receiver diameter values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Optimization Levels for Receiver Diameter The number of receiver diameter values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
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The minimum receiver height to receiver diameter ratio for the range of values that the wizard will search for the optimal solution. Max Receiver Height / Diameter Ratio The maximum receiver height to receiver diameter ratio for the range of values that the wizard will search for the optimal solution. Optimization Levels for Receiver H/D Ratio The number of receiver height to diameter ratio values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10. Min Tower Height (m) The minimum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Max Tower Height (m) The maximum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Optimization Levels for Tower Height The number of tower height values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
Cavity Receiver and Tower

Note. The cavity receiver and tower variables are active when you specify Cavity Receiver on the Tower and Receiver page. Min Aperture Width (m) The minimum value for the range of receiver aperture width values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Max Aperture Width (m) The maximum value for the range of receiver aperture width values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Optimization Levels for Aperture H/W Ratio The number of aperture height to width ratio to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10. Min Aperture Height / Width Ratio The minimum aperture height to width ratio for the range of values that the wizard will search for the optimal solution. Max Aperture Height / Width Ratio The maximum aperture height to width ratio for the range of values that the wizard will search for the optimal solution. Optimization Levels for Receiver H/D Ratio The number of receiver height to diameter ratio values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution.
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The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
Min Tower Height (m) The minimum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Max Tower Height (m) The maximum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal solution. Optimization Levels for Tower Height The number of tower height values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
Overview of the Optimization Process

For each variable that is specified as a range in the optimization wizard, the wizard searches for the value within the range that meets the performance requirements at the lowest levelized cost of energy. The wizard searches discrete combinations of options based on the "optimization level" of each optimized variable. For example, if the minimum tower height is specified as 150 m and the maximum 250 m, and the tower height optimization level is 10, the wizard will simulate 10 systems with unique tower heights evenly incremented between 150 m and 250 m. Be sure to choose reasonable ranges and step sizes to minimize the number of calculations the wizard must perform. The solar multiple is the ratio of of the receiver's design thermal output to the power block's design thermal input. The optimization wizard uses the solar multiple to calculate the receiver's thermal rating, which is equal to the solar multiple multiplied by the power cycle nameplate electric capacity divided by the rated cycle conversion efficiency, both of which are on the Power Cycle page. The wizard holds the following variables constant as it searches for the optimal system: Solar Multiple on the Optimization Wizard window. Nameplate Capacity on the Power Cycle page. Heliostat Width on the Heliostat Field page. Heliostat Height on the Heliostat Field page. Maximum Receiver Flux on the Tower and Receiver page. The wizard searches within the specified ranges to find optimal values of the following variables on the Tower and Receiver page.When the wizard finishes running, SAM populates the variables with the optimal values. Receiver Diameter Receiver Height (calculated as a function of the receiver height to the receiver diameter ratio) Tower Height SAM also populates the following variables on the Heliostat Field page with values from the wizard: Radial Step Size for Layout Total Reflective Area Number of Heliostats Number of heliostats per radial zone in the field layout table The optimization wizard uses the following values from the input pages, but does not change their values. From the Heliostat Field page:
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Heliostat Width Heliostat Height Ratio of Reflective Area to Profile Mirror Reflectivity and Soiling Use Round Heliostats Max Distance from Tower Min Distance from tower Image Error Number of Radial Zones Number of Azimuthal Zones From the Tower and Receiver page: Coating Absorptivity Max Receiver Flux From the Power Cycle page: Nameplate Capacity Rated Cycle Conversion Efficiency
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It is possible that the wizard will not find an optimal field layout given a set of values that you provide. Finding an optimal set of input parameters is often an iterative process that may require you to run the optimization wizard and adjust input value ranges several times until the wizard finds a reasonable field layout for your analysis. When the wizard cannot find an optimal layout, it displays a message with suggestions for adjustments. Typically, the suggestions include adjusting the upper or lower limits of optimization variables, and ensuring that the minimum and maximum heliostat distance from tower values are reasonable. Keep in mind that because the wizard uses capital costs from the Tower System Costs page in the optimization process, unreasonable cost values may also prevent the wizard from finding an optimal field layout. In some cases, wizard will fail to find an optimal design and exit without notice. When that happens, check to see if the values of optimized variables shown on the input pages are outside of the range specified for those variables in the wizard, and try adjusting the ranges you specified and rerunning the wizard.
Guidelines for Choosing Variable Ranges for Optimization

The optimization wizard does its best to find parameter values for an optimal system within the search ranges you specify on the wizard input tabs. Because the wizard searches a discrete number of values within the range for each parameter, defining too broad of a range increases the chances that the optimal value lies between the values included in the search. On the other hand, defining too narrow a range increases the chances that the optimal value lies outside of the search range. The ability of the optimization wizard to find an optimal system is sensitive to the following variable ranges: Receiver diameter range, defined by Minimum Receiver Diameter and Maximum Receiver Diameter. Receiver height to diameter ratio range, defined by Minimum Receiver Height/Diameter Ratio and Maximum Receiver Height/Diameter Ratio. Tower height range, defined by Minimum Tower Height and Maximum Tower Height. Heliostat distance from tower range, defined by Maximum Distance from Tower and Minimum Distance from Tower values on the Heliostat Field page. The following rules of thumb may be helpful in choosing search ranges for these variables, although they
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Tower height: The tower height typically falls between 15 m for very small systems (5 MWe) and 300 m for very large systems (150 MWe). For example, a reasonable range for a 30 MWe system with a solar multiple of 1.0 would be between 40 m and 120 m. Receiver diameter: The optimization wizard searches for a receiver diameter value that maximizes absorbed radiation from the heliostat field within the flux limit defined by the maximum value on the Receiver/Tower page. Like the tower height, the receiver area typically scales with system's design thermal power. For very small systems, the optimal receiver diameter is typically between 1 m and 3 m, while very large systems may require a diameter of 25 m. Receiver height to diameter ratio: This ratio should generally fall between 0.5 and 2.0. Heliostat distance from tower: If the minimum distance is too small, the inner zones in the heliostat will contain no heliostats (the first rows in the field layout table on the Heliostat Field page contain zeros), which will cause the simulation to fail. If the maximum distance is too large, the outer zones will contain no heliostats. On the other hand, if the maximum distance is too small, all of the outer zones will contain heliostats. For very small systems, the maximum distance might be set to 300 m, and for very large systems, a distance of 2000 m might be appropriate.
may not apply to some systems.
3.9.3
Tower and Receiver
To view the Tower and Receiver page, click Tower and Receiver on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Contents Overview describes the Tower and Receiver page and where to find additional information about the tower and receiver model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tower and Receiver page.
Overview
The Tower and Receiver page displays variables that specify the geometry of the heat collection system. The receiver model uses semi-empirical heat transfer and thermodynamic relationships to determine the thermal performance of the receiver. This allows the model to represent a wide array of geometries without deviating from a hypothetical reference system. Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are: Wagner p 43-47, 68-71 The model makes several assumptions about the system geometry for external receivers: The receiver consists of a discrete number of panels. Each panel in the receiver consists of a set of parallel tubes in thermal contact that share a common
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heat transfer fluid (HTF) header. The panel tubing is vertical and the heat transfer fluid flows through each sequential panel in a serpentine pattern (up one panel and down the adjacent panel). The number of tubes per panel is a function of the Number of Panels, Receiver Diameter, and Tube Outer Diameter variables. The model varies the heat transfer fluid mass flow rate through the receiver to maintain the required outlet heat transfer fluid temperature. The model includes several practical safeguards to ensure realistic behavior in the receiver. For example, the mass flow rate through the receiver is limited to the value of the Max Flow Rate to Receiver variable, and the maximum receiver heat transfer fluid inlet temperature is kept at a value below the value of the Max Temp to Receiver variable. SAM allows several options for the heat transfer fluid flow patterns through the receiver as indicated by the diagrams on the Receiver / Tower page. The Flow Pattern variable specifies the path taken by the fluid as it passes through the receiver. Options include a full circle around the receiver, a split path around the receiver, and a split pass with a single cross-over.

Receiver Options
SAM models power tower systems with either an external receiver or cavity receiver. When you change the receiver option, you should run the optimization wizard to optimize the field for the new receiver type.
External Receiver
Note. The external receiver parameters are only active when you select External Receiver. For analyses involving the optimization wizard to optimize the heliostat field layout, SAM populates these variables with optimal values. You can change the values after running the optimization wizard, but results will no longer be for the optimal system. Receiver Height (m) Height in meters of the receiver panels. Receiver Diameter (m) Total diameter in meters of the receiver.The distance from center of the receiver to center of a receiver panel. The width of a single panel is the circumference of receiver divided by number of panels. Number of Panels Number of vertical panels in the receiver. Coating Emittance The emissivity of the receiver coating, assumed to be black-body emissivity constant over the range of wavelengths. Enable Night Recirculation through Receiver With night circulation enabled, whenever the radiation incident on the receiver is zero, hot heat transfer fluid circulates through the receiver to prevent fluid in the receiver from freezing. For systems with storage, the system pumps heat transfer fluid from hot storage. For systems with no storage, or when there is insufficient energy in storage, the circulating fluid is heated with an electric heater. The heat
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transfer fluid is assumed to enter the receiver at the temperature required for it to exit the receiver at the required outlet temperature, accounting for thermal losses. SAM ajdusts the heat transfer fluid mass flow rate accordingly.
Recirculation Heater Efficiency With night circulation enabled, the electric-to-thermal conversion efficiency of the heater used to supply thermal energy for preventing the receiver heat transfer fluid from freezing. SAM calculates the heater electricity based on the required thermal recirculation energy and the heater efficiency, and reports the hourly electricity required by the heater as Par_recirc_htr in the hourly results.
Cavity Receiver
SAM assumes that the cavity receiver consists of four panels arranged at the circumference of a semicircle:
Where:
HL: Lip height HA: Aperture height HP: Internal panel height WA: Aperture width
Notes. The cavity receiver parameters are only active when you select Cavity Receiver. If you run the optimization wizard, SAM automatically populates the cavity receiver values. If you modify these values, they will be inconsistent with other values calculated by the wizard. Aperture Width The width of the rectangle in the plane of the cavity opening. Aperture Height To Width Ratio The ratio of aperture height to aperture width.
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The height of the rectangle in the plane of the cavity opening: Aperture Height = Aperture Width Aperture Height to Width Ratio. Note that the receiver height may be greater than the aperture height. Lip to Height Ratio The "lip" is the difference between the aperture height and receiver height. Internal Panel Height The internal height of the panel: Internal Height = Aperture Height (1 + Lip to Height Ratio). Aperture Lip Height The height of the aperture lip: Aperture Lip Height = Internal Panel Height Lip to Height Ratio
Receiver Thermodynamic Characteristics

Tube Outer Diameter (mm) The outer diameter in millimeters of the tubing that carries the heat transfer fluid through the receiver panels. Typical values range from 25 mm to 50 mm. Tube Wall Thickness (mm) The thickness in millimeters of the individual receiver panel tube walls. Required Outlet HTF Temp (C) The temperature set point in degrees Celsius for the heat transfer fluid at the receiver outlet. Max Temp to Receiver (C) The maximum allowable temperature of the heat transfer fluid at the receiver inlet. Coating Absorptance Absorptance fraction of receiver tube coating. Typical values are 0.91 to 0.95. Heat Loss Factor A receiver heat loss adjustment factor that can be used when the calculated heat loss value deviates from an expected value. The default value is 1, corresponding to no heat loss correction. The calculated receiver heat loss is the sum of convection and radiation losses from the receiver, reported in the hourly results as Rec_conv_loss and Rec_rad_loss, respectively. Max Flow Rate to Receiver (kg/s) The maximum heat transfer fluid flow rate at the receiver inlet. SAM calculates this value as a function of the maximum heat transfer fluid velocity in the receiver. Max Receiver Flux (kW/m 2) The upper limit of solar radiation incident on the receiver allowed to be reflected from the heliostat field. SAM ensures that the optimal receiver size and heliostat positions do not result in a receiver flux that exceeds this value.
Materials and Flow

HTF Type One of two types of solar salt used for the heat transfer fluid, also called the working fluid. You can also add a user defined HTF by choosing the user defined option and clicking the Edit button to open the HTF properties editor.
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When the HTF type is "user defined," the Edit button provides access to the HTF properties editor.
Property table for user-defined HTF Material Type The material of the receiver panel tubes, typically a stainless-steel alloy. The current version of SAM allows only one material type. Flow Pattern One of eight heat available transfer fluid flow configurations shown in the diagram. For an external receiver, the views are from the top of the receiver, assuming that panels are arranged in a circle around the center of the receiver. Arrows show the direction of heat transfer fluid flow into, through, and out of the receiver. For a cavity receiver SAM assumes four panels, and one of eight available flow patterns through the panels.
Design Operation
Solar Multiple This value is populated by the optimization wizard, but you can modify it to use a different value than the one calculated by the wizard. If you modify the solar multiple without running the optimization wizard, the receiver design thermal power will change, but the solar field will not. The solar multiple is the ratio of of the receiver's design thermal output to the power block's design thermal input. For systems with no storage, the solar multiple should be close to or equal to one. Min receiver turndown fraction The minimum allowable fraction of the maximum flow rate to receiver. Max receiver operation fraction The maximum allowable fraction of the maximum flow rate to receiver. SAM removes heliostats from operation if the HTF mass flow rate exceeds the maximum allowable value. Receiver design thermal power Product of solar multiple and power cycle design thermal power on the Power Cycle page. Receiver startup delay time The time in hours required to start the receiver. The receiver starts whenever the radiation incident on the field in the previous hour is zero, and there is sufficient thermal energy in the current hour to meet the thermal design requirement. SAM calculates the start up energy as the product of the available thermal energy, startup delay time, and startup delay energy fraction. Receiver startup delay energy fraction Fraction of receiver design thermal power required by the receiver during the startup period.
Tower Dimension
Tower Height (m) Height in meters of the tower structure from the ground, equal to the vertical distance between the heliostat pivot points and the vertical center of receiver.
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3.9.4
Power Cycle
To view the Power Cycle page, click Power Cycle on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Contents Overview describes the Power Cycle page and where to find additional information about the power cycle model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Power Cycle page.
Overview
The power cycle converts thermal energy to electric energy. The power cycle is assumed to consist of a Rankine-cycle steam engine, two open feed-water heaters, and a pre-heater, boiler and super-heater. The parameters on the Power cycle page describe the steam turbine size and other properties. Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are: Wagner 83, 86, 114, 164 Kistler 224 The power cycle page displays variables that specify the design operating conditions for the steam Rankine cycle used to convert thermal energy to electricity.

Plant Capacity
Design Turbine Gross Output (MWe) The power cycle's design output, not accounting for parasitic losses. Estimated Gross to Net Conversion Factor An estimate of the ratio of the electric energy delivered to the grid to the power cycle's gross output. SAM uses the factor to calculate the power cycle's nameplate capacity for capacity-related calculations, including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the System Costs page, and the capacity factor reported in the results. Estimated Net Output design (nameplate) (MWe) The power cycle's nameplate capacity, calculated as the product of the design gross output and estimated gross to net conversion factor.
Power Block Design Point

Rated Cycle Conversion Efficiency The thermal to electric conversion efficiency of the power cycle under design conditions.
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The turbine's design thermal input. It is the thermal energy required at the power block inlet for it to operate at its design point, as defined by the value of the nameplate electric capacity and an estimate of the parasitic losses: Design thermal power = nameplate electric capacity + total parasitic loss estimate. (See the Parasitics page for a description of the total parasitic loss estimate.)
Design Thermal Power (MWt)
Design HTF Inlet Temp (C) The design temperature in degrees Celsius of the hot heat transfer fluid at the power block inlet.p 114. design htf inlet temperature can be different from receiver outlet temperature when power block design specifications require a different inlet temperature for maximum efficiency. The design values are the operating conditions at which the power block operates at its nameplate capacity. Design HTF Outlet Temp (C) The design temperature in degrees Celsius of the cold heat transfer fluid at the power block outlet.p 114 The design values are the operating conditions at which the power block operates at its nameplate capacity. Boiler Operating Pressure (Bar) The saturation pressure of the steam as it is converted from liquid to vapor in the boiler or steam generator. SAM uses this value to determine the steam's saturation temperature and thus the superheating capability of the heat exchangers. The temperature difference that drives the steam mass flow rate in the Rankine cycle is the difference between the hot heat transfer fluid inlet temperature and the saturation temperature of the steam boiler pressure. Fossil Backup Boiler LHV Efficiency The backup boiler's lower heating value efficiency, used to calculate the quantity of gas required by the boiler. Steam cycle blowdown fraction The fraction of the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle that is extracted and replaced by fresh water. This fraction is multiplied by the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle for each hour of plant operation to determine the total required quantity of power cycle makeup water. The blowdown fraction accounts for water use related directly to replacement of the steam working fluid. The default value of 0.013 for the wet-cooled case represents makeup due to blowdown quench and steam cycle makeup during operation and startup. A value of 0.016 is appropriate for dry-cooled systems to account for additional wet-surface air cooling for critical Rankine cycle components.
Plant Control
Min Required Temp for Startup (C) The temperature at which heat transfer fluid circulation through the power cycle heat exchangers begins, typically near the power block design heat transfer fluid outlet temperature. Default is 500 degrees. Low-Resource Standby Period (hours) During periods of insufficient flow from the heat source due to low thermal resource, the power block may enter standby mode. In standby mode, the cycle can restart quickly without the startup period required by a cold start. The standby period is the maximum number of hours allowed for standby mode. This option is only available for systems with thermal storage. Default is 2 hours.
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The fraction of the turbine's design thermal input required from storage to keep the power cycle in standby mode. This thermal energy is not converted into electric power. Default is 0.2. Power Block Startup Time (hours) The time in hours that the system consumes energy at the startup fraction before it begins producing electricity. If the startup fraction is zero, the system will operate at the design capacity over the startup time. Default is 0.5 hours. Fraction of Thermal Power Needed for Startup The fraction of the turbine's design thermal input required by the system during startup. This thermal energy is not converted to electric power. Default is 0.75. Min Turbine Operation The fraction of the nameplate electric capacity below which the power block does not generate electricity. Whenever the power block output is below the minimum load and thermal energy is available from the solar field, the field is defocused. For systems with storage, solar field energy is delivered to storage until storage is full. Default is 0.25. Max Turbine Over Design Operation The maximum allowable power block output as a fraction of the electric nameplate capacity. Whenever storage is not available and the solar resource exceeds the design value of 950 W/m2, some heliostats in the solar field are defocused to limit the power block output to the maximum load. Default is 1.05.
Cooling System
Condenser type Choose either an air-cooled condenser (dry cooling), evaporative cooling (wet cooling), or hybrid cooling system. In hybrid cooling a wet-cooling system and dry-cooling share the heat rejection load. Although there are many possible theoretical configurations of hybrid cooling systems, SAM only allows a parallel cooling option. Hybrid Dispatch For hybrid cooling, the hybrid dispatch table specifies how much of the cooling load should be handled by the wet-cooling system for each of 6 period in the year. The periods are specified in the matrices on the Thermal Storage page. Each value in the table is a fraction of the design cooling load. For example, if you want 60% of heat rejection load to go to wet cooling in Period 1, type 0.6 for Period 1. Directing part of the heat rejection load to the wet cooling system reduces the total condenser temperature and improves performance, but increases the water requirement. SAM sizes the wet-cooling system to match the maximum fraction that you specify in the hybrid dispatch table, and sizes the air-cooling system to is sized to meet the full cooling load. Ambient temp at design (C) The ambient temperature at which the power cycle operates at its design-point-rated cycle conversion efficiency. For the air-cooled condenser option, use a dry bulb ambient temperature value. For the evaporative condenser, use the wet bulb temperature. Ref. Condenser Water dT (C) For the evaporative type only. The temperature rise of the cooling water across the condenser under design conditions, used to calculate the cooling water mass flow rate at design, and the steam
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condensing temperature.
Approach temperature (C) For the evaporative type only. The temperature difference between the circulating water at the condenser inlet and the wet bulb ambient temperature, used with the ref. condenser water dT value to determine the condenser saturation temperature and thus the turbine back pressure. ITD at design point (C) For the air-cooled type only. Initial temperature difference (ITD), difference between the temperature of steam at the turbine outlet (condenser inlet) and the ambient dry-bulb temperature. Condenser pressure ratio For the air-cooled type only. The pressure-drop ratio across the air-cooled condenser heat exchanger, used to calculate the pressure drop across the condenser and the corresponding parasitic power required to maintain the air flow rate. Min condenser pressure The minimum condenser pressure in inches if mercury prevents the condenser pressure from dropping below the level you specify. In a physical system, allowing the pressure to drop below a certain point can result in physical damage to the system. For evaporative (wet cooling), the default value is 1.25 inches of mercury. For air-cooled (dry cooling), the default is 2 inches of mercury. For hybrid systems, you can use the dry-cooling value of 2 inches of mercury. Cooling system part load levels The cooling system part load levels tells the heat rejection system model how many discrete operating points there are. A value of 2 means that the system can run at either 100% or 50% rejection. A value of three means rejection operating points of 100% 66% 33%. The part load levels determine how the heat rejection operates under part load conditions when the heat load is less than full load. The default value is 2, and recommended range is between 2 and 10. The value must be an integer.
3.9.5
Thermal Storage
To view the Thermal Storage page, click Thermal Storage on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Contents Overview describes the Thermal Storage page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Thermal Storage page. Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls describes the dispatch controls that determine the timing of energy releases from the storage and fossil back up systems. Defining Dispatch Schedules explains how to assign dispatch periods to weekday and weekend schedules.
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Overview
The parameters on the Thermal Storage page describe the properties thermal energy storage system and the storage dispatch controls. The power tower storage model uses storage tank geometry, which requires that the heat transfer fluid volume, tank loss coefficients, and tank temperatures be specified. SAM calculates the storage tank geometry to ensure that the storage system can supply energy to the power block at its design thermal input capacity for the number of hours specified by the Full Load TS Hours variable. Note. Because the storage capacity is not tied to the solar multiple on the Heliostat Field page, be careful to choose a storage capacity that is reasonable given the system's thermal capacity. Mismatched storage and solar thermal capacities will result in high levelized cost of energy values.

Storage System
Storage Type SAM models only two-tank storage systems for power towers. A two-tank system consists of separate hot and cold storage tanks. Full Load Hours of TES (hours) The storage capacity expressed in hours at full load: The number of hours that the storage system can supply energy at the power block design turbine input capacity. Note that SAM displays the equivalent storage capacity in MWht on the Tower System Costs page. Storage HTF Volume (m 3) SAM calculates the total heat transfer fluid volume in storage based on the storage hours at full load and the power block design turbine thermal input capacity. The total heat transfer fluid volume is divided among the total number of tanks so that all hot tanks contain the same volume of fluid, and all cold tanks contain the same volume of fluid. Tank Diameter (m) The diameter of the cylinder-shaped heat transfer fluid volume in each storage tank. Tank Height (m) The height of the cylinder-shaped heat transfer fluid volume in each tank. SAM calculates the height based on the diameter and storage volume of a single tank. Tank Fluid Min Height (m) The minimum allowable height of fluid in the storage tank(s). The mechanical limits of the tank determine this value. Parallel Tank Pairs The number of parallel hot-cold storage tank pairs. Increasing the number of tank-pairs also increases the volume of the heat transfer fluid exposed to the tank surface, which increases the total tank thermal losses. SAM divides the total heat transfer fluid volume among all of the tanks, and assumes that each
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hot tank contains an equal volume of fluid, and each cold tank contains and equal volume.
Min Fluid Volume (m 3) The minimum storage heat transfer fluid volume allowed in each storage tank. The usable fluid volume is equal to the total volume minus the minimum fluid volume. Calculated based on the minimum tank volume fraction, the total volume, and the number of parallel tank pairs. Min Tank Volume Fraction The minimum allowed fraction of the total storage heat-transfer fluid volume of each storage tank. Max Fluid Volume (m 3) The maximum usable heat transfer fluid volume allowed in each storage tank. The maximum volume is less than the total volume when the minimum tank volume is greater than zero, or the number of parallel tank pairs is greater than 1. Wetted Loss Coefficient (W/m 2-K) The thermal loss coefficient that applies to the portion of the storage tank holding the storage heat transfer fluid. Dry Loss Coefficient (W/m 2-K) The thermal loss coefficient that applies to the portion of the storage tank that contains storage heat transfer fluid. Initial Hot HTF Temp (C) The temperature of the storage heat transfer fluid in the hot storage tank at the beginning of the simulation. Initial Cold HTF Temp (C) The temperature of the storage heat transfer fluid in the cold storage tank at the beginning of the simulation. Initial Hot HTF Percent (%) The fraction of the storage heat transfer fluid in the hot storage tank at the beginning of the simulation. Initial Hot HTF Volume (m 3) The volume of the storage heat transfer fluid in the hot storage tank at the beginning of the simulation. Initial Cold HTF Volume (m 3) The volume of the storage heat transfer fluid in the cold storage tank at the beginning of the simulation. Cold Tank Heater Temp Set-Point (C) The minimum allowed cold tank temperature. Whenever the heat transfer fluid temperature in storage drops below the set-point value, the system adds sufficient thermal energy from an electric heater to storage to reach the set-point. Cold Tank Heater Capacity (MWe) The maximum electric load of the cold tank electric heater. Hot Tank Heater Temp Set-Point (C) The minimum allowed hot tank temperature. Whenever the heat transfer fluid temperature in storage drops below the set-point value, the system adds sufficient thermal energy from an electric heater to storage to reach the set-point.
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Hot Tank Heater Capacity (MWe) The maximum electric load of the hot tank electric heater. Tank Heater Efficiency The electric-to-thermal conversion efficiency of the hot- and cold-tank heaters. Enable storage bypass valve
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When the storage bypass valve is disabled, all of the HTF from the tower is delivered to storage before being delivered to the power block. Enabling the storage bypass valve allows the HTF to be delivered from the tower either to the power block or storage system. When the bypass valve is enabled, SAM only calculates hot HTF storage pumping power losses when the storage system is running. Without the bypass valve, storage pumping losses apply whenever HTF is circulating in the system.

The storage dispatch control variables each have six values, one for each of six possible dispatch periods. They determine how SAM calculates the energy flows between the solar field, thermal energy storage system, and power block. The fossil-fill fraction is used to calculate the energy from a backup boiler. Storage Dispatch Fraction with Solar The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start when the solar field energy is greater than zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage. Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels. Storage Dispatch Fraction without Solar The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start when the solar field energy is equal to zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage. Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels. Turbine Output Fraction The fraction of the receiver design thermal power from the Tower and Receiver page at which energy from the storage system can drive the power cycle. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details. Fossil Fill Fraction Determines how much energy the backup boiler delivers during hours when there is insufficient energy from the solar field (and storage system, if available) to drive the power cycle at its design output capacity. A value of one for a given dispatch period ensures that the power cycle operates at its design output for all hours in the period: The boiler "fills in" the energy not delivered by the solar field or storage system. For a fossil fill fraction less than one, the boiler supplies enough energy to drive the power cycle at a fraction of its design point. To define a system with no fossil backup, use a value of zero for all six dispatch periods. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details. Payment Allocation Factor The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page. For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive
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payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors. When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the payment allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose.
Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods to one.

Storage Dispatch
SAM decides whether or not to operate the power block in each hour of the simulation based on how much energy is stored in the TES, how much energy is provided by the solar field, and the values of the thermal storage dispatch controls parameters. You can define when the power block operates for each of the six dispatch periods. For each hour in the simulation, if the power block is not already operating, SAM looks at the amount of energy that is in thermal energy storage at the beginning of the hour and decides whether it should start the power block. For each period, there are two targets for starting the power block: one for periods of sunshine (w/solar), and one for period of no sunshine (w/o solar). The turbine output fraction for each dispatch period determines at what load level the power block runs using energy from storage during that period. The load level is a function of the turbine output fraction, design turbine thermal input, and the five turbine part load electric to thermal factors on the Power Cycle page. For each dispatch period during periods of sunshine, thermal storage is dispatched to meet the power block load level for that period only when the thermal power from the solar field is insufficient and available storage is equal to or greater than the product of the storage dispatch fraction (with solar) and maximum energy in storage. Similarly, during periods of no sunshine when no thermal power is produced by the solar field, the power block will not run except when the energy available in storage is equal to or greater than the product of storage dispatch fraction (without solar) and maximum energy in storage. By setting the thermal storage dispatch controls parameters, you can simulate the effect of a clear day when the operator may need to start the plant earlier in the day to make sure that the storage is not filled to capacity and solar energy is dumped, or of a cloudy day when the operator may want to store energy for later use in a higher value period.

When the fossil fill fraction is greater than zero for any dispatch period, the system is considered to include fossil backup. The fossil fill fraction defines the solar output level at which the backup system runs during each hour of a specific dispatch period. For example, a fossil fill fraction of 1.0 would require that the fossil backup operate to fill in every hour during a specified period to 100% of design output. In that case, during periods when solar is providing 100% output, no fossil energy would be used. When solar is providing less than 100% output, the fossil backup operates to fill in the remaining energy so that the system achieves 100% output. For a fossil fill fraction of 0.5, the system would use energy from the fossil backup only when solar output drops below 50%. The tank heater efficiency determines the quantity of fuel used by the fossil backup system. SAM includes the cost of fuel for the backup system in the levelized cost of energy and other metrics reported in the
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results, and reports the energy equivalent of the hourly fuel consumption in the hourly simulation results. The cost of fuel for the backup system is defined on the Tower System Costs page.


The storage dispatch schedules determine when each of the six periods apply during weekdays and weekends throughout the year. You can either choose an existing schedule from one of the schedules in the CSP Tower TES dispatch library or define a custom schedule. For information about libraries, see Working with Libraries. The TES dispatch library only assigns period numbers to the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. The dispatch fractions assigned to each of the six periods are not stored in the library. To choose a schedule from the library: 1. 2. 3. Click Dispatch schedule library. Choose a schedule from the list of four schedules. The schedules are based on time-of-use pricing schedules from four California utilities. Click OK. You can modify a schedule using the steps described below. Modifying a schedule does not affect the schedule stored in the library. For each of the up to six periods used in the schedule, enter values for the dispatch fractions described above. Use the period number and color to identify the times in the schedule that each period applies.
4.
To specify a weekday or weekend schedule: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Assign values as appropriate to the Storage Dispatch, Turbine Output Fraction, Fossil Fill Fraction, and Payment Allocation Factor for each of the up to nine periods. Click Dispatch schedule library. Choose a Uniform Dispatch. Click OK. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.
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6.
Type the number 2.
7.
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8.
3.9.6
Parasitics
To view the Parasitics page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Contents Overview describes the Parasitics page and where to find additional information about the parasitics model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Parastics page. Estimated Parasitic Losses explains the parasitic loss estimate SAM uses to calculate the plant capacity displayed on the Power Cycle page. Hourly Parasitic Losses describes the hourly parasitic losses reported in hourly results.
Overview
The parameters on the Parasitics page describe parasitic electrical loads and other losses in the power tower system. Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are: Kistler 224 The parasitic loss variables are factors that SAM uses to calculate the estimated total parasitic loss and
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hourly parasitic losses, which are described in more detail below. SAM calculates two types parasitic loss values. The first is an estimate of the total parasitic losses used to calculate the power block design thermal input, and the second are the hourly values calculated during simulation of the system's performance. Note. Parasitic losses from components that do not exist in the system should be set to zero.

Parasitic Energy Consumption
Startup Energy of a Single Heliostat (kWe-hr) The electric energy in kilowatt-hours required to move each heliostat into position. Applies during hours when the heliostat is starting up. Tracking Power for a Single Heliostat (kWe) The electric power in kilowatts required by the tracking mechanism of each heliostat in the field during hours of operation. Receiver HTF Pump Efficiency The electro-mechanical efficiency of the receiver heat transfer fluid pump. Storage Pump Power (MWe/MWt) The ratio of the electric power in kilowatts required by the storage pumps to the thermal power passing through the storage system. Fraction of rated gross power consumed at all times Piping Loss Coefficient (Wt/m) Thermal loss per meter of piping. Includes piping throughout the system. Piping Length Constant (m) Piping Length Multiplier Total Piping Length (m) Length of piping throughout the system: From the receiver to power block, power block to process heat, etc. The piping loss varies with output produced by turbine. Balance of Plant Parasitic (MWe/MWcap) Losses as a fraction of the power block nameplate capacity that apply in hours when the power block operates. Cooling Tower Parasitic Power (MWe/MWcap) The cooling tower parasitic losses as a fraction of power block nameplate capacity are electrical losses that occur when the power block operates at part or full load.
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3.10
Solar Water Heating
3.10.1 SWH System

To view the SWH System page, click SWH System on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the solar water heating system input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Solar Water Heating. SAM's Solar Water Heating model was developed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. The current version of the model represents a two-tank glycol system with an auxiliary electric heater and storage tank for residential applications. The model allows you to vary the location, hot water load profiles, and characteristics of the collector, heat exchanger, and solar tanks.
Contents Overview describes the SWH System page and provides some guidelines for using the model. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables. Specifying the Hot Water Draw explains how to define the hourly load profiles for the hot water draw.
Overview
The SWH system page displays characteristics of the solar water heating system and allows you to define the hourly hot water draw of the system. Keep the following in mind as you use SAM's solar water heating model: SAM calculates the water mains inlet temperature is based on the correlation to local air temperature used in the Building America Benchmark. The flow rate is assumed constant over each hour, using values from the hourly hot water draw profile that you specify. SAM calculates the flow rate in kg/hr as the draw volume in kg for a given hour divided by one hour. Collectors are assumed to be flat plate collectors plumbed in parallel, with uniform flow through each collector at the tested flow rate. Collectors are characterized by the linear form of the collector efficiency and IAM (incident angle modifier) equations, with parameters available from test data (e.g., www.solar-rating.org), or by external calculation for untested collectors. The collector loop is assumed to be charged with glycol having Cp = 3.4 kJ/kG-C, with no correction to the collector parameters. The heat exchanger is external to the solar tank, has no thermal losses, and is assumed to have the constant effectiveness that you specify on the SWH system page. A standard differential controller controls the solar and storage tank loop pumps. Pump power is 40W for both solar loop and storage loop pumps, and pump energy is assumed totally lost. Tanks are modeled with a finite difference approach. The solar and auxiliary storage tanks each are
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modeled with 3 nodes, accommodating modest stratification. The solar tank loss coefficient is the Tank U Value specified on the SWH system page. The auxiliary tank loss coefficient is calculated from the water heater energy factor specified on the SWH system page. The model assumes a single electric element located at the bottom node of the auxiliary tank, witha maximum capacity of 4.5 kW. A tempering valve is placed at the outlet of the auxiliary tank, with setpoint equal to the water heater set temperature on the SWH System page.

Hourly Hot Water Draw
You must specify a set of 8,760 hourly values representing the hot water system's heating load. You can either import values from a text file, paste values from a spreadsheet or other file using your computer's clipboard, or type a set of 24-hour load profiles for each of the twelve months of the year, with the option of specifying separate profiles for weekdays and weekends. See Specifying the Hot Water Draw for details. Water Draw (kg/hr) The mass of hot water drawn over an hour. Click Edit to specify the hot water draw. The mean, min, and max values displayed in the small box next to the Edit button display the mean, minimum and maximum values in the current data set.
Solar Array
Number of Collectors The number of collectors in the system. Collector Tilt (degrees) The array's tilt angle in degrees from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal, and 90 degrees is vertical. As a rule of thumb, system designers often use the location's latitude (shown on the Climate page) as the optimal array tilt angle. The actual tilt angle will vary based on project requirements. Collector Azimuth (degrees) The array's east-west orientation in degrees. An azimuth value of zero is facing south in the northern hemisphere. Positive 90 degrees is facing due west and negative 90 degrees is facing due east. As a rule of thumb, system designers often use an array azimuth of zero, or facing the equator. Nameplate Capacity The system's nominal capacity in thermal kilowatts, used to in capacity based cost and financing calculations, and to calculate the system capacity factor reported in results: Nameplate Capacity = Total Collector Area FRta - FRUL 30/1000 Total Collector Area (m2) Total area of all collectors. : Total Collector Area = Single Collector Area Number of Collectors
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Collector Specifications
Choose from library Use this option to choose a collector from the collector library. SAM applies parameters from the library to model the collector. The collector library contains parameters for collectors certified by the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC): http://www.solar-rating.org. User Specified Choose this option to specify your own collector parameters. SRCC# The collector's SRCC number. Type The collector's optic type. Fluid The solar system's heat transfer fluid. Test flow Fluid flow rate used to generate test data. The User Specified Collector variables are active for the User Specified option. SAM ignores these values for the Choose From Library option: Area Area of a single collector. Choose a value consistent with the area convention used in the collector efficiency equation. For example, use gross area for all SRCC data. FRta Optical gain a in Hottel-Whillier-Bliss (HWB) equation h coll = a b dT FRUL (W/m2-C) Thermal loss coefficient b in the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss (HWB) equation h coll = a b dT IAM The incident angle modifier coefficient: The constant b 0 in the equation IAM = 1 b 0 (1/cos(q ) 1) The Values Used in Simulation variables show parameters from either the collector library or userspecified variables that SAM uses to simulate the system's performance: Single Collector Area The area of one collector. FRta Optical gain FRUL Thermal loss coefficient.
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Incident angle modifier coefficient.
Incident Angle Modifier
Solar Tank and Pump

Solar Tank Storage Volume (m 3) The actual volume of the solar storage tank. Note that the actual volume may be different from the rated volume. Solar Tank Height/Diameter Ratio Defines the solar storage tank geometry, and by extension its geometry. Solar Tank U Value (kJ/h-m 2-C) the solar storage tank loss coefficient. Note that 1 kJ/h-m2-C = 3.6 W/m2-C).
Pump and Heat Exchanger

Circulation Pump Power (W) The pump's peak power rating in Watts. Heat Exchanger Efficiency Heat exchanger effectiveness, where the effectiveness e, is defined as e = (Tcold-out Tcold-in ) / (Thot-in - Tcold-in )
Specifying the Hot Water Draw

The hot water draw represents the solar water heating system's hourly thermal load over the period of one year. A load data file is a text file with 8,761 rows: The first row is a text header that SAM ignores, and the remaining 8,760 rows must contain average hourly electric demand data in kilowatts. The first data element represents the hour beginning at midnight and ending at 1 a.m. on January 1. To import load data from a properly formatted text file: 1. 2. 3. 4. On the SWH System page, click Edit. In the Edit Hourly Data window, click Import. Navigate to the folder containing the load data file and open the file. SAM displays the data in the data table. Use the scroll bars to see all of the data. Click OK to return to the SWH System page.
To import load data from a spreadsheet or other file: 1. 2. 3. 4. On the SWH System page, click Edit. Open the spreadsheet containing the load data. The data must be in a single column of 8,760 rows, and expressed in kg. In the spreadsheet, select the load data and copy it. In the Edit Hourly Data window, click Paste.
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You can also copy data from the Edit Hourly Data window by clicking Copy, or export the data to a text file by clicking Save.
If you do not have a complete 8,760 set of load data, you can use a set of daily load profiles for each month, and use SAM to create a set of 8,760 values. To create a load data set using daily load profiles: 1. 2. 3. On the SWH System page, click Edit. In the Edit Hourly Data window, check Use monthly grid to generate 8760 data. For each month of the year, define a daily load profile by typing a kg hot water draw value for each of the 24 hours of the day. The first column represents the first hour of the day, beginning at midnight and ending at 1:00 a.m. If you want to specify separate load profiles for weekdays and weekends, click Weekend Values to define profiles that apply to two days each week. SAM arbitrarily assumes that the first day in the data set is a Monday, and that weekends fall on Saturday and Sunday. If you do not specify separate weekend profiles, SAM applies the weekday profile to all days of the week. When you have specified all of the daily load profiles, click To 8760 to transfer the data to the User Specified data table. You must complete this step for SAM to use the profile data in simulations. When you define a load with daily load profiles, SAM assumes that all days in a given month have identical load profiles. If you want to export the 8,760 data to a text file, click Save. You can also copy the data to a spreadsheet or other file by clicking Copy, and then pasting the data in to the file.
4.
5.
3.11
Geothermal Power
Note. This topic is still under development. For more details, about SAM's geothermal model, please refer to the documentation for the U.S. Department of Energy's Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), which you can download from http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem_manuals.html If you have questions about SAM's geothermal model, please contact solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. SAM's geothermal power systems model is based on the U.S. Department of Energy's Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem.html. The model calculates the annual and lifetime electrical output of a utility-scale geothermal power plant, and the levelized cost of energy and other economic metrics for the plant. The geothermal power plant model calculates the output of a power plant that uses heat from below the surface of the ground to drive a steam electric power generation plant. SAM analyzes the plant's performance over its lifetime, assuming that changes in the resource and electrical output occur monthly over a period of years, rather than over hours over a period of one year as in the solar and other technologies modeled by SAM. SAM can be used to answer the following kinds of questions:
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What is the levelized cost of a geothermal power plant, given a known configuration and resource? How does changing the design of the plant affect its output and levelized cost of energy? What plant size is required to meet an electric capacity requirement? Given a known number of wells, what would the plant's electric capacity be?
SAM models the following types of systems: Hydrothermal resources, where the underground heat reservoir is sufficiently permeable and contains sufficient groundwater to make the resource useful without any enhancements. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) that pump water or steam underground to collect heat stored in rock. These systems involve drilling or fracturing the rock to improve heat transfer. Over time (typically years), as heat is collected from the rock, its the temperature decreases, and more drilling is required. SAM's recapitalization cost accounts for the cost of these improvements to reach new resources. Both flash and binary conversion plants.
3.11.1 Resource
Note. This topic is still under development. For more details, about SAM's geothermal model, please refer to the documentation for the U.S. Department of Energy's Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), which you can download from http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem_manuals.html If you have questions about SAM's geothermal model, please contact solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov.
Resource Characterization
The resource characterization inputs describe the energy available in the underground geology at the project site. Resource Type For Hydrothermal resources, the rocks have enough permeability, heat, and water to be useful immediately. For Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) resources, there is heat, but either water, or permeability, or both are missing and must be added during the project development and operation. Total Resource Potential The total resource potential is an estimate of the total size of the energy available in the underground thermal reservoir. SAM uses the value to calculate the number of times over the project life that new drilling would be required to renew the resource based on the reduction of the reservoir's temperature over time. As the system operates and draws heat from the reservoir, the reservoir temperature drops. After a number of years, there may be insufficient heat to maintain the steam temperature required to drive the plant, and new wells may need to be drilled to renew the resource by reaching another section of the reservoir where there is sufficient heat. Eventually, the reservoir may cool to the point that it is impossible to find more heat by drilling from the plant location. Total resource potential is meant to be a measure of how many times the reservoir can be renewed. For example, a 210 MW reservoir divided by 30 MW plant capacity could support up to seven renewals (210 30 = 7).
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Resource Temperature The temperature of the reservoir at the depth given by the resource depth. Resource Depth The depth below ground at which the temperature specified by the resource temperature exists.
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In general, the higher the temperature of the resource, the lower the cost of energy generated by the plant. That is true to a certain point, but SAM wont handle the case of the steam being so hot that special equipment is necessary to deal with it. For a description of the resource characterization inputs, see page 2 of the "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" document available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/ getem_manuals.html.
Reservoir Parameters
The reservoir parameters describe the geologic formation. SAM provides three options for calculating the change in reservoir pressure. The option you choose affect the plant's overall efficiency, which depend on the design parameters that SAM displays under Calculated Design. The design value determine the pumping power or parasitic load required by the plant. For a description of the reservoir parameters, see page 6 of the "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" document available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem_manuals.html.
3.11.2 Plant and Equipment

Note. This topic is still under development. For more details, about SAM's geothermal model, please refer to the documentation for the U.S. Department of Energy's Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), which you can download from http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem_manuals.html If you have questions about SAM's geothermal model, please contact solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov.
Plant Configuration
The plant configuration describes the plant's conversion technology and how SAM models it. Specify plant output The Specify Plant Output option allows you to specify the plant's electrical capacity in kilowatts. SAM calculates the plant size required to ensure that the plant's net output meets this output requirement, with enough extra power to supply parasitic load defined by the Calculated Design values on the Resource page. Use exact number of wells When you choose Use Exact Number of Wells, you specify the number of wells, and SAM, calculates the plant's gross capacity based on the energy available from the wells, and the plant net output by subtracting the parasitic load from the gross output. The parasitic load is defined by the Calculated Design values on the Resource page.
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The Conversion Plant Type determines the plant's steam-to-electricity conversion efficiency, also called "brine effectiveness. The plant efficiency is different from the system efficiency, which also accounts for pumping losses from the parasitic load.
Conversion Plant Type
Binary When you choose the Binary option, you can specify the plant efficiency. Plant Efficiency The steam-to-electricity conversion efficiency, expressed as a percentage of the theoretical maximum conversion efficiency. Flash The Flash option allows you to choose from four subtypes that determine the plant efficiency. For a description of the conversion system inputs see pages 12-16 of the "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" document available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/ getem_manuals.html.
Temperature Decline
The temperature decline parameters determine when and how often the project will require that new wells be drilled, and are related to the total resource potential specified on the Resource page. For a description of the temperature decline inputs, see page 9 of the "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" document available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem_manuals.html.
Flash Technology
The two flash technology inputs impact the plant conversion efficiency for the flash conversion type.
Pumping Parameters
The Production Well Flow Rate and resource temperature specified on the Resource page dictate how much energy is available to the plant for conversion into electricity. The higher the flow rate, the more steam (or hot water) moves through the system, making thermal energy available for conversion, which, in turn, means fewer wells have to be drilled and therefore a lower capital expense. The remaining inputs impact the parasitic load for pumping. The Injection Well Diameter applies only when the resource type on the Resource page is EGS. For a description of pumping, see Section 5.7 of the GETEM Technical Reference Manual (Volume I) available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem_manuals.html. For a description of EGS pumping, see Section 6.1.a of the GETEM User's Manual (Volume II), and page 4 of "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" both available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ geothermal/getem_manuals.html.
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3.12
3.12.1 Resource and Power Generation

The Co-Production in SAM model estimates power output from co-production resources based on the resource temperature and flow rate and the power plant model chosen. The power plant model calculates the plant net power output based on either the thermal efficiency or utilization efficiency assumed for the power plant.
Thermal Efficiency
The thermal or First Law efficiency is defined as the ratio of the net rate of work output of the power plant to the net rate of heat input into the power plant:
Where, th = thermal efficiency W dot = rate of net work/power output from power plant, kJ/s Q dot = rate of net heat input to power plant, kJ/s The thermal efficiency represents the amount of thermal energy input into the power plant that is converted to useful work. The rate of heat input to the power plant is calculated from the change in enthalpy of the resource fluid between the inlet and outlet of the power plant:
Where, Q dot= mass flow rate of co-production resource (water from well), kg/s H(T) = specific enthalpy of fluid at temperature T, kJ/kg Tin = temperature of resource fluid into power plant in degrees Celsius. SAM assumes that the temperature into the power plant is the same as the resource temperature entered under the specify resource section Tout = plant outlet temperature in degrees Celsius. When calculating enthalpy, SAM assumes that the co-production resource is pure water and pressure effects are ignored so that enthalpy is a function of temperature only. The correlation for enthalpy is the same as that used in the Geothermal Energy Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM) (http://www1.eere. energy.gov/geothermal/getem.html). The correlation used is a 6th order polynomial of form: Where, c6 = 1.0122595469E-14 c5 = -1.8805783302E-11 c4 = 1.4924845946E-08 c3 = -5.9760546933E-06
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c2 = 0.0013462856545 c1 = 0.83827719984 c0 = -24.113934502
Utilization Efficiency
The utilization or Second Law efficiency is defined as the ratio of the work output of the power plant to the theoretical maximum power that could be extracted from the resource relative to the ambient or dead state, defined by its exergy:
Where, S(T) = specific entropy of fluid at temperature T, kJ/(kg-C) Tambient = ambient temperature, degrees Celsius The utilization efficiency is then defined as:
Where: u = utilization efficiency Like with the enthalpy of the fluid, when calculating entropy, SAM assumes that the co-production resource is pure water and pressure effects are ignored so that entropy is a function of temperature only. The correlation for enthalpy is the same as that used in the Geothermal Energy Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM) (http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/getem.html). The correlation used is a 6th order polynomial of form: Where, c6 = 7.39915E-18 c5 = -1.29452E-14 c4 = 8.84301E-12 c3 = -0.00000000184191 c2 = -0.00000120262 c1 = 0.002032431 c0 = -0.060089552
Choose how to model geothermal production

You can model your system using either a theoretical model or a model based on the performance curves of existing commercial power plants to calculate the plant power output.
Theoretical Model
Thermal efficiency - MIT Report Power output is based on the specified resource temperature (assumed to be plant input temperature), specified plant output temperature, and the thermal efficiency defined in Equation 7.1 of the Future of
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Geothermal Energy report published in 2006 by MIT: th = 0.0935*T(oC) - 2.3266
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This correlation is based on existing binary hydrothermal power plants with operating temperatures between roughly 100-200 degrees Celsius. Thermal Efficiency User Defined Power output is based on a user defined thermal efficiency curve for the power plant, the specified resource temperature (assumed to be plant input temperature), and specified plant output temperature. The user creates the thermal efficiency curve using the Enter curve efficiency button to input temperature/thermal efficiency data. The thermal efficiency curve is created from the data points entered by using linear interpolation to estimate the curve between points. Performance beyond the maximum and minimum temperatures is determined by linear extrapolation. Entering a single temperature/efficiency data point results in a power plant with constant thermal efficiency at all temperatures. Entering two data points gives a linear thermal efficiency curve similar in shape to the MIT correlation described above. More complex curves can be created by entering a large number of data points that approximate the shape of the user defined curve. In this way, the user can define a curve of any shape desired. Data can be input by cutting and pasting values into the Efficiency Curve columns. Utilization Efficiency User Defined Power output is based on a user defined utilization efficiency curve for the power plant, the specified resource temperature (assumed to be plant input temperature), and specified ambient temperature. The user creates the utilization efficiency curve in the same manner as for the thermal efficiency curve described above.
Existing Systems
PureCycle Thermal efficiency curves for the PureCycle system are based on performance curves published by UTC at (http://www.pratt-whitney.com/StaticFiles/Pratt%20&%20Whitney%20New/Media%20Center/Press% 20Kit/1%20Static%20Files/pwps_orc_brochure.pdf). The thermal efficiency curves assume a net power plant output of 260 kW. It is assumed that cooling water is available. The user can specify cooling water temperatures from 50-80 oF, consistent with the published performance curves. Size plant based on resource power potential You can also specify whether you want to use the system design power output of 260 kW, or to size the power plant specifically to the resource. This is identical to having a power plant that has similar performance characteristics of the PureCycle system but is sized specifically to the defined resource. Such systems are hypothetical and are not actually available commercially, but are included to allow the user to determine how having a system with performance similar to available commercial systems but more-closely sized to their resource would affect the economics of their projects. Specify the number of units Plant output for each unit is assumed to be the same as that advertised for the commercially available system. If the resource power potential is greater than the design output of the specified units, then the resource is under-utilized and the power output is limited by the number of units. If the resource power potential is less than the design output of the specified units, then the power plant is under-utilized and the power output from the plant will not reach its maximum, but will be limited by the resource. The capital costs for the project will still be based on the plants design power output. In this way, the user can explore how a power plant vs. resource power potential mismatch affects the economics of the
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system.
A similar comparison can be done with theoretical plants by choosing whether to specify the plant design net output or size it to match the resource power potential.
3.13
Small Scale Wind
3.13.1 Small Scale Wind Overview

The Small Scale Wind system models a wind system with one or more wind turbines for a residential or commercial project. The model uses wind speed and direction data from weather files in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format. Wind Resource Small Scale Wind Capital Costs Small Scale Wind System Electric Load
3.13.2 Wind Climate

To view the Wind Climate page, click Wind Climate in the main window's navigation menu. The Wind Climate page is available for the Small Scale Wind model. Note that the Utility Scale Wind model uses a different set of inputs on the Wind Resource page. The Wind Resource page allows you to choose a weather file in TMY3, TMY2 or EPW format, download satellite-derived weather data from the Internet, create your own weather file in TMY3 format, and review your weather data. Note. This topic describes the Wind Resource page for small wind power systems. In the current version of SAM, the page has been adapted from the Climate page for solar power systems, and some of the variables displayed on the page are not appropriate for wind systems. The page will be updated in future versions of SAM. Please contact solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov with any questions or comments about the Wind Resource page.
Contents Overview of the Wind Resource Page describes the options for choosing weather data and the variables displayed on the Wind Resource page. Input Variable Reference describes the variables and buttons on the Wind Resource page. Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths explains how to add your own
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weather files to the Location list. Copying Weather Data to a Project explains how to embed weather data in your project file for sharing with other people. Creating a Weather File from Your Own Data describes SAM's TMY3 weather file creator to use your own weather data in SAM. Using Location Lookup explains how to automatically download satellite-derived data for any location in the United States using a street address, zip code, or latitude and longitude. Downloading Weather Files from the Internet explains how to download TMY3, EPW, and satellite-derived data from the internet. Wind Resource Details describes the variables required for modeling small scale wind systems.
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Overview
The Wind Climate page allows you to choose the weather file that SAM uses for simulations in the current case. The Wind Climate page displays a summary of the weather data, and also allows you to view the actual data in the time series data viewer (DView). The weather files are text files, so you can also examine the data using a text editor, a spreadsheet program, or other software.
Weather Data Guidelines

For U.S. locations, use the Best weather data for the U.S. web link on the Wind Climate page to download a TMY3 file. If the TMY3 database does not include a file for a location at or very near your project site, try to find TMY3 files for locations near the site. You can run simulations for the different locations and compare them to get a sense of what the resource might be at the project site. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for instructions. SAM comes with the complete set of the 239 TMY2 weather files. To use a TMY2 file, simply choose it from the Location list. See instructions below. If no TMY3 or TMY2 data is available for your project site, you can download typical year data from NREL's Solar Prospector website using SAM's Location Lookup feature. The Solar Prospector website provides access to satellite-derived weather data for the entire U.S. at a 10-km geographic resolution in files using the TMY2 format. See Using Location Lookup for details. For locations outside of the U.S., EPW files are available for over 1000 locations in 100 countries. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for instructions. If you have weather data from a resource measurement program or from meteorological weather station, you can use SAM's TMY3 creator to create a TMY3 formatted file with the data. See Creating a Weather File from Your Own Data for details. Some companies sell weather data and weather data processing software. For example, see Weather Analytics TMY Anywhere http://weatheranalytics.com/globaltmy.html, or http://www.meteonorm.com/ pages/en/meteonorm.php. To choose a weather data file from the Location list: 1. Download the weather file from the Internet. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for
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2. details Place the file in your weather file folder. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details. Or, you can use one of the TMY2 files included with SAM. See below for a description of file formats and guidelines for specifying weather data. In the Location list, click the weather file's name.
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If you cannot find a file for your project site on the Internet, or have data from another source that is not in one of the file formats SAM recognizes, See Specifying Weather Data below for a list of options. Note. You can compare results for a system using more than one weather file in a single case by using SAM's parametric simulation option.
File Formats
A SAM weather file is a file that contains hourly data describing the solar resource, wind speed, temperature, and other weather characteristics at a particular location in one of three text formats: TMY3 comma-delimited text file format (.csv), http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/1991-2005/ tmy3/ TMY2 non-delimited text file format (.tm2), http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/tmy2/ EPW comma-delimited text file format (.epw), http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/ weatherdata_format_def.html The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's typical year data represents average weather data over a range of years: 1961-1990 for TMY2 data, and 1991-2005 for TMY3 data. Each typical year file may contain data from different years within the range, for example a TMY3 file might contain 1995 data for the month of February, 2001 data for March, 1998 data for April, etc. The NREL typical year data is based on analysis of weather data measured at each location and is appropriate for economic and performance predictions of a project over a long analysis period. The EPW data was developed for the U.S. Department of Energy's EnergyPlus building simulation model, and is a source of non-U.S. weather data for SAM. The EPW data on the EnergyPlus website is also typical year data. TMY3 files are available for 1020 U.S. locations, and are based on more recent data and better modeling techniques than the TMY2 data. However, the TMY3 data was developed using data from a shorter time period than the TMY2 data, so may be less representative of the resource over the long term. (Although the TMY2 data includes effects from the Mt Pinatubo volcanic eruption, which may distort solar energy output predictions based on the data.) If both TMY2 and TMY3 files are available for your project site, you may want to run SAM with both sets of data to compare results. SAM will read a weather file containing data from any source, as long as it is correctly formatted. You can create your own weather file with data collected from a resource measurement program, or from meteorological stations. SAM may not be able to read weather files that contain formatting errors or erroneous data elements. In some cases, you can use a text editor to compare a problematic file with one in the same format that works correctly in SAM to find problems with the file. Refer to the documentation available in the websites listed above for each file format for details.
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Single Year Weather Data

Single year data represents the weather at a location for a specific year. Single year data is appropriate for analysis of a project's economics and performance in a particular year, and for analyses involving timedependent electricity pricing or electric loads for a given year. Single-year weather data can be developed from on-site measurements or from satellite-derived measurements. Single-year data for U.S. locations is available from NREL's Solar Prospector website, follow the link on the Wind Climate page under Web Links . The Solar Prospector data is satellite-derived data formatted using the TMY2 file format, so SAM can read the data directly. NREL also publishes the specific-year data used to develop the TMY2 and TMY3 data sets on the websites listed above, but that data must be formatted to work with SAM, either using external software or SAM's TMY3 Creator feature.
Time Convention
The time convention of the weather data determines the time convention of SAM's simulations. For example, TMY2 and TMY3 data both use local standard time, and the radiation data values represent the total energy received during the 60 minutes preceding the indicated hour. The global horizontal radiation shown for hour 1 represents the total radiation incident on a horizontal surface between midnight and 1:00 am of the first hour of the year. Both data sets assume that there are 8,760 hours in one year and do not account for leap years. SAM assumes that the solar angle at the middle of the hour (at 30 minutes past the hour) applies to the entire hour.

Choose Climate/Location
Location The name of the weather file. A filename preceded by "SAM/" is a standard weather data file included with SAM and stored in the \exelib\climate_files folder. A filename preceded by "USER/" is a file in a folder that you have added to the weather file search path list. Add/Remove Add or remove a folder on your computer from the list of folders SAM searches for files with the TMY2, TMY3, or EPW file extension. SAM will list all weather files in folders that you add to the search list in the location list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details. Refresh List Refreshes the list of files in the location list. SAM automatically refreshes the list each time you visit the Wind Climate page. If you add a weather file to one of the folders in the search list, you may need to refresh the list for the file to be visible in the location list. Copy to project Embeds the data from a weather file to the project (.zsam) file. This useful when you share your project file with another person and do not want to send the weather file separately. Embedding weather data in a project increases the size of the project file. When you copy data to a project, SAM indicates the data with "USER/" in the location list. See Copying Weather Data to a Project for details. Remove from project Remove embedded weather data. The button is only active when the active location in the location list is preceded by "USER/."
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Use the TMY3 Creator to convert your own weather data into the TMY3 format. See Creating a TMY3 file From Your Own Data for details.
Create TMY3 file
Location Lookup Type an address or coordinates for a U.S. location to download specific-year satellite-derived data from the Solar Prospector website. See Using Location Lookup for details.
Location Information
The location information variables display data from the weather file header that describes the location. An empty variable indicates that the information does not exist in the weather file's header. The location information variables cannot be edited. City The name of the city. State The state abbreviation. Timezone The location's time zone, relative to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). A negative number indicates the number of time zones west of GMT. A positive number indicates the number of time zones east of GMT. Elevation (m) The location's elevation above sea level in meters. Latitude (degrees) The location's latitude in degrees. A positive number indicates a location north of the equator. Longitude (degrees) The location's longitude in degrees. A negative number indicates the number of degrees west of the Prime Meridian.
Weather Data Information (Annual)

SAM calculates and displays the annual totals and averages of four of the hourly data columns from the weather file in the weather data information variables. Weather data information variables cannot be edited. Direct Normal (kWh/m 2) The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the direct normal radiation data in the weather file, expressed in kilowatt-hours per square meter. Direct normal radiation is solar energy that reaches the ground in a straight line from the sun. Diffuse Horizontal (kWh/m 2) The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the diffuse horizontal radiation data in the weather file, expressed in kilowatt-hours per square meter. Diffuse radiation is solar energy that reaches a horizontal plane along the ground after reflecting from clouds and particles in the atmosphere. Note that the annual average global horizontal radiation is the sum of the direct normal and diffuse horizontal components.
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Dry-bulb Temp (C) The annual average of the ambient temperature data in the weather file in degrees Celsius. Wind Speed (m/s)
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The annual average wind speed in meters per second. For NREL TMY2 and TMY3 data, and EPW from the EnergyPlus website, wind speed data is at 10 meters above the ground. View hourly data Displays graphs of data from the weather file in SAM's built-in data viewer, DView. See Viewing Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.
Web Links
Links to websites with weather files on the internet. Each link opens one of three website in your computer's default web browser: Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) takes you to NREL's National Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB) page for the Typical Meteorological Year 3 data. Best weather data for international locations (in EPW format) takes you to the EnergyPlus weather file page. U.S. satellite-derived weather data (10 km grid cells in TMY2 format) takes you to NREL's Solar Power Prospector website.
Wind Resource Details

The wind resource details group only appears if you have specified Small Scale Wind as the technology in the Technology and Market window. SAM uses these values to estimate the characteristics of the wind at the turbine's hub height. Shear Coefficient The power law coefficient characterizes the wind shear, or relationship between height above the ground and wind speed. At most locations, the wind speed increases with height above the ground. The default value of 0.14 is appropriate for flat terrain free of obstructions. Turbulence Coefficient The turbulence coefficient characterizes the stability of the air. The default value is 0.1. Height at which Wind was Measured The height above the ground in meters of the anemometer used to measure the wind data in the weather file. For the NREL TMY3, TMY2, and the EPW files, the measurement height is 10 meters.

SAM allows you to use weather files that you download from the Internet or generate from another source. Weather files must meet the following requirements: Be stored in a folder on your computer that you have specified in SAM as containing weather files. Be in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format. To specify a folder as containing weather files: 1. On the Wind Climate page, click Add/Remove.
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In the Library Settings window, click Add. Navigate to the folder on your computer that contains the weather file. You can add as many file search paths as you wish. 4. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page. SAM displays the search paths you added in the Location list. To remove a search path from the list, click Add/Remove to open the Library Settings window, select the search path and then click Remove. Note that removing a search path does not delete any weather files. The default path for the complete set of TMY2 weather files included with SAM is \exelib\climate_files in the SAM installation folder. SAM can read weather files stored in any folder on your computer. Because the default location can be difficult to find, if you plan to use weather files other than the default TMY2 files, we recommend that you create an easy-to-find folder to store your weather files. You can then add the location to the weather file search path using the instructions below, and SAM will automatically find all weather files that you add to the folder.

When you want to share a SAM project with another person, and the project uses one or more weather files that the other person does not have, you can include a copy of the data from the weather files in the SAM file. Including weather data in a SAM file increases the size of the file, but also makes it more portable. For example, the size of the photovoltaic sample file with no weather files is 35 kB, with one weather file 274 kB, and with two weather files is 503 kB. To copy data from a weather file to the project file: 1. 2. On the Wind Climate page, choose the weather file from the Location list. Click Copy to project. SAM adds the file to the location list with the "USER/" prefix, indicating that the data is included in the SAM project file. To remove a file from the list, select it, and click Remove from project.
Creating a TMY3 File from Your Own Data

If you have hourly weather data that is not in one of the three formats (TMY3, TMY2, EPW) that SAM can read, you can use the Create TMY3 File feature to create your own weather file in the TMY3 format. TMY3 files are comma-separated text files and use the csv extension, e.g., my_weather_file.csv. Note. Unless you have a complete set of weather data for your location that you can use with confidence, using your own data introduces uncertainty into your analysis, and may result in inaccurate results or even simulation errors. To use the feature, you must have the following: A "base" TMY3 file, which is an existing file in TMY3 format that SAM modifies by replacing only the columns that SAM needs for simulations with your data. If you have a complete data set that includes all of the columns shown in the table below, then you can use any TMY3 file as a base file. If you do not have data for all of the categories listed in the table below, you may want to use a base file with data for the same or a nearby location with similar weather characteristics. For a link to the TMY3 website and documentation, see the link on the Wind Climate page under Web Links.
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Hourly data (8,760 rows) for each of the data columns shown in the table below. If you do not have data for one or more of the columns, you can choose to not replace data for those columns, and instead use data from the base file. This will result in a data set that SAM can read but with mismatched elements that may cause inaccurate results or errors in the simulation. To create a TMY3 weather file: 1. If you do not have a TMY3 file to use as the base file, download a TMY3 file to use at the base file from the NREL TMY3 website. You can do so by clicking the appropriate link on the Wind Climate page under Web Links. Open the file or files containing your weather in a text editor, spreadsheet program, or any software that allows you to copy columns of 8,760 rows to your computer's clipboard. On the Wind Climate page, click Create TMY3 file. In the TMY3 Creator window, click Open base TMY3 file, and navigate to the folder containing the base file. Type values in the header fields as appropriate, using the table below for reference. In your weather data file, copy the column of global horizontal radiation data. Be sure to copy all 8,760 rows of data, but do not include the row header. The column should contain 8,760 rows of numbers. In the TMY3 Creator window, click the GHI (W/m^w) column heading. SAM should highlight the entire column in dark gray. Click Paste. Repeat the copy and paste procedure for each column until you have pasted all of your data into the table. Click Save as new TMY3 file. Save the file in a folder that you have included in the weather file search list (see Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths). Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page. Click Refresh list. SAM may take a moment or two to refresh the location list. In the Location list, select the new TMY3 file. You should find it toward the end of the list. Click View Hourly Data to open the DView data viewer and visually inspect the data. See Viewing Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
After creating and loading your weather file, run some test simulations and examine the hourly simulation results to see if there are any problems with the data.
Table 19. Header data for TMY3 weather files

Data Element Name Site Identifier Code Station Name Station State Description A number identifying the location. This element is not required. A text description identifying the location. This element is not required. A two-letter text abbreviation for the location's state. This element is not required. Units ----
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Data Element Name Description The location's time zone offset from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) with no daylight savings adjustment. A positive value indicates a time zone east of the Prime Meridian. A negative value indicates a time zone west of the prime meridian. For example, Chicago is -6; India is 5.5. Location's latitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 90 indicates a latitude north of the equator. A negative value between 0 and -90 indicates a latitude south of the equator. For example, Durban (South Africa) is -29.97; New York City is 40.71. Location's longitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 180 indicates a longitude east of the Prime Meridian. A negative value between zero and -180 indicates a longitude west of the Prime Meridian. For example, Durban (South Africa) is 30.95; New York City is -74.01. Location's height above sea level in meters. Units decimal time
Site Time Zone (GMT)
Latitude
decimal degrees
Longitude
decimal degrees
Elevation
Table 20. Hourly data used for different technologies.

Data Element Name GHI (W/m^2) Description Global horizontal irradiance: Total amount of direct and diffuse solar radiation received on a horizontal surface for the hour. Direct normal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour within a limited field of view centered on the sun. Diffuse horizontal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour from the sky, excluding the solar disk on a horizontal surface. Average dry bulb temperature for the hour. Average dew point temperature for the hour. Average relative humidity for the hour. Station pressure or measured atmospheric pressure corrected for temperature and humidity for the hour. Average speed of the wind for the hour. Ratio of reflected solar radiation to global horizontal radiation. Use -99 for null. Units Wh/m2
DNI (W/m^2) DHI (W/m^2) Dry-bulb (C) Dew-point (C) RHum (%) Pressure (mbar) Wspd (m/s) Albedo
Wh/m2 Wh/m2 C C % mbar m/s --

SAM's Location Lookup feature allows you to type an address, zip code, or latitude and longitude to download a typical year data weather file for any location in the United States. Location Lookup uses the Google Maps API Geocoding Service service to identify the geographic coordinates of a location, and
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downloads data from NREL's Solar Power Prospector database. To use the Location Lookup feature, your computer must be connected to the Internet. Notes. Location Lookup downloads typical year data, representing the typical solar resource over the period 1998-2005. To download specific-year data within that range, visit the Solar Power Prospector site at http://maps.nrel.gov/prospector. For information about downloading TMY3 and EPW files from the internet, see Downloading Weather Files from the Internet. To download data from Solar Power Prospector: On the Wind Climate page, click Location Lookup. Type a street address zip code, or latitude and longitude. Any of the following will return results for the same location: 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden CO 80401 39 44 N 105 09 W 39.75 -105.15 SAM searches the Solar Power Prospector database for a weather file and download it to the weather file folder specified on the Preferences page. To change the default weather file folder for downloaded files: 1. 2. On the File menu, Click Preferences. Under Folder for automatically downloaded weather files, type a path name or click to navigate to the folder. Note that the folder for automatically downloaded weather files is different from the weather file search path. On the Wind Climate page click Add/Remove. In the Library Settings window, click Add to add the folder to the weather file search path list. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page. 1. 2.
3. 4. 5.
Downloading Weather Files from the Internet

You can click the links under Web Links to open websites where you can download and find more information about weather data in TMY3, TMY2, and EPW formats.
NSRDB Typical Meteorological Year 3 (TMY3) data: Best data for U.S. Locations
The NSRDB maintains two sets of TMY data. The TMY2 data represent data from 1961 to 1990. The complete TMY2 data is included with SAM: To use TMY2 data, you simply select a location from the list on the Wind Climate page. The updated TMY3 data set is based on data from 1991 to 2005. To use TMY3 data in SAM, you must download the data from the NSRDB website. For information about the TMY3 data, see:
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http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/1991-2005/tmy3/
To download a TMY3 file: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Click the Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) link to open the NSRDB TMY3 database page. On the NSRDB website, click the In alphabetical order by state and city link. Scroll to the state and city at or nearest your location. Click the identification code link for the location to download the TMY3 file. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions. In SAM, on the Wind Climate page, click Refresh. The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.
EnergyPlus Weather (EPW) Files

You can download weather data in EPW format for locations around the world at no cost from the EnergyPlus weather data website at the following website: http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data.cfm. For information about the EPW weather files, see the following websites: For a description of the file format: weatherdata_format.cfm For a description of data sources: weatherdata_sources.cfm To download an EPW file: Click Best weather for international locations (in EPW format) and navigate to the region and location you want to model. 2. Download the EPW file for the location you are modeling. If there is not an EPW file for the location, download the ZIP file and extract the EPW file. 3. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions. 4. In SAM, on the Wind Climate page, click Refresh. The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list. For some regions, you can download an EPW file directly for a location. For example, for Bangladesh, you can download the data for Dhaka by right-clicking the blue square next to the word EPW for Dhaka. Be sure to save the file with the .epw extension. 1. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/ http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/
For other regions, you must first download a zip file containing the EPW file and then extract the EPW file. For example, for Malaysia, you can download the data for Kuala Lumpur by right-clicking the red square next to the word ZIP for Kuala Lumpur. After downloading the zip file, you can extract the EPW file.
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Satellite-derived (NREL Solar Prospector) Weather Data

The NREL Solar Prospector website provides access to satellite-derived data in TMY2 format for specific years between 1998 and 2005 for locations in the U.S. at a geographical resolution of 10 km. For information about the Solar Power Prospector website, see: http://maps.nrel.gov/node/10/ For a description of the data used for the Solar Prospector website, see: http://www.asrc.cestm.albany.edu/perez/publications/Solar%20Resource%20Assessment%20and% 20Modeling/Papers%20on%20Resource%20Assessment%20and%20Satellites/A%20New% 20Operational%20Satellite%20irradiance%20model-02.pdf Although the files you download from the Solar Power Prospector website are in TMY2 format, you can download files containing either specific year data or typical year data from the website. The easiest way to use typical year data from Solar Power Prospector in SAM is to use Location Lookup. To download single year data, you can use the Solar Prospector map at http://maps.nrel.gov/prospector. To download data from the NREL Solar Prospector Website: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Visit the Solar Prospector website at http://maps.nrel.gov/prospector. Use the map to find your location. Click Download in the toolbar above the map. Choose a year for specific year data, or "TDY" for typical year data. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions. In SAM, on the Wind Climate page, click Refresh. The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.
Specifying Wind Resource Parameters

If you are modeling a small scale wind system, you must specify the three parameters describing additional characteristics of the wind resource. SAM uses these parameters to calculate the wind speed at the turbine hub height, assuming that the wind resource data was measured at a different height, typically just 10 meters above the ground. To specify wind resource parameters: 1. 2. 3. On the Wind Climate page, scroll down to the bottom of the page if the parameters are not visible on your screen. For Shear Coefficient, type a value between 0 and 1. The default value of 0.14 is appropriate for turbines on flat land with little vegetation. For Height at which Wind was Measured, type the height above the ground at which the wind speeds in the weather file were measured. For the NREL TMY3, TMY2, and the EPW data, the measurement height is 10 meters.
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3.13.3 Small Scale Wind System

The Small Scale Wind System page allows you to choose a wind turbine from a list, and to specify the locations of turbines for a project with more than one wind turbine.
Wind Turbine
The wind turbine parameters specify the turbine power curve and hub height of a single turbine. For a project with multiple turbines, SAM assumes that the project consists of turbines with the same parameters. It is not possible to specify turbines with different power curves, cut-in speeds, or hub heights. Model Name Choose a turbine from the list. You can add turbines to the Small Scale Wind Turbine Library list by creating a user library with the Library Editor. Nameplate Capacity The turbine's rated capacity from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value. SAM uses this value for capacity-related cost calculations. Rotor Diameter The turbine's rotor diameter from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value. Cut-in Wind Speed The minimum wind speed at which the turbine generates power. During simulations, SAM sets the turbine's output to zero for hours with an average wind speed below the cut in speed. The default value is 4 m/s, which is appropriate for many of the turbines in the library. Hub Height The hub height is distance between the ground and the turbine's hub at the center of the rotor.
System Size
SAM calculates the system size by multiplying the turbine nameplate capacity by the number of turbines in the project. Use more than one wind turbine Check this option if you want to model a project with two or more turbines. SAM assumes that the project consists of turbines with the same power curve, cut-in speed, and hub height. To model a project with one turbine, clear the checkbox. SAM disables the Turbine Farm Layout options when the checkbox is cleared. Number of Turbines Number of turbines in the project specified in the Turbine Farm Layout options. System Nameplate Capacity Total capacity of the project in AC kilowatts, equal to the product of the number of turbines and the nameplate capacity of a single turbine.
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Turbine Farm Layout

The Turbine Farm Layout options allow you to specify the parameters of a project with two or more turbines. You must check Use more than one wind turbine to make the parameters active. The best way to see how the parameters work is to change values and see how the turbine layout map changes. Turbine Layout Map A diagram showing the locations of turbines in the field. Each blue dot in the map represents a turbine. Shape Choose the shape defined by a set of lines connecting outermost turbines in the project. Turbines per Row / Turbines in First Row For the Square / Rectangle / Parallelogram shape, the number of turbines in each row. For the Triangle / Trapezoid shape, the number of turbines in the row closest to the bottom of the turbine layout map. Number of Rows Number of rows of turbines in the field. Turbines in Layout Product of turbines per row and number of rows. Turbine Spacing Distance in meters between turbines in each row. Row Spacing Distance in meters between rows. Offset for Rows The distance in meters between a line drawn through a turbine perpendicular to its row, and a similar line drawn through a turbine in the nearest neighboring row. Offset Type Every Other Row applies the offset distance to alternating rows. Each Row applies the distance to every row. Row Orientation The angle west of north of a line perpendicular to the rows of turbines. You can set the value by either typing a number or dragging the slider with your mouse. The compass rose indicates the cardinal directions. SAM uses this information with wind direction data from the weather file and the distance between turbines to estimate the effect of wind shadowing by neighboring turbines. Wind Farm Losses Expected power losses as a percentage of the wind farm's total output due to wake effects and other losses due to wind farm layout. Losses per turbine Losses in kilowatts per turbine. SAM multiplies this value by the number of turbines to calculate the
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total turbine losses.
3.14
Utility Scale Wind
3.14.1 Utility Scale Wind Overview

The Utility Scale Wind model is for projects involving one or more large-scale turbines with one of the Utility Market financing options. SAM's utility scale wind uses weather data from a database for United States locations. Wind Resource Wind Farm Specifications Wind Farm Costs
3.14.2 Wind Resource

The Wind Resource page allows you to download a wind resource data file from the internet by typing location coordinates or an address. The data is from NREL's Western Wind Dataset, which covers the western United States:
For information about the dataset, see http://www.nrel.gov/wind/integrationdatasets/western/methodology. html. The Utility Scale Wind model uses wind resource data from files in the .swrf format, which is a tab-delimited text format. To see examples of the files, search your computer for "swrf", or look for files with the .swrf extension in the \exelib\climate_files folder in your SAM installation folder, which is \SAM\2011.4.27 by
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default. To download wind resource data: 1. 2. 3. Click Location Lookup. See Using Location Lookup for details. Type a latitude and longitude, street address, or zip code. Click OK.
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Contents Input Variable Reference describes the variables and buttons on the Wind Resource page. Using Location Lookup explains how to automatically download satellite-derived data for any location in the United States using a street address, zip code, or latitude and longitude. Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths explains how to add your own weather files to the Location list. Copying Weather Data to a Project explains how to embed weather data in your project file for sharing with other people.

Wind Resource Location
Wind Data File The name of the file downloaded from the database. Data Source The URL pointing to the data used to create the wind data file. Date Created The date the wind data was downloaded and the weather file created. Latitude Requested The latitude requested in Location Lookup. Longitude Requested The longitude requested in Location Lookup. Latitude The latitude from the database, which may differ from the requested latitude. Longitude The longitude from the database, which may differ from the requested longitude.
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The distance between the requested point in Location Lookup and the point in the database.
Distance from request Elevation The locations height above sea level. Click here to view map of (R)equested and (A)ctual locations Displays a map in your browser showing the location of the requested point from Location Lookup and the actual point in the database. Location Lookup Type an address or coordinates for a U.S. location to download specific-year satellite-derived data from the Solar Prospector website. See Using Location Lookup for details. Add/Remove Add or remove a folder on your computer from the list of folders SAM searches for files with the TMY2, TMY3, or EPW file extension. SAM will list all weather files in folders that you add to the search list in the location list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details. Refresh List Refreshes the list of files in the location list. SAM automatically refreshes the list each time you visit the Wind Climate page. If you add a weather file to one of the folders in the search list, you may need to refresh the list for the file to be visible in the location list. Copy to project Embeds the data from a weather file to the project (.zsam) file. This useful when you share your project file with another person and do not want to send the weather file separately. Embedding weather data in a project increases the size of the project file. When you copy data to a project, SAM indicates the data with "USER/" in the location list. See Copying Weather Data to a Project for details. Remove from project Remove embedded weather data. The button is only active when the active location in the location list is preceded by "USER/."
Annual Average Data

SAM displays annual averages of the wind speed data in the weather file, which contains data for four heights above the ground. SAM also displays the annual average temperature at 10 meters. The weather file contains temperature data at each wind speed height. A green check mark indicates the height that SAM will use for simulations, which is based on the turbine's hub height that you specify on the Wind Farm Specifications page.
Wind Resource Details

The wind resource details group only appears if you have specified Small Scale Wind as the technology in the Technology and Market window. SAM uses these values to estimate the characteristics of the wind at the turbine's hub height. Shear Coefficient The power law coefficient characterizes the wind shear, or relationship between height above the ground
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and wind speed. At most locations, the wind speed increases with height above the ground. The default value of 0.14 is appropriate for flat terrain free of obstructions. Turbulence Coefficient The turbulence coefficient characterizes the stability of the air. The default value is 0.1. Height at which Wind was Measured The height above the ground in meters of the anemometer used to measure the wind data in the weather file. For the NREL TMY3, TMY2, and the EPW files, the measurement height is 10 meters.

SAM's Location Lookup feature allows you to type an address, zip code, or latitude and longitude to download a wind resource data file. Location Lookup uses the Google Maps API Geocoding Service to identify the geographic coordinates of a location. To use the Location Lookup feature, your computer must be connected to the Internet. To download data from Solar Power Prospector: On the Wind Climate page, click Location Lookup. Type a street address zip code, or latitude and longitude. Any of the following will return results for the same location: 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden CO 80401 39 44 N 105 09 W 39.75 -105.15 SAM searches the Solar Power Prospector database for a weather file and download it to the weather file folder specified on the Preferences page. To change the default weather file folder for downloaded files: 1. 2. On the File menu, Click Preferences. Under Folder for automatically downloaded weather files, type a path name or click to navigate to the folder. Note that the folder for automatically downloaded weather files is different from the weather file search path. On the Wind Climate page click Add/Remove. In the Library Settings window, click Add to add the folder to the weather file search path list. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page. 1. 2.
3. 4. 5.

SAM allows you to use weather files that you download from the Internet or generate from another source. Weather files must meet the following requirements: Be stored in a folder on your computer that you have specified in SAM as containing weather files. Be in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format.
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To specify a folder as containing weather files: On the Wind Climate page, click Add/Remove. In the Library Settings window, click Add. Navigate to the folder on your computer that contains the weather file. You can add as many file search paths as you wish. 4. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page. SAM displays the search paths you added in the Location list. To remove a search path from the list, click Add/Remove to open the Library Settings window, select the search path and then click Remove. Note that removing a search path does not delete any weather files. The default path for the complete set of TMY2 weather files included with SAM is \exelib\climate_files in the SAM installation folder. SAM can read weather files stored in any folder on your computer. Because the default location can be difficult to find, if you plan to use weather files other than the default TMY2 files, we recommend that you create an easy-to-find folder to store your weather files. You can then add the location to the weather file search path using the instructions below, and SAM will automatically find all weather files that you add to the folder. 1. 2. 3.

When you want to share a SAM project with another person, and the project uses one or more weather files that the other person does not have, you can include a copy of the data from the weather files in the SAM file. Including weather data in a SAM file increases the size of the file, but also makes it more portable. For example, the size of the photovoltaic sample file with no weather files is 35 kB, with one weather file 274 kB, and with two weather files is 503 kB. To copy data from a weather file to the project file: 1. 2. On the Wind Climate page, choose the weather file from the Location list. Click Copy to project. SAM adds the file to the location list with the "USER/" prefix, indicating that the data is included in the SAM project file. To remove a file from the list, select it, and click Remove from project.
3.14.3 Wind Farm Specifications

The Wind Farm Specifications page allows you to choose a wind turbine from a list, and to specify the locations of turbines for a project with more than one wind turbine.
Wind Turbine
The wind turbine parameters specify the turbine power curve and hub height of a single turbine. For a project with multiple turbines, SAM assumes that the project consists of turbines with the same parameters. It is not possible to specify turbines with different power curves, cut-in speeds, or hub heights. Model Name Choose a turbine from the list.
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You can add turbines to the Large Scale Wind Turbine Library list by creating a user library with the Library Editor. Nameplate Capacity The turbine's rated capacity from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value. SAM uses this value for capacity-related cost calculations. Rotor Diameter The turbine's rotor diameter from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value. IEC Class The turbine's International Electrotechnical Commission wind turbine classification. Cut-in Wind Speed The minimum wind speed at which the turbine generates power. During simulations, SAM sets the turbine's output to zero for hours with an average wind speed below the cut in speed. The default value is 4 m/s, which is appropriate for many of the turbines in the library. Hub Height The hub height is distance between the ground and the turbine's hub at the center of the rotor. Closest available resource ht During simulation, SAM uses wind resource data for the height indicated. For example, if the Closest Available Resource Ht value is 100 m, SAM uses wind resource data measured at 100 m. The annual average wind speed at this height is indicated by a green check mark under Annual Average Data on the Wind Resource page.
System Size
SAM calculates the system size by multiplying the turbine nameplate capacity by the number of turbines in the project. Use more than one wind turbine Check this option if you want to model a project with two or more turbines. SAM assumes that the project consists of turbines with the same power curve, cut-in speed, and hub height. To model a project with one turbine, clear the checkbox. SAM disables the Turbine Farm Layout options when the checkbox is cleared. Number of Turbines Number of turbines in the project specified under Turbine Farm Layout. System Nameplate Capacity Total capacity of the project in AC kilowatts, equal to the product of the number of turbines and the nameplate capacity of a single turbine.
Turbine Farm Layout

The Turbine Farm Layout options allow you to specify the parameters of a project with two or more turbines. You must check Use more than one wind turbine to make the parameters active. The best way to see how the parameters work is to change values and see how the turbine layout map
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changes. Turbine Layout Map A diagram showing the locations of turbines in the field. Each blue dot in the map represents a turbine. Shape Choose the shape defined by a set of lines connecting outermost turbines in the project. Turbines per Row / Turbines in First Row For the Square / Rectangle / Parallelogram shape, the number of turbines in each row. For the Triangle / Trapezoid shape, the number of turbines in the row closest to the bottom of the turbine layout map. Number of Rows Number of rows of turbines in the field. Turbines in Layout Product of turbines per row and number of rows. Turbine Spacing Distance in meters between turbines in each row. Row Spacing Distance in meters between rows. Offset for Rows The distance in meters between a line drawn through a turbine perpendicular to its row, and a similar line drawn through a turbine in the nearest neighboring row. Offset Type Every Other Row applies the offset distance to alternating rows. Each Row applies the distance to every row. Row Orientation The angle west of north of a line perpendicular to the rows of turbines. You can set the value by either typing a number or dragging the slider with your mouse. The compass rose indicates the cardinal directions. SAM uses this information with wind direction data from the weather file and the distance between turbines to estimate the effect of wind shadowing by neighboring turbines. Wind Farm Losses Expected power losses as a percentage of the wind farm's total output due to wake effects and other losses due to wind farm layout. Losses per turbine Losses in kilowatts per turbine. SAM multiplies this value by the number of turbines to calculate the total turbine losses.
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4
4.1
Costs and Financing

Financing Overview
The financial model provides options for projects in the residential, commercial, and utility markets, and account for a wide range of incentive payments and tax credits.
Tax Credits and Incentive Payments

For all of the financing options in SAM, you can include benefits in the form of tax credits or incentive payments. SAM assumes that a project may pay both federal and state income taxes, and that incentive payments may be available from government, utility, or other entities. Tax credits are reductions in a projects tax payment specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page, and may include: Investment tax credits (ITC) based on the cost of installing equipment. Production tax credits (PTC) based on the amount of electricity generated by the project. Incentive payments are cash payments to the project specified on the Payment Incentives page, and may include: Investment-based incentives (IBI) based on the cost of installing equipment. Capacity-based incentives (CBI) based on the size of the system. Production-based incentives (PBI) based on the amount of electricity generated by the project. For commercial and utility projects, SAM also models accelerated depreciation (including MACRS), specified on the Financing page.
Residential and Commercial Projects

In SAM, residential and commercial projects buy and sell power at retail rates. They may be financed through either a loan or cash payment (0% debt fraction). These projects recover investment costs by selling electricity at rates established by the electricity service provider. For residential and commercial projects, SAM calculates the project's levelized cost of energy, which represents the cost of installing and operating the system, including debt and tax costs, and accounting for incentives. The model also calculates the net present value of the after tax cash flow and a payback period representing the number of years required for the cumulative after tax cash flow to cover the initial equity investment in the project. Commercial projects may qualify for tax deductions under the Modified Accelerated Depreciation Schedule (MACRS) described in the United States tax code. SAM provides options for specifying custom depreciation schedules in addition to the MACRS mid-quarter and half-year schedules on the Financing page. Residential and commercial projects are typically smaller than 500 kW, although SAM does not restrict system sizes, so it is possible to model any size system using either the residential or commercial financing option. SAM's Utility Rate page provides a range of options for specifying the utility rate structure for a project. The
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Flat buy and sell rates (with or without net metering) Time-of-use energy charges Monthly demand charges (either fixed or time-of-use) Tiered rates Fixed monthly charges Adjustment fees
rate structure may include any of the following:
For projects with demand charges and tiered rates, SAM requires electric load data, which is specified on the Electric Load page.
A Note About the Old and New Financing Options

The "old" financing options, Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer, available in the current version of SAM, are based on the financing options available in SAM 2010.11.9 and older versions. They are included in the current version to allow for comparison of results with older versions of SAM: Commercial PPA in the current version is equivalent to Commercial Third Party in previous versions. Independent Power Producer in the current version combines the Independent Power Producer, Time of Dispatch, and First Year Bid Price options from previous versions into a single model. The "new" Utility Market options (All Equity Partnership Flip, Leveraged Partnership Flip, Sale Leaseback, and Single Owner) are based on a new financial model developed for SAM and better represent actual project financing structures for renewable energy projects. The following list summarizes some of the differences between the old and new financing options: Debt fraction is an input for the Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer (old) options. For the new options that involve debt (see table below), SAM calculates the debt fraction as a result based on the debt service coverage requirements you specify as an input on the Financing page, and the available cash in the project cash flow. The new financing options include structures with two partners, and report IRRs, NPVs, and cash flows for each partner. The old financing options report only the total project IRR, NPV, and cash flow. The new Single Owner and old Independent Power Producer options model the same financing structure: A project financed with debt and involving a single entity that develops and operates the project and receives all project income and benefits. The Single Owner option is more representative of actual projects. The Independent Power Producer option may be suitable for basic preliminary analyses before some of the details required by the Single Owner option are known. The new Utility Market financing options allow you to specify a reserve account for major equipment replacement that is not available in the Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer options. The new Utility Market financing options include options for bonus depreciation and more sophisticated handling of depreciation with tax credits and payment incentives than the Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer options. The Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer models have been updated since SAM 2010.11.9. Improvements include: You specify whether the PPA price is an input and IRR a result, or IRR is an input and PPA price a result using the Solution Mode option on the Financing page. The Independent Power Producer model allows you to model a PPA price with energy payment allocation factors, where the negotiated power price varies based on a pre-determined time-of-day schedule. (Energy payment allocation factors were available for the Time of Dispatch and Bid Price
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options in previous versions.) For the concentrating solar power technologies, you specify the energy payment allocation factors on the Thermal Energy Storage page. For other technologies, see the Energy Payment Dispatch page. The construction period financing cost includes the option to specify an up-front fee based on the approach used in the new financing models. See Financing, Construction Period for details. The property tax calculation allows you to specify the property's assessed value as a percentage of the total installed cost, and to specify an annual rate of decline in the assessed value. Previous versions assumed that the assessed value was equal to the total installed cost throughout the analysis period.
Commercial PPA
Commercial PPA projects sell electricity at a price negotiated through a power purchase agreement (PPA). SAM calculates a power purchase price given a target minimum IRR, with options for optimizing the debt fraction and PPA escalation rate to minimize the PPA price. For commercial PPA projects, SAM calculates an electricity sales price (PPA price), and IRR and NPV for the project as a whole, assuming that a single entity participates in the project and has sufficient tax liability to absorb tax credits and depreciation benefits. Commercial PPA projects are typically larger than 500 kW, although SAM does not restrict system sizes, so it is possible to model any size system using either the residential or commercial financing option.
Utility Market
Utility projects sell electricity at a price negotiated through a power purchase agreement (PPA) to meet a set of equity returns requirements, and and may involve one or two parties. SAM provides options for calculating a power purchase price given a target internal rate of return, or for calculating the rate of return given a power purchase price. An optional annual escalation rate allows for pricing that varies annually, and optional payment allocation factors allow for pricing that varies with time of day. For utility projects, SAM calculates an electricity sales price (PPA price), and IRRs and NPVs for the project as a whole and, as appropriate for each equity participant. The utility market structures is typically used for large-scale projects because of the costs associated with financial customization, developers of smaller commercial projects are experimenting with lower cost approaches, such as using standardized versions of some of the financing structures, financing projects on an aggregated basis, seeking corporate financing rather than project-level financing, and partering with community-based lending institutions and investors. Because SAM does not restrict the size of the system, it is possible to use these financing structures with any size of system. SAM provides five options for modeling Utility Market projects: All Equity Partnership Flip and Leveraged Partnership Flip The All Equity Partnership Flip and Leveraged Partnership Flip options are two-party projects that involve equity investments by a project developer and a third party tax investor. The tax investor has sufficient tax liability from its other business operations to utilize any tax benefits (tax credits and depreciation deductions) fully in the years in which the project generates the benefits. The project sets up a limited liability entity, and once the project begins generating and selling electricity, all of the projects net cash flows and tax benefits are passed through this entity to its owners. The project allocates a majority of the cash and tax benefits to the tax investor when the project begins operation and until the tax investor receives a pre-negotiated after-tax IRR, also known as the flip target. Once the flip target is reached, a majority of the cash and any remaining tax benefits are allocated to the
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developer.
Sale Leaseback The Sale Leaseback option is another two-party structure that involves a tax investor purchasing 100% of the project from the developer and then leasing it back to the developer. This structure differs from the partnership flip structures in that the tax investor and the developer do not share the project cash and tax benefits (or liability). Instead, each party has its own separate cash flow and taxable income. The purchase price paid by the tax investor is equal to the total project cost, less a lease payment and the value of working capital reserve accounts. The developer typically funds the reserve accounts to ensure it has some financial exposure. The tax investor receives lease payments from the developer and any ownership-related incentives such as the tax credits, incentive payments, and the depreciation tax deductions. The developer operates the project and keeps any excess cash flow from operations, after payment of all operating expenses and the lease payments. This provides the developer with an incentive to operate the project as efficiently as possible. Note. SAM assumes that the tax investor receives the ITC in the sale leaseback structure. SAM does not model alternative lease structures that treat the ITC differently. Single Owner and Independent Power Producer In the Single Owner and Independent Power Producer options, one entity owns the project and has sufficient tax liability to utilize the tax benefits. This structure is less complicated than the Partnership Flip and Sale Leaseback structures because there is no need to allocate cash and tax benefits to different partners. The owner may be either the original developer or a third-party tax investor that purchases the project from the developer. (See above for a discussion of the differences between the Single Owner and Independent Power Producer options.) Below is a table summarizing the five structures. All Equity Partnership Flip Equity Owners Project Debt Return Target Tax investor Developer No Tax investor aftertax IRR (Flip Target) Leveraged Partnership Flip Tax investor Developer Yes Tax investor aftertax IRR (Flip Target) Single Owner / Independent Power Producer Developer (third party if sold) Optional (owner choice)
Sale Leaseback Tax investor (Lessor) No
Lessor after-tax IRR Owner after-tax IRR
Cash Sharing
Pre-Flip: Bifurcated Pre-Flip: Pro rata Post-Flip: Primarily Post-Flip: Primarily developer developer Pre-Flip: Primarily tax investor Post-Flip: Primarily developer Pre-Flip: Primarily tax investor Post-Flip: Primarily developer
Lessor: Lease payment Lessee: Project margin
Owner receives 100% of project cash
Tax Benefit Sharing
Tax investor and Owner receives developer have 100% of project tax different taxable benefits incomes ITC and Depreciation goes to tax investor
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4.2
System Summary
To view the System Summary page, click System Summary in the main window's navigation menu. The System Summary page displays variables that describe the system's capacity and capital costs. SAM displays the variables so that you can quickly see some key properties of the system. SAM displays the same set of summary variables for all of the technologies to facilitate quick comparisons of different cases using different technologies. Note. The values shown on the System Summary page are copies of values from other input pages as described below. You cannot change values on the System Summary page.
System Summary
System Nameplate Capacity (kW) The nameplate capacity is the system's rated or nominal capacity in kilowatts. It is the value that SAM uses to calculate cost per kilowatt values displayed on the cost pages and used for economic modeling. For photovoltaic systems, the value is equivalent to the total array power in DC kilowatts calculated on the Array page. For concentrating solar power systems, the value is equivalent to the power block's rated capacity in AC kilowatts, which is an input on the Power Block or Power Cycle, Power Cycle, or Stirling Engine page for trough, tower, or dish systems, respectively. For wind systems, the value is equal to the product of a single turbine's nameplate capacity in AC kilowatts the and number of turbines in the system. For geothermal systems, the value is the the net plant output in AC megawatts on the Plant and Equipment page converted to AC kilowatts. Total Direct Cost ($) The total cost of installation equipment and services, calculated on the system cost page. Total Installed Cost ($) The project's total capital cost, including direct and indirect costs, calculated on the system cost page. Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/kW) The total installed cost divided by the system nameplate capacity, also displayed on the system cost page. Analysis Period (years) Number of years covered by the analysis. Typically equivalent to the project or investment life, also displayed on the Financing page. Inflation Rate (%/year) Annual rate of change of prices, typically based on a price index. SAM uses the inflation rate to calculate costs in the cash flows for years after year one, also displayed on the Financing page. Real Discount Rate (%/year) A measure of the time value of money expressed as an annual rate. SAM uses the real discount rate to calculate the present value (value in year one) of cash flows over the analysis period and to calculate
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annualized costs, also displayed on the Financing page.
4.3
Utility Rate
To view the Utility Rate page, open a case with residential or commercial financing, and then click Utility Rate in the main window's navigation menu. The Utility Rate page displays options for specifying a wide range of utility rate structures for projects with Residential and Commercial financing, from flat rates with net metering to complex time-of-use rates with demand charges and tiered rates.
Contents Overview defines the utility rate options and how to view the impact of rates on results. Input Variable Reference describes each of the input variables on the Utility Rate page. Specifying a Flat Rate with or without Net Metering explains how to set up a rate structure that uses a single rate for buying and selling electricity that does not vary with time. Specifying Time of Use Energy Charges explains how to set up a rate structure with different buy and sell rates at different times of day and year. Specifying Peak Demand Charges explains how to assign charges that apply to the hour of maximum electric demand in each month. Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure explains how to set up a rate structure with electricity prices that vary with the amount of electricity purchased over a month. Importing Rate Structure Data explains how to download rate structure data from NREL's OpenEI database. Specifying Escalation Rates describes escalation rates and explains how to specify them. Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules explains how to use the weekend and weekday matrices to define the times when charges apply.
Overview
The Utility Rate page allows you to specify a rate schedule for residential and commercial projects. The rate schedule defines the prices of electricity purchased and sold by the project under an agreement with an electric service provider. For some service providers in the United States, you can download the rate structure from the internet.
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The Utility Rate page is available only for projects with residential or commercial financing. For projects with utility or commercial PPA financing, the electricity sales price is a result instead of an input. For those projects, SAM reports the electricity sales price as the first year power purchase price. A project's financing type is defined in the Technology and Market window. You can specify an electric rate structure with any level of complexity, from a simple flat rate with net metering to a complex schedule with time-of-use rates that change with time, demand charges, and tiered rates: Flat rate: A fixed rate in dollars per kilowatt-hour that does not vary with time or with the amount of electricity the project purchases. Fixed monthly charge: A fixed amount in dollars that the project pays each month. Time-of-use (TOU) rate: Rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour that vary with time of day and month of year. Net metering: The project buys and sells electricity at the same rate. Net metering can apply to flat rates or time-of-use rates. Note that SAM calculates net metering on an hourly basis, not on a monthly or annual basis. Peak demand charges: Monthly fees in dollars per kilowatt paid by the project for the maximum monthly electric demand. You can specify demand charges as fixed monthly charges or as charges that vary with time of use. Tiered rates: Rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour that vary with the amount of electricity purchased by the project in a month. You can also specify an escalation rate if you expect electricity prices to increase from year to year at a rate above inflation.
Utility Rates and Results

After you specify the rate schedule and run simulations, you can see the resulting hourly pricing data in the tabular data browser on the Results page, and the total annual revenue from electricity sales in the project cash flow. SAM reports revenues from electricity sales in the metrics table. Note that the electricity buy and sell rates do not affect the project's levelized cost of energy (LCOE), because for residential and commercial projects, the LCOE value is independent of project revenue. The electricity rates do affect the project net present value and payback period.

OpenEI Online Utility Rate Database
NREL's Open Energy Information initiative (OpenEI) hosts a database of electric rate structures for a selection of U.S. electric service providers. SAM allows you to search the database and upload rate structures from the database directly from the Utility Rate page. Search for Rates Search the OpenEI database for a rate structure and import the structure into SAM. This feature requires a web connection. See Importing Rate Structure Data for details.
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Open the OpenEI website (http://en.openei.org/wiki/Gateway:Utilities) in your computer's default Web browser.
Go to website
Description
These variables help you identify the rate structure. These are optional variables and do not affect results. If you download rate structure data from the internet, SAM populates the variables automatically. Name The name or title of the rate structure. Description Text describing the rate structure. Schedule The schedule name, often an alphanumeric designation used by the electric service provider. Source A document reference or website link for the rate sheet, tariff book, or other document containing the rate information.
Rate Escalation
The escalation rate is an annual percentage increase that applies to all of the rates you specify on the Utility Rates page. SAM uses the sum of the escalation rate and inflation rate specified on the Financing page to calculate utility rates in years 2 and later of the analysis period (also specified on the Financing page). If you specify an escalation rate of zero, then SAM will use only the inflation rate to calculate outyear values. See Specifying Escalation Rates for details. Out-years escalation rate(s) SAM adds the escalation rate to the inflation rate specified on the Financing page to calculate values in the project cash flow for years 2 and later. You can specify the escalation rate as either a single annual value, or specify a different escalation rate for each year in the project cash flow. See Specifying Escalation Rates for details.
Net Metering
With net metering, the project purchases and sells electricity at the same price. See Specifying a Simple Flat Rate with or without Net Metering for details. Enable net metering (buy=sell) Check the box for a rate structure with net metering to set the sell rate equal to the buy rate for flat rates and time-of-use rates. Checking the box disables all Sell input variables in the rate structure.
Fixed Monthly Charges

A fixed charge is a fee that the project pays each month to the electric service provider that does not depend on the quantity of electricity consumed or generated by the project. Fixed Charge A fixed dollar amount that applies to all months. Because SAM tracks project sales and purchases on
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an hourly basis, it must assign the monthly fixed charge on an hourly basis. SAM arbitrarily applies the fixed charge to the final hour of each month. For example, SAM applies the charge for January to hour 744 (for a month with 31 days, 24 hours/day 31 days/month = 744 hours/month).
Flat Rate
A flat rate is an energy charge in dollars per kilowatt-hour that does not vary with the amount of electricity purchased or sold by the project. See Specifying a Simple Flat Rate with or without Net Metering for details. Notes. If you specify different buy and sell rates, you should also specify load data on the Electric Load page. SAM compares the renewable energy system's output to the load data in each hour to determine whether to buy or sell electricity in that hour. If you specify both a flat rate and time-of-use rates, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the electricity price in each hour.
Enable Flat Rates Check the box for a rate structure with flat rates. If you clear the checkbox, SAM will ignore any flat rate values that you may have specified. Flat Buy Rate The fixed energy charge in dollars per kilowatt-hour for a simple flat rate structure with no time-of-use or tiered rates. This is the price that the project pays to purchase electricity from the electric service provider. If you check the Enable net metering (buy=sell) box, SAM assumes that the flat buy rate and flat sell rates are equal. Flat Sell Rate The price in dollars per kilowatt-hour paid by the electric service provider to the project for electricity delivered to the grid by the project. If you check the Enable net metering (buy=sell) box, SAM assumes that the flat buy rate and flat sell rates are equal and disables the flat sell rate variable. The sell rate applies in each hour to the difference between the energy generated by the system and the load requirement specified on the Electric Loads page. Flat Fuel Adjustment A charge in dollars per kilowatt-hour paid by the project to the service provider for a fuel adjustment fee or any other riders or fees. SAM adds the adjustment charge to the flat buy rate to calculate the total electricity purchase price.
Time of Use Rate (Energy Charge)

Time of use rates are energy charges in dollars per kilowatt-hour that vary with the time of day, month of year, or both. See Specifying a Time-of-use Rate Structure for details.
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Notes. If you specify time of use rates, you should also specify load data on the Electric Load page. SAM compares the renewable energy system's output to the load data in each hour to determine whether to buy or sell electricity in that hour. If you specify both a flat rate and time-of-use rates, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the electricity price in each hour. Enable TOU Rates Check the box to apply the time of use rate schedule specified by the time-of-use (TOU) rates for the periods shown the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. You can disable the TOU rates without losing the rate and schedule data by clearing the checkbox. Period (1-9) The buy, sell, and adjustment rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour for each of up to nine periods. Assign a period number to the weekday or weekend matrices by using your mouse to select a block in the matrix and typing the period number on your keyboard. See Defining Weekday and Weekend schedules for details. Buy $/kWh The price paid by the project in dollars per kilowatt-hour to purchase electricity from the electric service provider. Sell $/kWh The price paid to the project in dollars per kilowatt-hour by the electric service provider for electricity delivered by the project to the grid. The sell rate applies in each hour to the difference between the energy generated by the system and the load requirement specified on the Electric Loads page. Adj. $/kWh Any additional charge paid by the project in dollars per kilowatt-hour to the service provider for fuel fees or other fees or riders. SAM adds the adjustment charge to the flat buy rate to calculate the total electricity purchase price. Weekday The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that assigns a period representing set of time-of-use rates to the five working days of the week: Monday through Friday. SAM assumes that the year begins on Monday, January 1, in the hour ending at 1:00 a.m. See Defining Weekday and Weekend schedules for details. Weekend The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that assigns time-of-use periods to the two weekend days of the week: Saturday and Sunday. SAM assumes that the year begins on Monday, January 1, in the hour ending at 1:00 a.m.
Peak Demand Charges

A peak demand charge is a fee that the project pays to the electric service provider that depends on the load data you specify on the Electric Load page. The electric demand in a given hour is the difference between the load in that hour and the electricity generated by the system in that hour. See Specifying Peak Demand Charges for details.
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SAM arbitrarily applies the monthly demand charge to the final hour of each month. For example, SAM applies the charge for January to hour 744 (for a month with 31 days, 24 hours/day 31 days/month = 744 hours/month). Enable Demand Charges Check the box to apply peak demand charges. You can disable demand charges without losing the rate and schedule data by clearing the checkbox. Monthly fixed demand charge ($/kW,peak) An amount in dollars per kilowatt to be paid by the project each month of the year for the maximum average hourly electric demand in the month. Monthly time-of-use demand charge An amount in dollars per kilowatt to be paid the project each month for the maximum hourly average electric demand in each of up to nine periods. See Specifying Peak Demand Charges for details. Period (1-9) The amount and adjustment rates in dollars per peak average hourly kilowatt for each of up to nine periods. See Specifying Peak Demand Charges for details. Assign a period number to the weekday or weekend matrices by using your mouse to select a block in the matrix and typing the period number on your keyboard. See Defining Weekday and Weekend schedules for details. Amount ($/kW,peak) An amount in dollars per kilowatt that the project pays for the peak average demand in kilowatts over the period specified in the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. Adj ($/kW) An adjustment fee for fuel or other fees and adjustments in dollars per kilowatt that the project pays for the peak average demand in kilowatts over the period specified in the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. Weekday The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that assigns a set of peak demand charge rates to the five working days of the week: Monday through Friday. SAM assumes that the year begins on Monday, January 1, in the hour ending at 1:00 a.m. See Defining Weekday and Weekend schedules for details. Weekend The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that a set of peak demand charge rates to the two weekend days of the week: Saturday and Sunday. SAM assumes that the year begins on Monday, January 1, in the hour ending at 1:00 a.m.
Tiered Rates (Energy Charge)

Tiered rates are energy charges in dollars per kilowatt-hour that depend on the amount of electricity the project purchases over a specified period. See Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure for details.
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Notes. If you specify tiered rates, you should also specify load data on the Electric Load page. SAM uses the load data to determine the tier rates to apply to a given hour. In SAM, a "tier structure" is a set of tiered rates. In most cases you will use a single tier structure. For more complex structures with different tiered rates for different months, you can assign tiered rates to more than one tier structure. You can define up to six tiers in each tiered structure. Enable Tiered Rates Check the box to apply tiered rates. You can disable tiered rates for a model run without losing the rate data by clearing the checkbox. Sell at Tiered Sell Rate Assigns the rate specified by the Tiered Sell Rate variable to the sell rate. Tiered Sell Rate Specify the sell rate only when you choose the "sell at tiered sell rate" option. SAM ignores this value when you choose either the "sell at tier 1" or "sell at lowest rate" options. Sell at Tier 1 rate for each Tiered Structure Assigns the rate specified by the Tier 1 buy rate to the sell rate for each of the up to six tier structures. Sell at lowest rate for each Tiered Structure Assigns the minimum of the up to six tier buy rates to the sell rate for each of the tier structures. kWh Use The maximum amount of electricity that can be purchased at the electricity charge rate and adjustment rate for each of the up to six tiers that you can specify for each tier structure. A tier with the default value of 1e+099 would account for all of the electricity purchased over the amount of the next lowest tier. For example, for a two-tier structure with one price for all electricity purchased up to 1,000 kWh and a second price for electricity purchased over 1,000 kWh for a given month, you would specify Tier 1's kWh use at 1,000 kWh and Tier 2's kWh use at 1e+099. Rate $/kWh The buy rate in dollars per kilowatt-hour that applies to each of up to six tiers per tier structure. Adj $/kWh Any additional fee in dollars per kilowatt-hour that applies to the tier. Monthly Schedule Choose the tier structure that applies for each month. If the same tier structure applies to all months of the year, use Tier Structure 1.
Specifying a Flat Rate with or without Net Metering

The flat rate option is appropriate when a project buys and sells electricity at a fixed price that does not vary with time of day or month of year. SAM determines whether the project buys or sells electricity on an hourly basis by comparing the renewable energy system's output with the load for each hour. This approach does not accurately model net
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metering calculated on a monthly or annual basis.
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SAM assumes that the electricity price increases from year to year at the rate of inflation specified on the Financing page. You can specify an additional annual escalation rate if you want the price to increase at a rate above the inflation rate. See Specifying Escalation Rates for details. Note. Be sure to express all rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour. Some electricity service providers may express rates in cents per kilowatt-hour that you will need to convert to dollars. A flat rate with net metering means that the project buys and sells electricity at the same price through a net metering agreement with the electric service provider. A flat rate without net metering means that the project buys electricity at one rate, and sells it at another rate. Note. If you specify both a flat rate and time-of-use rates, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the electricity price in each hour. To specify a flat rate with net metering: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Under Flat Rate, check Enable Flat Rates. Under Net Metering, click Enable net metering (buy=sell). SAM will disable the variables for specifying electricity sell rates. In Flat Buy Rate, type the electricity purchase price in dollars per kilowatt-hour. If the electricity service provider charges any additional fees in dollars per kilowatt-hour, such as a fuel adjustment fee, type the value of the fee in Adjustment. SAM assumes that electricity prices increase from year to year at the inflation rate specified on the Financing page. If you expect the electricity rate to increase at a rate higher than inflation, type the additional rate of increase in Out-years escalation rate(s). See Specifying Escalation Rates for details. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.
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To specify a flat rate without net metering: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Under Flat Rate, check Enable Flat Rates. Under Net Metering, clear Enable net metering (buy=sell). In Flat Buy Rate, type the price in dollars per kilowatt-hour at which the project will purchase electricity from the service provider. In Flat Sell Rate, type the price in dollars per kilowatt-hour at which the project will sell electricity to the service provider. If the electricity service provider charges any additional fees in dollars per kilowatt-hour, such as a fuel adjustment fee, type the value of the fee in Adjustment. SAM will add this value to the flat buy rate, but not to the sell rate. SAM assumes that electricity prices increase from year to year at the inflation rate specified on the Financing page. If you expect the electricity rate to increase at a rate higher than inflation, type the additional rate of increase in Out-years escalation rate(s). See Specifying Escalation Rates for details. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.
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Specifying Time of Use Energy Charges

A time-of-use rate (TOU) schedule is appropriate for a project that buys and sells electricity according to a price schedule that varies with time of day and month of year. A TOU agreement may include net metering, in which case the project buys and sells electricity at the same price. If you are modeling a project that has an agreement with a particular electricity service provider in the United States, you may be able to download the rate schedule from the OpenEI database. Follow the instructions in Importing Rate Structure Data to see if the database includes rate structures for your provider. The instructions below explain how to specify a TOU rate structure by hand. You can specify a buy rate, sell rate, and adjustment rate in dollars per kilowatt-hour for up to nine TOU periods. You must assign a block defining time of day and month of year to each period in the weekday and weekend matrices. Notes. If you specify both time-of-use rates and a flat rate, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the electricity price in each hour. Be sure to express all rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour. Some electricity service providers may express rates in cents per kilowatt-hour that you will need to convert to dollars. To specify a time-of-use schedule: 1. If your project buys and sells electricity at the same price under a net metering agreement, check Enable net metering (buy=sell) under Net Metering. Otherwise, disable net metering by clearing the checkbox. Under Time of Use Rate (Energy Charge), check Enable TOU Rates to include the TOU rate structure in simulations. You can disable the TOU rates without losing the TOU rate data by clearing the checkbox. Type appropriate prices in dollars per kilowatt-hour in the Buy $/kWh, Sell $/kWh, and Adj $/kWh columns for each of up to nine periods. If the rate uses net metering, you only need to specify a buy rate because SAM assumes that the sell rate is equal to the buy rate. In the Weekday matrix, use your mouse to draw a rectangle representing the block of time that applies to Period 2, and press the 2 key on your keyboard. SAM highlights the block in the color for Period 2 and displays the number 2 in square the block. Repeat Step 3 for each time block in the rate schedule until the weekday matrix shows all of the TOU periods you specified with the appropriate time blocks. Repeat Steps 3-5 for the weekend matrix. See Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules for more detailed instructions. If the rate structure includes peak demand charges, see Specifying Peak Demand Charges. If the rate structure includes tiered rates, see Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.
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Specifying Peak Demand Charges

A peak demand charge is a monthly price paid by the project in dollars per kilowatt for the maximum power it consumes from the grid over each month of the year. Note. In SAM, the units for energy quantities such as hourly AC output of the system, hourly electricity purchased from the grid, and hourly load are all given in kWh and represent a total energy quantity over the hour. (That is assuming that hourly solar radiation data determined from the weather file represents the total solar radiation that reaches the solar collector over each hour.) Each hourly quantity is therefore also effectively a power quantity (rate of generating or consuming energy per unit of time) value in kilowatt-hours per hour (kWh/h), equivalent to kilowatt (kW). SAM calculates the peak demand charge for each month by first determining the maximum demand in kilowatts for the month, and then determining what charge to apply to that kilowatt value based on the demand charges you specify. (See instructions below.) The demand in a given hour is the load in that hour from the load data specified on the Electric Load page minus the AC output of the system in that hour calculated during simulation. The maximum demand in a month is the highest demand value that occurs over the period of a month. f you only specify monthly fixed demand charges, then the demand charge would be the value you specified for the month in question. For example, if for the month of May, SAM finds that the maximum demand occurs on the weekday May 12th at 3 pm, SAM would apply the May demand charge specified under Monthly fixed demand charge. If you specify a monthly time-of-use (TOU) demand charge, then would apply the weekday TOU demand charge for 3 pm in May specified on the Weekday schedule matrix. Note that you can specify both a monthly demand charge and a monthly TOU demand charge, SAM simply adds the two charges to calculate the total demand charge. Note. The demand charge calculation requires that you specify an electric load for your project. See Electric Load for details. To specify peak demand charges: 1. 2. Under Peak Demand Charges, check Enable Demand Charges. You can always disable demand charges without losing the rate data by clearing the checkbox. If the rate structure includes a fixed monthly demand charge that does not vary with time of day, under Monthly fixed demand charge ($/kW,peak) type the charge in dollars per kilowatt that applies to each month. If the demand charge varies with time of day and year, type the demand charge and any additional adjustment fee in dollars per kilowatt for each of up to nine TOU periods. The total demand charge for each period is the sum of the values in the Amount and Adj columns. You can specify both a monthly fixed demand charge and a monthly TOU demand charge if that is appropriate for your rate schedule. SAM will add the two values when it calculates the total demand charge. In the Weekday matrix, use your mouse to draw a rectangle representing the block of time that applies to Period 2, and press the 2 key on your keyboard. SAM highlights the block in the color for Period 2 and displays the number 2 in square the block. Repeat Steps 3-4 for each time block in the rate schedule until the weekday matrix shows all of the TOU periods you specified with the appropriate time blocks. Repeat Steps 3-5 for the weekend matrix. See Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules for
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7. 8. 9. more detailed instructions. If the rate structure includes time-of-use energy charges, see Specifying Time of Use Energy Charges. If the rate structure includes tiered rates, see Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.
Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure

In a tiered rate structure, different electricity prices apply as the amount of electricity purchases increases over time in a given month. Each tier represents a monthly quantity of purchased electricity, a purchase price, and optional adjustment fee. For example, in a three-tier structure, one price might apply to electricity purchased up 100 kWh (Tier 1) in a given month. If the project purchases more than 100 kWh in that month, then a second price might apply for electricity purchased between 100 kWh and up to 150 kWh (Tier 2). If the project purchases more than 150 kWh, a third price might apply to electricity purchased over 150 kWh (Tier 3). In this three-tier example, if the project only purchases 75 kWh in a month, then it would purchase all of its electricity at the Tier 1 rate for that month. SAM allows you to specify both a buy rate, or price paid by the project to purchase electricity from the electric service provider, and a sell rate, or price paid to the project for electricity it sells to the provider. There are three options for defining the sell rate: As a fixed price that you specify, as a price equal to the Tier 1 rate you specify, or as a price equal to the lowest of the up to six tiers that you specify. SAM also allows you to specify more than one set of tiered rates. Each set of tiered rates is called a tier structure, and applies to one or months of the year as specified under Monthly Schedule. You might use more than one tier structures to specify different tiered rates for different seasons of the year. To specify a tiered rate structure: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Under Tiered Rates (Energy Charge), check Enable Tiered Rates. You can always disable tiered rates without losing rate data by clearing the checkbox. Under Sell Rate, choose one of the three options available for specifying the sell rate. See above for descriptions. If you specify Sell at Tiered Sell Rate, type a value for Tiered Sell Rate in dollars per kilowatthour. If you choose one of the other two options, SAM ignores this value. Under Tier Structure 1, type the maximum amount of electricity in kilowatt-hours in the kWh Use column for Tier 1 that the project is allowed to purchase at the Tier 1 rate in a single month. In the Rate $/kWh column, type the purchase price that applies to Tier 1. In the Adj $/kWh column, type the additional fee in dollars per kilowatt-hour that applies to the tier. SAM adds the rate and adjustment values to calculate the total energy price for the tier. Repeat Steps 4-6 for each of the up to six tiers in Tier Structure 1. Repeat Steps 3-7 for each of the up to six tier structures. Under Monthly Schedule, for each month of the year, choose the tier structure that applies to the month.
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10. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.
Importing Rate Structure Data

If your computer is connected to the internet, you can download rate structure data from the OpenEI database for a selection of electricity service providers in the United States. You can find out more about the database on the OpenEI website: http://en.openei.org/wiki/Gateway:Utilities. Note. When you import data from the OpenEI website, SAM imports the appropriate rates and schedule data, but does not check the appropriate boxes to enable the rate options that apply to the rate structure. Be sure to very that the appropriate options are enabled as described in the instructions below. To import rate structure data: 1. 2. Click Search for rates. In the OpenEI Utility Rate Database window, locate your electric service provider in the list by either typing some letters in the provider's name and clicking Refresh, or by scrolling through the alphabetical list. Click the provider's name to populate the Available rate schedules list. If nothing appears in the list, there is no data available for the service provider in the database. In the Available rate schedules list, click the rate schedule you want to import into SAM. SAM displays information about the rate schedule under Rate Information. You cannot change this information. To see the database entry on the OpenEI website using your computer's web browser, click Go to rate page on OpenEI.org. You can also right-click the link to copy the URL to your computer's clipboard. To open a copy of the database file, click JSON. You can also right-click the link to copy the URL to your computer's clipboard. The database file is a text file that you can view in a web browser and edit in a text editor. Click Download and apply utility rate to download the rate structure data into SAM, or click Close to return to the Utility Rate page without downloading the data. After you import the data, SAM displays the appropriate rates and schedules on the Utility Rates page. Verify that the appropriate options for the rate structure are checked: Enable net metering (buy=sell), Enable Flat Rates, Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.
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Specifying Escalation Rates

When you specify electricity prices and rates, SAM assumes that those values apply in Year 1 of the project cash flow. To calculate dollar values in Year 2 and later, SAM increases the Year 1 values using the inflation rate specified on the Financing page. If you specify an escalation rate, SAM uses the sum of the escalation rate and inflation rate to calculate the out-year values. In some cases, it may be useful to assign a different escalation rate to each year in the analysis period using an annual schedule. (The analysis period is defined on the Financing page.) For example, you could
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model an escalation rate that increases every five years by assigning one value to years 1 through 5, a second one to years 6 through 10, and so on. To enter the escalation rate as an annual schedule: 1. Under Rate Escalation, look at the grey and blue button next to Out-years escalation rate(s). By default, the "Value" label is blue indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.
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Click the button with the "Sched" label to change the mode to schedule and activate the Edit button.
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Click Edit. The Edit Schedule window displays a table with each row representing a year in the analysis period. If you want to limit the number of values in the schedule, type a number in # Values. Typically, you should type a number equal to or greater than the analysis period specified on the Financing page. SAM ignores any data for years greater than the analysis period. For example, if the schedule has 50 rows, but the analysis period is 30 years, SAM ignores any values in rows 31 and above. In the Edit Schedule window, type an escalation rate for each year in the analysis period. Use the vertical scroll bar to move through the years. To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid and display the error message "Bad numeric format in column xx: Edit canceled." 6. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.
Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules

The weekday and weekend matrices allow you to associate a period with a time of day and month of year. To use the matrices, you draw rectangles on the matrix with your mouse, and type a number with your keyboard for the period that applies to the times represented by the rectangles. SAM arbitrarily defines the first day of time series data (the first 24 hours for hourly data) to be Monday on January 1, and assigns the remaining days of the year accordingly. SAM assumes that weekdays include Monday through Friday, and that weekends include Saturday and Sunday. SAM does not account for holidays or other special days. It also does not account for leap years, and does not include a day for February 29. To specify a weekday or weekend schedule: 1. 2. Assign values as appropriate to each of the up to nine periods. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.
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Type the number 2.
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The following example shows a complete schedule for a TOU rate structure with five periods. In this case,
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the schedule only uses Periods 1,2 and 4-6.
4.4
Financing
The Financing page displays the variables that SAM uses to calculate the project cash flow and other related financial metrics that appear on the Results page.To view the Financing page, click Financing in the main window's navigation menu. The Financing page allows you to specify the analysis period, inflation and discount rates, and loan parameters for the project. For projects with utility financing, it also allows you to specify rate-of-return targets. Note. If the Financing page is not available, check that the No Financials option is not the active option on the Technology and Market window. The Financials page is available only for projects with an active financing option. The input variables that appear on the Financing page depend on the project financing option that you specify in the Technology and Market window. SAM displays the project financing option in square brackets directly below the tabs at the top left corner of the Main window. For example, the image below is from a project with the Residential financing option:
To change the project financing type, click Select Technology and Market, and click a button under the heading "Select a financing option" in the Technology and Market window. For a general description of the financing options, see Financing Overview.
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General
Applies to: All financing options (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Analysis Period Number of years covered by the analysis. Typically equivalent to the project or investment life. The analysis period determines the number of years in the project cash flow. Inflation Rate Annual rate of change of costs, typically based on a price index. SAM uses the inflation rate to calculate the value of costs in years two and later of the project cash flow. Note that many of the costs that you specify on the System Costs page, Financing page, Utility Rate page, Tax Credit Incentives, or Payment Incentives page are in year one dollars. Real Discount Rate A measure of the time value of money expressed as an annual rate. SAM uses the real discount rate to calculate the present value (value in year one) of dollar amounts in the project cash flow over the analysis period and to calculate annualized costs. Nominal Discount Rate SAM calculates the nominal discount based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation rate: Nominal Discount Rate = (1 + Real Discount Rate)(1 + Inflation Rate) - 1
Taxes and Insurance

Applies to: All financing options (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Federal Tax, State Tax The annual federal and state income tax rate applies to taxable income and is used to calculate tax benefits or liabilities. Taxable income can include incentive payments for all projects, if specified by the user, and incentive payments and revenues from electricity sales for utility and commercial third party projects. Note that for residential and commercial systems, electricity sales offset payments to the electric service provider, and are not considered taxable income. Sales Tax The sales tax is a one-time tax that SAM includes in the project's total installed cost. SAM calculates the sales tax amount by multiplying the sales tax rate on the Financing page by the rate you specify under Indirect Capital Costs and the Total Direct Cost on the System Costs page. Insurance The annual insurance rate applies to the total Pre-Financing Installed cost of the project. SAM treats insurance as an operating cost for each year. The insurance cost in year one of the project cash flow is the insurance rate multiplied by the Pre-Financing Installed Costs. The first year cost is then increased by inflation in each subsequent year. For commercial and utility projects, the insurance cost is an operating expense and therefore reduces federal and state taxable income.
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Salvage Value
Applies to: Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions) SAM considers the salvage value to be taxable income of the project in the final year of the project cash flow, and calculates the value as a percentage of the total Pre-Financing Installed cost from the System Costs page. For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of 2.5% and total installed cost of $1 million, SAM will include income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 0.10 (1 + 0.025) ^ (30 - 1). For residential projects, the salvage value has no effect on federal and state income tax. For commercial and utility projects, the salvage value is treated as a source of pre-tax revenue in the final year of the analysis period, increasing the federal and state taxable income. For details, see Base Case Cashflow. Net Salvage Value The salvage value as a percentage of the project's total Pre-Financing Installed cost. End of Analysis Period Salvage Value
Property Tax
Applies to: All financing options (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Assessed Percent The assessed value of property subject to property taxes as a percentage of the system total installed cost specified on the System Costs page. SAM uses this value to calculate the assessed property value in year one of the project cash flow. Assessed Value The assessed property value in year one of the project cash flow. SAM calculates this value as the product of the Assessed Percent and the total installed cost specified on the System Costs page, and reports it in the Property Tax Net Assessed Value row of the cash flow. Assessed Value Decline The annual decline in the assessed property value. SAM uses this value to calculate the property assessed value in years two and later of the project cash flow. For an assessed value that does not decrease annually, specify a value of zero percent per year. Property Tax The annual property tax rate applies to the assessed value of the project, which is a user defined percentage of Pre-Financing Installed Costs. In addition to specifying the property tax rate, the user also can define an annual change in the assessed value of the project. SAM treats property tax as a tax-deductible operating expense for each year. In each year of the project cash flow, the property tax cost is the property tax rate multiplied by the assessed value for that year. For residential projects, the property tax amount is the only operating cost that can be deducted from state and federal income tax.
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Loan Type
Applies to: Residential (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Standard Loan For the standard loan option, loan interest payments are not tax deductible. Mortgage For the mortgage option, loan interest payments are tax deductible.
Loan or Financing Parameters

Applies to: Residential, Commercial, Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Installed Cost (Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer) The total installed cost from the System Costs page. Construction Financing Cost (Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer The total construction financing cost shown under Construction Period. Principal Amount The loan principal amount. This is a calculated value and cannot be edited. To change the value, either change the value of the debt fraction, or change the value of cost variables on the System Costs page. For Residential and Commercial financing: Principal Amount ($) = Total Installed Cost ($) Debt Fraction (%) For Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer financing: Principal Amount ($) = (Installed Cost ($) + Construction Financing Cost ($)) Debt Fraction (%) Debt Fraction Percentage of the total installed cost to be borrowed. For example, specifying a debt fraction of 25% means that the project borrows 25% of the Total Installed Cost amount shown on the system costs page for a 25/75 debt-equity ratio. Note. For projects with Independent Power Producer or Commercial PPA financing, if you check Allow SAM to pick a debt fraction to minimize the LCOE, SAM disables the Debt Fraction input variable. Loan Term Number of years required to repay a loan. Note that this value is different than the analysis period. Loan Rate Annual loan interest rate. WACC The Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) is defined as the minimum return that the project must earn to cover financing costs. This is calculated value that you cannot directly edit. To change its value, change one of the parameters described in the following equations:
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WACC = Return on Equity (1 - Debt Fraction) + (1 - Effective Tax Rate) Loan Rate Debt Fraction The effective tax rate is a single number that includes both the federal income tax rate and state income tax rate. SAM uses the effective tax rate for several calculations requiring a total income tax value: Effective Tax Rate = Federal Tax Rate (1 - State Tax Rate) + State Tax Rate For residential and commercial projects, the return on equity is equal to the discount rate, which is an input on the Financials page: Return on Equity = Real Discount Rate For Independent Power Producer and Commercial PPA projects, the return on equity is the required internal rate of return Return on Equity = Mininimum Required IRR
Note. If you choose the Specify First Year PPA Price solution mode option, SAM uses the Minimum Require IRR value visible in the inactive variable for the WACC calculation.
Federal and State Depreciation

Applies to: Commercial, Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options (see Financing Overview for descriptions) No Depreciation The project does not claim a depreciation tax deduction. MACRS Mid-Quarter Convention Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System depreciation schedule offered by the Federal government and some states. This tax deduction, expressed as a percentage of the total installed cost, applies to the first years of the project life as follows: 35%, 26%, 15.6%, 11.01%, 11.01%, and 1.38%. MACRS Half-Year Convention Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System depreciation schedule offered by the Federal government and some states. This tax deduction, expressed as a percentage of the total installed cost, applies to the first years of the project life as follows: 20%, 32%, 19.2%, 11.52%, 11.52%, and 5.76%. Straight Line (specify years) A depreciation schedule offered by the Federal government and some states. This tax deduction is 20% of the of total installed cost and applies to the number of years you specify, starting with year one of the project life. Custom (specify percentages) Allows you to assign a depreciation deduction as a percentage of the total installed cost for each year in the project life. Click Edit to assign the values, and see Editing Annual Schedules for details on entering the values.
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Construction Period
Applies to: Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options (see Financing Overview for descriptions) SAM allows you to specify parameters for up to five construction loans to approximate interest during construction (IDC) that SAM considers to be a cost to the project. SAM assumes that 100% of the construction balance is outstanding for half of the construction period, which is equivalent to an even monthly draw schedule with an average loan life of half of the construction period. To approximate a different draw schedule, you could adjust the loan's interest rate accordingly. Note. To model a project with no construction period loans, set the Percent of Installed Costs value for each of the five loans to zero. For the Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer options, SAM includes the total construction financing cost in the project loan principal amount shown on the Financing page. For the partnership flip, sale leaseback, and single owner options, SAM includes the total construction financing cost in the issuance of equity value reported in the project cash flow. Loan SAM allows you to specify up to five construction loans. You can type a name describing each loan or use the default names. Percent of Installed Costs The amount borrowed for the construction loan as a percentage of the total installed cost, assuming that all construction costs are included in the installation costs you specify on the System Costs page. Specify a non-zero percentage for each construction period loan you want to include in the analysis. The sum of the up to five percentage values you specify for each construction loan must be 100%. Up-front Fee A percentage of the principal amount, typically between 1% and 3% that SAM adds to the interest amount for each construction loan to calculate the total construction financing cost. Note that no interest applies to the up-front fee. Up-front Fee Amount ($) = Principal Amount ($) Up-front Fee Percentage (%) Months Prior to Operation The loan period for the construction loan in months. Interest Rate (Annual) The construction loan interest rate as an annual percentage. Principal Amount The amount borrowed for each construction period loan: Principal Amount ($) = Total Installed Cost ($) Percent of Installed Costs (%) Interest The total interest payment due for each construction period loan, assuming that 100% of the construction balance is outstanding for half of the construction period. Interest ($) = Principal Amount ($) Loan Rate (%/yr) / 12 (mos/yr) 0.5
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SAM includes the total construction financing cost included in the project cost. Total Construction Financing Cost ($) = Interest ($) + Up-front Fee Amount ($)
Total Construction Financing Cost
Solution Mode
Applies to: Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The solution mode determines whether SAM calculates a PPA price based on IRR targets that you specify, or an IRR based on a PPA price that you specify. SAM uses a different set of equations to calculate the PPA price or IRR for different financing options: The utility market options (Leveraged Partnership Flip, All Equity Partnership Flip, Sale Leaseback, and Single Owner) use a new financial model developed for the April 2011 version of SAM. The Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer options use a simpler financial model that was used in SAM 2010.11.9 and older versions. See Financing Overview for a description of the Financing options.
Utility Market Options (except Independent Power Producer)

SAM offers two solution modes for the Leveraged Partnership Flip, All Equity Partnership Flip, Sale Leaseback, and Single Owner financing options: Specify First Year PPA Price allows you to specify the PPA price as an input, and SAM calculates the resulting IRR. Specify IRR Target allows you to specify the IRR as an input, and SAM uses a search algorithm to find the PPA price required to meet the target IRR.
Solution Mode 1: Specify First Year PPA Price

The Specify PPA Price option allows you to specify a first year power purchase price and optional annual escalation rate: For All Equity and Leveraged Partnership Flip options, and Sale Leaseback option that involve two parties, SAM calculates the investor and developer IRR. For the Single Owner option, SAM calculates the project IRR. After running simulations, SAM shows the IRR values in the Metrics table. Note. For the Specify PPA Price option, the IRR target year, IRR target, IRR actual year, and IRR in target years shown in the Metrics table are not valid results because these values do not apply to the option. PPA Price The power purchase price in cents per kWh. If an annual escalation rate applies to the power purchase price, enter it under Power Purchase Agreement. Note. If you choose the Specify IRR Target option, SAM ignores the value of the PPA Price variable.
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Solution Mode 2: Specify Investor IRR Target

The Specify Investor IRR Target option allows you to specify a desired IRR target and the year you would like the IRR to be achieved. SAM finds the PPA price required to meet the target given the financing assumptions and system costs you specify. SAM uses an iterative algorithm to search for the PPA price that meets the IRR target in the year you specify. If it cannot find a solution, it finds the PPA price that result in an IRR and year as close as possible to the target values, and reports the IRR and year as "actual" values. Note. In some cases, the actual values may differ significantly from the target values. If you are not satisfied with the actual values, you can adjust your assumptions and rerun simulations until the actual and target values match. After running simulations, SAM shows both the target values and the actual values in the Metrics table. For financing options involving both a tax investor and developer, SAM shows the IRR for both partners. IRR Target The desired IRR target as a percentage: For the All Equity and Leveraged Partnership Flip options and Sale Leaseback option, the target IRR is the tax investor IRR. SAM calculates the developer IRR as a function of the value in excess of the tax investor IRR. For the Single Owner option the required IRR is the project IRR. Tip. SAM assumes a default tax equity return rate of 8.5% for the All Equity Partnership Flip option and a default rate of 10.5% for the Leveraged Partnership Flip option. In practice, tax investors may accept lower or require higher returns for specific projects than these rates, depending on project size, market conditions, and perceived project risks.The solution mode determines whether SAM calculates a first year PPA price based on an IRR that you specify or whether SAM calculates IRR values based on a PPA price that you specify. IRR Target Year The year in which the target IRR will be achieved.
Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer

SAM offers two solution modes for the Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer financing options: Specify First Year PPA Price allows you to specify the PPA price as an input, and SAM calculates the resulting IRR. Specify IRR Target allows you to specify the IRR as an input, and SAM uses a search algorithm to find the PPA price required to meet the target IRR.
Solution Mode 1: Specify IRR Target

Choose this option when you have an IRR in mind and want SAM to calculate the PPA price required to achieve the IRR. SAM uses an iterative algorithm to search for the PPA price that meets the IRR target. If it cannot find a solution, it finds the PPA price that results in an IRR as close as possible to the target.
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After simulations, SAM shows the first year PPA price that it calculated in the Metrics table and the project's after-tax IRR required associated with the PPA price. Minimum Required IRR The project's minimum internal rate of return target. SAM uses an iterative algorithm to calculate a PPA price that results in an IRR no less than the target you specify. PPA Escalation Rate An escalation rate applied (above inflation) to the first year PPA price to calculate the electricity sales price in years two and later in the project cash flow. When the financial optimization option is checked, the PPA escalation rate is a result instead of an input variable. Constraint: Require a Minimum DSCR A requirement that the debt-service coverage ratio not be allowed to fall below the specified level. Minimum Required DSCR The lowest value of the DSCR required for the project to be financially feasible. The DSCR is the ratio of operating income to costs in a given year. Constraint: Require a positive cashflow A requirement that the annual project cash flow be positive throughout the project life. The financial optimization options allow you to automatically optimize the debt fraction and PPA escalation rate to minimize the levelized cost of energy. When you optimize the value of these variables, SAM finds the debt fraction and PPA escalation rates that result in the lowest levelized cost of energy. This optimization is often necessary to minimize project costs when you specify constraints on the internal rate of return (IRR), debt-service coverage ratio (DSCR), and positive cash flow (See Wiser 1996 in References). Allow SAM to pick a debt fraction to minimize the LCOE Check this option instead of entering a value for Debt Fraction to allow SAM to find the debt fraction value that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. When you check this option, SAM disables the debt fraction input variable and reports it as a result in the Metrics table on the Results page. Allow SAM to pick a PPA escalation rate to minimize the LCOE Check this option instead of entering a value PPA Escalation Rate to allow SAM to find the PPA escalation rate value that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. When you check this option, SAM disables the PPA escalation rate input variable and reports it as a result in the Metrics table on the Results page.
Solution Mode 2: Specify First Year PPA Price

Choose this option when you want SAM to calculate the IRR based on a PPA price that you specify. After simulations, SAM shows the project IRR that it calculated in the Metrics table, along with the first year PPA price you specify. First Year PPA Price The first year PPA price in dollars per kilowatt-hour. PPA Escalation Rate An optional annual power price escalation rate.
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Power Purchase Agreement

Applies to: Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions) For the Utility Independent Power Producer option, the PPA escalation rate variable is under Specify Minimum Required IRR or Specify First Year PPA Price. See Solution Mode for details. PPA Escalation Rate An escalation rate applied to the first year PPA price to calculate the electricity sales price in years two and later in the project cash flow.
Constraining Assumption
Applies to: Commercial PPA (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Minimum Required IRR The project's minimum target internal rate of return. SAM uses an iterative algorithm to calculate a PPA price that results in an internal rate of return no less than the target you specify.
Reserves
Applies to: All Utility Market options except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Interest on Reserves Annual interest rate earned on funds in reserve accounts. The different financing options have different reserve accounts, and the interest on reserves rate applies to all of the accounts available for a given option: Working capital reserve account, specified under Cost of Acquiring Financing. Major equipment reserve account, specified under Major Equipment Replacement Reserves. Debt service reserve account (Leveraged Partnership Flip, Single Owner), specified under Debt Service. Lessee reserve account (Sale Leaseback), specified under Sale Leaseback.
Tax Investor
Applies to: Leveraged Partnership Flip, All Equity Partnership Flip (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The Tax Investor parameters determine the tax investor's share of the project investment, revenue, and tax benefits.
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The tax investor's share of the project equity requirement as a percentage of: For Leveraged Partnership Flip, the total installed cost less the debt amount. For All Equity Partnership Flip, the total installed cost.
Initial Capital Contribution
Share of Project Cash, Pre-flip The percentage of annual project cash returns allocated to the tax investor in years before the flip target is reached. Share of Project Cash, Post-flip The percentage of annual project cash returns allocated to the tax investor in years after the flip target is reached. Share of Tax Benefits, Pre-flip The percentage of taxable income and any tax benefits, including depreciation-related tax losses and ITC-related tax credits, allocated to the tax investor before the flip target is reached. Share of Tax Benefits, Post-flip The percentage of taxable income and any tax benefits, including depreciation-related tax losses and ITC-related tax credits, allocated to the tax investor after the flip target is reached.
Developer
Applies to: All Equity Partnership Flip, Leveraged Partnership Flip (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The developer's initial capital contribution and share of cash and tax flows are based on the tax investor quantities. SAM calculates these values by subtracting the tax investor quantities from 100%. You cannot directly edit these values. To change the values, edit values under Tax Investor.
Developer Capital Recovery

Applies to: All Equity Partnership Flip (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The Developer Capital Recovery options determine the timing of cash flows to the developer. During the capital recovery period, the developer cannot receive an amount of cash greater than its initial investment. Time Choose this option to specify the duration of the developer's capital recovery period. Full Capital Recovery Choose this option to allocate 100% of the project cash flow to the developer until the developer recovers its investment. Note that there is no return on investment, just a return of investment. Duration The number of years during which the developer receives 100% of the project cash flow. If the number of
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years exceeds the time required for full capital recovery the developer only receives 100% of the project cash for years up to the year the developer recovers its investment.
Debt Terms
Applies to: Leveraged Partnership Flip, Single Owner (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The Debt Terms input variables determine the quantity and cost of of debt. SAM calculates the debt fraction as a result based on the debt terms you specify here, the Debt Service parameters, and the project costs and revenues shown in the cash flow. All-In Interest Rate Annual loan interest rate. Tenor The loan period in years.
Debt Closing Costs

You can specify debt closing costs as a dollar amount, percentage of the debt amount, or both. Closing costs are costs associated with securing financing, and may include fees paid to consultants, legal counsel, or the lender. SAM considers debt closing costs to be part of the project's total installed cost. Debt Closing Costs A dollar amount representing debt closing costs. Debt Closing Fee A percentage of the total debt representing debt closing costs.
Debt Service
Applies to: Leveraged Partnership Flip, Single Owner (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The Debt Service input variables determine the quantity of cash available to service debt for each year of the analysis period. SAM assumes that the debt service coverage ration remains constant over the analysis period. Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR) The ratio of annual cash available for debt service to the sum of the annual principal and interest payment. Annual cash available for debt service is equal to Earnings Before Interest Taxes Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA) shown in the cash flow less cash used to fund the major equipment replacement reserves. Tip. DSCRs generally range between 1.40 and 1.50 for proven wind technology. For solar, the ratios are slightly lower: In the 1.30 to 1.40 range for PV, and perhaps slightly lower for CSP and CPV technologies.
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Debt Service Reserve Account

A debt service reserve account is a fund that may be required by the project debt provider. The account is funded in Year 0 and earns interest in Years 1 and later at the reserve interest rate specified under Reserves . Once debt has been repaid, the funds in the account are released to the project cash flow. Debt Service Reserve Account The number of months of principal and interest payments in Year 1 whose value is equivalent to the size of the debt reserve account in Year 0. SAM calculates the reserve account size in Year 0 based on the principal and interest amounts in Year 1: Year 0 Debt Service Reserve Amount ($) = [ Year 1 Principal ($/yr) + Year 1 Interest ($/yr) ] Debt Service Reserve Account (months) / 12 (months/yr) Tip. Debt Service Reserve Accounts for utility-scale projects are typically sized to cover 6 to 12 months of principal and interest payments. Production Based Incentives (PBI) Available for Debt Service If you specified one or more production-based incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the incentives can be used to service debt, check the box for the incentive. For example, if you specified a Utility PBI on the Payment Incentives page that can be used to service debt, check the Utility box.
Sale Leaseback
Applies to: Sale Leaseback (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The Sale Leaseback input variables determine the developer's operating margin and size of the lease payment reserve account. SAM includes the developer's margin as a project expense in the cash flow. Lessee Operating Margin The developer's margin in dollars per kilowatt of system nameplate capacity. Lessee Margin Escalation An annual escalation rate that applies to the developer's margin. The inflation rate does not apply to the developer's margin. Lessor Required Lease Payment Reserve The size of the lease payment reserve account in months. (In some cases, the tax investor may require that the developer fund a reserve account.) Lease Reserve Amount ($) = Lessor Required Lease Payment Reserve (months) / 12 (months/yr) Year 1 Pre-tax Operating Cash Flow ($/yr) Amount This amount of the developer's margin. Amount ($) = Lessee Operating Margin ($/k W) System Nameplate Capacity (k W)
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Cost of Acquiring Financing

Applies to: All Utility Market financing options, except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The available variables depend on the financing option as indicated in parentheses below. The Cost of Acquiring Financing input values represent the cost of securing debt or the participation of tax investors. Financing Cost (Single Owner) The dollar amount associated with acquiring financing. Development Fee (All options except Single Owner) A fee paid to the developer in Year 0, specified as a percentage of the total installed cost on the System Costs page. Development Fee ($) = Development Fee (%) Total Installed Cost ($) Equity Closing Cost (All options except Single Owner) A dollar amount representing costs associated with securing participation of a tax investor, such as consulants and legal fees. Other Financing Costs (All options except Single Owner) A dollar amount for financing costs not included in the equity closing cost or development fee. Working Capital Reserve Account Sizing - Months of Operating Costs (All options) The size of the working capital reserve in months. Work ing Capital Reserve Amount ($) = Months of Operating Costs (months) / 12 months/yr Year 1 Total Expenses ($/yr)
Depreciation
Applies to: All Utility Market options, except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions) The Depreciation options allow you to specify how SAM calculates the depreciation tax deduction and to specify an optional bonus depreciation. SAM makes the following simplifying assumptions: To represent depreciation of assets with different classes or service lives, you can specify an allocation as a percentage of the total installed cost to each of up to six different depreciation methods. State and federal depreciable bases are the same, except for bonus depreciation. Investment-based incentives (IBI) and capacity-based incentives (CBI) reduce the depreciation basis proportionally. Allocation You can allocate a percentage of the total project cost to each of the following deprecation methods: 5Yr Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS), 15-Yr MACRS, 5-year straight line (SL), 15Yr SL, 20-Yr SL, 39-Yr SL.
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SAM assumes the half-year convention for all depreciation methods. To model a project with no depreciation, enter zero for all depreciation methods.
Note. SAM allows you to specify allocations that total more than 100%. A negative Non-depreciable value indicates total allocations greater than 100%. Bonus Depreciation The bonus depreciation applies in Year 1 as a percentage of the allocations that you specify for the standard depreciation. Specify a percentage and check the box for each depreciation allocation that qualifies for the bonus depreciation. For example, for a federal bonus depreciation that is 100% of the 5 yr MACRS depreciation class, if you specified the following depreciation allocations: 80% 5 yr MACRS, 1.5% 15 yr MACRS, and 3% 15 yr Straight Line, you would enter 100% for Federal, check the 5-yr MACRS box, and clear the remaining boxes. Tip. The Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Jobs Creation Act of 2010 extended the bonus depreciation incentive through 2010. Projects placed in service in 2011 qualify for 100% bonus depreciation, while projects placed in service in 2012 qualify for 50% bonus depreciation. Note that these bonus depreciation provisions are temporary. ITC Qualification Check the box for each depreciation allocation that qualifies for investment tax credits (ITC) specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page.
Major Equipment Replacement Reserves

Applies to: All Utility Market options, except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions) Major equipment replacement reserves are funds that the project sets aside to cover the cost of replacing equipment during the analysis period. You can specify up to three replacement reserve accounts. SAM assumes that the cost of each major equipment replacement is capitalized rather than expensed. You can specify a depreciation schedule for each the major equipment replacement cost. SAM calculates the inflation-adjusted cost of each major equipment replacement and funds a reserve account in each of the replacement cycle. At the time of the major equipment replacement, funds are released from the reserve account in an amount sufficient to cover the expense. Reserve Account The name of the reserve account for your reference. SAM reports value associated with each account in the cash flow and other graphs and tables using the name Reserve Account 1, 2, and 3, regardless of the name you enter. Replacement Cost The cost in Year 1 dollars per kW of nameplate capacity. Replacement Cost ($) = Replacement Cost (Year 1 $/k W) Nameplate Capacity
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Replacement Frequency The frequency in years that the replacement cost occurs.
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For example, a replacement cost of $10,000 and frequency of 5 years results in an inflation-adjusted major equipment capital spending amount of $10,000 occurring in Years 5, 10, 15, 20, etc. Depreciation Treatment For All Capital Expenditure Specify a federal and state depreciation method for the major equipment replacement cost.
4.5
Tax Credit Incentives
To view the Tax Credit Incentives page, click Tax Credit Incentives in the main windows navigation menu. The Tax Credit Incentives page allows you to specify parameters of income tax deductions, including investment tax credits or production tax credits. The Tax Credit Incentives page allows you to define the parameters of investment tax credits (ITC) or production tax credits (PTC) provided by either the federal government, a state government, or both. For each tax credit that you define, you can specify whether the tax credit amounts are taxable, and how the tax credits affect the depreciation basis. A tax credit is an amount that is deducted from the project's income tax. SAM displays tax credits and income tax payments in the project cash flow and in results graphs and tables. For a description of tax credits and incentives available to solar and other renewable energy projects in the United States, see the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at http://dsireusa.org.
Contents Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tax Credit Incentives page. Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives explains how to assign incentive values to individual years instead of using a single value for all years. Viewing Tax Credits in Results explains where to find results that show the effect of tax credits on the project metrics and cash flow.

Investment Tax Credit (ITC)
An investment tax credit reduces the project's annual tax liability in year one of the project cash flow. SAM allows the ITC to be expressed either as a fixed amount or as a percentage of the project's total installed cost with a maximum limit. Amount ($) The fixed dollar amount of the tax credit. A zero indicates no tax credit. A value of zero indicates no tax credit.
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The amount of the tax credit expressed as a percentage of the total installed cost displayed on the system costs page. A value of zero indicates no tax credit.
Percentage (%)
Maximum ($) The upper limit of the tax credit in dollars. For tax credits with no limits, type the value 1e+099. Reduces Depreciation Basis Applies only to commercial and utility projects when one of the depreciation options is active on the Financing page. The check boxes determine whether the basis used to calculate federal depreciation, state depreciation, or both should be reduced by the tax credit payment amount. SAM reduces the depreciable base by 50% of the present value of the tax credits over the analysis period defined on the Financing page.
Production Tax Credit (PTC)

A production tax credit reduces the project's annual tax liability in year one of the cash flow and subsequent years up to and including the year specified in the term variable. The PTC is a dollar amount per kilowatthour of annual electric output. If you specify an escalation rate, SAM increases the annual tax credit amount in years 2 and later in the cash flow by a percentage of the previous year's payment. Amount ($/kWh) The amount of the production tax credit as a function of the system's total electrical output in the first year expressed in dollars per kilowatt-hour of AC output. A zero indicates no tax credit. Term (years) The number of years, beginning with year 1 on the project cash flow, that the tax credit applies. For example, a credit with a 10-year term would apply to years 1 through 10 of the project cash flow. A zero indicates no tax credit. Escalation (%/year) The annual escalation rate that applies to the tax credit. SAM applies the escalation rate to years 2 and later in the cash flow. For example, for a tax credit with a ten year term and two percent escalation rate, the tax credit in year 2 would be 2% greater than in year 1, and in year 3, 2% greater than in year 2, and so on.
Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives

You can specify each incentive as either a single value (amount or percentage) that applies to all years in the analysis period defined on the Financing page, or you can assign a different value to each year in the analysis period using an annual schedule. To specify an incentive using an annual schedule: 1. Note the blue "Value" label on the blue and gray button next to the input variable indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.
2.
Click the button to change the mode to schedule and activate the Edit button. The button will show
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Tax Credit Incentives

"Sched" in blue indicated that the schedule mode is active for the variable.
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3. 4.
Click Edit. In the Edit Schedule window, type values for each year in the analysis period. Use the horizontal scroll bar to move through the years. SAM will ignore any values for years after the end of the analysis period. You can change the value in Number of values to a number less than or equal to the analysis period to shorten the length of the table. To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard. You can use the Copy and Paste buttons to copy values from the table to your clipboard, or paste them into the table from the clipboard.
Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. 5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.
Viewing Tax Credits in Results

The options you select on the Tax Credit Incentives page affect the financial metrics displayed in the results, including the levelized cost of energy, net present value, and payback. You can see the tax credit amounts and their impact on income tax and depreciation in graphs on the Results page and in the project cash flow. To display tax credit amounts in a graph: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. After running simulations, click the Graph button. On the Graphing tab, click Add. Choose the simulation for which you want to see tax credit amounts. For X Value, choose Single Value. For Y1 Values, check the name of each tax credit you want to display in the graph. Clear the LCOE check boxes. SAM displays the graph as you choose graphing options. You can adjust the properties of the graph as needed. Click Accept to return to return to the main window.
7.
To display tax credit amounts in the project cash flow: 1. 2. 3. After running simulations, click the Graph button. Click the Base Case Cashflow tab to display the cash flow in a table. Either drag the graph area border up or scroll down until the tax credits are visible in the table. You can also export the base case cash flow to a csv file or to Excel by clicking the Export button.
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4.6
Payment Incentives
To view the Payment Incentives page, click Payment Incentives in the main windows navigation menu. The Payment Incentives page allows you to specify payments made to the project and calculated based on the total installed cost, system rated capacity, or the system's electricity output. The Payment Incentives page allows you to define the parameters of investment based incentives (IBI), capacity based incentives (CBI), or production based incentives (PBI) provided by either the federal or state government, an electric utility, or other institution. An incentive payment is an amount paid to the project that contribute's to the projects annual income in one or more years of the cash flow. SAM displays payment incentives in the project cash flow and in graphs on the Results page. For each payment incentive that you define, you can specify whether the incentive payments are taxable, and how the payments affect the depreciation basis. For a description of incentives available to solar and other renewable energy projects in the United States, see the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at http://dsireusa.org.
Contents Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tax Credit Incentives page. Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives explains how to assign incentive values to individual years instead of using a single value for all years. Viewing Tax Credit Incentives in Results explains where to find results that show the effect of tax credits on the project metrics and cash flow.

Investment Based Incentive (IBI)
An investment-based incentive reduces the project's annual expenditures in year one of the project cash flow. SAM allows the IBI to be expressed either as a fixed amount or as a percentage of the project's total installed cost with a maximum limit. Note that if you specify two incentives from the same source (federal, state, utility, other) as both a fixed amount and a percentage of the total installed cost, SAM includes both amounts in the total incentive amount. Amount ($) The fixed dollar amount of the incentive. A zero indicates no incentive. Percentage (%) The amount of the investment tax credit expressed as a percentage of the total installed cost displayed on the system costs page. A zero indicates no incentive.
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Maximum ($) The upper limit of the incentive in dollars. For incentives with no limits, type the value 1e+099.
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Capacity Based Incentive (CBI)

A capacity-based incentive reduces the project's annual expenditures in year one of the project cash flow. SAM allows the CBI to be expressed as a function of the system's rated capacity in watts. The system's rated capacity depends on the technology: Photovoltaic systems: DC watts of array capacity. Concentrating solar power systems: AC watts of power block nameplate capacity. Generic fossil: AC watts of power block nameplate capacity. Check an option for each capacity based incentive that applies to the project, and enter values to specify the credit amount, percentage, term, and annual escalation rate as applicable. Amount ($/W) The amount of the incentive as a function of the system's nameplate electric capacity expressed in dollars per watt. A zero indicates no incentive. Maximum ($) The upper limit of the incentive in dollars. For incentives with no limits, type the value 1e+099.
Production Based Incentive (PBI)

A production-based incentive reduces the project's annual tax liability in year one of the cash flow and subsequent years up to and including the year specified in the term variable. The PBI is a dollar amount per kilowatt-hour of annual electric output. If you specify an escalation rate, SAM increases the annual incentive payment amount in years two and later in the cash flow by a percentage of the previous year's payment. Amount ($/kWh) The amount of the incentive as a function of the system's total electrical output in the first year expressed in dollars per kilowatt-hour of AC output. A zero indicates no incentive. Term (years) The number of years, beginning with year one of the project cash flow, that the incentive applies. For example, an incentive with a 10-year term would apply to years one through 10 of the project cash flow. A zero indicates no incentive. Escalation (%/year) The annual escalation rate that applies to the incentive. SAM applies the escalation rate to years two and later in the cash flow. For example, for an incentive with a ten year term and two percent escalation rate, the incentive in year two would be two percent greater than in year one, and in year three, two percent greater than in year two, and so on.
Tax Implications
The check boxes in the Taxable Incentive, Reduces ITC Basis, and Reduces Depreciation Basis columns determine whether each incentive qualifies as income for tax purposes, reduces the basis used to calculate the ITC, or reduces the basis used to calculate the depreciation amount, respectively.
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Determines whether the incentive payment is subject to federal or state income tax. When you check a Taxable Incentives check box for an incentive, SAM multiplies the applicable federal and state tax rate by the incentive amount and adds it to the income tax amount in the appropriate years of the project cash flow. The state and federal tax rates are inputs on the Financing page.
Taxable Incentive
Reduces ITC Basis This option applies only to projects with one or more ITCs specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page. When you check a Reduces ITC Basis check box for an incentive, SAM subtracts the amount of the incentive payment from the total installed cost shown on the system costs page before calculating the ITC amount. Reduces Depreciation Basis This option applies only to projects with commercial or utility financing with one or more depreciation option selected on the financials page. When you check a Reduces Depreciation Basis check box for an incentive, SAM subtracts 50 percent of the tax credit amount from the depreciation basis in each applicable year of the project life.
Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives

You can specify each incentive as either a single value (amount or percentage) that applies to all years in the analysis period defined on the Financing page, or you can assign a different value to each year in the analysis period using an annual schedule. To specify an incentive using an annual schedule: 1. Note the blue "Value" label on the blue and gray button next to the input variable indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.
2.
Click the button to change the mode to schedule and activate the Edit button. The button will show "Sched" in blue indicated that the schedule mode is active for the variable.
3. 4.
Click Edit. In the Edit Schedule window, type values for each year in the analysis period. Use the horizontal scroll bar to move through the years. SAM will ignore any values for years after the end of the analysis period. You can change the value in Number of values to a number less than or equal to the analysis period to shorten the length of the table. To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard. You can use the Copy and Paste buttons to copy values from the table to your clipboard, or paste them into the table from the clipboard.
Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid.
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5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.
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Viewing Incentives in Results

The options you select on the Payment Incentives page affect the financial metrics displayed in the results, including the levelized cost of energy, net present value, and payback. You can see the incentive amounts and their impact on income tax and depreciation in graphs on the Results page and in the project cash flow. To display incentive amounts in a graph: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. After running simulations, click the Graph button. On the Graphing tab, click Add. Choose the simulation for which you want to see investment amounts. For X Value, choose Single Value. For Y1 Values, check the name of each incentive you want to display in the graph. Clear the LCOE check boxes. SAM displays the graph as you choose graphing options. You can adjust the properties of the graph as needed. Click Accept to return to return to the main window.
7.
To display incentive amounts in the project cash flow: 1. 2. 3. After running simulations, click the Graph button. Click the Base Case Cashflow tab to display the cash flow in a table. Either drag the graph area border up or scroll down until the incentive payments are visible in the table. You can also export the base case cash flow to a csv file or to Excel by clicking the Export button.
4.7
Annual Performance
To view the Annual Performance page, click Annual Performance in the main windows navigation menu. The Annual Performance page displays input variables that impact the system's total annual electric output. The two annual performance variables are used by SAM's financial model. The performance model calculates the hourly system electrical output (thermal output for solar water heating systems) over a single year and passes the sum of the hourly values to the financial model. The financial model then applies the availability factor to this total to determine the total annual output for Year one of the project cash flow, and applies the degradation rate to that value to calculate the Year two output. See below for details. You can enter the annual performance factors either as a single value, or as a series of values that apply to each year in the project life. If you assign values to specific years, SAM applies the degradation rate or availability factor to the year 1 annual output value, not to the previous year's value. See below for details.
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Notes. The simulation output data does not take into consideration the system degradation or availability factor on the Annual Performance page. The annual energy quantity value reported in the metrics table and graphs is the Year one value, which takes the availability factor into account.
Annual System Performance

System Degradation (%) The system degradation rate can be used to account for annual reduction in electrical output due to aging system components. SAM applies the degradation rate to the system's total annual electric AC output in year 2 and later. For example, the default value of 1% for photovoltaic systems results in full output in year 1, 99% of the year 1 output in year 2, 99% of the year 2 output in year 3, and so on. If you assign values to specific years using an annual schedule, SAM applies the degradation rate to the year 1 annual output value, not to the previous year's value. Availability (%) The availability factor accounts for downtimes due to forced and scheduled outages. SAM multiplies each hour's calculated electrical AC output by the system availability factor. The default value of 100% for photovoltaic systems results in no reduction in output. The default value of 96% for concentrating solar power systems results in a 4% reduction in output. If you assign values to specific years using an annual schedule, SAM applies the availability factor to the year 1 annual output value. See below for details. Some input variables allow you to enter either a single value, or a series of values for each year in the analysis period defined on the Financing page. Examples of these variables are the System Degradation and Availability variables on the Annual Performance page, operation and maintenance costs on the system costs pages for each technology, and tax credit and incentives on the Tax Credit Incentives and Payment Incentives pages.
Annual Schedules
Variables with an annual schedule option have a small Value / Sched button next to the variable label. The variable's current mode is indicated in blue. When the word "Value" is highlighted in blue, you define the variable's value as a single number.
You can use an annual schedule to enter annual values either by hand, typing values or pasting values from a spreadsheet or text file. You can also exchange data from an annual schedule with an Excel worksheet, see Excel Exchange for details. Note. When you specify rates using an annual schedule, SAM applies the rate to the year one value. For example, a degradation rate of 0.5% in year five would result in SAM assigning a value 0.5% greater than the year one value to year five.
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To enter year-by-year values by hand: 1.
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Click Sched to change the variable's mode from a single value to annual schedule mode. SAM displays the Edit button.
2. 3.
Click Edit to open the Edit Schedule window. In Number of values, type the number of years for which you want to assign values. Typically, this number should be equal to or less than the number of years in the Analysis Period defined on the Financing page.
Important Note. If you specify a number greater than the number of years in the analysis period, SAM ignores any values in the table for years after the end of the analysis period, which does not affect analysis results. However, if you specify a number less than the analysis period, SAM assigns a zero to each year after the number of years you specify, which may cause unexpected results. 4. For each year in the schedule, type a value. The value should be in the same units as the variable's value. You can also copy a row of values from Excel, or a line of comma separated values from a text file and click Paste to enter a series of values. Click Accept to return to the Costs page.
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4.8
4.8.1
System Costs
PV System Costs
The PV System Costs page provides access to variables that define the installation and operating costs of a photovoltaic project. Debt-related and tax costs are specified on the Financing page. To view the PV System Costs page, select a photovoltaic technology, and click PV System Costs on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the PV System Costs page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics - SAM Performance Models or Photovoltaics - PVWatts Performance Model, and the financing option must be something other than No Financials. SAM uses the variables on the PV System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics. Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information. SAM provides the categories under Direct Capital Costs and Indirect Capital Costs for your convenience to help keep track of project installation costs. Only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, so you can assign capital costs to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of designing the array to the module cost category or to the engineering category with equivalent results. After you assign costs to the categories, you should verify that the total installed cost value is what you expect. SAM accounts for the total installed cost in Year 0 of the project cash flow.
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The Operation and Maintenance Costs categories are where you specify recurring project costs. SAM reports these annual costs in the project cash flow under the Operating Expenses heading. Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. For more information see the SAM website, https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/cost_data.html.
Direct Capital Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Module ($/Wdc or $/Unit) For the Component-based Photovoltaic model, the module cost is expressed per unit or per DC Watt: Dollars per DC watt multiplied by Nameplate Capacity (at reference conditions) on the Array page, or Dollars per unit multiplied by Total Modules on the Array page. For the PVWatts System Model, the module cost is expressed per unit or per DC Watt: Dollars per watt multiplied by Nameplate Capacity on the PVWatts Solar Array page, or Dollars per unit, where the number of modules is assumed to be one. Inverter ($/Wac or $/Unit) For the Component-based Photovoltaic model, the cost of inverters in the system is expressed in dollars per AC Watt or dollars per inverter: Dollars per AC watt multiplied by Total Inverter Capacity on the Array page, or Dollars per unit multiplied by Number of Inverters in the Actual Layout column on the Array page. For the PVWatts System Model, the inverter cost is either dollars per watt or dollars per inverter: Dollars per watt multiplied by the product of DC Rating and DC to AC Derate Factor on the PVWatts Solar Array page, or Dollars per unit where the number of inverters is assumed to be one. The three other direct capital cost categories, Balance of system, equipment, Installation labor, and Installer margin and overhead can be specified using three units. SAM calculates the total amount for each category as shown below. $ A fixed cost in dollars. $/Wdc A cost proportional to the system's DC nameplate capacity, equal to the Nameplate Capacity on the Array page for the component-based model, or the DC Rating on the PVWatts Solar Array page for the PVWatts model.
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$/m2
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Applies only to the component-based model. A cost proportional to the total module area of the array in square meters, equal to the Total Area on the Array page. This option is not active for the PVWatts model. Total For each category, the total is the sum of the three units: Total = $ + $/Wdc Nameplate Capacity (Wdc) + $/m2 Total Area (m2) Contingency (%) A percentage of the sum of the module, inverter, balance of system, installation labor, and installer margin and overhead costs that you can use to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of module, inverter, balance of system, installation labor, installer margin and overhead costs, and contingency costs.
Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. The five indirect cost categories, Permitting, Environmental Studies, Engineering, Grid interconnection, Land, and Land preparation are each calculated as the sum of the three values expressed with the following units: % of Direct Cost A percentage of the Total Direct Cost value shown under Direct Capital Costs. Cost $/Wdc A cost proportional to the system's DC nameplate capacity, equal to the Nameplate Capacity on the Array page for the component-based model, or the DC Rating on the PVWatts Solar Array page for the PVWatts model. Fixed Cost A fixed cost in dollars. Total For each category, the total is the sum of the three units: Total = % of Direct Cost Total Direct Cost ($) + Cost $/Wdc Nameplate Capacity (Wdc) + Fixed Cost ($). Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
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cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of the five indirect cost categories and the sales tax.
Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow. SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages. Total Installed Cost ($) The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost. Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW) Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.
Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow in Years 1 and later.. For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation. For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation plus escalation. For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details. Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow. Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr) A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity. Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours. The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs, depending on the option chosen. Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413 MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems. When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page is greater than zero, the systems may consume fuel
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for backup energy.
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Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion.
Specifying O&M Costs in Specific Years

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period. Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that do not recur on a regular annual basis. You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A blue highlighted Value indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted Sched indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule. For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses. SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy and net present value. Notes. If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page. Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and escalation rates to values in annual schedules. The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories. To assign component replacement costs to particular years: 1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.
2.
In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with an Edit button.
3. 4.
Click Edit. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and
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type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year. To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no annual costs. 5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.
Because you must specify an O&M cost category as either an annual cost or annual schedule, to assign both a recurring annual fixed cost and periodic replacement cost, you must type the recurring cost in each year of the annual schedule, and for years with replacement costs, type the sum of the recurring and replacement costs.
4.8.2
Trough System Costs
To view the Trough System Costs page, click Trough System Costs on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.
Contents Overview describes the trough system costs. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Trough System Costs page. Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the project cash flow. About the Trough System Default Cost Assumptions describes the assumptions and sources of the default parabolic trough system costs.
Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Trough System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the Metrics table on the Results page. Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of designing the solar field to the solar field cost category or to the engineer-procureconstruct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify that the total installed costs value is what you expect. Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds
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contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.
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Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM website, https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/cost_data.html.

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Site Improvements ($/m 2) A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to site preparation and other equipment not included in the solar field cost category. Solar Field ($/m 2) A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to installation of the solar field, including labor and equipment. HTF System ($/m 2) A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to installation of the heat transfer fluid pumps and piping, including labor and equipment. Storage ($/kWht) Cost per thermal megawatt-hour of storage capacity to account for expenses related to installation of the thermal storage system, including equipment and labor. Fossil Backup ($/kWe) Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of a fossil backup system, including equipment and labor. Power Plant ($/kWe) Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of the power block, including equipment and labor. Balance of Plant ($/kWe) Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for additional costs. Contingency (%) A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, and power plant costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates.
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The sum of improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, power plant costs, and contingency costs.
Total Direct Cost ($)

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. EPC and Owner Costs (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Land (% and $) Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in the land cost calculation. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1. Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.
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Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow. For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation. For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation plus escalation. For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details. Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow. Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr) A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity. Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours. The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs, depending on the option chosen. Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413 MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems. Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero, the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)
Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the
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System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period. Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that do not recur on a regular annual basis. You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A blue highlighted Value indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted Sched indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule. For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses. SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy and net present value. Notes. If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page. Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and escalation rates to values in annual schedules. The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories. To assign component replacement costs to particular years: 1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.
2.
3. 4.
Click Edit. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year. To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no annual costs.
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5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.
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About the Trough System Default Cost Assumptions

The default values on the Trough System Costs page reflect the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's best estimate of representative system costs for the United States in the second quarter of 2009. The values are based on a cost study for 100-MWe reference plant cost performed by the WorleyParsons Group under NREL contract KAXL-9-99205-00, and on conversations with developers and industry insiders. The costs are composite values and do not represent a specific location or market within the United States. Note. Always review all of the inputs for your SAM project to determine whether they are appropriate for your analysis. Major points of note include: Site improvement cost estimates have been increased from earlier estimates to better account for the cost of access roads, drainage, and land grading. The HTF System category includes the cost of the heat transfer fluid (HTF) and header piping costs. The HTF and header piping account for most of the HTF System category. The Power Plant cost for the dry-cooled case is higher than for the wet-cooled case to account for the higher cost of an air-cooled condenser compared to a cooling tower. The Storage cost estimate is based on a two-tank molten salt system, and accounts for the cost of nitrate salts in 2009 Contingency has been rounded to 10% The operation and maintenance cost category, Variable Cost by Generation includes the cost of water for wet-cooled case.
Table 21. Comparison of Trough System Costs in SAM versions 3.0 (June 2009) and 2009 (October 2009).
Parabolic Trough Costs Site Improvements Solar Field HTF System Storage Fossil Backup Power Block (wet-cooled) Power Block (dry-cooled) Contingency Engineer, procure, construct SAM 3.0 3 300 150 ($/kWe) 40 0 850 850 8.85 16 SAM 2009 20 350 50 ($/m2) 70 0 880 960 10 15 $/kWht $/kWe $/kWe $/kWe % % units $/m2 $/m2
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3.5 80 0 0 50 0.7 3.5 80 0 0 80 3 % % $/MMBTU $/yr $/kW-yr $/MWh
Project, land, management Sales tax applies to Fossil Fuel Cost O&M Fixed Annual cost O&M Fixed cost by capacity O&M Variable cost by gen.
Note. SAM does not account for the capacity value of storage. Some utilities apply a capacity credit to systems with storage that can affect overall project economics.
4.8.3
Tower System Costs
To view the Tower System Costs page, click Tower System Costs on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Contents Overview describes the Tower System Costs page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tower System Costs page. Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the project cash flow.
Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Tower System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the Metrics table on the Results page. Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of designing the solar field to the solar field cost category or to the engineer-procureconstruct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify that the total installed costs value is what you expect. Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.
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Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM website, https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/cost_data.html.

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Site Improvements ($/m 2) A cost per square meter of total reflective area from the Heliostat Field page to account for expenses related to site preparation and other equipment not included in the heliostat field cost category. Heliostat Field ($/m 2) A cost per square meter of total reflective area from the Heliostat Field page to account for expenses related to installation of the heliostats, including heliostat parts, field wiring, drives, labor, and equipment. Balance of Plant ($/kWe) A cost per electric kilowatt of power cycle nameplate capacity from the Power Cycle page expenses related to installation of the balance-of-plant components and controls, and construction of buildings, including labor and equipment. Power Block ($/kWe) A cost per electric kilowatt of power cycle nameplate capacity from the Power Cycle page expenses related to installation of the power block components, including labor and equipment. The Power Block and Balance of Plant costs are rolled together into a single number for calculation purposes. Fossil Backup ($/kWe) Cost per electric kilowatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of a fossil backup system, including equipment and labor. Storage ($/kWht) Cost per thermal megawatt-hour of storage capacity from the Thermal Storage page to account for the installation of a thermal energy storage system, including equipment and labor. Fixed Solar Field Cost ($) An additional fixed cost in dollars to include as a direct cost that is not accounted for by any of the above categories. Fixed Tower Cost ($) A fixed cost to account for tower construction, materials and labor costs. The fixed tower cost serves as the multiplier in the tower cost scaling equation shown below.
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SAM uses the tower cost in the optimization calculations. The tower cost scaling exponent defines the nonlinear relationship between tower cost and tower height. See Total Tower Cost below.
Tower Cost Scaling Exponent
Total Tower Cost ($) Total Tower Cost = Fixed Tower Costs x exp (Tower Height x Tower Cost Scaling Exponent) Receiver Reference Cost ($) The cost per receiver reference area to account for receiver installation costs, including labor and equipment. Receiver Reference Area (m 2) The receiver area on which the receiver reference cost is based. Receiver Cost Scaling Exponent SAM uses the receiver cost in the optimization calculations. The receiver cost scaling exponent defines the nonlinear relationship between receiver cost and receiver area based on the reference cost conditions provided. Total Receiver Cost ($) Receiver Cost = Receiver Reference Cost x (Receiver Area / Receiver Reference Area ) ^ Receiver Cost Scaling Exponent. Contingency (%) A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, heliostat field, balance of plant, power block, storage system, fixed solar field, total tower, and total receiver costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of improvements, site improvements, heliostat field, balance of plant, power block, storage system, fixed solar field, total tower, total receiver, and contingency costs.

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. EPC and Owner Costs (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
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Land (% and $)
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Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in the land cost calculation. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1. Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.


Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow. For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation. For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation plus escalation. For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
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schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details. Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow. Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr) A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity. Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours. The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs, depending on the option chosen. Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413 MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems. Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero, the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.) Note. For information on water consumption and other operation and maintenance costs and requirements for concentrating parabolic trough systems, see the Troughnet website: http://www.nrel. gov/csp/troughnet/power_plant_systems.html. For information on operation and maintenance costs for photovoltaic systems, see the California Energy Commission's online Distributed Energy Resource guide http://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/economics/operation.html.

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period. Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that do not recur on a regular annual basis. You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A blue highlighted Value indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted Sched indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule. For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses. SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy and net present value.
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Notes.
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If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page. Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and escalation rates to values in annual schedules. The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories. To assign component replacement costs to particular years: 1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.
2.
3. 4.
4.8.4
Dish System Costs
To view the Dish System Costs page, click Dish System Costs on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.
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Contents Overview describes the Dish System Costs page. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Dish System Costs page. Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the project cash flow.
Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Dish System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the Metrics table on the Results page. Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of designing the solar field to the site improvements cost category or to the engineerprocure-construct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify that the total installed costs value is what you expect. Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information. Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM website, https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/cost_data.html.

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Site Improvements ($/m2) A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to site preparation and other equipment not included in the solar field cost category. Collector Cost (Projected Area) ($/m2) A cost per square meter of projected mirror area from the Collector page to account for expenses related to installation of the collectors, including labor and equipment.
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Receiver Cost ($/kW)
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A cost per kW of engine rated capacity from the Stirling Engine page to account for expenses related to installation of the receiver, including labor and equipment. Engine Cost ($/kW) Cost per kW of engine rated capacity from the Stirling Engine page to account for expenses related to installation of the Stirling engine components, including labor and equipment. Contingency (%) A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, and power plant costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of site improvements, collector cost, receiver cost, engine cost, and contingency costs.

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. EPC and Owner Costs (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Land (% and $) Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in the land cost calculation. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
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the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.


Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow. For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation. For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation plus escalation. For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details. Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow. Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr) A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity. Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours. The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs, depending on the option chosen. Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413 MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
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Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero, the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

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Click Edit.
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In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year. To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
4.8.5
Generic Solar System Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Site Improvements ($/m 2) A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to site preparation and other equipment not included in the solar field cost category. Solar Field ($/m 2) A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to installation of the solar field, including labor and equipment. Storage ($/kWht) Cost per thermal megawatt-hour of storage capacity to account for expenses related to installation of the thermal storage system, including equipment and labor. Fossil Backup ($/kWe) Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of a fossil backup system, including equipment and labor. Power Plant ($/kWe) Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of the power block, including equipment and labor. Balance of Plant ($/kWe) Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for additional costs.
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A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, and power plant costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, power plant costs, and contingency costs.

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. EPC and Owner Costs (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Land (% and $) Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in the land cost calculation. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1.
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The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)


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4.8.6
Generic System Costs
To view the Fossil System Costs page, click Fossil System Costs on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the generic fossil system input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Generic Fossil System.
Contents Overview describes the Fossil System Costs page and explains where to find more information. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Fossil System Costs page. Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the project cash flow.
Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Fossil System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the Metrics table on the Results page. Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of designing the power plant to the direct plant cost category or to the engineer-procureconstruct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify that the total installed costs value is what you expect. Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information. Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM website, https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/cost_data.html.

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow.
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Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. System size (kW) The Nameplate Capacity from the Generic Plant page. Cost per watt ($/W) A cost per Watt of nameplate capacity. Fixed Plant Cost ($) A fixed dollar amount. Non-fixed System Cost ($) The product of the Cost per Watt cost category and the nameplate capacity. Contingency (%) A percentage of the fixed plant cost and non-fixed system cost to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of fixed plant cost, non-fixed system cost, and contingency costs.

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Project, Land, Miscellaneous (% and $) Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
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The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
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SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1. Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.


Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow. For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation. For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation plus escalation. For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details. Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow. Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr) A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity. Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours. The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
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depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413 MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems. Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero, the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

2.
In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with
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an Edit button.
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3. 4.
4.8.7
SWH System Costs
To view the SWH System Costs page, click SWH System Costs on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the solar water heating system input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Solar Water Heating. Contents Overview describes the purpose of the SWH System Costs page and the cost variable categories. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the SWH System Costs page. Entering Periodic Costs explains how to use annual schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the project cash flow.
Overview
SAM uses the variables on the SWH System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics. Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information. The SWH System Costs page is divided into four main categories. The first two, Direct Capital Costs and Indirect Capital Costs, are summed in the third category, Total Installed Costs. Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of
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designing the collector to the collector cost category or to the engineer-procure-construct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify that the total installed costs value is what you expect. The fourth category of costs covers Operation and Maintenance. Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will, of course, vary. Because of price volatility in solar markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date.

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Collector Cost ($/m 2, $/Unit, or $/W) The cost of collectors in the system. You can either include labor costs for collector installation in the collector cost, or account for it separately using the installation cost category. The total collector cost is calculated as either: Dollars per square meter multiplied by collector area on the SWH System page, or Dollars per unit, representing the total collector cost, or Dollars per thermal watt of collector capacity multiplied by the nameplate capacity on the SWH System page. Storage Cost ($/m 3 or $/Unit) The cost of the solar storage tanks. The total storage cost is either: Dollars per cubic meters multiplied by the storage volume on the SWH System page, or Dollars per unit, representing the total storage cost. Balance of System ($) A fixed cost that can be used to account for costs not included in the collector and storage cost categories, for example, the mounting racks and piping. Installation Cost ($) A fixed cost that can be used to account for labor or other costs not included in the other cost categories. Contingency (%) A percentage of the sum of the collector, storage, balance of system, and installation costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of collector, storage, balance of system, installation, and contingency costs.
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An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Project, Land, Maintenance (% and $) Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in the land cost calculation. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1. Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow. SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
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and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages. Total Installed Cost ($) The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost. Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW) Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Entering Periodic Costs

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period. Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that do not recur on a regular annual basis. You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey
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and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A blue highlighted Value indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted Sched indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule. For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses. SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy and net present value. Notes. If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page. Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and escalation rates to values in annual schedules. The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories. To assign component replacement costs to particular years: 1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.
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3. 4.
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4.8.8
Small Scale Wind Capital Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Cost of all Turbines The number of turbines from the Small Scale Wind System page multiplied by the single turbine cost. Installation Installation labor or other costs calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in dollars per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost in dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Small Scale Wind System page. Balance of System Costs not included in other categories calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in dollars per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost in dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Small Scale Wind System page.
Single Turbine Cost

The cost of a single turbine. SAM uses this value to calculate the cost of all turbines. Fixed Cost per Turbine A cost specified in dollars per unit of a single turbine. Cost by Capacity A cost specified in dollars per kilowatt of rated capacity. Single Turbine Cost Sum of the cost per turbine and cost by capacity values, assuming the turbine capacity is the value shown as the nameplate capacity on the Small Scale Wind System page. Contingency (%) A percentage of the sum of the cost of all turbines, installation, and balance of system costs that you can use to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of cost of all turbines, installation, balance of system, and contingency costs.

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service.
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Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Project, Land, Miscellaneous (% and $) Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in the land cost calculation. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1. Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow. SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages. Total Installed Cost ($) The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
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Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)

4.8.9
Wind Farm Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that applies in year zero of the cash flow. Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.
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The number of turbines from the Wind Farm Specifications page multiplied by the single turbine cost. Installation Installation labor or other costs calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in dollars per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost in dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Wind Farm Specifications page. Balance of System Costs not included in other categories calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in dollars per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost in dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Wind Farm Specifications page.
Single Turbine Cost

The cost of a single turbine. SAM uses this value to calculate the cost of all turbines. Fixed Cost per Turbine A cost specified in dollars per unit of a single turbine. Cost by Capacity A cost specified in dollars per kilowatt of rated capacity. Single Turbine Cost Sum of the cost per turbine and cost by capacity values, assuming the turbine capacity is the value shown as the nameplate capacity on the Wind Farm Specifications page. Contingency (%) A percentage of the sum of the cost of all turbines, installation, and balance of system costs that you can use to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of cost of all turbines, installation, balance of system, and contingency costs.

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation service. Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results. Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $) Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
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Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Project, Land, Miscellaneous (% and $) Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost. SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in the land cost calculation. % of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital Cost). Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost. Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars. The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost. Sales Tax (%) The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax. SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax Rate Percentage of Direct Cost Direct Cost. The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from federal and state income tax in Year 1. Total Indirect Cost ( $) The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.


Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow. For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation. For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
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inflation plus escalation.
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For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details. Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow. Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr) A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity. Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours. The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs, depending on the option chosen. Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413 MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems. Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero, the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)
4.8.10 Geothermal System Costs

For descriptions of how geothermal system costs are specified in the GETEM model, see the following sections of the GETEM User's Manual (Volume II), available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/ getem_manuals.html: Binary Section 4.1.c on page A-11 Section 4.1.g on page A-15 Flash Section 5.2.a on page A-20
4.8.11 Co-Production Costs

For questions about the Co-Production model please email SAM support at solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov.
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4.9
Energy Payment Dispatch
The Energy Payment Dispatch page allows you to specify a set of energy payment allocation factors for projects with Independent Power Producer financing. The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page.
Energy Dispatch Schedule

You can either choose a pre-defined set of energy payment allocation factors from SAM's library of factors, or specify your own. Current dispatch schedule When you choose a set of factors from the library, the current dispatch schedule shows the name of the set of factors. When you specify your own set of factors, it shows "No library match." Dispatch schedule library Click Dispatch schedule library to choose a set of energy payment allocation factors from SAM's library of factors. Payment Allocation Factor The energy payment allocation factors are a set of up to nine multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. Each factor is associated with a period number, which represents a time periods indicated on the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods to one. Weekday Schedule, Weekend Schedule The weekday and weekend matrices allow you to associate a period with a time of day and month of year. To use the matrices, you draw rectangles on the matrix with your mouse, and type a number with your keyboard for the period that applies to the times represented by the rectangles. SAM arbitrarily defines the first day of time series data (the first 24 hours for hourly data) to be Monday on January 1, and assigns the remaining days of the year accordingly. SAM assumes that weekdays include Monday through Friday, and that weekends include Saturday and Sunday. SAM does not account for holidays or other special days. It also does not account for leap years, and does not include a day for February 29. To specify a weekday or weekend schedule: 1. 2. Assign values as appropriate to each of the up to nine periods. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.
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3.
Type the number 2.
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5.
4.10
Electric Load
The Electric Load page allows you to specify the electric load for systems with either the Residential or Commercial financing option. You only need to specify an electric load if you are modeling a residential or commercial system with tiered rates or demand charges specified on the Utility Rate page. To view the Electric Load page, click Electric Load on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Electric Load page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics - Component-based Models, Photovoltaics - PVWatts Performance Model, or Small Scale Wind.
Contents Overview describes options for specifying the electric load. Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Electric Load page. Working with Time Series Load Data explains how to import load data from a properly formatted text file, or how to paste load data from your computer's clipboard. Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles explains how to define daily load profiles for each month of the year and use SAM to convert them to an 8,760 load data set.
Overview
The Electric Load page allows you to specify the electric demand, or expected electricity consumption for a
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grid-connected power system. The load data represents the electric demand of a building or other load center over the period of a single year. Note. You should only specify electric load data for residential or commercial projects that include demand charges or tiered rates on the Utility Rate page. If your project does not use these rate structures, choose the No load data option on the Electric Load page. Energy values represent the electric energy required over a single time step and are expressed in kilowatthours. Peak load values represent the maximum electric power required in either a month or year and are expressed in kilowatts. If you have load data stored in a text file, spreadsheet file, or other file that allows you to copy columns of data to your computer's clipboard, you can paste the data into SAM using the Edit Data window. See Working with Time Series Load Data for details. You can also import load data from a properly formatted text file. See Working with Time Series Load Data for details. You can specify load data using an hourly time step or sub-hourly time step. The load data time step can be different from the weather data time step. For example, you can use 10-minute load data with hourly weather data. See Working with Time Series Load Data for details. If you do not have time series load data, SAM allows you to specify load data by typing a values for twelve monthly 24-hour load profiles. See Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles for details. You can scale the load upwards or downwards, or specify a load that increases from year to year. See Input Variable Reference for details. SAM displays a load data summary table and allows you to view graphs of hourly load data. See Input Variable Reference for details. SAM reports load data in the hourly results. See Tabular Data Browser for details.

Electric Load Data
No load data Choose No load data for an analysis that does not require load data. You should choose this option unless you are modeling a residential or commercial project with demand charges or tiered rates. Monthly schedule Choose Monthly schedule to specify the load using a set of monthly 24-hour load profiles. See Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles for details. User entered data Choose User entered data to specify the load by either cutting and pasting load data from an external program, or by importing load data from a properly formatted text file. See Working with Time Series Load Data for details. Edit monthly schedule Click Edit monthly schedule to specify 24-hour load profiles when you chose the monthly schedule option. Edit monthly schedule is inactive when you choose No load data or User entered data. Edit data Click Edit data to either cut and paste load data from another program or to import data from a properly
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formatted text file. Edit data is inactive when you choose No load data or Monthly schedule.
Adjustments
The load adjustment factors allow you to uniformly scale the load up or down, and to model a load profile that increases from year to year. Scaling the load can be useful for scenario analyses where you want to investigate the effect of a higher or lower load than expected loads. Escalation The load escalation scales the load in years two an later by the percentage you specify. For example, if you specify a load escalation rate of 0.5% per year, for each year in the analysis period specified on the Financing page, SAM would increase the load value in each time step by 0.5% of the previous year's load value for the same time step. You can also assign load escalation values to specific years using the annual schedule. When you specify Scaling factor To calculate the load value during simulation, SAM multiplies the load value in each time step by the scaling factor that you specify. For example, if you specify a scaling factor of 1.5, and the hourly average load at 2 p.m. on March 18th is 1.2 kWh, SAM would use a load value of 1.5 1.2 = 1.8 kWh for that hour. To see the effect of the scaling factor, try changing the value from the default of 1 to another value, and look at how the values under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data change. Offset value To calculate the load value during simulation, for each time step, SAM adds the offset value you specify to the load value. For example, if you specify an offset value of 0.5 kWh, and the hourly average load at 2 p.m. on March 18th is 1.2 kWh, SAM would use a load value of 1.2 + 0.5 = 1.7 kWh for that hour. To see the effect of the offset value, try changing the value from the default of 1 to another value, and look at how the values under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data change.
Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data

SAM displays the table of monthly and annual averages to help you verify that the load data is correct. SAM also allows you to view also graphs of the time series load data using the built-in data viewer. Energy (kWh) The Energy column displays the total amount of electricity required by the load for each month. SAM calculates the value by adding the average hourly values for each month, or if you specify a different time step for the load data, the sum of average values over each time step for the month. Peak (kW) The maximum load value that occurs in each month. If you specify hourly load data, the monthly peak is equal to the maximum hourly load value in kWh/h. If you specify sub-hourly load data, the monthly peak is equal to the maximum load value that occurs in the sub-hourly data. Annual Total The total amount of electricity required by the load over an entire year. SAM calculates the value by adding the average hourly values for the year, or if you specify a different time step for the load data, the sum of average values over each time step for the year.
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The annual total applies to year one of the analysis period. If you specify a load escalation rate under Adjustments, the annual total does not reflect load data in years two and later. Annual Peak The maximum load value that occurs in the year. If you specify hourly load data, the annual peak is equal to the maximum hourly load value in kWh/h. If you specify sub-hourly load data, the annual peak is equal to the maximum load value that occurs in the sub-hourly data. Visualize load data Click Visualize load data to display the time series data in SAM's built-in data viewer, DView. See Viewing Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.
Calculate Load Profiles

EnergyPlus is a building simulation model developed for the Department of Energy. You can use the EnergyPlus Example File Generator to generate a text file containing hourly load data for different building types and configurations for some locations in the United States. SAM includes a set of residential load profiles created by this web application in the \samples\Residential Load Data folder. The EnergyPlus load data generator uses weather data from the TMY2 data set to generate the load data. If you model a system in SAM using this load data, you may want to use the same weather file to ensure that the energy model results are consistent with the load data. Choose the weather file on the Climate page. To visit the EnergyPlus file generator website, click EERE Building Technologies Program EnergyPlus Load Calculator. The websites URL is http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/inputs/.
Working with Time Series Load Data

If you have load data for an entire year in either hourly or sub-hourly time steps you can either import the data from a properly formatted text file, or copy and paste the data from a spreadsheet program or other software.
Data Sources
The following examples are some sources of electric load data: Electrical measurements from a building or other load center. Some electricity service providers make load data available to their customers. Data generated by a building simulation model, such as the EnergyPlus Example File Generator, http:// apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/inputs/. Some electric service area operators provide system-wide load data on their websites. For examples, see California ISO and Midwest ISO websites. Sample residential load data generated by the EnergyPlus load data generator supplied with SAM in \samples\Residential Load Data folder.
Time Step and Convention

SAM requires load data in a single column of average kilowatt per time step values. The number of data rows depends on the time step. For hourly data, SAM requires a column of 8,760 rows, where each row contains a value in kilowatts representing the average power required by the load over the hour. For sub-hourly data, SAM requires a column of 8,760 Number of Times Steps per Hour rows, with kilowatt values representing the average
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electric power over the period of a single time step. The time convention must follow the time convention of the weather data specified on the Climate page. For NREL typical meteorological year data (TMY2 and TMY3), the first row of data represents the time step beginning at midnight on January 1. SAM assumes that January first is a Monday. When you use sub-hourly load data with hourly weather data, SAM uses hourly average load values to for the energy charge calculations, and the sub-hourly data to determine the peak load for demand charges.
Importing Data from a File

SAM can import data from a text file that contains a single column of values representing the load in a single year. SAM ignores the first row, so you can use that row to store text describing the data. The number of rows depends on the number of time steps. For hourly data, the file should contain a total of 8,761 rows: The first row for header information, and the remaining rows for the load data. To import load data from a properly formatted text file: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Under Electric Load Data, click User entered data. Click Edit Data. In the Edit Data window, click Import. Navigate to the folder containing the load data file and open the file. SAM displays the data in the data table. Use the scroll bar to see all of the data. Click OK to return to the Electric Load page. SAM displays monthly and annual load data under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data.
Pasting Load Data from your Computer's Clipboard

If you have load data in a spreadsheet or other program that allows you to copy columns of data to your computer's clipboard, you can paste the data into SAM. The data should be a single column of values in kilowatt-hours representing the load in a single year. The number of rows depends on the number of time steps. For hourly data, the column should contain 8,760 rows of load data. To paste load data from your computer's clipboard: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Under Electric Load Data, click User entered data. Click Edit Data. Open the spreadsheet or other program containing the load data. The data must be in a single column with the appropriate number of rows for the data's time step. Select the entire column of data and copy it. In SAM's Edit Data window, click Paste. SAM displays the data in the data table. Use the scroll bar to see all of the data. Click OK to return to the Electric Load page. SAM displays monthly and annual load data under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data.
Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles

If you do not have a complete 8,760 set of load data, you specify the load using a set of daily load profiles for each month. SAM creates a set of 8,760 values representing the load for an entire year. When you define a load with daily load profiles, SAM assumes that the load for all days in a given month is identical.
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To create a load data set using daily load profiles: 1. 2. 3. 4.
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5. 6. 7.
Under Electric Load Data, click Monthly schedule. Click Edit monthly schedule. In the Edit Monthly Schedule window, click Weekday Values. For each month of the year, define a daily load profile by typing a value in kilowatt-hours for each of the 24 hours of the day. The first column represents the first hour of the day, beginning at midnight and ending at 1:00 a.m. SAM assumes that January 1st is a Monday. Click Weekend Values. Repeat Step 4 to define the daily load profile for Saturdays and Sundays. SAM assumes that January 6 is a Saturday. Click OK to return to the Electric Load page. SAM displays monthly and annual load data under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data..
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5.1
Results
Metrics Table
The Metrics table displays a set of output variables for each case in the project file. SAM displays the Metrics table under the navigation menu when results are available for a case. The variables that appear in the metrics table depend on the technology and financing options, which are defined in the Technology and Market window.
Note. The annual energy quantity reported in the metrics table and graphs on the Results page accounts for the availability factor on the Annual Performance page, while the data reported in the hourly simulation results and case summary workbook does not. The annual energy quantity in the metrics table is equal to the total annual energy output reported in the hourly results multiplied by the availability factor.
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Table 22. Variables in the Metrics table for different financing types.
Metric Annual Energy Nominal LCOE Real LCOE Year 1 Revenue without System Year 1 Revenue with System Year 1 Net Revenue Net Present Value Payback Period First year PPA price Internal Rate of Return Minimum DSCR PPA Escalation Debt Fraction IRR target year IRR target IRR actual year IRR in target year After-tax IRR After-tax NPV After-tax tax investor IRR After-tax tax investor NPV After-tax developer IRR After-tax developer NPV PPA price escalation Debt fraction Direct Cost Indirect Cost Financing Cost Total project cost Total debt Total equity Res Com Com PPA IPP LPF AEPF SL SO
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For certain simulation configurations, SAM displays two columns of values for each output variable: For model runs involving the Multiple Systems simulation configuration, SAM displays output variables for the active case in the Base column of the Metrics table, and output variables for the combined system in the Combined column. For model runs involving the Statistical simulation configuration, the values of mu, sigma are displayed in the second column of the Metrics table.
5.1.1
Annual Energy
SAM calculates and reports three annual energy values. Annual Energy The total annual AC electric output of the system in kWh, not accounting for the availability factor from the Annual Performance page. Net Annual Energy The total annual AC electric output of the system in kWh, accounting for the availability factor from the Annual Performance page. Energy (in the cash flow table) The total annual AC electric output of the system in kWh, accounting for both the availability and the degradation factor from the Annual Performance page. Note. If you run simulations with no financing by choosing the No Financials option in the Technology and Market window, SAM reports the annual energy value in the metrics table. If your analysis includes financing, then SAM reports the net annual energy value in the Metrics table.
5.1.2
Annual Water Usage
For CSP systems, the total annual water consumption in cubic meters for cooling and mirror washing. The value is determined based on the cooling system options specified on the Power Block page, and the mirror washing options specified on the Solar Field page.
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5.1.3
Capacity Factor
The capacity factor is the ratio of the system's predicted electrical output in the first year of operation to the output had the system operated at its nameplate capacity. Note. SAM only displays the capacity factor metric when you run simulations with a financing option. The metric is not available when you choose No Financials in the Technology and Market window. Capacity Factor = Net Annual Energy (k Wh) / System Capacity (k W) / 8760 (h/yr) For PV systems, the capacity factor is an AC-to-DC value. For CSP systems, the capacity is an AC-to-AC value. Net Annual Energy The total annual electric generation in the first year of operation, accounting for the availability factor from the Annual Performance page. System Capacity The system's nameplate capacity (see table below). For PV systems the capacity is in DC kW, for CSP systems, the capacity is in AC kW. The system capacity depends on technology being modeled. Note that SAM converts the capacity value to kW before using it in the calculation.
Table 23. Rated system capacity values for each technology.

Technology PV SAM Performance Models PV PVWatts CSP Parabolic Trough CSP Power Tower CSP Dish Stirling Generic Fossil System Capacity Total Array Power (Wdc) DC Rating (kW) Nameplate Capacity (MWe) Total Capacity (kW) Nameplate Capacity (kWe) Array PVWatts Solar Array Power Cycle Solar Field Fossil Plant Input Page
Rated Turbine Net Capacity (MWe) Power Block
5.1.4
Costs
Enter topic text here.
5.1.5
Debt Fraction
The debt fraction is the percentage of the project total installed cost that is financed through a loan. The value is reported as a result only for projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-Party Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window.
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For these types of projects, depending on the financial optimization option on the Financing page, the debt fraction is either a user-defined input on the Financing page, or a value that SAM calculates. When the Automatically minimize LCOE with respect to Debt Fraction option is checked, SAM finds the debt fraction that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. SAM uses the debt fraction to calculate the principal and interest payments shown in the project cash flow, and used in the iterative search algorithm described in 1st Year PPA Price.
5.1.6
First year kWhac/kWdc
For PV systems, SAM reports the ratio of the system's annual AC electric output in Year one to it's nameplate DC capacity. Note. SAM only displays the First year kWhac/kWdc metric when you run simulations with a financing option. The metric is not available when you choose No Financials in the Technology and Market window . First year k Whac/k Wdc = Net Annual Energy / Nameplate Capacity Net Annual Energy The total annual electric generation in the first year of operation, accounting for the availability factor from the Annual Performance page. Nameplate Capacity The system's DC nameplate capacity from the Array page for component-based model and the PVWatts Solar Array page for the PVWatts model.
5.1.7
First Year PPA Price
The first year PPA price is the electricity sales price for projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-Party Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window. SAM assumes that such projects sell electricity through a power purchase agreement (PPA) at a fixed price over the life of the project with an optional annual escalation rate. The first year PPA Price and annual escalation rate (PPA Escalation rate on the Financing page) determine the project's annual revenues. SAM calculates the annual revenues to meet the minimum requirements of the internal rate of return (IRR), debt service coverage ratio (DSCR), and positive cash flow, which are defined as constraining assumptions on the Financing page. Because of the way the first year PPA price, IRR, and minimum DSCR interact, SAM uses an iterative algorithm to determine the values of these variables. For projects with utility financing, the constraining assumptions defined on the Financing page are the Minimum Required IRR and the Minimum Required DSCR, and a positive cash flow requirement: Find First Year PPA such that IRR >= Minimum Required IRR, and
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Min DSCR >= Minimum Required DSCR, and Cash Flow in Year n > 0 (when the cash flow requirement is positive)
For projects with Third-Party Ownership financing, there is a single constraining assumption defined on the Financing page, the Minimum Required IRR: Find First Year PPA such that Actual IRR >= Minimum Required IRR The following equations show the calculations used in the iterative algorithm to determine the IRR and minimum DSCR, which are both reported as results with the 1st Year PPA Price in the Metrics table on the Results page. The internal rate of return is the discount rate, IRR in the equation below, that corresponds to a project net present value, NPV, of zero:
Where,
NPV ($) N Rn ($)
The net present value of the project over its life. The number of years in the project life, defined by the analysis period on the Financing page. The required revenue in year n , shown in the Revenues row of the cash flow. The revenue in year 1 (Rn=1 ) is equal to the first year PPA price. The revenue is subsequent years (R
1<n<=N
) is equal to the first year PPA price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate defined
on the Financing page.
CAfterTax,n ($) IRR
The after tax cash flow in year n , equal to State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings + PBI Incentives - Operating Costs - Debt Total Payment + Revenues in the project cash flow. Internal rate of return, calculated by systematically trying different values until the NPV is equal to zero.
The debt service coverage ratio in each analysis year (DSCRn ) is the ratio of operating income to expenses in that year:
Where,
DSCRn Rn ($)
Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio row of the cash flow. The required revenue in year n , shown in the Revenues row of the cash flow table, equal to the product of the electric output and electricity sales price in year n. Note that the electricity sales price in year 1 is equal to the first year PPA price, and in subsequent years (R1<n<=N) is equal to the first year PPA price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate
defined on the Financing page. COperating,n ($) The total operating costs in year n , shown in the Operating Costs row of the cash flow.
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The loan interest payment in year n, shown in the Debt Interest Payment row of the cash flow. The loan principal payment in year n, shown in the Debt Repayment row of the cash flow.
The minimum DSCR is the lowest value of the project's debt-service coverage ratio that occurs in the life of the project:
Where,
minimum DSCR DSCRn
The minimum debt service coverage ratio, reported as a result in the Metrics table. Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio row of the cash flow. (The symbol min represents the function that searches for the minimum value of the DSCR in the cash flow.)
5.1.8
Gross to Net Conv Factor
For CSP systems, SAM displays the ratio of the system's annual AC electric output to the power block's gross electric output. The difference between the two is due to parasitic losses from electric loads in the solar field and power block for pumps, cooling equipment, etc. Gross to Net Conv Factor = Annual Energy (k Wh) / Gross Electric Output (k Wh) Annual Energy (kWh) The system's total AC electrical output in year one, not accounting for the availability factor on the Annual Performance page. Gross Electric Output (kWh) The power block's gross electrical output, reported under Metrics in the tabular data browser.
5.1.9
Internal Rate of Return
The internal rate of return is the discount rate that corresponds to a project net present value of zero for projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-Party Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window.
Where Revenues and After Tax Cash Flow are rows in the project cash flow. SAM calculates the internal rate of return using an iterative search algorithm described in 1st Year PPA Price.
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5.1.10 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)

Contents Overview defines the levelized cost of energy in general terms. LCOE for Residential and Commercial Projects describes how SAM calculates the levelized cost of energy for systems with either residential market or commercial Market financing. LCOE for Commercial Third Party and Independent Power Producer Projects describes the calculation of the levelized required revenue for projects with either commercial market - third-party ownership or utiltity and IPP financing. Real and Nominal LCOE describes the difference between the two forms of LCOE. Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel explains how to use data from the cash flow table to calculate the LCOE valeus with Excel formulas. LCOE without Incentives explains the two LCOE "w/o incentives" variables that appear in some graphs.
Overview
The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) in cents per kilowatt-hour accounts for a project's installation, financing, tax, and operating costs and the quantity of electricity it produces over its life. The LCOE makes it possible to compare alternatives with different project lifetimes and performance characteristics. Analysts can use the LCOE to compare the option of installing a residential or commercial project to purchasing electricity from an electric service provider, or to compare utility and third-party ownership projects with investments in energy efficiency, other renewable energy projects, or conventional fossil fuel projects. The LCOE captures the trade-off between typically higher-capital-cost, lower-operating-cost renewable energy projects, and lower-capital-cost, higher-operating-cost fossil fuel-based projects. SAM calculates the LCOE for residential and commercial projects differently than it does for utility and commercial third-party ownership projects as described below. You can specify the project's financing type (residential, commercial, commercial third-party, and utility) in the Technology and Market window. SAM displays the financing type on the main window in the toolbar directly below the case tabs in the main window. For all projects, SAM calculates both a real and nominal LCOE value. The real LCOE accounts for the effect of inflation over the life of the project. The nominal LCOE excludes inflation from the calculation.
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You can verify the SAM's LCOE calculation by exporting the cash flow table on the Results page to Excel and using the formulas described for each form of the LCOE below. See Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel for details. You can also explore the LCOE methodology by downloading the spreadsheets on the Support page of the SAM website. Each of the five spreadsheets duplicates SAM's cash flow equations using Excel formulas. For more information about the levelized cost of energy and other economic metrics for renewable energy projects, see Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technologies. (Short 1995) http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/5173.pdf.
LCOE for Residential and Commercial Projects

For a project using one of the Residential Mark et or Commercial Mark et (except Commercial Third-Party Ownership) financing options defined in the Technology and Market window, the LCOE is the cost of financing, installing, and operating a system per unit of electricity it generates over the analysis period, accounting for tax credits and incentive payments. SAM assumes that projects with residential or commercial financing are installed on a residential or commercial property, and sell electricity at retail electricity rates specified on the Utility Rate page. You specify the installation and operating costs on the System Costs page, financing assumptions on the Financing page, tax credits on the Tax Credit Incentives page, and other incentives on the Payment Incentives page. For these projects, you you can compare a project's LCOE to the electricity rate that the residence or commercial entity would pay to an electric service provider if the project were not installed. SAM uses the real discount rate on the Financing page to calculate the present worth of future costs. The discount rate accounts for the time value of money and the relative degree of risk for alternative investments. SAM uses the inflation rate on the Financing page to calculate year two and later costs in the cash flow based on the cost input values that you specify in year one dollar values on the System Costs and other input pages. The inflation rate accounts for expected price increases over the project life for future operating costs. SAM assumes that the project generates electricity in year one of the analysis period. It assigns capital costs to year zero of the project cash flow. Note. You can calculate the real and nominal values of the LCOE yourself by exporting the cash flow table to Excel. See Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel for details. For the real LCOE, the real discount rate appears in the denominator's total energy output term:
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Similarly, for the nominal LCOE, the nominal discount rate appears in the denominator's total energy output term:
Qn (kWh)
Electricity generated by the project in year n , calculated by the performance model based on weather data and system performance parameters. The first year annual energy is reported in the Metrics table and in the year one column of the Energy row in the project cash flow. Year two and subsequent output is the first year output reduced by the amount specified for the degradation rate on the Annual Performance page. Analysis period in years as defined on the Financing page. The after tax cash flow in year n , equal to State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings + PBI Incentives - Operating Costs - Debt Total Payment + Energy Value in the project cash flow. The after tax cash flow in year zero is the equity portion of total installed cost less any capital based incentives specified on the Payment Incentives page. The equity portion of the total installed cost is the total installed cost shown on the System Costs page minus the principal amount from the Financing page. The real discount rate defined on the Financing page. This is the discount rate without inflation. The nominal discount rate, calculated as described below. This is the discount rate with inflation.
N CAfterTax,n ($)
d real d nominal
The nominal discount rate can be calculated based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation rate on the Financing page:
d nominal = (1 + d real)(1 + e) - 1
Where,
d nominal d real e
Nominal discount rate expressed as a fraction. Real discount rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction. Inflation rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.
LCOE for Utility and Commercial Third Party Projects

For a project using either a Utility or Commercial Mark et - Third-Party Ownership financing option in the Technology and Market window, the LCOE is the amount that the project must receive for each unit of electricity it sells to cover financing, installation, and operating costs, and to meet the financial constraints on the Financing page. SAM assumes that utility and commercial third-party ownership projects are power generation projects installed on the utility side of consumer power meters. These projects sell electricity at a price negotiated by the project and electricity purchaser. For these projects, the LCOE is effectively a levelized price of electricity because it is based on the present worth of the project's revenue stream (which you can see in the Energy Value row of the project cash flow). SAM reports the revenue for each year of the analysis period as the Energy Value in the project cash flow,
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and the average annual electricity price in the Energy Price row. The Energy Price in year one is equal to the first year power purchase price, which SAM reports as 1st Year PPA Price in the Metrics table. Note. Because the LCOE for utility and commercial third party projects depends on the PPA price, it can be very sensitive to the values that you specify for the minimum IRR, minimum DSCR, and positive cash flow. In some cases, it is possible to specify constraints that make the project capital investment a relatively insignificant factor in the LCOE calculation. For details on how SAM calculates the first year PPA price, see 1st Year PPA Price. SAM uses the real discount rate and inflation rate on the Financing page to calculate the present worth of future costs. The discount rate accounts for the time value of money and the relative degree of risk for alternative investments. SAM uses the inflation rate on the Financing page to calculate year two and later costs in the cash flow based on the cost input values that you specify in year one dollar values on the System Costs and other input pages. The inflation rate accounts for expected price increases over the project life for future operating costs. Note. You can calculate the real and nominal values of the LCOE yourself by exporting the cash flow table to Excel. See Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel for details. For the real LCOE, the real discount rate appears in the denominator's total energy output term:
Similarly, for the nominal LCOE, the nominal discount rate appears in the total energy output term:
Where,
Qn (kWh) Electricity generated by the project in year n , calculated by the performance model based on
weather data and system performance parameters. The first year output is reported in the Metrics table on the Results page and in the year one column of the project cash flow. Year two and subsequent output is the first year output reduced by the amount specified for the degradation rate on the Annual Performance page. Analysis period in years as defined on the Financing page.
N Rn
d real
Project revenue from electricity sales in year n , equal to the annual electric output multiplied by the annual electricity sales price. The required revenue in year one is equal to the product of the first year PPA price and Annual Energy values reported in the results. The required revenue in subsequent years is equal to the first year PPA price escalated by the PPA Escalation Rate shown on the Metrics table. The real discount rate defined on the Financing page. This is the discount rate without inflation.
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The nominal discount rate, calculated as described below. This is the discount rate with inflation.
d nominal
Where,
d nominal d real e
Real and Nominal LCOE

SAM reports both a real LCOE and a nominal LCOE value in the Metrics table on the Results page. The form of the discount rate used in the denominator's total energy output term of the equations described above determines the form of the LCOE. The real LCOE is a constant dollar value that is adjusted for inflation. The real LCOE is less than the nominal LCOE whenever the inflation rate on the Financing page is greater than zero. Because the nominal discount rate used to compute the nominal LCOE includes inflation, inflation is effectively factored out of the nominal LCOE. The nominal LCOE is a current dollar value. If the inflation rate on the Financing page is zero, the real and nominal LCOE are equal. The choice of real or nominal LCOE depends on the analysis. Most long-term analyses are conducted in real (constant) dollars to account for many years of inflation over the project life, whereas most short term analyses use nominal (current) dollars. Some industries prefer to use one form over the other. For example, when discussing LCOE for parabolic trough projects, analysts tend to use the nominal LCOE, while the U. S. Department of Energy uses the real LCOE in its comparative analysis of photovoltaic project costs. Be sure to use the same form of the LCOE when comparing costs for different alternatives: Never compare a real LCOE of one alternative with a nominal LCOE of another. The nominal discount rate can be calculated based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation rate on the Financing page:
Where,
d nominal d real e
Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel

If you would like to better understand SAM's LCOE calculations, you can follow the procedures described below to replicate the calculations using a spreadsheet program.
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Note for Mac users. SAM can not exchange data with Microsoft Excel on Mac computers. This means that the Excel Exchange feature is disabled on Mac versions of the software, and that SAM cannot directly export data to Excel workbooks. To use the SAM data in Excel or another spreadsheet program, you can export the data to a commaseparated text file (CSV), and then import the CSV file to the spreadsheet program. To replicate the residential or commercial LCOE calculation in Excel: 1. 2. 3. 4. On the Results page, click Base Case Cashflow to display the project cash flow. Click Send to Excel to export the cash flow table to an Excel worksheet, or click Save as CSV to save the data as a text file then open it in Excel. Type the project's discount rate and inflation rates as percentages into two blank cells in the worksheet. You can find these values on SAM's Financing page. Type the following formula into a third empty cell to calculate the nominal discount rate: =(1+[inflation rate])*(1+[real discount rate])-1 Replace the words in brackets with cell references to the appropriate values in the worksheet. Type the following formula into a blank cell to calculate the real LCOE: =(-[year zero after tax cost]-NPV([nominal discount rate],[after tax cost]))/NPV([real discount rate], [energy]) The year zero after tax cost flow is the value in the year zero column in the after tax cost row toward the bottom of the table. The after tax cost and energy are series of values from year 1 to the final year in the analysis period. The energy row is at the top of the table. Use the following formula to calculate the nominal LCOE: =(-[year zero after tax cost]-NPV([nominal discount rate],[after tax cost]))/NPV([nominal discount rate],[energy])
5.
6.
To replicate the utility or commercial third party LCOE calculation in Excel: 1. On the Results page, click Base Case Cashflow to display the project cash flow. 2. Click Send to Excel to export the cash flow table to an Excel worksheet, or click Save as CSV to save the data as a text file then open it in Excel. 3. Type the project's discount rate and inflation rates as percentages into two blank cells in the worksheet. You can find these values on SAM's Financing page. 4. Type the following formula into a third empty cell to calculate the nominal discount rate: =(1+[inflation rate])*(1+[real discount rate])-1 Replace the words in brackets with cell references to the appropriate values in the worksheet. 5. Type the following formula into a blank cell to calculate the real LCOE: =NPV([nominal discount rate],[energy value])/NPV([real discount rate],[energy]) The energy value and energy are series of values from year 1 to the final year in the analysis period. Energy is in the first row at the top of the table, and energy value is in the third row. 6. Use the following formula to calculate the nominal LCOE: =NPV([nominal discount rate],[energy value])/NPV([nominal discount rate],[energy]) Note. You can also replicate the calculations in Excel using the summations shown in the equations above in place of the NPV formulas.
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LCOE without Incentives

SAM displays a value labeled LCOE (real-w/o incentives) on some graphs. This value of the LCOE is calculated in the same way as the other forms of the LCOE, but excludes any tax credit incentives or payment incentives that you specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page or Payment Incentives page. If you remove all tax credits and payment incentives from your analysis, then the LCOE values with and without incentives are identical.
5.1.11 Minimum DSCR

The minimum DSCR is the minimum debt-service coverage ratio that SAM calculates for projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-Party Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window. The debt-service coverage ratio in each year n is the ratio of operating income to expenses in that year (SAM displays these values in the cash flow table):
Where,
DSCRn Rn ($)
Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio row of the cash flow. The required revenue in year n , shown in the Revenues row of the cash flow table, equal to the product of the electric output and electricity sales price in year n. Note that the electricity sales price in year 1 is equal to the first year PPA price, and in subsequent years (R1<n<=N) is equal to the first year PPA price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate defined on the Financing page.
COperating,n ($) The total operating costs in year n , shown in the Operating Costs row of the cash flow. CInterest,n ($)
The loan interest payment in year n, shown in the Debt Interest Payment row of the cash flow.
CPrincipal,n ($) The loan principal payment in year n, shown in the Debt Repayment row of the cash flow.
In SAM, the project's debt service coverage ratio (reported in results as the Minimum DSCR) is the lowest value of the DSCR that occurs in the life of the project N, equivalent to the Analysis Period on the Financing page.
Where,
minimum DSCR DSCRn
The minimum debt service coverage ratio, reported as a result in the Metrics table. Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio row of the cash flow. (The symbol min represents the function that searches for the minimum value of the DSCR in the cash flow.)
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SAM calculates the minimum debt-service coverage ratio to be greater than or equal to the minimum required DSCR target defined on the Financing page. The iterative algorithm used for the calculation is described in 1st Year PPA Price.
5.1.12 Net Present Value

A project's net present value is a measure of a project's economic feasibility that includes both revenue and cost. In general, a positive net present value indicates an economically feasible project, while a negative net present value indicates an economically infeasible project, although this may not be true for all analyses. For more information about using the net present value and other economic metrics to evaluate renewable energy projects, see Short W et al, 1995. Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-462-5173. http://www. nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/5173.pdf SAM only calculates the net present value for projects with residential or commercial (except third-party ownership) financing. These projects earn revenue through electricity sales at the retail rate specified as an input on the Utility Rate page. For project with utility or commercial third-party ownership financing, SAM calculates the electricity sales price as a result, and the project's levelized cost of energy accounts for both revenue and costs. The net present value is the present value of the after tax cash flow discounted to year one using the nominal discount rate, plus the after-tax cash flow in year zero. The net cash flow for each year is the difference between the revenue and cost in that year:
Where,
NPV ($) N CAfterTax,n ($)
The net present value of the project over its life. The number of years in the project life, defined by the analysis period on the Financing page. The after tax cash flow in year n , equal to State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings + PBI Incentives - Operating Costs - Debt Total Payment + Revenues in the project cash flow. The after tax cash flow in year zero is the equity portion of total installed cost less any capital based incentives specified on the Payment Incentives page. The equity portion of the total installed cost is the total installed cost shown on the System Costs page multiplied by 100% minus the debt fraction from the Financing page. The nominal discount rate, calculated as shown below.
d nominal
Where,
d nominal
Nominal discount rate expressed as a fraction.
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Real discount rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction. Inflation rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.
d real e
5.1.13 Payback Period

The payback period is a measure of the time it takes for project income from electricity sales, incentive payments, and tax credits to "pay back" the initial project investment. Note. SAM calculates the payback period for commercial and residential projects only. For more information about using the net present value and other economic metrics to evaluate renewable energy projects, see Short W et al, 1995. Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-462-5173. http://www. nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/5173.pdf SAM calculates the payback period by determining the number of years that it takes for the values in the Cumulative Payback Expenses Included row of the cash flow to switch from negative to positive. If the cumulative payback cash flow amount is negative for all years in the cash flow, SAM displays the value 1e+99 for the payback, indicating that the payback period is greater than the analysis period. Payback expenses included = After Tax Cashflow + Debt Interest Payment (1 - Effective Tax Rate) + Debt Repayment Payback expenses excluded = Payback expenses included + Operating Costs + Deductible Expenses Effective Tax Rate The cumulative cash flow for each year is the sum of the current year's payback amount and the previous year's amount. For a description of the cash flow calculations, see the residential and commercial cash flow details.
5.1.14 PPA Escalation

The PPA escalation rate is an annual escalation rate that SAM uses to calculate future electricity sales prices based on the first year PPA price. The value applies to projects with Utility or Commercial - ThirdParty Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window. Depending on the financial optimization option on the Financing page, the PPA escalation rate is either a user-defined input on the Financing page, or a value that SAM calculates. When the Automatically minimize LCOE with respect to PPA Escalation Rate option is checked, SAM finds the PPA escalation rate that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. SAM uses the PPA escalation rate in the iterative search algorithm described in 1st Year PPA Price.
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5.1.15 System Performance Factor

The system performance factor is a measure of a photovoltaic system's annual electric generation output in AC kWh compared to its nameplate rated capacity in DC kW, taking into account the solar resource at the system's location. Note. SAM only calculates the system performance factor for the component-based photovoltaic model. It does not calculate the value for the PVWatts model or other technologies. System Performance Factor = Annual Energy (k Wh) / ( Nameplate Capacity (k W) Incident Radiation (k W/m2) / 1 Peak Sun Hour (h k W/m2) ) Annual Energy The system's total AC output in Year 1 in kWh reported in the Metrics table. Nameplate Capacity The system's DC rated capacity in kW from the Array page. Incident Radiation For flat-plate PV modules, the total (direct + diffuse) radiation incident on the array. This value is equivalent to the sum of the Radiation Total (kW/m2), Hourly values available on the tabular data browser. For concentrating PV (CPV) modules the direct radiation incident on the array. This value is equivalent to the sum of the Incident Beam, Shaded (kW/m2), Hourly values available on the tabular data browser. Peak Sun Hour The equivalent number of hours in a year that the array receives 1 kW/m2.
5.1.16 Total Land Area

For the PV component-based and CSP models, the land area required for the project. SAM calculates the value based on the Land Area values you specify, and the array and collector area SAM calculates on the Array and Solar Field pages. Note. SAM displays the total land area value for reference only. The value does not affect cost calculations, and is not affected by the land costs you specify on the System Costs page.
5.1.17 Year 1 Revenues

Enter topic text here.
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5.2
Graphs and Charts
SAM displays graphs on the Results page after running simulations. The standard graphs that appear by default show summaries of results from both the performance model and financial model. You can edit the standard graphs and create your own graphs. Related topics: For detailed graphs of hourly results, see Time Series Data Viewer (DView). For a description of how to use sliders with graphs, see Sliders. To view the project cash flow, click Base Case Cashflow. See Base Case Cashflow for details. To view a tables of results data, click Tabular Data Browser. See Tabular Data Browser for details. To show and hide graphs: 1. Click View Graphs and Charts at the top of the Results page.
2.
SAM displays a thumbnail of all of the graphs defined for the case. Some graphs are default graphs, and others are graphs that you may have added or edited. Click a thumbnail at the bottom of the page to display a graph. Hold down the Ctrl key and click up to four graphs to display multiple graphs on the page. To hide a graph, hold down the Ctrl key and click its thumbnail on the Graphing tab.
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Manage Graphs
To create or modify graphs: 1. To add a graph to the list of available graphs, click Add a new graph. To modify an existing graph, select the graph name in the available graphs and click Edit. You can also modify a visible graph by right-clicking it. In the Edit Graph window, choose data to graph and other graph properties. Use the Properties options to assign graph labels, adjust line thickness, show and hide the legend, and change other properties. To remove graphs: 1. 2. Click the thumbnail for up to four graphs that you want to remove. Click Remove. To remove all graphs, including default graphs, click Remove All.
2.
Data Tables for Graphs

You can view tables of data for graphs visible on the Results page and export the data to text files.
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To view the data tables: 1. 2. 3. On the Results page, click View Graphs and Charts. Click the thumbnails at the bottom of the page to show up to four graphs. (Hold down the ctrl key while clicking the thumbnails to show more than one graph.) Click Show Graph Data.
To export graph data: To export data from a graph, right-click the graph and choose an export option:
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Tips for working with graphs

Use sliders to see the effect of changing input variables on the graph without changing input variable values on the input pages. See Working with Sliders for details. Right-click a graph to hide the legend, change line thickness and colors, edit graph legends, and modify other graph properties. Click the Notes button above the top right corner of the Results page to display an editable text box to make notes about a graph.
5.3
Base Case Cash Flow
The base case cash flow table displays the project cash flow calculated by the financial model. The cash flow table only displays data from the base case, which is the set of results calculated from the input variable values that are visible on the input pages. Use the tabular data browser to see cash flow data for results from that involve multiple simulation runs for parametric, sensitivity, optimization, or statistical analyses. For detailed descriptions of the cash flow for the different financing options, see: Residential and Commercial IPP and Commercial PPA Leveraged Partnership Flip All Equity Partnership Flip Sale Leaseback Single Owner Related Topics: You can also see the cash flow table in the tabular data browser and case summary workbook.
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If you want to see cash flow data for analyses involving multiple runs such as parametric analyses, use the Tabular Data Browser to display the cash flow.
To view the cash flow table: On the Results page, click Base Case Cashflow at the top of the page. If you have trouble seeing values in columns at the far right of the table, click a cell in the table and use the right-arrow key to display the columns.
SAM offers three options for exporting the cash flow table: Copy to clipboard copies the table to your clipboard. You can paste the entire table into a word processing document, spreadsheet, presentation or other software. Save as CSV saves the table in a comma-delimited text file that you can open in a spreadsheet program or text editor. Send to Excel (Windows only) saves the table in an Excel file. Note. When you export cash flow data to Excel, the worksheet contains values from the cash flow table but no formulas. This is because SAM calculates the values internally and does not rely on Excel to make the calculations.
5.3.1
Residential and Commercial
Cash Flow Year

The cash flow year is displayed in the top row of the cash flow table. In the descriptions below, the letter n indicates the cash flow year, where n = 0 is Year zero of the cash flow, n = 1 is year one, n = 2 is year two,
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Energy (kWh)
For systems that generate electricity, Energy is the total amount of electricity generated by the system in AC kilowatt-hours for each year. For solar water heating systems, Energy is the amount of electricity saved by the solar water heating system in AC kilowatt-hours for each year. For Year 1, the energy value is equal to the sum of the hourly values calculated by the performance model multiplied by the availability factor from the Annual Performance page. For Years 2 and later, the energy value is the previous year's energy value adjusted by the annual degradation rate (System Degradation) from the Annual Performance page: Energy in Year n = Energy in Year n-1 * (1 - Degradation Rate) Note. Some of the annual electric energy values reported elsewhere in the results are performance model results, and do not account for the availability factor and degradation rate.
Energy Value ($)

The energy value is the value of electricity that the project avoids purchasing because of the renewable energy system. SAM assumes that the project sells electricity only in hours when the renewable energy system's output is greater than the electric load specified on the Electric Load page, and at the sell rate for each hour defined by the rate structure on the Utility Rate page. The project buys electricity in hours when the electric load is less than the renewable energy system's output at the buy rate for each hour specified in the rate structure. To determine the annual energy value, SAM calculates two "revenue" values: "Revenue with system" represents the net value of electricity bought and sold (revenue = sales purchases) by the project with the renewable energy system. "Revenue without system" shows what it would cost to meet the load entirely with electricity purchased from the utility at the buy rates specified in the rate structure. The energy value is the difference between the two: Energy Value ($) = Revenues with System ($) - Revenues without System ($) The tabular data browser shows hourly values of revenues and other related values. For a simple utility rate structure with net metering at a flat rate, the project buys and sells electricity at the same rate (equal to the flat rate from the Utility Rate page), and the energy value is equivalent to the value of the energy from the renewable energy system: Energy Value in Year n ($) = Energy in Year n ($) * Flat Rate ($/k Wh)
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Costs

The operation and maintenance (O&M) costs are defined on the system costs page and escalated in each year after year one using both the escalation rate for each O&M category on the system costs page and the inflation rate value on the Financials page. Fixed O&M Annual in Year n = Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate) ^ n-
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1 Fixed O&M in Year n = Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/k W-yr) * System Capacity * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1) Variable O&M in Year n = Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) / 1000 (k Wh/MWh) * Annual Output in Year n (MWh) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
The system capacity depends on technology being modeled. Note that SAM converts the capacity value to kW before using it in the calculation.
Table 24. Rated system capacity values for each technology.

Technology PV SAM Performance Models PV PVWatts CSP Parabolic Trough CSP Power Tower CSP Dish Stirling Generic Fossil System Capacity Total Array Power (Wdc) DC Rating (kW) Nameplate Capacity (MWe) Total Capacity (kW) Nameplate Capacity (kWe) Array PVWatts Solar Array Power Cycle Solar Field Fossil Plant Input Page
Rated Turbine Net Capacity (MWe) Power Block
Fuel O&M
Parabolic trough, power tower, and generic fossil systems include an annual cost of fuel for the fossil backup system in the total operating expense. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for troughs or towers is greater than zero, the systems consume fuel for backup energy.) For photovoltaic and CSP dish systems, the fuel cost is always zero. SAM reports the annual fuel usage in the hourly results. The total annual fuel usage in year 1 is reported on the Annual Data spreadsheet in the Spreadsheet summary table. Fuel O&M in Year n = Annual Fuel Usage in Year 1 (k Wh) * 0.003413 MMBtu/k Wh * Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Insurance
The insurance cost applies in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depends on the insurance rate specified on the Financing page and the total installed costs on the System Costs page. Insurance in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) * Insurance (%) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Property Assessed Value

The property assessed value is the value SAM uses as a basis to calculate the annual property tax payment. The value depends on the property tax variables on the Financing page. The assessed value in Year 1 is shown on the Financing page, and is the product of the assessed percent and total installed cost from the System Costs page. In Years 2 and later, the property assessed value is the Year 1 value adjusted by the assessed value decline value from the Financing page: Property Assessed Value in Year n = Assessed Value ($) * (1 - Assessed Value Decline)^(n-1)
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Property Taxes
Property taxes apply in Year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depend on the property tax rate specified on the Financing page, and on the property assessed value: Property Taxes in Year n = Property Assessed Value in Year n ($) * Property Tax (%)
Net Salvage Value

SAM calculates the net salvage value using the percentage you specify on the Financing page and the total installed cost from the System Costs page. The salvage value applies in the final year of the project cash flow. For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of 2.5% and total installed cost of $1 million, SAM includes income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 0.10 (1 + 0.025) ^ (30 - 1). SAM adds the salvage value as income (a negative value) to the operating expenses in the cash flow in the final year of the analysis period. The salvage value therefore reduces the operating expenses in the final year of the analysis period For residential projects, the salvage value has no effect on federal and state income tax because operating expenses are not taxable. For commercial projects, because the salvage value reduces the operating expenses in the final year of the analysis period, it increases the federal and state income tax payment because operating expenses are deductible from federal and state income tax.
Operating Costs
The total operating expenses include operation and maintenance costs, and insurance and property tax payments: Operating Costs = Fixed O&M Annual + Fixed O&M + Variable O&M + Fuel O&M + Insurance + Property Taxes - Salvage Value
Deductible Expenses
The deductible expenses are project costs that can be deducted from federal and state income taxes. For residential projects, the deductible expense amount equals the property tax amount: Deductible Expenses = - Property Taxes For commercial projects, all operating costs are deductible: Deductible Expenses = - Operating Costs
Debt Balance
The debt balance in Year 1 represents the debt portion of the capital costs, adjusted for any investmentbased incentives (IBI). The total installed cost is from the System Costs page, and total IBI is the sum of all IBIs specified on the Payment Incentives page, and debt fraction is the value specified on the Financing page: Debt Balance in Year 1 = (-Total Installed Costs + Total IBI) * Debt Fraction In Years 2 and later, the debt balance is calculated from the previous year's debt balance and debt
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Debt Balance in Year n = Debt Balance in Year n-1 + Debt Repayment in Year n-1
repayment amounts:
Debt Interest Payment

The debt interest payment is the debt balance multiplied by the loan interest rate on the Financing page: Debt Interest Payment in Year n = - Debt Balance in Year n * Loan Rate
Debt Repayment
The debt repayment amount is the annual payment on principal amount assuming constant payments over the loan term defined on the Financials page and at the constant annual interest rate defined on the Financials page. SAM calculates the amount using a methodology equivalent to Excel's PPMT function: Debt Repayment in Year n = -PPMT(Loan Rate,n,Loan Term,Principal Amount,0,0)
Debt Total Payment

The total debt payment is the sum of interest and principal payments: Debt Total Payment = Debt Interest Payment + Debt Repayment
Investment Based Incentives (IBI)

Each IBI applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. SAM calculates the value of each investment-based incentive (IBI) as either a fixed amount or percentage of the total installed cost that you specify on the Payment Incentives page. The total installed cost is from the System Costs page: IBI in Year 0 = Amount ($) IBI in Year 0 = Total Installed Cost ($) * Percentage (%), up to maximum value Note. The IBI reduces the debt balance in Year 1.
Capacity Based Incentives (CBI)

Each CBI applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow, and is calculated based on the system's rated capacity and the incentive rate (Amount) from the Payment Incentives page. The rated capacity depends on the system type, as described above under "Operation and Maintenance Costs:" CBI in Year 0 = System Capacty (W) * Amount ($/W), up to maximum value
Production Based Incentives (PBI)

The PBI apply in Years 1 and later of the project cash flow, up to the number of years specified by the Term variable on the Payment Incentives page. The PBIs are calculated based on each year's annual output displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table and the incentive rate (Amount) from the Payment Incentives page. The amount, term, and escalation rate are specified on the Payment Incentives page: PBI in Year n = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation)^(n-1) Note. If you specify a PBI amount on the Payment Incentives page, be sure to also specify the incentive term. If you specify a term of zero, the incentive will not appear in the cash flow table.
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Federal PTC and State PTC

The PTC apply in Year 1 and later of the project cash flow, up to the number of years specified by the Term variable on the Tax Credit Incentives page. The PTC are calculated based on each year's annual electrical output, displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table, and the amount specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page: PTC in Year n = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation)^(n-1)
Federal ITC and State ITC

The ITC apply only in Year 1 of the project cash flow. The ITC can be specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page as a fixed amount, or as a percentage of the total installed cost with a maximum value. The checkboxes in the "Reduces Depreciation Basis" column determines whether the basis used to calculate accelerated depreciation is reduced by the ITC amount. ITC in Year 1 = Amount ITC in Year 1 = ( Total Installed Cost ($) - Basis Reduction ($) ) * Percentage (%), up to maximum value The "Basis Reduction" amount depends on whether the project includes any investment-based incentives (IBI) or capacity-based incentives (CBI) specified on the Payment Incentives page with checked boxes in the "Reduces ITC Basis." For each checked incentive, SAM subtracts the IBI or CBI amount from the total installed cost to calculate the ITC.
Sales Tax Deduction (Commercial Only)

SAM calculates the sales tax amount by multiplying the sales tax rate on the Financing page by the "percent of direct cost" rate from the System Costs page. The sales tax amount is included the total installation cost and accounted for in the Year 0 after tax cost value of the cash flow. For commercial projects, SAM also deducts the sales tax amount from federal and state income tax payment in Year 1. The sales tax deduction amount depends on the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page, and the percentage of direct cost and total direct cost specified on the System Costs page: Sales Tax Deduction = Sales Tax (%) * Percent of Direct Cost (%) * Total Direct Cost ($)
Depreciation Schedule (% ) -- State and Federal (Commercial Only)

For commercial projects with a depreciation option defined on the Financing page, SAM displays the depreciation percentage in the State Depreciation Schedule and Federal Depreciation Schedule rows of the cash flow table. SAM determines the depreciation schedule (percentage and applicable years) based on the options specified on the Financing page.
Depreciation -- State and Federal (Commercial Only)

The depreciation amount is the product of the percentage and the total installed costs on the System Costs page: Depreciation = Depreciation Schedule (%) * Total Installed Costs
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Income Taxes -- State and Federal

The state and federal income tax amount is the taxable income multiplied by the tax rate on the Financing page for the applicable tax: Income Taxes = (Deductible Expenses + IBI + CBI + PBI - Interest Payment) Tax Rate
Tax Savings -- State and Federal

For both federal and state taxes, a positive value of Tax Savings indicates a tax savings or cash inflow. A negative value indicates a tax liability or cash outflow. The tax savings amount is the income tax less PTC and ITC tax credit amounts: Tax Savings = Income Taxes - PTC - ITC The PTC and ITC are the production tax credit and investment tax credit, respectively: The PTC, if it applies, is calculated for each year by multiplying the tax credit percentage from the Tax Credit Incentives page by the value electric output amount for that year. When an ITC applies, it is subtracted only in year one of the project; it is not subtracted in year two and subsequent years. The ITC is either equal to the fixed amount on the Payment Incentives page, or calculated by multiplying the ITC percentage on the Incentives page by the applicable basis. A note about incentives. Some incentives have caps that limit their maximum value, while others have escalation rates that increase their value from year to year. Others have term limits that end payments after a given number of years. In some cases the incentive income is taxable at the federal or state level, and in other cases it is not. Finally, investment and capacity based incentives may or may not reduce the basis on which the investment tax credit (ITC) is calculated. All of these factors are defined on the Payment Incentives page.
After Tax Cost

Year zero of the cash flows represents the project capital cost. The capital cost is equal to the total installed cost displayed on the system costs page minus the loan principal amount from the Financing page , and any investment based incentives. Year one is the first year that the project generates electricity. The cash flow for year one and subsequent years accounts for project expenses, income from electricity sales, taxes, and incentive payments. The after tax cost row represents the net income of the project after tax and debt payments are made, operating costs are paid, and any incentive payments are received. The after tax cost in year one and subsequent years is: After Tax Cost = State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings + PBI Incentives - Operating Costs Debt Total Payment Note. The cash flow table for utility projects does not include a row for the After Tax Cost flow.
After Tax Cashflow

The after tax cash flow for year one and subsequent years is given by: After Tax Cashflow = After Tax Cost +
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Residential Commercial Offset Electricity Payments Offset Electricity Payments - Offset Electricity Payments Effective Tax Rate
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The effective tax rate is a single number that includes both the federal income tax rate and state income tax rate. SAM uses the effective tax rate for several calculations requiring a total income tax value. The effective tax rate calculation is:
The federal and state tax rates are input variables on the Financing page.
Payback Cash Flows

SAM uses the payback cash flows to calculate the project payback period displayed in the Metrics table on the Results page. The payback period is the number of years that it takes for the cumulative payback expenses included cash flow to switch from negative to positive. If the cumulative payback cash flow amount is negative for all years in the cash flow, SAM displays the value 1e+99 for the payback, indicating that the payback period is greater than the analysis period. For Year 0, the payback cash flow is equal to the total installed cost from the System Costs page. A negative value indicates an expenditure. For Years 1 and later, the payback cash flow is: Payback expenses included = After Tax Cashflow + Debt Interest Payment (1 - Effective Tax Rate) + Debt Repayment Payback expenses excluded = Payback expenses included + Operating Costs + Deductible Expenses Effective Tax Rate The cumulative payback cash flow for each year is the sum of the current year's payback amount and the previous year's amount.
5.3.2
IPP and Commercial PPA
Cash Flow Year

The cash flow year is displayed in the top row of the cash flow table. In the descriptions below, the letter n indicates the cash flow year, where n = 0 is year zero of the cash flow, n = 1 is year one, n = 2 is year two, etc.
Energy (kWh)
The energy quantity reported for year one is equal to the Annual Energy value displayed in the Metrics table on the Results page. The quantities in year two and subsequent years is based on the year one value adjusted for the degradation rate on the Annual Performance page: Energy in Year n = Energy in Year One * (1 - Degradation Rate) ^ n-1
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Energy Price ($/kWh)

For residential and commercial projects, the energy price is determined by the rate structure you specify on the Utility Rate page and does not appear in the cash flow table. For utility and commercial third party projects, the energy price in year one is the 1st Year PPA price, which is a result displayed in the Metrics table on the Results page. The energy price represents the average annual electricity sales price. For utility projects, the energy price in years two and later is the first year price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate displayed on the Metrics table. Energy Price in Year n = Energy Price in Year n-1 * (1 + PPA Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Energy Value ($)

For residential and commercial projects, the energy value represents total annual value of electricity generated by the system, assuming that the electricity is sold at prices specified by the rate structure specified on the Utility Rate page. For solar hot water systems, the value represents the value of the thermal energy delivered to the thermal load. For utility and commercial third party projects, the energy value represents annual income earned by the project through electricity sales: Energy Value = Energy (k Wh) * Energy Price ($/k Wh)
Recapitalization
The recapitalization cost applies only to geothermal projects and represents the cost required to drill new wells when the reservoir temperature drops below a certain level. The recapitalization cost is specified on the Geothermal System Costs page.
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Costs

The operation and maintenance (O&M) costs are defined on the system costs page and escalated in each year after year one using both the escalation rate for each O&M category on the system costs page and the inflation rate value on the Financials page. Fixed O&M Annual in Year n = Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate) ^ n1 Fixed O&M in Year n = Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/k W-yr) * System Rated Capacity * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1) Variable O&M in Year n = Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) * Annual Output in Year n (MWh) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Fuel O&M
Parabolic trough, power tower, and generic fossil systems include an annual cost of fuel for the fossil backup system in the total operating expense. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for troughs or towers is greater than zero, the systems consume fuel for backup energy.) For photovoltaic and CSP dish systems, the fuel cost is always zero. SAM reports the annual fuel usage in the hourly results. The total annual fuel usage in year 1 is reported on the Annual Data spreadsheet in the Spreadsheet summary table.
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Fuel O&M in Year n = Annual Fuel Usage in Year 1 (k Wh) * 0.003413 MMBtu/k Wh * Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Insurance
The insurance cost applies in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depends on the insurance rate specified on the Financing page and the total installed costs on the System Costs page. Insurance in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) * Insurance (%) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Property Taxes
Property taxes apply in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depend on the property tax rate specified on the Financing page, and on the total installed costs on the System Costs page: Property Taxes in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) * Property Tax (%) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Net Salvage Value

SAM calculates the net salvage value using the percentage you specify on the Financing page and the total installed cost from the System Costs page. The salvage value applies in the final year of the project cash flow. For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of 2.5% and total installed cost of $1 million, SAM includes income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 0.10 (1 + 0.025) ^ (30 - 1). SAM adds the salvage value as income (a negative value) to the operating expenses in the cash flow in the final year of the analysis period. For residential projects, the salvage value has no effect on federal and state income tax because operating expenses are not taxable. For commercial and utility projects, the salvage value reduces the operating expenses in the final year of the analysis period, which effectively increases the federal and state income tax payment because operating expenses are deductible from federal and state income tax.
Total Operating Expenses

The total operating expenses include operation and maintenance costs, and insurance and property tax payments: Total Operating Expenses = Fixed O&M Annual + Fixed O&M + Variable O&M + Fuel O&M + Insurance + Property Taxes - Salvage Value
Operating Income
For utility projects, the operating income is the difference between revenues and operating costs: Operating Income = Energy Value - Operating Costs
Debt Balance
The debt balance in year one represents the debt portion of the capital costs, adjusted for any investmentbased incentives (IBI). The total installed cost is from the System Costs page, total investment-based
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incentives is the sum of all IBIs specified on the Payment Incentives page, and debt fraction is the value specified on the Financing page: Debt Balance = (-Total Installed Costs + Total Investment Based Incentives) * Debt Fraction In years two and later, the debt balance is calculated from the previous year's debt balance and debt repayment amounts: Debt Balance = - Debt Balance (previous year) - Debt Repayment (previous year)
Debt Interest Payment

The debt interest payment is the debt balance multiplied by the loan interest rate on the Financing page: Debt Interest Payment = Debt Balance * Loan Rate
Debt Repayment
The debt repayment amount is the annual payment on principal amount assuming constant payments over the loan term defined on the Financials page and at the constant annual interest rate defined on the Financials page. SAM calculates the amount using a methodology equivalent to Excel's PPMT function.
Debt Total Payment

The total debt payment is the sum of interest and principal payments: Debt Total Payment = Debt Interest Payment + Debt Repayment
Investment Based Incentives (IBI)

Each IBI applies in year one of the project cash flow. SAM calculates the value of each investment-based incentive (IBI) as either a fixed amount that you specify, or as a percentage of the total installed cost from the System Costs page: IBI = Amount ($) IBI = Total Installed Cost ($) * Percentage (%), up to maximum value
Capacity Based Incentives (CBI)

The CBI also apply in year one of the project cash flow, and are calculated based on the system's rated capacity. The rated capacity depends on the system type, as described in the capacity factor description: CBI = System Rated Capacty (W) * Amount, up to maximum value
Production Based Incentives (PBI)

The PBI apply in years 1 and later of the project cash flow. The PBIs are calculated based on each year's annual output, displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table. The amount and escalation rate are specified on the Payment Incentives page: PBI = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation) ^(n-1)
Federal PTC and State PTC

The PTC apply in year 1 and later of the project cash flow, up to the number of years specified by the Term variable on the Tax Credit Incentives page. The PTC are calculated based on each year's annual electrical output, displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table, and the amount specified on the Tax Credit
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Incentives page: PTC = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation) ^ n-1
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Federal ITC and State ITC

The ITC apply only in year 1 of the project cash flow. The ITC can be specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page as a fixed amount, or as a percentage of the total installed cost with a maximum value. The checkboxes in the "Reduces Depreciation Basis" column determines whether the basis used to calculate accelerated depreciation is reduced by the ITC amount. ITC = Amount ITC = ( Total Installed Cost ($) - Basis Reduction ($) )* Percentage (%), up to maximum value The "Basis Reduction" amount depends on whether the project includes any investment-based incentives (IBI) or capacity-based incentives (CBI) specified on the Payment Incentives page with checked boxes in the "Reduces ITC Basis." For each checked incentive, SAM subtracts the IBI or CBI amount from the total installed cost to calculate the ITC.
Sales Tax Deduction

SAM calculates the sales tax amount by multiplying the sales tax rate on the Financing page by the "percent of direct cost" rate you specify under Indirect Capital Costs and the Total Direct Cost on the System Costs page. The sales tax amount is therefore included the total installation cost and accounted for in the year zero after tax cost in the project cash flow. SAM also deducts the sales tax amount from federal and state income tax payment in year one of the project cash flow. The sales tax deduction amount depends on the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page, and the percentage of direct cost and total direct cost specified on the System Costs page: Sales Tax Deduction = Sales Tax (%) * Percent of Direct Cost (%) * Total Direct Cost ($)
PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio

The debt-service coverage ratio row in the cash flow table only applies to projects with utility and commercial third-party financing. Solar Adviser displays the annual debt service coverage (DSCR) amounts for utility and commercial third party ownership projects only. The minimum DSCR value displayed in the Metrics table is the minimum value in the row of the cash flow table. PreTax DSCR = Operating Income Total Debt Payment
5.3.3
New Utility Structures (Draft)
This section describes the cash flow for the four new utility rate structures, Single Owner, All Equity Partnership Flip, Leveraged Partnership Flip and Sale Leaseback. Note. This section is in draft form and will be updated soon after the release of SAM 0.0.1.
Partial Income Statement: Project

The first four rows of the cash flow table show values for the project as a whole.
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The energy quantity reported for year one is equal to the Annual Energy value displayed in the Metrics table on the Results page. The quantities in year two and subsequent years is based on the year one value adjusted for the degradation rate on the Annual Performance page: Energy in Year n = Energy in Year One * (1 - Degradation Rate) ^ n-1
Net Energy (kWh)
PPA price (cents/kWh) The PPA price year one is the 1st Year PPA price, which is a result displayed in the Metrics table on the Results page. The energy price represents the average annual electricity sales price. The PPA price in years two and later is the first year price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate displayed on the Metrics table. Energy Price in Year n = Energy Price in Year n-1 * (1 + PPA Escalation Rate)^(n-1) Salvage value ($) SAM calculates the net salvage value using the percentage you specify on the Financing page and the total installed cost from the System Costs page. The salvage value applies in the final year of the project cash flow. For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of 2.5% and total installed cost of $1 million, SAM includes income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 0.10 (1 + 0.025) ^ (30 - 1). SAM adds the salvage value as income (a negative value) to the operating expenses in the cash flow in the final year of the analysis period. The salvage value reduces the operating expenses in the final year of the analysis period, which effectively increases the federal and state income tax payment because operating expenses are deductible from federal and state income tax. Total revenue ($) Annual income earned by the project through electricity sales: Total Revenue = Net Energy (k Wh) * PPA Price ($/k Wh)
Expenses
The eight expense rows are for annual project costs calculated from assumptions you specify on the Financing and System Costs pages. The four O&M expenses are based on the first year or annual schedule costs you specify under Operation and Maintenance Costs on the System Costs page, and are adjusted by the inflation rate from the Financing page and optional escalation rate from the System Costs page. O&M Fixed expense ($) O&M Fixed Expense in Year n = Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate) ^ n-1 O&M Capacity-based expense ($) O&M Capacity-based Expense in Year n = Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/k W-yr) * System Rated Capacity * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1) O&M Production-based expense ($) O&M Production-based Expense in Year n = Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) * Annual Output in Year n (MWh) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
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O&M Fuel expense ($)
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Parabolic trough, power tower, and generic fossil systems include an annual cost of fuel for the fossil backup system in the total operating expense. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page for troughs or towers is greater than zero, the systems consume fuel for backup energy.) For photovoltaic and CSP dish systems, the fuel cost is always zero. SAM reports the annual fuel usage in the hourly results. The total annual fuel usage in year 1 is reported on the Annual Data spreadsheet in the Spreadsheet summary table. Fuel Expense in Year n = Annual Fuel Usage in Year 1 (k Wh) 0.003413 MMBtu/k Wh Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1) The insurance and property tax expense amounts depend on the insurance and tax rates you specify on the Financing page. Insurance expense ($) The insurance cost applies in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depends on the insurance rate specified on the Financing page and the total installed costs on the System Costs page. Insurance in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) Insurance (%) (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1) Property tax net assessed value ($) The first year property tax net assessed value is shown on the Financing page, and is based on the assessed percent value you specify and the total installed cost from the System Costs page. Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year 1 = Assessed Percent (%) Total Installed Cost ($) The assessed value in Years 2 and later is based on the assessed value decline value you specify on the Financing page: Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year n = Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year 1 (1 Assessed Value Decline)^(n-1) Property tax expense ($) The property tax expense depends on the assessed value and the property tax rate you specify on the Financing page: Property Tax Expense in Year n = Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year n ($) Property Tax (%/Year) Total operating expense ($) The total operating expense is the sum of O&M, insurance, and property tax expenses. Total Operating Expense in Year n = O&M Fixed Expense ($) + O&M Capacity-based Expense ($) + O&M Production-based Expense ($) + O&M Fuel Expense ($) + Insurance Expense ($) + Property Tax Expense ($) (all in Year n)
EBITDA ($)
Earnings before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA) is a measure of the project's annual net income: EBITDA in Year n = Total Revenue in Year n ($) - Total Operating Expense in Year n ($)
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5.4
Tabular Data Browser
The tabular data browser displays results in tabular form from both the base case simulation, which reflects data specified on the input pages, and from parametric analyses and other advanced analyses involving multiple simulations. You can create custom tables of data in the tabular data browser and export them for use in another program. To view the tabular data browser: 1. On the Results page, click Tabular Data Browser.
2. 3.
If you do not see the Hourly Data list, run simulations to generate the list. If your analysis involved multiple simulations, such as for parametric analyses, choose a simulation in the Choose Simulation list. The list does not appear for results of single simulations. In the navigation tree under Output Variables, check the box for each variable you want to display in the table.
Tabular Data Browser Categories

The tabular data browser displays data in the following categories: Metrics Displays any results that consist of a single value, including: Results from the Metrics table Cost data from the System Costs page Annual totals of energy output values from the hourly data. Monthly Data Displays results that consist of twelve monthly values: Monthly averages of energy output values from the hourly data. Weather and performance output data values are monthly totals of the hourly data. For projects with Utility IPP financing, the "First Year TOD..." values show the total electrical output and revenue by month at for each time of day period specified on the Thermal Energy Storage page for CSP systems and Energy Payment Dispatch page for other technologies.
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For projects with residential or commercial financing, the "First year..." values show monthly demand charges and for rate structures with tiered rates, monthly energy charges under the tier structure. Rate structures are from the Utility Rate page. Annual Data Displays results that consist of values for each year in the analysis period: Year-to-year quantities from the cash flow for each year of the analysis period. Year-to-year cumulative kWh/kW value. Hourly Data Hourly values calculated by the performance model. For descriptions of the hourly data, see: PV Component Hourly Data PVWatts Hourly Data Physical Trough Hourly Data Empirical Trough Hourly Data Hourly pricing data for projects with residential and commercial financing. For for other models, contact SAM Support at solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. Note. If you do not see the Hourly Data list, run simulations to generate the list. SAM deletes stored hourly data when you close the file to save storage space.
Exporting Data from the Tabular Data Browser

SAM offers three options for exporting the cash flow table: Copy to clipboard copies the table to your clipboard. You can paste the entire table into a word processing document, spreadsheet, presentation or other software. Save as CSV saves the table in a comma-delimited text file that you can open in a spreadsheet program or text editor. Send to Excel (Windows only) saves the table in an Excel file. Tip. You can view graphs of hourly values from the tabular data browser in DView by first exporting it to a CSV file, and then opening the file in DView. To open DView, on the Results menu, click View Hourly Time Series (DView). Use a text editor to make sure that the first row of the file contains column labels separated by commas and the second row contains column units separated by commas. Related topics: Time Series Data Viewer (DView) for details about viewing hourly data in DView. Base Case Cash Flow for information about financial model results. Simulation Output File for details about viewing the raw hourly simulation data. Case Summary for information about viewing the case summary spreadsheet, which includes data shown on the tabular data browser.
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5.5
Sliders
A slider is a user interface element that allows you to dynamically change the value of an input variable and observe the effects on tables and graphs displayed on the Results Summary page. For example, the following group of three sliders would allow you to view the effect of changing operation and maintenance costs (Fixed Cost by Capacity), inverter cost and module cost on the levelized cost of energy and other graphs.
Note. Moving a slider only changes the graph. It does not change the stored inputs or results. To use sliders: To add a slider, click Choose base case sliders:
To change value of a slider, click and drag the blue slider button, which will turn yellow as you drag it. The button indicates the variable's current value, as does the number at the left end of the slider. The red line indicates the variable's base case value, which is the value from the variable's input page.
The buttons on the top right corner of the slider allow you to assign the current value to the base case value, change the slider's range, and to remove the slider from the Results Summary page.
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Note. Assigning a slider's current value to the base case changes the variable's value on the input page.
5.6
Case Summary
The case summary is a dataset that SAM generates input variables, the cash flow, hourly results, and averages of hourly results. The data included in the case summary is from "base case" input values, which are the values of input variables visible on the input pages. The case summary does not display data from additional simulations for parametric or other simulation configurations that require multiple simulations. Note. The case summary is a report that contains values generated by SAM during simulations. When you export the case summary to Excel (Windows only) the workbook contains values but no formulas. This is because SAM calculates the values internally and does not rely on Excel to make the calculations. To generate the case summary workbook: 1. On the Results page, click the Export and view data button
2.
or, on the Results menu, click Case Summary. Choose an option for exporting the data.
SAM provides three options for exporting case summary data: To Clipboard (Windows and Mac) Creates a copy of the case summary data as comma-separated values (CSV) in your computer's clipboard. You can paste the data in a spreadsheet, word processing program, or other program. This option does not save hourly output data.
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Saves the case summary data to a text file as comma-separated values (CSV). The comma-separated version of the case summary includes some of the data included in the case summary workbook in a single file. The data is arranged in columns as follows: Monthly averages of some hourly variables, annual averages, cash flow table with years listed by row instead of by column, data from the Metrics table. This option does not save hourly output data.
Save as CSV (Windows and Mac)
Send to Excel (Windows only) For Windows only. Creates and opens an Excel workbook containing several worksheets of data.
Case Summary Workbook in Excel (Windows Only)

The case summary workbook contains a worksheet for each of the following categories of output data: Cashflow Cash flow table showing project cost details for each year of the analysis period. This is the same data shown in the Base Case Cashflow table on the Results page. Metrics A copy of the data shown in the Metrics table on the Results page. See Metrics Table for details. Graphs Data from graphs visible on the Results page when you displayed the case summary workbook. Inputs A list of input variables and values. Hourly Data Hourly values calculated by the performance model. For descriptions of the hourly data, see: PV Component Hourly Data PVWatts Hourly Data Physical Trough Hourly Data Empirical Trough Hourly Data For for other models, contact SAM Support at solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov. Monthly Data Monthly averages of the hourly performance data. Annual Data Annual averages of the hourly performance data. All Outputs A single worksheet containing some data from the worksheets described above. This data is equivalent to the data exported using the To Clipboard or Save as CSV export options. Data File A blank worksheet.
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5.7
Hourly Results
SAM displays hourly results in the tabular data browser and on the Hourly Data tab of the case summary spreadsheet. The variables that appear in the hourly results are different for different technologies, and are a subset of the hourly results stored in the simulation results file. For descriptions of the hourly results by technology, see the relevant section below. For technologies not included in the list, contact SAM support at solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov: Photovoltaic component-based model PVWatts Physical trough Empirical trough For projects with residential and commercial financing, SAM also displays hourly results for electricity prices, electric load, and energy to and from the grid: Hourly Pricing Data
5.7.1
Hourly Pricing Data
For projects with residential and commercial financing, you specify electricity prices on the Utility Rate page and an electric load on the Electric Load page. The electricity prices are retail prices set by the electric service provider. SAM reports the following hourly data in the tabular data browser on the Results page that you can use to explore pricing data along with hourly energy quantities: Electricity sold to and purchased from the grid in kWh Electricity prices in $/kWh Electric load in kWh Revenue from electricity sales (sales - purchases) in $ To view hourly pricing data: 1. After running simulations, on the Results page, click Tabular Data Browser.
Note. To save disk space, SAM discards hourly data each time you close a file. To see the hourly data after opening a file, you must first run simulations. 2. 3. Under Output Variables, click Hourly Data to expand the list of hourly variables. Check a variable name to display the variable's hourly values. You can export the data to Excel or another spreadsheet program using the buttons above the table.
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Hourly Pricing Variables

System output, kWh The electric output of the renewable energy system. The variable name differs for the different technologies. Electricity demand, kWh Electricity required from the grid. For negative values, SAM sets the electricity demand to zero: Electricity Demand = Electricity Load - System Output Note that SAM reports the load as a negative number. The above equation is for positive load values. Electricity Load, kWh The electric load requirement defined on the Electric Load page. Electricity Price with System, $/kWh The price of electricity for the given hour using buy and sell rates specified on the Utility Rate page. For hours when the project buys electricity, it is the buy rate specified for that hour. For hours when the project sells electricity, it is the sell rate. Electricity Price without System, $/kWh The price of electricity for the given hour, assuming the renewable energy system does not exist, using the sell rates specified on the Utility Rate page. Electricity to grid, kWh Electricity delivered to the grid. A negative value indicates electricity purchased from the grid. A positive value indicates electricity sold to the grid. Electricity to Grid = System Output - Electricity Load Note that SAM reports the load as a negative number. The above equation is for positive load values. Peak electricity demand, kW Applies only when you specify sub-hourly load data on the Electric Load page. The maximum value of the sub-hourly electricity demand values for each hour. Peak electricity load, kW Applies only when you specify sub-hourly load data on the Electric Load page. The maximum value of the sub-hourly electricity load values for each hour. SAM determines the maximum monthly value to calculate any monthly demand charges specified on the Utility Rate page. Peak electricity to grid, kW Applies only when you specify sub-hourly load data on the Electric Load page. The maximum value of the sub-hourly electricity to grid values for each hour. Purchases with system, $ The value of electricity purchased from the grid at the applicable buy rate for each hour, including monthly charges and tiered rate energy charges. Purchases with System = Electricity Price with System Electricity Demand SAM assigns monthly charges and tiered rate energy charges to the final hour of each month. For example, charges for January apply to Hour 744 (31 days/month 24 hours/day = 744 hours/month), and charges for February apply to Hour 1416, assuming 28 days for February. For the final hour of each
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Purchases with System = Electricity Price with System Electricity Demand + Demand Charges + Tiered Rate Energy Charges Purchases without system, $ The value of electricity that would be purchased to meet the load without the renewable energy system at the buy rates specified on the Utility Rate page. Purchases without System = Electricity Price without System Electricity Load SAM assigns monthly charges and tiered rate energy charges to the final hour of each month as described above. For the final hour of each month: Purchases without System = Electricity Price without System Electricity Load + Demand Charges + Tiered Rate Energy Charges Revenue with system, $ The net value of sales to the grid. Revenue with System = Sales with System - Purchases with System Revenue without system, $ The value of electricity that would be purchased from the grid without the renewable energy system. Revenue without System = Sales without System - Purchases without System Because sales without the system are zero, Revenue without System = - Purchases without System Sales with system, $ The value of electricity sold to the grid at the applicable sell rate for each hour that the system output is greater than the load. Sales with System = Electricity Price with System ( System Output - Electricity Load ) Note that SAM reports the load as a negative number. The above equation is for positive load values. For hours when the sales value is less than zero, SAM reports a value of zero. Sales without system, $ Without a renewable energy system, no electricity is sold to the grid. Sales without System = 0
5.7.2
PV Component Hourly Data
SAM displays hourly results for the photovoltaic component-based model in the following places: Case summary workbook Tabular data browser DView Simulation output file The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and
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DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file.
Case Summary Hourly Data for the Photovoltaic Component-based Model

Hour Hour of the year. The time convention is determined by the convention used in the weather file. For NREL's TMY format, Hour 1 represents the hour ending at 1 am on January 1, and February has 28 days. For schedules used for utility rate structures and thermal energy storage dispatch, SAM assumes that January 1 is a Monday. Global Horizontal (kW/m2), Hourly Global horizontal radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the end of the hour. Incident Beam (kW/m2), Hourly Incident beam radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the end of the hour. Incident Beam, Shaded (kW/m2), Hourly Incident beam radiation reduced by the beam shading factor (if any) specified on the Shading page. Incident Diffuse (kW/m2), Hourly Incident diffuse radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the end of the hour. Incident Diffuse, Shaded (kW/m2), Hourly The incident diffuse radiatin reduced by the sky diffuse shading factor (if any) specified on the Shading page. Radiation Total (kW/m2), Hourly Incident total radiation calculated by the weather processor based on solar angles determined from the latitude and longitude values in the weather file and array orientation options specified on the Array page . Incident Total (kWh), Hourly The total average hourly incident global radiation absorbed by the array, the product of the incident radiation in kilowatts per square meter and the array area in square meters from the Array page. Module Eff. (%), Hourly Module average efficiency by hour, equivalent to Gross DC Power / Incident Total. Wind Speed (m/s), Hourly The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file. Ambient Temperature ('C), Hourly The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. Cell Temperature ('C), Hourly The cell temperature.
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Vmp (V), Hourly The array's maximum power DC voltage. Gross DC Output (kWh), Hourly DC output of the array, not derated. Derated DC Output (kWh), Hourly
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DC output of the array, derated by the amount specified by the pre-inverter derate factor on the Array page. Gross AC Output (kWh), Hourly AC output of the inverter, not derated. Derated AC Output (kWh), Hourly AC output of the inverter, derated by the amount specified by the post-inveter derate factor on the Array page. For simulations that involve retail pricing and a load (residential and commercial financing only), the hourly results includes additional variables showing the load, grid electricity, and prices. See Hourly Pricing Data for details.
5.7.3
PVWatts Hourly Data
SAM displays hourly results for the PVWatts model in the following places: Case summary workbook Tabular data browser DView Simulation output file The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file.
Case Summary Hourly Data for the PVWatts Model

Hour Hour of the year. The time convention is determined by the convention used in the weather file. For NREL's TMY format, Hour 1 represents the hour ending at 1 am on January 1, and February has 28 days. For schedules used for utility rate structures and thermal energy storage dispatch, SAM assumes that January 1 is a Monday. Direct (kW/m2), Hourly Incident direct radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the end of the hour. Diffuse (kW/m2), Hourly Incident diffuse radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the end of the hour.
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Incident total radiation calculated by the weather processor based on solar angles determined from the latitude and longitude values in the weather file and array orientation options specified on the Array page .
Plane of Array (kW/m2), Hourly
Wind Speed (m/s), Hourly The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file. Ambient Temp ('C), Hourly The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. Cell Temp ('C), Hourly The cell temperature. DC Output (kWh), Hourly DC output of the array. Hourly Energy (kWh) AC output of the system. Shading Factor for Beam Radiation, Hourly The hourly beam shading factor specified on the Shading page. For simulations that involve retail pricing and a load (residential and commercial financing only), the hourly results includes additional variables showing the load, grid electricity, and prices. See Hourly Pricing Data for details.
5.7.4
Physical Trough Hourly Data
SAM displays hourly results for the physical trough model in the following places: Case summary workbook Tabular data browser DView Simulation output file The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file.
Case Summary Hourly Data for the Physical Trough Model

Hour Hour of the year Hourly Energy (kWh) AC electricity generated by the system.
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Hourly Results
DNI (kW/m2-hr), Hourly Direct normal irradiance DNIxCosTH (W/m2), Hourly Incident direct normal irradiance Dry Bulb Temp (C), Hourly
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The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. Wet Bulb Temp (C), Hourly The mid-hour wet bulb temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour wet bulb temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. Collector Optical Efficiency, Hourly Collector efficiency Available Flow From Field, Hourly Mass flow rate at solar field outlet in kg/hr. Flow to Power Block, Hourly Mass flow rate at power block inlet in kg/hr. Flow Discharge Collector Side, Hourly Mass flow rate mass flow at solar side of storage loop in kg/hr. Flow Discharge TES Side, Hourly Mass flow rate at tank side storage loop in kg/hr. Flow to Aux Heater, Hourly Auxiliary heater mass flow rate in kg/hr. Mass in Cold Tank, Hourly Mass of fluid in cold tank in kg. Mass in Hot Tank, Hourly Mass of storage fluid in hot tank in kg. Power Block Efficiency, Hourly Thermal-to-electricy conversion efficiency of the power block. Field Pumping Power, Hourly Parasitic solar field pumping load in kWh/h. Gross Electric Output (kWh), Hourly System electric output. Q Field Output, Hourly Solar field thermal energy output in kWh. Q Incident Total, Hourly Total radiation incident on collector in kWh.
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Total energy absorbed by the solar field in kWh.
Q Absorbed Total, Hourly Q to Power Block, Hourly Thermal energy delivered to power block in kWh. Q Dumped, Hourly Thermal energy shed by defocusing collectors in kWh Q Thermal Loss, Hourly HCE thermal heat losses in kWh. Q Aux. Fuel Usage Auxiliary boiler fuel consumption in kWh. Cold Header Inlet Temp (C), Hourly HTF temperature at solar field inlet. Hot Header Outlet Temp (C), Hourly HTF temperature at solar field outlet. Power Block HTF Inlet Temp (C), Hourly HTF temperature at power block inlet. Power Block HTF Outlet Temp (C), Hourly HTF temperature at power block outlet. Water Usage (m3), Hourly Water usage for cooling and mirror washing.
5.7.5
Empirical Trough Hourly Data
SAM displays hourly results for the empirical trough model in the following places: Case summary workbook Tabular data browser DView Simulation output file The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file. Hour Hour of simulation from the weather file. SAM assumes that Hour 1 ends at 1:00 a.m. on January 1, and that Hour 8,760 ending at midnight December 31. DNI (kW/m2-hr), Hourly Direct normal irradiance from weather file.
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Hourly Results
DNIxCosTH (W/m2), Hourly Incident direct normal irradiance. Wind Speed (m/s), Hourly
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The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file. Ambient Temp ('C), Hourly The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. Incident Solar Radiation, Hourly Total direct radiation incident on the solar field in kWh, equal to the product of the direct normal irradiance and the actual solar field area from the Solar Field page. Incidence Angle for Solar Field, Hourly Total cosine-adjusted direct radiation incident on the solar field in kWh, equal to the product of the DNIxCosTh and the actual solar field area from the Solar Field page. Solar Field Availability, Hourly Total availability-adjusted field energy in kWh, equal to the product of the cosine-adjusted energy and the Solar Availability factor from the SCA / HCE page. Solar Field Optical Efficiency, Hourly The availability-adjusted field energy value in kWh less optical efficiency-related losses. Receiver Thermal Losses, Hourly Thermal losses from the receiver in kWh. Piping Thermal Losses, Hourly Piping thermal losses in kWh. Thermal Energy Delivered by Solar Field, Hourly Thermal energy output of the solar field in kWh. TES Full Losses, Hourly Losses from the thermal energy storage system TES when the TES is at full capacity. TES Thermal Losses, Hourly Hourly losses from the thermal energy storage system, equal to the Tank Heat Loss value specified on the Thermal Storage page. Turbine Start Up, Hourly Energy required to start up the power block. Excess to PB,TES, Hourly Thermal energy in kWh dumped when either the energy delivered to either the power block or TES exceeds the maximum allowed Thermal Energy to Power Block, Hourly Thermal energy in kWh delivered to the power block from the solar field an/or storage.
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Power block gross electric output before parasitic losses.
Gross Electric Output (kWh), Hourly Hourly Energy (kWh) System electric output after parasitic losses.
5.8
Simulation Results File
During simulations, SAM generates a set of hourly output data and stores them in the simulation output file. SAM stores the file in a temporary folder that is available until you close SAM. SAM provides three options for viewing subsets of the data in the simulation output file. Each option displays a different subset of the data in the simulation output file: Tabular Data Browser (Windows and Mac) on the Results page allows you to choose the data to display and to export the data to the clipboard or to a text or Excel file. Time Series Data Viewer (DView) (Windows only) displays the data in a graphical data viewing program that shows the raw hourly data along with statistical summaries of the data, and allows graphs and data to be exported to the clipboard, image files, and text files. Case Summary Workbook (Windows only) displays the data in an Excel workbook on the Hourly Data spreadsheet. Open the simulation output file (.out) directly (Windows and Mac) with a text-editor or spreadsheet program. Press the F9 key to open the temporary folder containing the file. If you frequently work with hourly results, you can choose to save hourly output files in a folder of your choice in the Preferences window by checking the Save TRNYSYS hourly data, list, and log files in folder option and specifying a folder. Click Preferences on the File menu to open the window. SAM does not delete files from this folder. However, it uses the same file name each time it runs a simulation, so if you want to save files from different simulations, you should manually rename the file after each simulation so that SAM does not overwrite the data.
Hourly Simulation Data Descriptions

For descriptions of the hourly simulation data by technology, see the relevant section below. For technologies not included in the list, contact SAM support at solar.advisor.support@nrel.gov: Photovoltaic component-based models Physical trough model Empirical trough model
5.8.1
PV Component Simulation
SAM displays photovoltaic system hourly output data in the following places: Simulation output file (described below) Tabular data browser on the Results page
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Case summary workbook DView
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Hourly Simulation Output Data for Photovoltaic Component-based Model

hour Hour of simulation from the weather file. SAM assumes that Hour 1 ends at 1:00 a.m. on January 1, and that Hour 8,760 ending at midnight December 31. GlobHozRad, kW/m2 Global horizontal radiation from weather file. IncBeam, kW/m2 Incident beam radiation calculated by the weather data processor based on data from weather file and array orientation specified on the Array page. IncBeamShad, kW/m2 Incident beam radiation reduced by the beam shading factor specified on the Shading page. IncDiff, kW/m2 Incident diffuse radiation calculated by the weather data processor based on data from the weather file and array orientation specified on the Array page. IncDiffShad Incident diffuse radiation reduced by the sky diffuse shading factor specified on the Shading page. IncTotRad, kW/m2 Incident total radiation calculated by the weather data processor based on data from the weather file and array orientation specified on the Array page, and accounting for the shading factors on the Shading page. DCPower The average DC power delivered by the array over the hour in kWh/h. InvPartLoad The ratio of the inverter's AC power to its rated AC power. InvEff The ratio of the inverter's AC output to its DC input. ACPower, kW The average AC power delivered by the system. CellTemp, C The cell temperature. AmbTemp, C The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. Windspd, m/s The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind
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speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file.
Vmp, Vdc The array's maximum power DC voltage. InputRadiation, kWh The total average hourly incident global radiation absorbed by the array, the product of the incident radiation in kilowatts per square meter and the array area in square meters. Gross_DCPower, kW DC output of the array, not derated. Derated_DCPower, kW DC output of the array, derated by the amount specified by the total pre-inverter derate factor on the Array page. Gross_ACPower, kW AC output of the inverter, not derated. Derated_ACPower, kW AC output of the inverter, derated by the amount specified by the total post-inveter derate factor on the Array page ModEff Module average efficiency by hour, equivalent to Gross_DCPower / InputRadiation. Beam_derate The beam shading factor from the Shading page. self_shad_nonlin self_shad_lin slope, deg The array angle from horizontal, based on the tracking option and tilt angle from the Array page and the sun angle calculated by the weather processor. azimuth, deg The east-west orientation of the array, based on the tracking option and tilt angle from the Array page and the sun angle calculated by the weather processor. rotation, deg
5.8.2
Physical Trough Simulation
SAM displays physical trough simulation output data in the following places: Simulation output file (described below) Tabular data browser on the Results page Case summary workbook DView
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Hourly Simulation Output Data for Physical Trough Model

TIME, hours hour of the year DNI, W/m2 direct normal irradiance Hour_of_day, hours hour of the day P_atm, atm atmospheric pressure V_wind, m/s The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file. Solar_azimuth, deg solar azimuth Solar_elevation, deg solar elevation T_dry_bulb, C The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. T_wet_bulb, C The mid-hour wet bulb temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file. collector_opt_efficiency collector efficiency collector_Theta, deg collector incidence angle (Theta) collector_CosTheta cosine of Theta collector_IAM, none incidence angle modifier collector_Row-Shadow row shadowing collector_End-loss end loss
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CosTheta-adjusted incident radiation
collector_DNI-x-CosTh, W/m2 collector_Qsf-x-CosTh, MW CosTheta-adjusted field power flow_available_from_field, kg/hr mass flow rate flow_within_field, kg/hr Internal field mass flow rate flow_to_power_block, kg/hr flow to power block flow_demand_power_block, kg/hr demand mass flow rate flow_store_disch-col-side, kg/hr mass flow rate of solar side storage loop flow_store_disch-TES-side, kg/hr mass flow rate of tank side storage loop flow_to_aux_heat, kg/hr auxiliary heater mass flow rate flow_in_loop, kg/s flow in a single loop flow_water_makeup, kg/hr water makeup flow rate Frac_focused_SCAs fraction of all SCAS that are defocused hx_effectiveness hx effectiveness mass_cold_tank, kg cold tank available mass mass_hot_tank, kg hot tank available mass mass_tanks_total, kg total available storage HTF mass Pressure_drop_field, bar pressure drop across solar field Efficiency_power_block cycle thermal efficiency
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power_field-pump_par, MW required pumping power power_PB-TES-pumps_par, MW TES and PB HTF pumping power power_drives-elec_par, MW SCA drives and electronics parasitic power power_BOP_par, MW balance of plant parasitic load power_fixed_par, MW fixed parasitic load power_htr-boiler_par, MW auxiliary boiler parasitic load power_cooling_par, MW cooling parasitic power power_gross, MW cycle power output E_net, MW net electric power output Q_field_out, MW thermal power produced by the field Q_inc_total, MW total incident power on field Q_abs_total, MW total absorbed power Q_to_pb, MW thermal energy to the power block Q_hdr_pipe_hl MW, hot header and runner pipe heat losses Q_dump, MW dumped energy Q_loss_tank, MW tank thermal losses Q_loss_therm, MW HCE thermal losses Q_loss_abstube_avg, W/m average losses from absorber tube
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auxiliary thermal energy delivered
Q_aux_fluid, MW Q_aux_fuel_hv, MMBTU auxiliary fuel heat content required Q_freeze_prot, MW required freeze protection Q_frzprot_tank, MW total parasitic power for tank freeze protection Q_startup, MW energy used for startup T_cold_header_in, C system inlet temperature T_hot_header_out, C outlet temperature T_collector_in, C HCE inlet temperature T_cold_tank_in, C cold tank inlet temp T_hot_tank_in, C hot tank inlet temp T_cold_tank, C cold tank temperature T_hot_tank, C hot tank temperature T_store_loop_in, C fluid temp of hot HTF in solar loop T_store_loop_out, C cold side of storage, HTF temperature in solar loop T_power_block_HTF_in, C power block inlet HTF temperature T_power_block_HTF_out, C cold HTF outlet temp Vol_cold_tank, m3 available cold htf volume Vol_hot_tank, m3 available hot htf volume
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Vol_tanks_tot, m3 total storage volume
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5.8.3
Empirical Trough Simulation
SAM displays physical trough simulation output data in the following places: Simulation output file (described below) Tabular data browser on the Results page Case summary workbook DView
Hourly Simulation Output Data for Empirical Trough Model

TIME, HOURS hour of year Day_of_year, day day of year MONTH, month month of year Hour_of_month, hr hour of month Day_of_month, day day of month Hour_of_day, hr hour of day TOUPeriod, none time-of-use period defined for storage dispatch SolTime, hr solar time HrAngle, deg hour angle SolAz, deg solar azimuth angle SolAlt, deg solar altitude DNI, W/m2 direct normal irradiance from weather file
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The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-ofhour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the weather file.
T_dry_bulb, C
V_wind, m/s The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file. Theta, deg theta incidence angle Costheta, none cosine theta angle product TrckAngl, deg collector tracking angle IAM, none incident angle modifier RowShadow, none fraction of incoming radiation remaining after row shadowing is subtracted Endloss, none fraction of incoming radiation remaining after losses off end of collector RecHtLoss, MW receiver heat loss QSF_HCE_HL, MW energy lost by HCEs (receivers) in the solar field SF_OptEff, none total solar field optical efficiency Q_nip, W/m2 direct normal radiation value read from the weather file Q_nipCosTh, W/m2 cosine Theta-adjusted incident radiation QSF_nipCosTh, MW radiation in the solar field collector plane Q_DNI_on_SF, MW direct normal radiation incident on the solar field. Q_DNI_on_SF = Q_nip * Solar Field Area Q_abs, W/m2 thermal energy absorbed by collectors QSF_Abs, MW thermal energy absorbed by the solar field accounts for optical losses but not thermal losses
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Q_SF(MW), MW thermal energy delivered by the solar field Q_SF = Q_abs - QSF_HCE_HL - QSF_Pipe_HL SfPipeHL, kJ/hr.m2 energy lost by header piping in the solar field QSF_Pipe_HL, MW energy lost by header piping in the solar field SF_Tin, C solar field inlet temperature SF_TOut, C solar field outlet temperature SF_MassFlow, kg/s solar field outlet mass flow rate SF_AveTemp, C average solar field temperature Q_col, W/m2 collected energy ColOptEff, none collector optical efficiency QsfWarmUp, MW power contributed to warming the field Q_htf_FrPr, MW energy used for freeze protection Q_htf_FP_TES, MW.hr energy supplied by the TES when the heat transfer fluid temperature falls below its freezing point Q_htf_FP_Htr, MW.hr
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energy supplied by the auxiliary heater when the heat transfer fluid temperature falls below its freezing point Q_to_TES, MW thermal energy to storage Q_from_TES, MW thermal energy from storage E_in_TES, MW thermal energy in storage Q_TES_HL, MW storage tank heat loss Q_TES_Full, MW thermal energy dumped because the thermal storage is full
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thermal energy to the power block, may include energy from the solar field or energy from both the solar field and thermal storage"
Q_to_PB, MW
Q_turb_SU, MW thermal energy needed to start the turbine Q_min, none Q_dump, MW thermal energy dumped when either the energy delivered to either the power block or TES exceeds the maximum allowed PBMode, none zero indicates that power block is not generating electricity, one indicates that the power block is not generating electricity but is starting up, two indicates that the power block is generating electricity" Turb_Su_Frac, none zero indicates the power block is not starting, one indicates that the power block is starting E_gross_solar, MW gross solar electric generation E_under_min, MW gross solar output during hours when the solar energy is insufficient to drive the turbine does not contribute to the electric output" E_dump, MW the difference between gross solar output and the design output for hours when E_gross_solar > Design Turbine Gross Output, does not contribute to power output" E_gross_fossil, MW gross fossil electric generation Q_gas, MW thermal energy equivalent of the electric energy generated by the fossil fuel-fired backup boiler E_gross, MW electric output originating from both solar and fossil sources but not accounting for parasitic losses or availability E_net, MW electric output from both solar and fossil sources accounting for parasitic losses but not for availability E_parasit, MW electric energy losses due to parasitic electrical loads in the system (pumps, control electronics, etc.) E_par_SF, MW.hr parasitics of the solar field E_par_cHTF, MW cold HTF pump parasitics (HTF flow to solar field)
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E_par_hHTF, MW hot HTF pump parasitic losses E_par_Anti, MW.hr antifreeze parasitics E_par_Htr, MW heater parasitic losses E_par_PB, MW fixed power block parasitics (24 hr) E_par_BOP, MW balance of plant parasitics E_par_CT, MW cooling tower parasitic loads E_par_Offline, MW parasitic losses that occur during hours when the power block is not generating electricity E_par_Online, MW parasitic losses that occur during hours when the power block is generating electricity Ftrack, none one indicates that collectors are tracking the sun zero indicates that trackers are stowed
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Time Series Data Viewer (DView)

Weather data: On the Climate page, click View hourly data. Electric load data for systems with commercial or residential financing: On the Electric Load page, click Visualise load data. Hourly simulation results: On the Results menu, click View Hourly Time Series (DView).
SAM displays graphs of hourly data for the current case in a built-in data viewer called DView. You can use the viewer to display graphs of the following types of data:
For a listing of the hourly output variables displayed in DView, see Simulation Output File. For a description of weather data in the Climate file, see Climate.
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Note for Mac users. DView only runs on Windows. To view hourly output data on a Mac computer, you must open the simulation output file directly in a text editor or spreadsheet program. See Simulation Output File for details. To view weather data, weather files in the TMY3 format are comma-separated text files, so you can open them with a spreadsheet program. Files in TMY2 and EPW format use a constant-width column format, and are more difficult to read without specialized software. DView displays graphs of hourly data, monthly and annual averages of hourly data, and statistical graphs. DView allows you to export data from graphs to a tab-delimited text file, and to copy graph images for use in presentations and reports. You can download the latest version of DView from http://www.mistaya.ca/software/dview.htm. Tips for using DView: For check box lists, checking a box in the left-hand column displays two graphs and displays the checked variable in the upper graph. Checking a box in the right-hand column displays the graph in the lower graph, or in a single graph when no boxes are checked in the left-hand column. Right-click a graph to export an image of the graph or a table of the data in the graph. Change properties of a graph, such as the graph title and labels, line colors and style, and axis scale by right-clicking a graph and choosing Properties. When you display hourly output data in DView, SAM opens a temporary file. You can use DView to save the file if you want to compare hourly results from different simulations.
Table 25. Data viewer graph formats.

Tab Name DMap Hourly Daily Monthly Boxplot Profile PDF CDF DC Graph Format Description 8,760 point data map showing entire year of hourly data in a single graph Time series line graph, use scroll bars and zoom buttons to view entire data set Daily average line graph Monthly average line graph Monthly average with daily and monthly minima and maxima Average daily profiles by month Probability distribution function Cumulative distribution function Duration curve
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Parametric Analysis
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7
7.1
Advanced Topics
Parametric Analysis
Contents Overview describes the parametric simulation option. Page Reference describes the parametric simulation setup options. Setting up a Parametric Analysis describes the steps for defining parametric variables. Working with Linkages explains how to set up a parametric analysis when parametric variables have a dependent relationship. Sample Parametric Results shows examples of the types of graphs that can be created using parametric analyses.
Overview
A parametric analysis involves assigning multiple values to one or more input variables to explore the relationship between the input variables and results metrics. Examples of parametric analyses include: For photovoltaic systems, exploring the effect of array orientation on system electricity output by assigning multiple values to the array tilt and orientation variables. For CSP trough systems with thermal energy storage, exploring the effect of solar multiple and storage capacity on the levelized cost of energy. For any technology, exploring the effect of annual degradation rates on the system's annual energy output over the life of a project. Configuring parametric variables makes it possible to plot graphs of performance or economic output metrics as a function of one or more input variables. For example, to plot a graph of the annual electric generation performance metric and the array tilt input variable, you would need to define the array tilt variable as a parametric variable. Parametric variables also appear on sliders, allowing you to dynamically change graphs and tables on the Results page. Note. Input variables that are not involved in the performance simulation calculations, such as those on the financing, tax credit and payment incentives, and utility rate pages, are available as sliders without being defined as parametric variables. To display the parametric simulation setup options: 1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.
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2.
On the Configure Simulations page, click Parametrics to display the Parametric simulation setup options.
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Click Add Parametric Simulation to add a set of parametric simulation setup options. You can add as many parametric simulations as your analysis requires.
Click Remove Simulation to delete a simulation option. Click Clear All to remove all simulation options from the case.
Page Reference
The Parametric Simulation Setup options allow you to add and remove variables from the list of parametric variables, assign values to and edit parametric variables, and to set up linkages between parametric variables that have interdependent values.
Parametric Simulation Setup

Add Add an input variable to the parametric variables list. You must add a variable before you can assign it multiple values. Remove Remove a variable from the parametric variables list. When you remove a variable, SAM assigns the value from the variable's input page to the variable. Setup Linkages Create linkages between parametric variables when the values of one of the variables is dependent on
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Parametric Analysis
those of the other. Edit Assign values to or edit values of the variable highlighted in the parametric variables list. Up Move the highlighted value in the variable values list up one row. Down Move the highlighted value in the variable values list down one row. Remove Simulation
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Remove the parametric simulation setup and delete all parametric values. You can also clear the Enable this simulation checkbox to keep the setup options but exclude the parametric analysis from simulations. Enable this simulation This box must be checked for the parametric simulation setup to be included in simulations when you run the model.
Setting up a Parametric Analysis

Once you have added a parametric simulation, you must add one or more parametric variables to the simulation, and assign multiple values to each variable. After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations. To set up a parametric analysis: 1. 2. Display the parametric simulation setup options as described above. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign multiple values from a list of available input variables. SAM adds the variables to the parametric variables list.
3.
Highlight each variable in the parametric variables list and click Edit to assign values to the variables. See Working with Numeric Ranges for details.
4.
Check Enable this simulation to include the parametric analysis in simulation runs. You can save the parametric simulation setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the setup configuration.
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Working with Linkages

In some analyses, parametric variables may be interdependent. For example: Tilt depends on location when an analysis assumes that the photovoltaic array or CSP collector tilt angle is equal to the location's latitude. Thermal storage capacity depends on the solar multiple for a CSP trough analysis that assumes that the storage system capacity scales with the solar field area. For these analyses, linking the interdependent parametric variables prevents SAM from simulating combinations of parametric variable values that are not relevant to the analysis. For example, linking the array or collector tilt variable to the location variable ensures that SAM only simulates systems that use a location's latitude as the tilt angle. Without linkages, SAM would simulate all combinations of locations and tilt values. To setup a linkage between two parametric variables: 1. Add the two variables to the parametric variables list as described above. The parametric variables list may include other variables. 2. Click Setup Linkages. 3. In the Choose Linked Parametric Variables window, check the variable names for each of the two linked variables. 4. Click OK. SAM displays the word "Linked" in brackets next to the variable names in the parametric variables list indicating the linked variables 5. Click the first linked variable. SAM displays the variable's values in the variable values list, and shows the value of the other linked variable in brackets. 6. Click Edit to assign multiple values to the first linked variable. See Working with Numeric Ranges for details. 7. Click OK. SAM displays question marks in brackets next to the values of the second linked variable to which you have not yet assigned values. 8. In the parametric variables list, click the second linked variable. 9. Click Edit to assign multiple values to the variable. Note that you should assign the same number of values to this variable as you did to the first linked variable. 10. Click OK. SAM displays the values of both variables in the variable values list. Check the list to make sure that there are no question marks in brackets indicating a missing linked value and that the values are in correctly matched pairs.
Sample Parametric Analysis Results

The following graphs were created by setting up parametric analyses. You can use these examples to better understand how to use parametric analysis to create useful graphs. The following graph shows how a photovoltaic system's first year annual electric output depends on the array tilt. The tilt variable on the Climate page was defined as a parametric variable with ten values: 0, 10,
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Parametric Analysis
20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90 degrees from horizontal:
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The next graph shows how the first year annual electric output depends on both the array tilt and azimuth. The tilt variable was assigned the same values as the previous graph, and the azimuth variable was assigned values between -90 and 90 degrees west of south in increments of 15 degrees:
The third graph shows the relationship between the first year annual electric output and array azimuth for three locations, assuming an array tilt equal to the location's latitude. The azimuth value was assigned ranges between -90 and 90 degrees as above, and the tilt and location variables were linked as follows: Location = Boulder : Tilt = 40 degrees, Location = Los Angeles : Tilt = 34 degrees, Location = New York City : Tilt = 41 degrees. Each cluster of bars in the graph shows the annual energy output for each azimuth value for Boulder, Los Angeles, and New York, respectively.
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7.2
Sensitivity Analysis
Contents Overview describes the sensitivity simulation option. Page Reference describes the sensitivity simulation setup options. Setting up a Sensitivity Analysis describes the steps for defining sensitivity variables. Sample Sensitivity Results shows examples of tornado graphs that can be created using sensitivity analyses.
Overview
The sensitivity analysis option allows you to specify a range of values as a percentage for one or more input variables to investigate how sensitive an output metric is to variations in the input variables' values. Examples of sensitivity analyses include: Determining the sensitivity of the levelized cost of energy to different capital cost components. Comparing the sensitivity of the levelized cost of energy to capital cost and financial assumptions. Configuring sensitivity analyses makes it possible to plot tornado graphs on the Results page showing the range of an output metric values for one or more sensitivity variables.
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Note. SAM calculates results for each sensitivity variable independently. In some analyses, this may cause misleading results. This is especially true when the sensitivity variable is a performance input variable rather than a cost or financial input variable. For example, for CSP trough systems with storage, varying the thermal storage capacity independently of the tank heat loss variable to examine how sensitive the system's electrical output is to storage capacity would not accurately account for the expected increase in heat loss for larger storage systems. Similarly, for photovoltaic systems, varying the number of modules per string independently of the inverter type or number of inverters might result in inaccurate system output calculations if the inverter is improperly sized for a number of modules within the range specified for the sensitivity analysis. To display the sensitivity simulation setup options: 1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.
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On the Configure Simulations page, click Sensitivity to display the Parametric simulation setup options.
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Click Add Sensitivity Simulation to add a set of sensitivity simulation setup options. You can add as many sensitivity simulations as your analysis requires.
Page Reference
The Analysis Setup options allow you to choose an output metric, add and remove variables from the list of sensitivity variables, assign values to and edit sensitivity variables, and assign ranges to each sensitivity variable.
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Analysis Setup
Select an output metric Choose an output metric for the sensitivity analysis. This metric will appear on tornado graphs in the results. Add Add an input variable to the sensitivity variables list. Edit Assign a "custom" variation range to the variable highlighted in the sensitivity variables list. SAM assigns the default range to all sensitivity variables that do not have a different custom range. SAM indicates the custom range in parentheses next to the variable's name in the sensitivity variable list. Remove Remove a variable from the sensitivity variables list. +/- Variation on inputs The default range applied to all sensitivity variables that do not have a different custom range. For a range value of 10 %, SAM would calculate the range of values of an input variable between 10 % below and 10 % above the variable's value on the input page.
Setting up a Sensitivity Analysis

Once you have added a sensitivity simulation, you must add one or more sensitivity variables to the simulation. After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations. To set up a sensitivity analysis: 1. 2. 3. Display the sensitivity simulation setup options as described above. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign a variation range from a list of available input variables. SAM adds the variables to the sensitivity variables list. If you want to use a variation range value other than the default value displayed below the sensitivity variables list, click Edit to assign a custom range value.
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4.
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Check Enable this simulation to include the sensitivity analysis in simulation runs. You can save the sensitivity simulation setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the setup configuration.
Sample Sensitivity Analysis Results

The following tornado graphs were created by setting up sensitivity analyses. You can use these examples to better understand how to use parametric analysis to create useful graphs. The following graph shows how sensitive a CSP trough project's levelized cost of energy is to four capital cost categories. To create the graph, the following four variables were defined as sensitivity variables using the default variation range of 10 %: Power plant cost, solar field cost, HTF system cost, and storage system cost:
The next graph shows shows how sensitive the levelized cost of energy is to selected capital cost categories compared to selected financial assumptions for a CSP trough system. The solar field cost, loan rate, and PPA escalation rate were defined as sensitivity variables with a 10 % variation range. how the first year annual electric output depends on both the array tilt and azimuth. The tilt variable was assigned the same values as the previous graph, and the azimuth variable was assigned values between -90 and 90 degrees west of south in increments of 15 degrees:
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7.3
Optimization
Contents Overview describes the optimization option. Page Reference describes the optimization simulation setup options. Setting up an Optimization describes the steps for defining optimization variables. Sample Optimization Results shows examples of results from an optimization analysis.
Overview
An optimization involves choosing an output metric that you would like to either maximize or minimize, and allowing SAM to find values of one or more input variables that result in the maximum or minimum output metric value. Examples of optimization include: For photovoltaic systems, finding the array tilt and azimuth values that result in the lowest levelized cost of energy to optimize the array orientation for lowest cost of energy. For a photovoltaic system modeled using the PVWatts performance model, optimize the storage capacity for minimum levelized cost of energy. For a CSP trough system, find the optimal collector deploy and stow angle to maximize solar field thermal output.
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Note. When you optimize an input variable, be careful to choose one that is not interdependent on other variables. For example, for a CSP trough system with storage, optimizing the solar multiple independent of storage capacity to minimize the levelized cost of energy could give misleading results. Similarly, for photovoltaic systems, optimizing the number of modules per string independently of the inverter might result in a system with an improperly sized inverter. To find optimal values of interdependent variables, you can use parametric analysis. One application of SAM's optimization capability is to help you find values of input variables to use for your analysis. For example, for a photovoltaic system, you could use optimization to find the best array tilt and azimuth values to use on the Array page. Or, for a CSP trough system, you could use optimization to find the deploy and stow angle to use on the Solar Field page. To display the optimization setup options: 1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.
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On the Configure Simulations page, click Optimization to display the optimization simulation setup options.
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Click Add Optimization Simulation to add a set of optimization setup options. You can add as many parametric simulations as your analysis requires.
Page Reference
The Optimization Setup options allow you to select the output metric to maximize or minimize, add and remove variables from the list of optimization variables, and assign a range of values to optimization variables.
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Optimization Setup
Minimize / Maximize Choose whether to maximize or minimize the output metric. Select an output metric Choose the output metric to maximize or minimize. Add Choose one or more optimization variables from a list of available input variables. Edit limits Assign an upper and lower limit to the variable highlighted in the optimization variable list. Remove Remove the highlighted variable from the optimization variable list. Advanced parameters The advanced parameters affect the speed and resolution of the optimization. You can use the default values for most analyses, or experiment with the values for faster run times. You can also try adjusting the values if SAM does not find an optimal solution.
Setting up an Optimization
Once you have added an optimization simulation, you must choose an output metric to maximize or minimize, add one or more optimization variables to the simulation, and edit the limits of each variable. After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the
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Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations. To set up an optimization: 1. 2. 3. 4.
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Display the parametric simulation setup options as described above. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign multiple values from a list of available input variables. SAM adds the variables to the parametric variables list. Highlight each variable in the parametric variables list and click Edit to assign an upper and lower limit to each variable. Check Enable this simulation to include the optimization in simulation runs. You can save the optimization setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the setup configuration.
Sample Optimization Results

The following example illustrates the use of optimization for SAM analyses. This example is for a CSP trough system, and finds the optimal collector deploy and stow angles defined on the Solar Field page. Those angles determine the collector angle at which heat transfer fluid begins circulating in the morning, and stops circulating in the evening, respectively. The system starts tracking the movement of the sun at sunrise, but deploying collectors too early results in wasted energy from operating fluid pumps before there is sufficient energy to generate electricity. Similarly, continuing to operate the fluid pumps in the evening when the sun is below a certain point above the horizon wastes energy. Optimizing the deploy and stow angles for maximum thermal energy delivered by the solar field ensures that the system does not waste energy by deploying the collectors too late or stowing them too early. In this example for a system in Dagget, California, SAM found an optimal deploy angle of 12 degrees, and an optimal stow angle of 167 degrees. The optimization found the maximum value of the annual thermal energy from solar field output metric for deploy angle limits of 0 and 20 degrees, and stow angle limits of 160 to 180 degrees:
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7.4
Statistical
Contents Overview describes the statistical analysis simulation option. Page Reference describes the statistical simulation setup options. Input Distribution Options describes the distribution parameters that you specify for each statistical variable. Setting up a Statistical Analysis describes the steps for choosing an output metric, input variables, and distribution parameters for a statistical analysis. Displaying Histograms for Statistical Variables describes the graphing options on the Results page available for statistical analyses.
Overview
A statistical analysis allows you to examine the effect of uncertainty in the value of one or more input variables on an output metric. For example, you could use statistical analysis to explore how the degree of uncertainty in the installation cost of one or more system components might affect the system's levelized cost of energy over the project life. In a statistical analysis, SAM runs several simulations for a distribution of values assigned to one or more input variables, and displays a histogram showing the frequency distribution of different output metric values
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over each input variable's distribution of values.
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For an example of a SAM file with statistical analysis, open the sample file Statistical Analysis Sample: On the File menu, click Open Sample Template and select the file from the list. To display the statistical simulation setup options: 1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.
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On the Configure Simulations page, click Statistical to display the statistical simulation setup options.
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Click Add Parametric Simulation to add a set of parametric simulation setup options. You can add as many parametric simulations as your analysis requires.
Page Reference
The statistical Analysis Setup options allow you to select the output metric, add and remove variables from the list of statistiacl variables, and assign distribution parameters to the statistical variables.
Analysis Setup
Select an output metric Choose the output metric for the statistical analysis.
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Choose one or more statistical variables from a list of available input variables.
Edit Assign an input distribution for the analysis. See below for details. Remove Remove the highlighted variable from the statistical variable list. Number of Monte Carlo Runs Enter a value for the number of simulations to run for the analysis. The default value is 400.
Input Distribution Options

The edit distribution window allows you to define the type of distribution to use for the statistical analysis and to assign values to the statistical analysis parameters.
Choose an input distribution

Variable name The name of the statistical variable. This the variable that was highlighted in the statistical variable list when you clicked Edit. Current Value The value of the statistical variable on the variable's input page. Distribution list Select from a list of distributions, and SAM displays a description of the distribution and parameters for you to enter.
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Setting up a Statistical Analysis

Once you have added a statistical simulation, you must choose an output metric for the analysis, add one or more statistical variables to the simulation, and edit the distribution parameters of each variable. After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations. To set up a statistical analysis: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Display the statistical simulation setup options as described above. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign a distribution from a list of available input variables. SAM adds the variables to the parametric variables list. Highlight each variable in the parametric variables list and click Edit to assign the distribution parameters. Enter a number of simulations for Number of sampled values per variable. SAM will run this many simulations using variable values based on the distribution parameters you specify. Click Compute Samples to generate a table of values without running simulations. Check Enable this simulation to include the optimization in simulation runs. You can save the optimization setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the setup configuration.
Displaying Histograms for Statistical Variables

After you run all simulations with one or more statistical simulations enabled, SAM allows you to view a histogram for each statistical variable on the Results page. To display a histogram, SAM sorts the values of the simulations into bins. The number of bins is specified in the graph setup. For example, in the Statistical Analysis Sample file, the Inverter Cost histogram shows the number of occurrences of inverter cost that fall into each of the equally spaced bins, whose center values are shown along the x axis. The blue line is the estimated cumulative distribution function (CDF), labeled on the right axis from 0 to 1, and indicates the percentage of inverter cost values whose values fall below the corresponding x value.
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The histogram graph can only plot a single variable. Instead of plotting the inverter cost values, you could plot the levelized cost of energy, showing histogram of the 700 calculated LCOE values that correspond to the random values chosen for the Inverter costs. This way, given different amounts of uncertainty in your chosen inputs, you can visualize the effect and uncertainty on any of the single-valued output metrics.
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7.5
Multiple Systems
Contents Overview describes the multiple systems simulation option. Page Reference describes the multiple system analysis setup options. Setting up a Multiple System Analysis describes the steps for combining subsystems into a combined system.
Overview
A multiple systems analysis allows you to model a power system as a combination of subsystems. This makes it possible to model a photovoltaic system consisting of separate subsystems with arrays oriented in different directions, or a CSP trough system consisting of two separate subsystems with different characteristics. Each subsystem is a complete electricity generating system, which means that for a CSP system for example, each subsystem would include a solar field, storage system, and power generating unit. SAM applies a single set of financing, tax credit and payment incentives to a combined system, but applies separate performance and climate specifications to each subsystem. The results such as levelized cost of energy and annual electric output displayed in graphs and tables on the Results page are for the combined system rather than for the individual subsystems. For an example of a SAM file with multiple systems, open the sample file Combined Multiple PV Systems: On the File menu, click Open Sample Template and select the file from the list. To display the multiple system simulation setup options: 1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.
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On the Configure Simulations page, click Multiple Systems to display the multiple system analysis setup options.
Page Reference
The multiple system setup options allow you to choose which cases in the project file to combine into a system, and display the capacity and cost values for the combined system.
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Select Additional Performance Outputs

List of available cases The list of available cases shows the cases in the project file that you can combine into a single system. You must create a case for each subsystem to be combined into a single system. SAM includes only checked cases in the combined system. The list of cases corresponds to the case tabs in the project file. Enable this simulation This box must be checked for the system to be modeled as a combined system.
Aggregate System Variables

The aggregate system variables display values for the combined system that SAM calculates by adding values from the individual subsystems. Combined Nameplate Capacity (kW) The sum of the subsystem nameplate capacities displayed on the System Summary page for each subsystem. For photovoltaic systems, the nameplate capacity is equivalent to the total array capacity in DC kW. For CSP systems, it is the nominal capacity of the power cycle in kW of electricity. Combined Heat Rate (MMBtu/MWh) This applies only to generic fossil systems and is the sum of each subsystem's heat rate from the Fossil Plant page. Total Direct Cost ($) The sum of the total direct cost values displayed on each subsystem's costs page. Total Installed Cost ($) The sum of the total installed cost values displayed on each subsystem's costs page. Total Direct Sales Tax ($) The sum of the total sales tax values displayed on each subsystem's costs page. O&M Annual Cost ($/yr) The sum of the fixed annual operation and maintenance costs displayed on each subsystem's costs page. O&M Annual Capacity Cost ($/kW-yr) The sum of the fixed annual operation and maintenance costs displayed on each subsystem's costs page. O&M Variable by Production ($/MWh) The sum of the fixed annual operation and maintenance costs displayed on each subsystem's costs page.
Setting up a Multiple System Analysis

Setting up a multiple system analysis involves creating a case for each subsystem to be combined, and then selecting the cases to be included in the multiple system analysis. After setting up the analysis, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the
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Case menu to simulated the combined system.. To set up a multiple system analysis: 1. 2.
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3. 4.
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Create a case for each subsystem to be included in the combined system. Display the case that you want to be the primary system. SAM will apply the input variables on the Utility Rate, Financing, Tax Credit Incentives, and Payment Incentives pages from the primary system to the combined system. It will ignore input values on those pages from the subsystems. Display the multiple system analysis setup options as described above. Under Select Additional Performance Outputs, check each case to include in the combined system, including the current (primary) case indicated by "This case is required" in parentheses next to the case name. SAM displays the combined system nameplate capacity and costs under Aggregate System Variables. Check Enable this simulation to include the multiple system analysis in simulation runs. You can save the parametric simulation setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the setup configuration.
7.6
Excel Exchange
SAM allows you to connect any input variable in SAM to a cell or range of cells in a Microsoft Excel workbook. This feature allows you to use external spreadsheet-based cost and performance models to generate values for SAM input variables. Because SAM can both import values from workbooks and export values to them, you can use the result of a spreadsheet calculation as the value of one input variable that depends on the value of other input variables. User variables are user-defined input variables that can also share values with external workbooks. Note for Mac users. SAM can not exchange data with Microsoft Excel on Mac computers. This means that the Excel Exchange feature is disabled on Mac versions of the software, and that SAM cannot directly export data to Excel workbooks. To use the SAM data in Excel or another spreadsheet program, you can export the data to a commaseparated text file (CSV), and then import the CSV file to the spreadsheet program. For an example of a SAM file with Excel Exchange, open the sample file Excel Sample: On the File menu, click Open Sample File and select the file from the list. Note. When you run simulations with Excel Exchange, SAM opens a copy of the Excel file to read and write values but does not save the file. If you open the Excel file after running the simulations, you will not see any values from the SAM in the Excel file. To display the Excel data exchange setup options: 1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.
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On the Configure Simulations page, click Excel Exchange to display the Excel data exchange options.
The Excel Data Exchange options allow you to add and remove SAM input variables to the list of variables to exchange data with Excel, specify the Excel workbook with which to exchange data, and for each input variable, define the relationship with a cell or range of cells in the workbook.
Excel Data Exchange

Add Add one or more input variable from the input pages. You can configure each variable to either send a value to an Excel range, or "capture" a value from an Excel range. Remove Delete the highlighted variable from the list. Clear All Delete all variables from the list. Browse Browse your computer's folders to find the Excel workbook with which you want to exchange data. The workbook can be located in any folder on your computer. Apply for all variables When all of the variables are in a single Excel file, you can click this button to avoid having to retype the file name for each variable.
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Send Variable Value to Excel Range Configure the highlighted variable to send its value to the specified Excel range. Capture Variable Value From Excel Range Configure the highlighted variable to capture its value from the specified Excel range. Excel Range
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The range name or cell reference identifying the cell or range of cells in the Excel workbook with which the highlighted variable will exchange data. Enable this simulation This box must be checked for the analysis to exchange data with Excel.
7.7
Simulator Options
The Simulator Options are for advanced analyses that involve either changing the simulation time step, or working with custom TRNSYS input decks.
TRNSYS Simulation Timestep

For some technologies, you can adjust the simulation time step from the default hourly (60 minute) time step. Using a smaller time step than one hour is most appropriate for the physical trough model when you want to explore the effects of sub-hourly changes in dispatch of energy from the solar field and thermal energy storage system. Note. Changing the simulation time step does not affect the weather data time step. When you use a smaller than hourly time step, SAM uses interpolation of the hourly weather data to estimate the solar resource and other weather parameters at the sub-hourly time points.
TRNSYS Executable and Input Deck

You can use these options to use custom TRNSYS components with SAM. Leave the values blank to use SAM's default TRNSYS comopnents. Deck file name The path and name of the TRNSYS deck file for your custom component TRNSYS executable The path and name of the TRNSYS executable file with arguments. Arguments Arguments for the TNRSYS executable you specify above.
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7.8
User Variables
The User Variables page displays two types of special variables. SAM only uses these variables under special conditions -- you can ignore the user variables for most analyses. To view the User Variables page, click User Variables on the main window's navigation menu. The user variable input page is available for all technologies. Note. The Name and units text boxes are ignored by SAM. You can use the boxes to help you remember what each user variable represents.
General Purpose User Variables

A general purpose user variable is a variable that you can create to store values in SAM for advanced analyses. SAM stores values of user variables but does not use them in any internal calculations. You can create up to ten user variables. One application of user variables is to enhance analyses that involve exchanging data with Excel. You can connect user variables, like other input variables, to cells in an Excel workbook. For example, you could use a user variable to convert units using a formula in Excel. You can use the general purpose user variables in parametric and sensitivity analyses.
TRNSYS System Simulation Input User Variables

The system variables are for TRNSYS programmers. You can use the system variables to store values in the SAM user interface that interact with a customized TRNSYS input deck.
7.9
SamUL
The SAM User Language (SamUL) is a built-in scripting language that allows a user to automate tasks and perform more complex analyses directly from within SAM. This guide assumes some rudimentary facility with basic programming concepts and familiarity with the SAM interface, capabilities, and general work flow.
Why use SamUL?

Suppose you are an energy analyst, and want to calculate the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for several hundred locations in the United States for a specific PV system of a given size, installation costs, and financial assumptions. You are familiar with the SAM, and have access to weather data for all the requested locations. The first step would be to set up a case for the PV system with appropriate input values. Next, you could run a simulation for each weather file individually, and record the results in a spreadsheet. You could even set up many locations in a parametric simulation. Either method would be tedious and error prone for the several hundred locations. Furthermore, if you decided to change even just one specification of the system, you would have to start all over. Automating the process would minimize errors and allow the flexibility of modifying inputs. One option for automation would be to write a program or script in Python, C, or Excel VBA using SAM's code generation feature. Your program would assign values to all of the inputs in the case, make a call
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SAM's simulation engine to run simulations, and then read the appropriate results and write them to a file. That option would work if you are handy with one of the languages, but involves working with large amounts of code. SamUL, SAM's built in scripting language allows you to perform this task in just a few lines of code. See the SamUL case study for an example. Once you've written the script, you can easily make changes to the assumptions in the base case, or modify the script. Because the scripting language is built in to SAM you do not need a software development environment or compiler to use it. To get started using SamUL, see the Write a Simple SamUL Script section below. For a more detailed reference, see the following topics: Data Variables Flow Control Arrays of Data Function Calls Input, Output, and System Access Interfacing with SAM Analyses Case Study: PV System with Multiple Locations Library Reference
Why SamUL instead of VBA?

Since SamUL is so similar in functionality and syntax to Visual Basic, you might wonder why we didn't simply put a VBA engine behind SAM. Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) is a closed source Microsoft product that is very tightly integrated into the Office suite of applications, and while there are some freely available interpreters for subsets of VB-like languages, we decided that engineering a simple scripting language would be straightforward enough. In the future, we might consider integrating other well known languages, such as Lua. In general, SamUL is close enough to VBA in syntax and structure to make it easily understandable by people familiar with VBA. By developing our own script engine, we have been able to integrate it very tightly into the SAM environment for maximum ease of use. Some notable points distinctions include: 'for' loop syntax follows the C / Perl convention Array arithmetic is automatically performed element by element 'elseif' statement formatting is similar to PHP No distinction between functions and procedures
Write a Simple SamUL Script

A SamUL script is code that you write in a SAM file. SAM stores the script in the file along with cases representing the power projects you are modeling. SAM creates a tab in the main window that gives you access to the script, in the same way that it creates tabs for cases in the file. When you create a SamUL script in a SAM file, SAM adds a SamUL development environment to the file that consists of a toolbar, editor, and console: The toolbar provides controls for running and saving scripts, adding commands and variables, and for finding text in the script. The editor is where you write and edit the script.
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The console displays script outputs and error messages when you run the script.
When you create a script in a SAM file, you must also create at least one case the file. In the script, you specify the name of a case, and write code to change values of inputs variables in the case, configure and run simulations, and write simulation outputs to the console or a text file. The following simple script displays the total annual output and levelized cost of energy of a PV system for a range of five array tilt values. The script uses an input prompt to get a latitude value. To write and run a simple SamUL script: 1. 2. 3. Start SAM and create a case using the Photovoltaics, PVWatts option with Residential financing. Use the default case name "New PVWatts Case 1." On the Developer menu, click New SamUL Script. SAM adds a script and creates a tab for your script with the label Script1. Click Browse Function Library, and from the SAM Functions list, choose Set Active Case.
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The function library is a list of the SamUL functions. Type an open parentheses immediately after the Set Ac t i v eCas e function to display the function syntax and a brief description.
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Type the name of the case in quotations " New PVW t s Cas e" and close the parentheses. at On the next line, use the function browser to add the Get I nput function to the script. Type an open parenthesis, and use the input variable browser to find the c l i m e. l oc at i on at variable.
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Use the toolbar to find the functions and variables and to write the rest of the script shown below.
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9.
Click Execute SamUL Script to run the script.
SAM displays the script output in the console, and a message in the status bar at the bottom of the window.
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7.9.1
Data Variables
General Syntax
In SamUL, a program statement is generally placed on a line by itself, and the end-of-line marks the end of the statement. Currently, there is no facility to split a long statement across multiple lines. Blank lines may be inserted between statements. While they have no meaning, they can help make a script easier to read. Spaces can also be added or removed nearly anywhere, except of course in the middle of a word. The following statements all have the same meaning. out ( " Hel l o 1\ n" ) out ( " Hel l o 2\ n" ) out ( " Hel l o 3\ n" ) Comments are lines in the program code that are ignored by SamUL. They serve as a form of documentation, and can help other people (and you!) more easily understand what the script does. Comments begin with the single-quote ' character, and continue to the end of the line. ' t hi s pr ogr am c r eat es a gr eet i ng out ( " Hel l o, wor l d! \ n" ) ' di s pl ay t he gr eet i ng t o t he us er
Variables
Variables store information while your script is running. SamUL variables share many characteristics with other computer languages. Variables do not need to be declared in advance of being used There is no distinction between variables that store text and variables that store numbers Variable names may contain letters, digit, and the underscore symbol. A limitation is that variables cannot start with a digit. Unlike some languages such as C and Perl, SamUL does not distinguish between upper and lower case letters in a variable (or subroutine) name. As a result, the name m Dat a y is the same as M Ydat a. Values are assigned to variables using the equal sign =. Some examples are below: Num odul es = 10 _M Ar r ay Power W t s = 4k at Ti l t = 18. 2 s y s t em _nam = " Super PV Sy s t em e " Cos t = " unk nown" COST = 1e6 c os t = 1M Assigning a value to a variable overwrites its previous value. As shown above, decimal numbers can be written using scientific notation or engineering suffixes. The last two assignments to Cost are the same value. Recognized suffixes are listed in the table below. Suffixes are case-sensitive, so that SamUL can distinguish between m (milli) and M (Mega). Name Tera Giga Suffix T G Multiplier 1e12 1e9
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Mega Kilo Milli Micro Nano Pico Femto Atto M k m u n p f a 1e6 1e3 1e-3 1e-6 1e-9 1e-12 1e-15 1e-18
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Arithmetic
SamUL supports the four basic operations +, - , * , and / . The usual algebraic precendence rules are followed, so that multiplications and divisions are performed before additions and subtractions. Parentheses are also understood and can be used to change the default order of operations. Operators are leftassociative, meaning that the expression 3- 10- 8 is understood as ( 3- 10) - 8. More complicated operations like raising to a power and performing modulus arithmetic are possible using built-in function calls in the standard SamUL library. Examples of arithmetic operations: bat t er y _c os t = c os t _per _k wh * bat t er y _c apac i t y ' m t i pl i c at i on t ak es pr ec edenc e ul degr aded_out put = degr aded_out put - degr aded_out put * 0. 1 ' us e par ent hes es t o s ubt r ac t bef or e m t i pl i c at i on ul c as h_am ount = t ot al _c os t * ( 1 - debt _f r ac t i on/ 100. 0 )
Simple Input and Output

You can use the built-in out and outln functions to write data to the console window. The difference is that outln automatically appends a newline character to the output. To output multiple text strings or variables, use the + operator, or separate them with a comma. ar r ay _power = 4. 3k ar r ay _ef f = 0. 11 out l n( " Ar r ay power i s " + ar r ay _power + " W t s . " ) at out l n( " I t i s " + ( ar r ay _ef f * 100) + " per c ent ef f i c i ent . " ) out l n( " I t i s " , ar r ay _ef f * 100, " per c ent ef f i c i ent . " ) ' s am as abov e e The console output generated is: Ar r ay power i s 4300 W t s . at I t i s 11 per c ent ef f i c i ent . Use the i n function to read input from the user. You can optionally pass a message to i n to display to the user when the input popup appears. The user can enter either numbers or text, and SamUL will perform any type conversions if needed (and if possible). c os t _per _wat t = i n( " Ent er c os t per wat t : " ) ' Show a m s age. es i n( ) al s o i s f i ne. not i c e( " Tot al c os t i s : " + c os t _per _wat t * 4k + " dol l ar s " ) ' 4k W s y s t em
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The not i c e function works like out , except that it displays a pop up message box on the computer screen.
Data Types and Conversion

SamUL supports four basic types of data, although most conversions between types happen automatically. Because of this, SamUL is generally a weakly typed language, meaning that you can add text variables to number variables, and SamUL with try to make a appropriate conversion in context. Type Integer Number Double-precision Decimal Number Boolean Conversion Function i nt eger ( ) doubl e( ) bool ean( ) s t r i ng( ) Valid Values +/- approx. 2 billion 1e-308 to 1e308, with infinity true or false (1 or 0)
Text Strings Any length text string Sometimes you have two numbers in text strings that you would like to multiply. This can happen if you read data in from a text file on the computer, for example. Since it does not make sense to try to multiply text strings, you need to first convert the strings to numbers. To convert a variable to a double-precision decimal number, use the double function, as below. a = " 3. 5" b = " - 2" c 1 = a* b ' t hi s wi l l c aus e an er r or when y ou c l i c k ' Run' c 2 = Doubl e( a) * Doubl e( b) ' t hi s wi l l as s i gn c 2 t he num ber v al ue of - 7 The assignment to c1 above will cause the error Error: Invalid string operator '*', while the assignment to c2 makes sense and executes correctly. You can also use integer to convert a string to an integer or truncate a decimal number, or the string function to explicitly convert a number to a string variable. If you need to find out what type a variable currently has, use the t y peof function to get a description. a = 3. 5 b = -2 c 1 = a+b ' t hi s wi l l s et c 1 t o - 1. 5 c 2 = St r i ng( I nt eger ( a) ) + St r i ng( b ) '
c 2 s et t o t ex t " 3- 2"
out l n( t y peof ( a) ) ' wi l l di s pl ay " doubl e" out l n( t y peof ( c 2) ) ' wi l l di s pl ay " s t r i ng"
Special Characters
Text data can contain special characters to denote tabs, line endings, and other useful elements that are not part of the normal alphabet. These are inserted into quoted text strings with escape sequences, which begin with the \ character. Escape Sequence \n \t \r New line Tab character Carriage return Meaning
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\" Double quote \\ Backslash character So, to print the text "Hi, tabbed world!", or assign c:\Windows\notepad.exe, you would have to write: out l n( " \ " Hi , \ t t abbed wor l d! \ " " ) pr ogr am = " c : \ \ W ndows \ \ not epad. ex e" i Note that for file names on a Windows computer, it is important to convert back slashes ('\') to forward slashes (/). Otherwise, the file name may be translated incorrectly and the file won't be found.
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7.9.2
Flow Control
Comparison Operators
SamUL supports many ways of comparing data. These types of tests can control the program flow with branching and looping constructs that we will discuss later. There are six standard comparison operators that can be used on most types of data. For text strings, "less than" and "greater than" are with respect to alphabetical order. Comparison Equal Not Equal Less Than Less Than or Equal Greater Than Greater Than or Equal Examples of comparisons: di v i s or ! = 0 s t at e == " or egon" er r or <= - 0. 003 " pv " > " c s p" Single comparisons can be combined by boolean operators into more complicated tests. The not operator yields true when the test is false. It is placed before the test whose result is to be notted: not ( di v i s or == 0) The and operator yields true only if both tests are true: di v i s or ! = 0 and di v i dend > 1 The or operator yields true if either test is true: s t at e == r egon" or s t at e == " c ol or ado" The boolean operators can be combined to make even more complex tests. The operators are listed above in order of highest precedence to lowest. If you are unsure of which test will be evaluated first, use parentheses to group tests. Note that the following statements have very different meanings. Operator == != < <= > >=
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s t at e_c ount > 0 and s t at e_abbr ev == " CA" or s t at e_abbr ev == " OR" s t at e_c ount > 0 and ( s t at e_abbr ev == " CA" or s t at e_abbr ev == " OR" )
Branching
Using the comparison and boolean operators to define tests, you can control whether a section of code in your script will be executed or not. Therefore, the script can make decisions depending on different circumstances and user inputs. if Statements The simplest branching construct is the if statement. For example: i f ( t i l t < 0. 0 ) out l n( " Er r or : t i l t angl e m t be 0 or gr eat er " ) us end Note the following characteristics of the i f statement: The test is placed in parentheses after the if keyword. The following program lines include the statements to execute when the i f test succeeds. To help program readability, the statements inside the i f are usually indented. The construct concludes with the end keyword. When the i f test fails, the program statements inside the i f -end block are skipped. else Construct When you also have commands you wish to execute when the if test fails, use the else clause. For example: i f ( power > 0 ) ener gy = power * oper at i ng_c os t = el s e out l n( " Er r or , no ener gy = - 1 oper at i ng_c os t = end tim e ener gy * ener gy _c os t power was gener at ed. " ) -1
Multiple if Tests Sometimes you wish to test many conditions in a sequence, and take appropriate action depending on which test is successful. In this situation, use the el s ei f clause. Be careful to spell it as a single word, as both else if and el s ei f can be syntactically correct, but have different meanings. i f ( angl t ex t el s ei f ( t ex t el s ei f ( t ex t el s e t ex t end e >= 0 and angl e < 90) = " f i r s t quadr ant " angl e >= 90 and angl e < 180 ) = " s ec ond quadr ant " angl e >= 180 and angl e < 270 ) = " t hi r d quadr ant " = " f our t h quadr ant "
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You do not need to end a sequence of el s ei f statements with the else clause, although in most cases it is appropriate so that every situation can be handled. You can also nest if constructs if needed. Again, we recommend indenting each level of nesting to improve your script's readability. For example: i f ( angl e >= 0 and angl e < 90 ) i f ( pr i nt _v al ue == t r ue ) out l n( " f i r s t quadr ant : " + angl e ) el s e out l n( " f i r s t quadr ant " ) end end Single line ifs Sometimes you only want to take a single action when an if statement succeeds. To reduce the amount of code you must type, SamUL accepts single line i f statements, as shown below. i f ( az i m h < 0 ) out l n( " W ni ng: az i m h < 0, c ont i nui ng. . . " ) ut ar ut i f ( t i l t > 90 ) t i l t = 90 ' s et m i m ax um t i l t v al ue
You can also use an el s e statement on single line i f . Like the i f , it only accepts one program statement, and must be typed on the same program line. Example: i f ( v al ue > av er age ) out l n( " Abov e av er age" ) el s e out l n( " Not abov e av er age" )
Looping
A loop is a way of repeating the same commands over and over. You may need to process each line of a file in the same way, or sort a list of names. To achieve such tasks, SamUL provides two types of loop constructs, the while and for loops. Like if statements, loops contain a "body" of program statements followed by the end keyword to denote where the loop construct ends. while Loops The whi l e loop is the simplest loop. It repeats one or more program statements as long as a logical test holds true. When the test fails, the loop ends, and the program continues execution of the statements following the loop construct. For example: whi l e ( done == f al s e ) ' pr oc es s s om dat a e ' c hec k i f we ar e f i ni s hed and updat e t he ' done' end
v ar i abl e
The test in a while loop is checked before the body of the loop is entered for the first time. In the example above, we must set the variable done to false before the loop, because otherwise no data processing would occur. After each iteration ends, the test is checked again to determine whether to continue the loop or not. Counter-driven Loops Counter-driven loops are useful when you want to run a sequence of commands for a certain number of times. As an example, you may wish to display only the first 10 lines in a text file. There are four basic parts of implementing a counter-driven loop:
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Initialize a counter variable before the loop begins. Test to see if the counter variable has reached a set maximum value. Execute the program statements in the loop, if the counter has not reached the maximum value. Increment the counter by some value.
For example, we can implement a counter-driven loop using the while construct: i = 0 ' us e i as c ount er v ar i abl e whi l e ( i < 10) out l n( " v al ue of i i s " + i ) i = i + 1 end for Loops The f or loop provides a streamlined way to write a counter-driven loop. It combines the counter initialization, test, and increment statements into a single line. The script below produces exactly the same effect as the whi l e loop example above. f or ( i = 0; i < 10; i out l n( " v al ue of i end = i +1 ) is " + i )
The three loop control statements are separated by semicolons in the for loop statement. The initialization statement (first) is run only once before the loop starts. The test statement (second) is run before entering an iteration of the loop body. Finally, the increment statement is run after each completed iteration, and before the test is rechecked. Note that you can use any assignment or calculation in the increment statement. Just like the i f statement, SamUL allows for loops that contain only one program statement in the body to be written on one line. For example: f or ( v al =57; v al > 1; v al = v al / 2 ) out l n( " Val ue i s " + v al )
Loop Control Statements In some cases you may want to end a loop prematurely. Suppose under normal conditions, you would iterate 10 times, but because of some rare circumstance, you must break the loop's normal path of execution after the third iteration. To do this, use the br eak statement. v al ue = doubl e( i n( " Ent er a s t ar t i ng v al ue" ) ) f or ( i =0; i <10; i =i +1 ) out l n( " Val ue i s " + v al ue ) i f ( v al ue < 0) br eak end v al ue = v al ue / 3. 0 end In another situation, you may not want to altogether break the loop, but skip the rest of program statements left in the current iteration. For example, you may be processing a list of files, but each one is only processed if it starts with a specific line. The c ont i nue keyword provides this functionality. f or ( i =0; i <f i l e_c ount ; i =i +1 ) f i l e_header _ok = f al s e
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' c hec k i f whet her c ur r ent f i l e has t he c or r ec t header
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i f ( f i l e_header _ok == f al s e) c ont i nue end ' end The br eak and c ont i nue statements can be used with both f or and whi l e loops. If you have nested loops, the statements will act in relation to the nearest loop structure. In other words, a br eak statement in the body of the inner-most loop will only break the execution of the inner-most loop. Quitting SamUL script execution normally ends when there are no more statements to run at the end of the script. However, sometimes you may need to halt early, if the user chooses not to continue an operation. The ex i t statement will end the SamUL script immediately. For example: i f ( y es no( " Do y ou want t o qui t ?" ) == t r ue ) out l n( " Abor t ed. " ) ex i t end The y es no function call displays a message box on the user's screen with Yes and No buttons, showing the given message. It returns t r ue if the user clicked yes, or f al s e otherwise. pr oc es s t hi s f i l e
7.9.3
Arrays of Data
Often you need to store a list of related values. For example, you may need to refer to the price of energy in different years. Or you might have a table of state names and capital cities. In SamUL, you can use arrays to store these types of collections of data.
Initializing and Indexing

An array is simply a list of variables that are indexed by numbers. Each variable in the array is called an element of the array, and the position of the element within the array is called the element's index. The index of the first element in an array is always 0. To access array elements, enclose the index number in square brackets immediately following the variable name. SamUL does not require you to declare or allocate space for the array data in advance. nam [ es nam [ es nam [ es nam [ es nam [ es 0] 1] 2] 3] 4] = = = = = " Sean" " W t er " al " Pam " " Cl ai r e" " Pat r i c k " out put i s " Pat r i c k "
out l n( nam [ 3] ) ' es
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out put i s " Pam "
m _i ndex = 2 y out l n( nam [ m _i ndex ] ) ' es y
You can also initialize a fixed array using the ar r ay command provided in SamUL. Simply separate each element with a comma. There is no limit to the number of elements you can pass to array. nam es = ar r ay ( " Sean" , " W t er " , " Pam , " Cl ai r e" , " Pat r i c k " ) al " out l n( " Fi r s t : " + nam [ 0] ) es out l n( " Al l : " + nam es ) Note that calling the t y peof function on an array variable will return "rray" as the type description, not the type of the elements. This is because SamUL is not strict about the types of variables stored in an array, and does not require all elements to be of the same type.
Array Length
Sometimes you do not know in advance how many elements are in an array. This can happen if you are reading a list of numbers from a text file, storing each as an element in an array. After the all the data has been read, you can use the length function to determine how many elements the array contains. c ount = l engt h( nam es )
Processing Arrays
Arrays and loops naturally go together, since frequently you may want to perform the same operation on each element of an array. For example, you may want to find the total sum of an array of numbers. num ber s = ar r ay ( 1, - 3, 2. 4, 9, 7, 22, - 2. 1, 5. 8 ) c ount = l engt h( num ber s ) s um = 0 f or ( i =0; i <c ount ; i =i +1) s um = s um + num ber s [ i ] end The important feature of this code is that it will work regardless of how many elements are in the array.
Multidimensional Arrays
As previously noted, SamUL is not strict with the types of elements stored in an array. Therefore, a single array element can even be another array. This allows you to define matrices with both row and column indexes, and also three (or greater) dimensional arrays. To create a multi-dimensional array, simply separate the indices with commas between the square brackets. For example: dat dat dat dat a[ a[ a[ a[ 0, 0, 1, 2, 0] 1] 0] 0] = = = = 3 -2 5 1
nr ows = l engt h( dat a) ' r es ul t i s 4 nc ol s = l engt h( dat a[ 0] ) ' r es ul t i s 2
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r ow1 = dat a[ 0] x = r ow1[ 0] ' y = r ow1[ 1] ' ' ex t r ac t t he f i r s t r ow
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v al ue i s 3 v al ue i s - 2
Managing Array Storage

When you define an array, SamUL automatically allocates sufficient computer memory to store the elements. If you know in advance that your array will contain 100 elements, for example, it can be much faster to allocate the computer memory before filling the array with data. Use the al l oc at e command to make space for 1 or 2 dimensional arrays. dat a = al l oc at e( 3, 2) dat a[ 2, 1] = 3 ' a m r i x wi t h 3 r ows and 2 c ol um at ns
pr i c es = al l oc at e( 5 ) '
a s i m e 5 el em pl ent ar r ay
As bef or e, y ou c an ex t end t he ar r ay s i m y by us i ng hi gher i ndex es . Howev er , pl i f y ou k now i n adv anc e how m any m e el em or ent s y ou wi l l be addi ng, i t c an be f as t er t o us e t he r es i z e c om and t o r eal l oc at e c om m put er m or y t o s t or e t he em ar r ay . r es i z e pr es er v es any dat a i n t he ar r ay , or t r unc at es dat a i f t he new s i z e i s s m l er t han t he ol d s i z e. al dat a = al l oc at e( 5) out l n( l engt h( dat a) ) r es i z e( dat a, 10) out l n( l engt h( dat a) ) r es i z e( dat a, 2, 4) out l n( l engt h( dat a) ) out l n( l engt h( dat a[ 0] ) )
Multiple Advance Declarations

You can also declare many variables and arrays in advance using the dec l ar e statement. For example: dec l ar e r adi at i on[ 8760] , t em 8760] , m r i x [ 3, 3] , i =0 p[ at This statement will create the array variables radiation and temp, each with 8760 values. It will also set aside memory for the 3x3 matrix variable, and 'create' the variable i and assign it the value of zero. The declare statement can be a useful shortcut to creating arrays and initializing many variables in a single line. The only limitation is that you cannot define arrays of greater than two dimensions using the declare command.
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7.9.4
Function Calls
It is usually good programming practice to split a larger program up into smaller sections, often called procedures, functions, or subroutines. A program may be easier to read and debug if it is not all thrown together, and you may have common blocks of code that appear several times in the program.
User Functions
A function is simply a named chunk of code that may be called from other parts of the script. It usually performs a well-defined operation on a set of variables, and it may return a computed value to the caller. Functions can be written anywhere in your SAM script, including after they are called. If a function is never called by the program, it has no effect.
Definition
Consider the very simple procedure listed below. f unc t i on s how_wel c om ) e( out l n( " Thank y ou f or c hoos i ng Sam UL. " ) out l n( " Thi s t ex t wi l l onl y be di s pl ay ed at t he s t ar t of t he s c r i pt . " ) end Notable features: Use the function keyword to define a new function. The function name is next, and follows the same rules as for variable names. Valid function names can have letters, digits, and underscores, but cannot start with a digit. The empty parentheses after the name indicate that this function takes no parameters. The end keyword closes the function definition. To call the function from elsewhere in the code, simply write the function's name, followed by the parentheses: ' s how a m s age t o t he us er es s how_wel c om ) e(
Returning a Value
A function is generally more useful if it can return information back to the program that called it. In this example, the function will not return unless the user enters es" or "no" into the input dialog. f unc t i on r equi r e_y es _or _no( ) whi l e( t r ue ) ans wer = i n( " Des t r oy ev er y t hi ng? Ent er y es or no: " ) i f ( ans wer == " y es " ) r et ur n t r ue i f ( ans wer == " no" ) r et ur n f al s e out l n( " That was not an ac c ept abl e r es pons e. " ) end end
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' c al l t he i nput f unc t i on r es ul t = r equi r e_y es _or _no( ) ' r et ur ns t r ue or f al s e i f ( not r es ul t ) out l n( " us er s ai d no, phew! " ) ex i t el s e out l n( " des t r oy i ng ev er y t hi ng. . . " ) end
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The important lesson here is that the main script does not worry about the details of how the user is questioned, and only knows that it will receive a true or false response. Also, the function can be reused in different parts of the program, and each time the user will be treated in a familiar way.
Parameters
In most cases, a function will accept arguments when it is called. That way, the function can change its behavior, or take different inputs in calculating a result. Analogous to mathematical functions, SamUL functions can take arguments to compute a result that can be returned. Arguments to a function are given names and are listed between the parentheses on the function definition line. For example, consider a function to determine the minimum of two numbers: f unc t i on m ni m ( a, b) i um i f ( a < b) r et ur n a el s e r et ur n b end ' c al l t he f unc t i on c ount = 129 out l n( " M ni m : " + m ni m ( c ount , 77) ) i um i um In SamUL, changing the value of a function's named arguments will modify the variable in the calling program. Instead of passing the actual value of a parameter a, SamUL always passes a reference to the variable in the original program. The reference is hidden from the user, so the variable acts just like any other variable inside the function. Because arguments are passed by reference (as in Fortran, for example), a function can "return" more than one value. For example: f unc t i on s um f f m t ( s , d, a, b) di ul s = a+b d = a- b r et ur n a* b end s um = - 1 di f f = - 1 m t = s um f f m t ( s um di f f , 20, 7) ul di ul ,
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" + di f f + " M t: ul " + m t) ' ul wi l l out put 27,
out l n( " Sum " + s um + " Di f f : : 13, and 140
Variable Scope
Generally, variables used inside a function are considered "local", and cannot be accessed from the caller program. For example: f unc t i on t r i pl e( x ) y = 3* x end t r i pl e( 4 ) out l n( y ) '
t hi s wi l l
f ai l
bec aus e y i s l oc al
t o t he t r i pl e f unc t i on
As we have seen, we can write useful functions using arguments and return values to pass data into and out of functions. However, sometimes there are some many inputs to a function that it becomes very cumbersome to list them all as arguments. Alternatively, you might have some variables that are used throughout your program, or are considered reference values or constants. For these situations, you can define variables to be global in SamUL, and then they can be used inside functions and in the main program. For example: gl obal pi = 3. 1415926
f unc t i on c i r c um er enc e( r ) f r et ur n 2* pi * r end f unc t i on deg2r ad( x ) r et ur n pi / 180* x end out l n( " PI : " + pi ) out l n( " CI RC: " + c i r c um er enc e( 3 ) ) f out l n( " D2R: " + deg2r ad( 180 ) ) Common programming advice is to minimize the number of global variables used in a program. Sometimes the are certainly necessary, but too many can lead to mistakes that are harder to debug and correct, and can reduce the readability and maintainability of your script.
Built-in SamUL Functions

Throughout this guide, we have made use of built-in functions like in, out l n, and others. These functions are included with SamUL automatically, and called in exactly the same way as user functions. Like user functions, they can return values, and sometimes they modify the arguments sent to them. Refer to the Library Reference for documentation on each function's capabilities, parameters, and return values.
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7.9.5
Input, Output, and System Access
SamUL provides a variety of standard library functions to work with files, directories, and interact with other programs. So far, we have used the in, out, and outln functions to accept user input and display program output in the runtime console window. Now we will learn about accessing files and other programs.
Working with Text Files

To write data to a text file, use the wr i t et ex t f i l e function. wr i t et ex t f i l e accepts any type of variable, but most frequently you will write text stored in a string variable. For example: dat a = " " f or ( i =0; i <10; i =i +1) dat a = dat a + " Tex t Dat a Li ne " + s t r i ng( i ) + " \ n" ok = wr i t et ex t f i l e( " C: / t es t . t x t " , dat a ) i f ( not ok ) out l n( " Er r or wr i t i ng t ex t f i l e. " ) Reading a text file is just as simple with the r eadt ex t f i l e function. m t ex t = " " y i f ( not r eadt ex t f i l e( " C: / t es t . t x t " , m t ex t ) ) y out l n( " c oul d not r ead t ex t f i l e. " ) el s e out l n( " t ex t dat a: " ) out ( m t ex t ) y end While these functions offer an easy way to read an entire text file, often it is useful to be able to access it line by line. SamUL provides the open, c l os e, and r eadl n functions for this purpose. f i l e = open( " c : / t es t . t x t " , " r " ) i f ( not f i l e) out l n( " c oul d not open f i l e" ) ex i t end dec l ar e l i ne whi l e ( r eadl n( f i l e, l i ne ) ) out l n( " M Tex t Li ne=' " + l i ne + " ' " ) y end c l os e( f i l e) In the example above, f i l e is a number that represents the file on the disk. The open function opens the specified file for reading when the "r" parameter is given. The r eadl n function will return true as long as there are more lines to be read from the file, and the text of each line is placed in the line variable. Another way to access individual lines of a text file uses the split function to return an array of text lines.
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For example: m t ex t = " " y r eadt ex t f i l e( " C: / t es t . t x t " , m t ex t ) y l i nes = s pl i t ( m t ex t , " \ n" ) y out l n( " Ther e ar e " + l engt h( l i nes ) + " l i nes of t ex t i n t he f i l e. " ) i f ( l engt h( l i nes ) > 5) out l n( " Li ne 5: ' " , l i nes [ 5] , " ' " )
File System Functions

Suppose you want to run SAM with many different weather files, and consequently need a list of all the files in a folder that have the .tm2 extension. SamUL provides the directorylist function to help out in this situation. If you want to filter for multiple file extensions, separate them with commas. f i l e_nam es = di r ec t or y l i s t ( " C: / W ndows " , " dl l " ) ' c oul d al s o us e " t x t , dl l " i out l n( " Found " + l engt h( f i l e_nam ) + " f i l es t hat m c h. " ) es at out l n( uns pl i t ( f i l e_nam , " \ n" ) ) es To list all the files in the given folder, leave the extension string empty or pass in "*". Sometimes you need to be able to quickly extract the file name from the full path, or vice versa. The functions filenameonly and dirnameonly extract the respective sections of the file name, returning the result. To test whether a file or directory exist, use the di r ex i s t s or f i l eex i s t s functions. Examples: pat h = " C: / SAM 2010. 11. 9/ s am i m dl l " / s . di r = di r nam eonl y ( pat h ) nam = f i l enam e eonl y ( pat h ) out l n( " Pat h: " + pat h ) out l n( " Nam e: " + nam + " Ex i s t s ? " + f i l eex i s t s ( pat h) ) e out l n( " Di r : " + di r + " Ex i s t s ? " + di r ex i s t s ( di r ) )
Standard Dialogs
To facilitate writing more interactive scripts, SamUL includes various dialog functions. We have already used the not i c e and y es no functions in previous examples. The c hoos ef i l e function pops up a file selection dialog to the user, prompting them to select a file. choosefile will accept three optional parameters: the path of the initial directory to show in the dialog, a wildcard filter like "*.txt" to limit the types of files shown in the list, and a dialog caption to display on the window. Example: f i l e = c hoos ef i l e( " c : / SAM , " * . dl l " , " Choos e a DLL f i l e" ) " i f ( f i l e == " " ) not i c e( " You di d not c hoos e a f i l e, qui t t i ng. " ) ex i t el s e i f ( not y es no( " Do y ou want t o l oad: \ n\ n" + f i l e) ) ex i t
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' pr oc eed t o l oad . dl l f i l e out l n( " Loadi ng " + f i l e) end
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Calling Other Programs

Suppose you have a program on your computer that reads an input file, makes some complicated calculations, and writes an output file. For example, a program could read in some system specifications and calculate its heat loss coefficients that could be used in a SAM analysis. There are two very similar ways to call external programs: the system and shell functions. They are identical except that shell pops up an interactive system command window and runs the program in it. Both functions will wait until the called program finishes before returning to SamUL, so that the program runs synchronously. Examples: s y s t em " not epad. ex e" ) ' r un not epad and wai t ( s hel l ( " i pc onf i g / al l > c : / t es t . t x t " ) ' r un i n t he s y s t em s hel l out put = " " r eadt ex t f i l e( " c : / t es t . t x t " , out put ) out l n( out put ) Each program runs in a folder that the program refers to as the working directory. Sometimes you may need to switch the working directory to conveniently access other files, or to allow an external program to run correctly. wor k i ng_di r = c wd( ) ' c hdi r ( " C: / wi ndows " ) ' out l n( " c wd=" + c wd( ) ) c hdi r ( wor k i ng_di r ) ' out l n( " c wd=" + c wd( ) ) get t he c ur r ent wor k i ng di r ec t or y c hange t he wor k i ng di r ec t or y c hange i t bac k t o t he or i gi nal one
7.9.6
Interfacing with SAM Analyses
The SamUL language would be of little interest if it did not allow for direct manipulation and automation of SAM analyses. To this end, there is a set of included function calls that can set SAM input variables, invoke a simulation, and retrieve output data. All of the SamUL function calls involve only "base case" analysis. That is, the built-in parametrics, sensitivity, optimization, and statistical simulation types that are controlled from the user interface are not accessible from SamUL. This is probably less of a hindrance than it sounds, as SamUL exists primarily to allow for specialized simulations that do not fall into one of those categories.
Getting Started
SamUL scripts are part of a SAM project file that can consist of multiple cases and scripts. The general methodology is to have a SAM case that more or less describes the system you want to investigate, and
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then create a SamUL script within the same project that can manipulate the case. A SamUL script can only operate on one case at a time, and the active case is specified using the SetActiveCase function call. For example: Set Ac t i v eCas e( " PV Sy s t em i n Ar i z ona Cas e" )
Changing Input Values

Once an active case has been chosen, you can change base case input values using the Set I nput function. If an input affects other calculated variables, they are automatically recalculated, and the updated values are shown on the case input page. Calling Set I nput causes the SAM interface to be updated just as if the user had changed the variable manually. Examples: Set I nput ( " s y s t em degr adat i on" , 12. 5 ) . ' s et degr adat i on t o 12. 5 \ % y ear / Set I nput ( " pv wat t s . ar r ay _t y pe" , 1 ) ' s et s PVW t s ar r ay t r ac k i ng m at ode t o one ax i s SamUL requires that you provide the internal names of variables to access them. These names can be accessed from the third button on the SamUL toolbar. A dialog box will pop up, listing all SAM variables sorted by grouping and labels. The internal data type of a variable is also listed. Simply select the input variable from the hierarchical menu, and the internal name will be pasted into the SamUL script at the cursor position. Unfortunately, because of the huge number of variables in SAM, there is no comprehensive reference manual that describes each variable's values or any special formatting that may be required. For example, the PV shading derate factor matrix is actually stored in memory as a one-dimensional column-major array, with the first two elements indicating the number of rows and columns respectively. Supposing that you had read in a 2D array from a text file into the s hadi ng[ i , j ] variable, you must convert it to a single dimensional array representation as below: s hadar r = al l oc at e( 12* 24+2) s hadar r [ 0] = 12 s hadar r [ 1] = 24 c =2 f or ( i =0; i <12; i =i +1) f or ( j =0; j <24; j =j +1) s hadar r [ c ] = s hadi ng[ i , j ] c =c +1 end end Then you can write s et i nput ( " pv . s hadi ng. m h. f ac t or s " , s hadar r ) and it will assign the factors x correctly. The same holds true for most 2D matrix representations in SAM. One exception is the heliostat field layout matrix for CSP Power Towers. The matrix is also stored as a onedimensional array as described above, but there is one more number attached to the end of the array to hold the span angle in degrees. Thus the total array length is nr ows * nc ol s +3. In any situation, it is always possible to call the GetInput with a variable to inspect how the data is stored. s et ac t i v ec as e( " New CSP Power Tower Cas e 1" )
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x = get i nput ( " c s p. pt . s f . us er _f i el d" ) out l n( " l en=" , l engt h( x ) , " : " , x )
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Simulating and Saving Output

To start a base case simulation, use the simulate function. It take a boolean parameter to specify whether to save the hourly (8760) outputs from the simulation. After the simulation has finished, you can access the outputs using the getoutput function. s et ac t i v ec as e( " Res i dent i al PV Sy s t em ) " s et i nput ( " s y s t em degr adat i on" , 12. 5 ) . ' s i m at e( ) ul l c oe = get out put ( " s v . l c oe_r eal " ) not i c e( " LCOE = " + l c oe ) s et degr adat i on t o 12. 5 per c ent
As with the input variables, the internal variable names of the available outputs are also accessible from the SamUL toolbar. You can also save several outputs to a comma-separated value (CSV) file to work with in Excel or another program using the wr i t er es ul t s function. The outputs variables are passed to the function separated by commas in a single string, and each variable is dumped as a separate column in the CSV file. s et ac t i v ec as e( " Res i dent i al PV Sy s t em ) " s et i nput ( " s y s t em degr adat i on" , 12. 5 ) . ' s et degr adat i on t o 12. 5 per c ent s i m at e( ) ul wr i t er es ul t s ( " c : / t es t . c s v " , " s y s t em hour l y . e_net , s y s t em m . . ont hl y . e_net , s v . l c oe_nom ) "
Batching Weather Files

Let's return to the original hypothetical example discussed in the introduction. You have directory of weather files, and for each one you are asked to calculate the hourly generation and LCOE for the system. The code addresses this need, and makes use of many SamUL language capabilities and built-in function calls. ' Set t he ac t i v e c as e f r om t he c ur r ent ones s et ac t i v ec as e( " Si m e PV Sy s t em ) pl " ' Spec i f y a di r ec t or y t o us e f or weat her bat c hi ng di r = " c : / Doc um ent s and Set t i ngs / Dav i d Sm t h/ Des k t op/ W i eat her Fi l es " ' Li s t al l t he f i l es i n a di r ec t or y t hat hav e t he ex t ens i on " t m 2" f i l e_l i s t = Di r ec t or y Li s t ( di r , " t m ) 2" ' l oop t hr ough al l t he f i l es c ount = l engt h( f i l e_l i s t ) f or ( i =0; i <c ount ; i =i +1)
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out ( " W eat her ( " , ( i +1) , " of " , c ount , " ) =" +Fi l eNam eOnl y ( f i l e_l i s t [ i ] ) +" \ n" ) ' s et t he c l i m e v ar i abl e t o t he f i l e nam at e s et i nput ( " c l i m e. l oc at i on" , f i l e_l i s t [ i ] ) at ' r un t he bas e c as e s i m at e( ) ul ' m e t he out put f i l e nam ak e out put _f i l e = di r + " / out put _" + Fi l eNam eOnl y ( f i l e_l i s t [ i ] ) + " . c s v " out ( " W i t i ng Out put Fi l e: " +Fi l eNam r eOnl y ( out put _f i l e) +" \ n\ n" ) ' dum t he needed r es ul t s i nt o a CSV f i l e p W i t eRes ul t s ( out put _f i l e, " s y s t em hour l y . e_net , s v . l c oe_nom ) r . "
end This example and several others are included in the standard SAM sample files.
7.9.7
Case Study
Problem Description
Suppose your supervisor sends you an Excel spreadsheet with a list of 30 photovoltaic systems at various locations. For each system, you are given a street address, system size in kW, capital cost, and a flat utility rate in cents/kWh for the location. You are asked to add additional columns to the spreadsheet to show the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) in both real and nominal terms, the total annual energy production, the payback period if the system were installed. For each system, the array tilt should equal the location's latitude. The spreadsheet may look something like: Address 300 West Second Street Little Rock Ar 72000 15902 Jamaica Ave Jamaica NY 125 South Grand Avenue Pasadena CA 91105 135 High Street Hartford CT 06103 717 Madison Place NW Washington DC 20005 170 700 125 355 200 PV System Size
333 Constitution Avenue NW Washington DC 20001 970
One approach would be to calculate all of the metrics by manually setting up each system in SAM. Another possibility would be to set up a complicated linked parametric simulation for all the systems, after having downloaded the correct weather data for each location. Either way, the task would be at best cumbersome and error prone. Worse, if your supervisor decides to change one or two inputs, or later wants additional
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output metrics, it would be a hassle to start all over again. SamUL provides all the tools you need to automate this process in a flexible way.
Obtaining Latitudes and Longitudes

The first task is to determine the latitude and longitude of each address, so that we can find appropriate hourly weather data for each location. Google conveniently provides a simple web service for decoding a street address into coordinates. We simply need a valid URL string to pass to Google, and it will return the latitude and longitude in a string via the HTTP/GET method. SamUL has a built-in function ht t pget to process a GET request and returns the string data from the server. We will code up this functionality in a SamUL function called addr2latlon that fills in latitude and longitude from an address. The first task is to normalize the address string to first remove multiple spaces, and then replace single spaces with the + sign to make a valid URL. The result of ht t pget is split at each comma location, and the 3rd and 4th elements (latitude and longitude) are extracted and converted to double precision numbers. If the web service returned something strange, the latitude and longitude are set to -1 to signify an error. The complete function is listed below. f unc t i on addr 2l at l on( addr es s , l at , l on ) addr = addr es s s t r r epl ac e( addr , " ", " ") s t r r epl ac e( addr , " " , " " ) s t r r epl ac e( addr , " " , " +" ) quer y = " ht t p: / / m aps . googl e. c om m / aps / geo?q=" " &out put =c s v &k ey =m k ey &s ens or =f al s e" y r es ul t = ht t pget ( quer y ) par t s = s pl i t ( r es ul t , " , " ) i f ( l engt h( par t s ) == 4) l at = doubl e( par t s [ 2] ) l on = doubl e( par t s [ 3] ) el s e l at = - 1 l on = - 1 end end
addr
Downloading Weather Data

Hourly TMY2 formatted weather data can be retrieved from the Mercator web service provided by NREL. Since we are not doing analysis for a particular year, we will write a function to download the typical (TDY) weather data for a location. The getweather function uses the addr2latlon function listed above to translate the address to coordinates. Given a latitude and longitude, the proper 10 km grid cell can be determined using the translate function listed below. The details of this translation will not be covered here, and are specific to how NREL stores the weather files on the server. Using the grid code and directory information returned from translate, we can create a URL for the weather data file that we wish to download. Using the built-in SamUL function ht t pdownl oad, we download the compressed weather file to a local folder on our computer. Then, it is decompressed and the .gz extension
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removed using the decompress function. If the decompression succeeds, the compressed file is deleted, and we are left with the proper .tm2 weather data file that can be processed by SAM. f unc t i on get weat her ( addr , t ar get di r , weat her f i l e, l at , l on ) l at = - 1. 0 l on = - 1. 0 gr i d = " " di r = " " addr 2l at l on( addr , l at , l on) t r ans l at e( l at , l on, gr i d, di r ) l oc al = t ar get di r + " / weat her _" + gr i d + " . t m gz " 2. + di r + " / r adwx _" + gr i d +
ur l = " ht t p: / / m c at or . nr el . gov / per ez _t dy / " er " _9805. t m gz " 2. i f ( not ht t pdownl oad( ur l , l oc al ) ) out l n( " f ai l ed t o downl oad\ n\ t " + ur l r et ur n f al s e end
+ " \ n\ t " + l oc al
weat her f i l e = s t r l ef t ( l oc al , s t r l en( l oc al ) - 3) i f ( not dec om es s ( l oc al , weat her f i l e ) ) pr out l n( " f ai l ed t o dec om es s f i l e. " ) pr r et ur n f al s e end del et ef i l e( l oc al r et ur n t r ue end f unc t i on t r ans l at e( l at , l on, gr i dc ode, di r ) s hor t _l at = i nt eger ( abs ( l at ) ) s hor t _l on = i nt eger ( abs ( l on ) ) if ( m od( s hor t _l at , 2) > 0 ) s hor t _l at = s hor t _l at - 1 if ( m od( s hor t _l on, 2) > 0 ) s hor t _l on = s hor t _l on- 1 s hor t _l on = s hor t _l on + 2 di r = s hor t _l on + " " + s hor t _l at )
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gl at = s t r i ng( i nt eger ( abs ( l at ) * 10 ) ) + " 5" gl on = s t r i ng( i nt eger ( abs ( l on) * 10 ) ) + " 5" i f ( s t r l en( gl on) <5) gl on = " 0" + gl on gr i dc ode = gl on + gl at end
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Processing the Input File

Now that we have access to weather data for each of the locations in the spreadsheet, the next task is to read it in and perform each simulation. After the simulation for each location is finished, we will immediately write the results to another file. SamUL conveniently allows multiple files to be open at the same time. The code below opens the input and output files, and scans each line of the input for the various input parameters, runs a simulation, and writes the results to an output file. s et ac t i v ec as e( " Bas el i ne PV Sy s t em ) " wor k di r = " / Us er s / adobos / Des k t op" i nput = open( wor k di r + " / i nput . c s v " , " r " ) i f ( not i nput ) out l n( " c oul d not open i nput f i l e" ) ex i t end out put = open( wor k di r + " / out put . c s v " , " w" ) i f ( not out put ) out l n( " c oul d not open out put f i l e" ) ex i t end wr i t e( out put , " l at , l on, l c oe nom nal , l c oe r eal , enet , pay bac k \ n" ) i dec l ar e buf f er r eadl n( i nput , buf f er ) whi l e( r eadl n( i nput , buf f er ) ) c ol s = s pl i t ( buf f er , " , " ) addr es s = c ol s [ 0] s i z e = c ol s [ 1] c os t = c ol s [ 2] r at e = c ol s [ 3] dec l ar e l at = - 1. 0, l on = - 1. 0, weat her f i l e=" "
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i f ( not get weat her ( addr es s , wor k di r , weat her f i l e, l at , l on ) ) out l n( " f ai l ed t o get weat her dat a f or : " + addr es s ) ex i t end m odul e_c os t = c os t / ( s i z e * 1000 ) s et s et s et s et s et i i i i i nput nput nput nput nput ( ( ( ( ( " c l i m e. at " pv wat t s . " pv wat t s . " pv . c os t . " ur . f l at . l oc at i on" , weat her f i l e ) dc r at e" , s i z e ) t i l t " , abs ( l at ) ) per _m odul e" , m odul e_c os t ) buy _r at e" , r at e/ 100. 0 )
out l n( " Si m at i ng l oc at i on: " + addr es s ) ul s i m at e( ) ul dec l ar e l c oe_nom =0, l c oe_r eal =0, enet =0, pay bac k =0 l c oe_nom = get out put ( " s v . l c oe_nom ) " l c oe_r eal = get out put ( " s v . l c oe_r eal " ) enet = get out put ( " s v . annual _out put " ) pay bac k = get out put ( " s v . pay bac k " ) wr i t e( out put , l at +" , " +l on+" , " +l c oe_nom , " +l c oe_r eal +" , " +enet +" , " +pay bac k ) +" end c l os e( i nput ) c l os e( out put ) In this example, the cost data for each location represented the total installed system cost. However, SAM does not have a direct input for the total cost, as it is calculated from many different cost components. To trick SAM into using the total cost that we have, however, we simply set all the costs to zero, and calculate an effective DC module cost given the nameplate size of the system and the total cost. Then, setting the module cost variable to this value will naturally result in the desired total system cost as well. This examples shows the power SamUL to automate an otherwise tedious and error prone task. While the data set presented here is relatively small, one could imagine such a task for thousands of locations, system sizes, and costs. The ability to exercise SAM's capabilities via scripting is a tool of core importance in an advanced SAM user's toolbox. The case study example and several others are included as part of the standard SAM installation. Please browse the examples for additional information, or contact Solar Advisor Support at
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7.9.8
Library Reference
Type/Data Manipulation
TypeOf ( ):STRING Returns a description of the argument type. Integer ( VARIANT ):INTEGER Converts the variable to an integer number. Double ( VARIANT ):DOUBLE Converts the variable to a double-precision floating point number. Boolean ( VARIANT ):BOOLEAN Converts the variable to a boolean. String ( ... ):STRING Converts the given variables to a string. IntegerArray ( STRING ):ARRAY Converts a string delimited by {;, tn} to an integer array. DoubleArray ( STRING ):ARRAY Converts a string delimited by {;, tn} to a double-precision floating point array. Length ( ARRAY ):INTEGER Return the length of an array. Array ( ... ):ARRAY Creates an array out of the argument list. Allocate ( INTEGER:PRIMARY, [INTEGER:SECONDARY] ):ARRAY Creates an empty array with the specified dimensions. Resize ( , INTEGER:PRIMARY, [INTEGER:SECONDARY] ):NONE Resizes an array or 2D matrix.
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( , ... ):NONE Appends one or more items to an array.
Append
Prepend ( , ... ):NONE Prepends one or more items to an array.
Input/Output
Out ( ... ):NONE Print data to the output device. OutLn ( ... ):NONE Print data to the output device followed by a newline. Print ( STRING:Format, ... ):NONE Print formatted data to the output device using an extended 'printf' syntax. In ( ... ):STRING Request input from the input device, showing an optional prompt. Notice ( ... ):NONE Show a message dialog. YesNo ( ... ):BOOLEAN) Show a Yes/No dialog. Returns true if yes was clicked ChooseFile ( [STRING:Initial dir], [STRING:Filter], [STRING:Caption] ):STRING Show a file selection dialog, with optional parameters. StartTimer ( NONE ):NONE Starts a stop watch timer. ElapsedTime ( NONE ):INTEGER Returns elapsed milliseconds since last call to 'StartTimer' MilliSleep ( INTEGER:Milliseconds ):NONE
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Sleep for the specified amount of time. DateTime ( NONE ):STRING Returns the current date and time. Open ( STRING:File, STRING:Mode ):INTEGER Opens a file for reading 'r', writing 'w', or appending 'a'. Close ( INTEGER:FileNum ):NONE Closes a file. Seek ( INTEGER:FileNum, INTEGER:Offset, INTEGER:Origin ):INTEGER Sets the position in an open file. Tell ( INTEGER:FileNum ):INTEGER Returns the current file position. Eof ( INTEGER:FileNum ):BOOLEAN Determines whether a file is at the end. Flush ( INTEGER:FileNum ):INTEGER Flushes the current file object to disk. Write ( INTEGER:FileNum, ... ):BOOLEAN Writes data as text to a file. WriteN ( INTEGER:FileNum, VARIANT data, INTEGER: NumChars ):BOOLEAN Writes character data to a file. WriteLn ( INTEGER:FileNum, VARIANT data ):BOOLEAN Writes a line to a file as a string. ReadN ( INTEGER:FileNum, :Data, INTEGER:NumChars ):BOOLEAN Reads characters from a file. ReadLn ( INTEGER:FileNum, :Line ):BOOLEAN Reads a line from a file, returning false if no more lines exist.
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( INTEGER:filenum, STRING:format=[idgefxsb]*, STRING:delimiters, ... VALUE ARGUMENT LIST ): BOOLEAN Reads a data line from a file with the given sequence of types and delimiters. Number of value arguments must equal number of characters in format string
ReadFmt
OpenWF ( STRING:file, [ARRAY:header info] ):INTEGER Opens a weather (TM2, TM3, EPW) file for reading. ReadWF ( INTEGER:filenum, ARRAY:y - m - d - h - gh - dn - df - wind - tdry - twet - relhum - pres *or* [INTEGER: y, INTEGER:m, INTEGER:d, INTEGER:h, DOUBLE:gh, DOUBLE:dn, DOUBLE:df, DOUBLE:wind, DOUBLE:tdry, DOUBLE:twet, DOUBLE:relhum, DOUBLE:pres]):BOOLEAN Reads a line of data from a weather file. CustomizeTMY3 ( STRING:Source tmy3 file, STRING:Target tmy3 file, [ STRING:Column name=gh - dn - df - tdry - twet wind - pressure - relhum, ARRAY:Values(8760) ]* ):BOOLEAN Overwrites columns of 8760 data in a TMY3 file and writes a new file. WFStatistics ( STRING:File, :DN, :GH, :AMBT, :WSPD ):BOOLEAN Extracts annual averages of DN, GH, AmbT, and WSpd WriteTextFile ( STRING:Filename, VARIANT data ):BOOLEAN Writes a file of text data to disk. Returns true on success. ReadTextFile ( STRING:Filename, :Data ):BOOLEAN Reads a text file from disk, returning true on success. GetHomeDir ( NONE ):STRING Returns the current user's home directory. Cwd ( NONE ):STRING Returns the current working directory. ChDir ( STRING: Path ):BOOLEAN Change the current working directory. DirectoryList ( STRING:Path, STRING:Comma-separated extensions, [BOOLEAN:Include folders]):ARRAY Enumerates all the files in a directory that match a comma separated string of extensions.
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System ( STRING ):INTEGER Run a system command, returning the process exit code. Shell ( STRING ):BOOLEAN Run a system command in a new console window. Returns true on success. FileNameOnly ( STRING:Path ):STRING Returns only the file name portion of a full path. DirNameOnly ( STRING:Path ):STRING Returns only the directory portion of a full path. Extension ( STRING:File ):STRING Returns the extension of a file. DirExists ( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN Returns true if the specified directory exists. FileExists ( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN Returns true if the specified file exists. CopyFile ( STRING:File1, STRING:File2 ):BOOLEAN Copies file 1 to file 2. RenameFile ( STRING:File1, STRING:File2 ):BOOLEAN Renames file 1 to file 2. DeleteFile ( STRING:File ):BOOLEAN Deletes the specified file. MkDir ( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN Creates a directory including the full path to it. RmDir ( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN Deletes a directory and everything it contains.
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( STRING:Archive, STRING:Target ):BOOLEAN Decompresses an archive file (ZIP, TAR, TAR.GZ, GZ).
Decompress
HttpGet ( STRING:Url ):STRING Performs an HTTP web query and returns the result as plain text. HttpDownload ( STRING:Url, STRING:LocalFile ):BOOLEAN Downloads a file form the web, showing a progress dialog.
String Manipulation
StrPos ( STRING, STRING:Search ):INTEGER Returns the first position of the search string, or -1 if not found. StrRPos ( STRING, STRING:Search ):INTEGER Returns the first position of the search string from the right, or -1 if not found. StrLeft ( STRING, INTEGER:N ):STRING Returns the left 'N' character string. StrRight ( STRING, INTEGER:N ):STRING Returns the right 'N' character string. StrLower ( STRING ):STRING Returns a lower case version of the string. StrUpper ( STRING ):STRING Returns an upper case version of the string. StrMid ( STRING, INTEGER:Start, [INTEGER:Count] ):STRING Returns the substring from the specified start position, of length 'count'. If 'count' is not supplied, the remainder of the string is returned. StrLen ( STRING ):INTEGER Returns the length of a string.
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StrReplace ( STRING, STRING:s0, STRING:s1 ):STRING Returns a string with all instances of 's0' replaced with 's1'. StrCmp ( STRING:s0, STRING:s1 ):INTEGER
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Case-sensitive comparison. Returns 0 if equal, positive if s0 comes before s1, and negative if s1 comes before s0. StrICmp ( STRING:s0, STRING:s1 ):INTEGER Case-insensitive comparison. Returns 0 if equal, positive if s0 comes before s1, and negative if s1 comes before s0. StrGCh ( STRING, INTEGER:position ):STRING Gets the character at the specified position. StrSCh ( STRING, INTEGER:position, STRING:char):NONE Sets the character at the specified position. Split ( STRING, STRING:delimiters ):ARRAY Splits the string into an array. Unsplit ( ARRAY, STRING:delimiters ):STRING Unsplits an array into a string. Format ( STRING:Format, ... ):STRING Formats data into a string using an extended 'printf' syntax.
Math
Mod ( INTEGER, INTEGER ):INTEGER Returns the remainder after X is divided by Y Abs ( NUMBER ):NUMBER Absolute value of the number. Min ( NUMBER, NUMBER *or* ARRAY ):NUMBER Returns the smaller of two values, or the smallest in an array.
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( NUMBER, NUMBER *or* ARRAY ):NUMBER Returns the larger of two values, or the largest in an array
Ceil ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the number rounded up to the nearest integer. Floor ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the number rounded down to the nearest integer. Sqrt ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the square root of a number. Pow ( NUMBER:X, NUMBER:Y ):DOUBLE Returns 'X' raised to the 'Y' power. Exp ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the exponential value, base 'e'. Log ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the logarithm of a number, base 'e'. Log10 ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the logarithm of a number, base 10. Sin ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the sine of a radian value. Cos ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the cosine of a radian value. Tan ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the tangent of a radian value. ASin ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the arcsine of a number in radians.
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ACos ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the arccosine of a number in radians. ATan ( NUMBER ):DOUBLE Returns the arctangent of a number in radians. ATan2 ( NUMBER:Y, NUMBER:X ):DOUBLE Returns the arctangent of 'Y'/'X' in radians. IsNan ( DOUBLE ):BOOLEAN Returns true if the number is NAN. NanVal ( NONE ):DOUBLE Returns NAN. UnifRand ( NONE ):DOUBLE Returns a random number with uniform distribution (0..1). NormRand ( NONE ):DOUBLE Returns a random number with normal distribution around 0.
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SetInput ( STRING:Variable name, VARIANT value):NONE Sets an input in the active case. GetInput ( STRING:Variable name ):VARIANT Returns an input value from the active case. GetOutput ( STRING:Variable name ):ARRAY Returns a base case output from the active case's results as a double-precision array. ResetOutputSource ( NONE or STRING:Simulation name, INTEGER:Run number ):NONE Resets the output data source to default BASE case, or changes it to a different simulation and run number.
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( STRING:Simulation name ):NONE Clears all results for the specific simulation name.
ClearSimResults
SetActiveCase ( STRING:Case name ):NONE Sets the active case. GetActiveCase ( NONE ):STRING Returns the active case name. SwitchToCase ( NONE ):NONE Switches to the active case tab in the interface. ChangeConfig ( STRING:Technology, STRING:Financing ):BOOLEAN Changes the current case's configuration. Application must be '*'. ListCases ( NONE ):ARRAY Lists all the cases in the project. ProjectFile ( NONE ):STRING Returns the current project file name. AppYield ( NONE ):NONE Yields the interface to respond to user input. SaveProject ( NONE ): BOOLEAN Saves the project. SaveProjectAs ( STRING ):BOOLEAN Saves the project to the specified file. Simulate ( BOOLEAN:Save hourly data ):NONE Runs a base case simulation with the current inputs, with the option of saving hourly results. MPSimulate ( STRING:Simulation name, ARRAY[ARRAY]:Variable name/value table NRUNS+1 x NVARS with top row having var names ):BOOLEAN Runs many simulations using multiple processors.
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WriteResults ( STRING:File name, STRING:Comma-separated output variable names):BOOLEAN
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Write a comma-separated-value file, with each column specified by a string of comma-separated output names. ClearResults ( NONE ):NONE Clear the active case's results from memory. ClearCache ( NONE ):NONE Clear the memory cache of previously run simulations. DeleteTempFiles ( NONE ):NONE Delete any lingering simulation temporary files. SetTimestep ( STRING:Timestep with units ):NONE Sets the TRNSYS timestep for the active case. ReloadDefaults ( NONE ):NONE Reloads all default values for the active case. ListTechnologies ( NONE ):ARRAY Returns an array of all the technologies in SAM. ListFinancing ( STRING:Technology ):ARRAY Lists all financing options in SAM for a given technology. TechnologyType ( NONE ):STRING Returns the active case technology type. FinancingType ( NONE ):STRING Returns the active case financing type. ActiveVariables ( [STRING:Technology, STRING:Financing] ):ARRAY List all active variables for the current case or technology/market name. FluidDensity ( INTEGER:Fluid number, DOUBLE:Temp 'C ):DOUBLE Returns density at temperature Tc for a given fluid number (pressure assumed 1Pa).
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( INTEGER:Fluid number, DOUBLE:Temp 'C ):DOUBLE Returns specific heat at temperature Tc for a given fluid number (pressure assumed 1Pa).
FluidSpecificHeat
FluidName ( INTEGER:Fluid number ):STRING Returns fluid name for a given fluid number. PtOptimize ( NONE ):NONE Optimizes the power tower heliostat field, tower height, receiver height, and receiver diameter. LHSCreate ( NONE ):INTEGER Creates a new Latin Hypercube Sampling object. LHSFree ( INTEGER:lhsref ):NONE Frees an LHS object. LHSReset ( INTEGER:lhsref ):NONE Erases all distributions and correlations in an LHS object. LHSSeed ( INTEGER:seed ):NONE Sets the seed value for the LHS object. LHSPoints ( INTEGER:lhsref, INTEGER:number of points ):NONE Sets the number of samples desired. LHSDist ( INTEGER:lhsref, STRING:distribution name, STRING: variable name, [DOUBLE:param1, DOUBLE: param2, DOUBLE:param3, DOUBLE:param4] ): NONE Sets up a distribution for a variable. LHSCorr ( INTEGER:lhsref, STRING:variable 1, STRING:variable 2, DOUBLE:corr val ):NONE Sets up correlation between two variables. LHSRun ( INTEGER:lhsref ):BOOLEAN Runs the LHS sampling program. LHSError ( INTEGER:lhsref ):STRING Returns an error message if any.
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LHSVector ( INTEGER:lhsref, STRING:variable ):ARRAY Returns the sampled values for a variable. STEPCreate ( NONE ):INTEGER Create a new STEPWISE regression analysis object. STEPFree ( INTEGER:stpref ):NONE Frees a STEPWISE object. STEPInput ( INTEGER:stpref, STRING:name, ARRAY:values ):NONE Sets a STEPWISE input vector. STEPOutput ( INTEGER:stpref, ARRAY:values ):NONE Sets a STEPWISE output vector. STEPRun ( INTEGER:stpref ):NONE Runs the STEPWISE analysis. STEPError ( INTEGER:stpref ):STRING Returns any error code from STEPWISE. STEPResult ( INTEGER:stpref, STRING:name ):ARRAY Returns R2 and SRC for a given input name. OpenEIListUtilities ( NONE ):ARRAY Returns a list of utility company names from OpenEI.org OpenEIListRates ( STRING:Utility name, , ):INTEGER Lists all rate schedules for a utility company. OpenEIApplyRate ( STRING:Guid ):BOOLEAN Downloads and applies the specified rate schedule from OpenEI. URdbFileWrite ( STRING:file ):BOOLEAN Writes a local URdb format file with the current case's utility rate information.
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SAM Help
( STRING:file ):BOOLEAN Reads a local URdb format file and overwrites the current case's utility rate information.
URdbFileRead
7.10
Generating Code
SAM's code generation feature allows you to call SAM from the following scripting and programming languages: Python C MATLAB VBA programs To use the feature, you should be familiar with one of the languages, and have the necessary software to edit, compile, and run code written in the language. When you generate code for a SAM case in one of the languages, SAM creates a text file containing lines of code that: 1. Assign input values for all of the variables in the case. 2. Makes a call to SAM's simulation engine to run a simulation. 3. Generates output using some of SAM's basic metrics (total annual output, real and nominal LCOE). To familiarize yourself with the feature, set up a simple case in SAM, and generate code for the language you would like to use. Explore the code that SAM generates and experiment with it to see how you can assign values to SAM input variables, control simulations, and access SAM results. The following example shows how to use the code generation feature with Python. The procedure is similar for the other languages. To generate sample code in Python: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Start SAM and create a new case: Photovoltaics, Component-based Models, Residential. Run the case to see the results. Create the Python code: On the Case menu, click Advanced, Generate Python Code. Save the file to a folder on your desktop: \python_example\my_pv_case.py. Click No at the prompt to view the file. Open the folder on your desktop to see the following two files: pysam.py and my_pv_case.py. The file pysam.py is the Python/SAMSIM.dll interface code that is always generated. The my_pv_case.py file is the file that contains all of the inputs.
To run run the Python script (in Windows): 1. 2. 3. In Windows, open a command prompt: From the Windows Start menu, type cmd.exe and press the Enter key. Navigate to the desk top\python_example folder: Type cd Documents and Settings\[username] \Desktop\python_example. Try to run the script by typing python my_pv_case.py.
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If the script fails because it cannot find samsim.dll, copy samsim.dll from the SAM installation folder to the python_example folder. 4. When the script runs, you should see something like the following: C: \ Doc um ent s and Set t i ngs \ adobos \ Des k t op\ py t hon_ex am e>py t hon pl m _pv _c as e. py y TRNSYS16 ( I VF- SAM 31OCT10 ) TRNSTART 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % TRNEND Lc oe( r eal ) = 12. 7051132298 Lc oe( nom = 15. 4848167856 ) E_net = 6987. 46656644 5. SAM does not need to be open to run the script. Close SAM and try running the script again to verify this. Once you've run SAM from the Python script, you can try the next procedure to see how to use the script to change the value of a SAM input variable, in this case the array tilt angle. To change values of SAM inputs from the Python script: 1. At the command prompt type notepad my_pv_case.py to open the script in the Notepad text editor. Notepad should open with the Python code that SAM generated. This file sets up all of the inputs as they were originally set in the SAM file from which it was created. Replace the simulation calls at the bottom of the file with a loop that changes the tilt: c x t = s am c r eat e_c ont ex t ( ' dum y ' ) . m s et up_c as e_i nput s ( c x t ) s am s et _s ( c x t , ' s i m hour l y _f i l e' , ' C: / Doc um . . ent s and Set t i ngs / adobos / s am _py t hon/ hour l y . dat ' ) s am s et _s ( c x t , . ' t r ns y s . wor k di r ' , ' C: / Doc um ent s and Set t i ngs / adobos / s am _py t hon' ) s am s et _s ( c x t , . ' pt f l ux . wor k di r ' , ' C: / Doc um ent s and Set t i ngs / adobos / s am _py t hon' ) s am s et _s ( c x t , ' t r ns y s . i ns t al l di r ' , ' C: / SAM 2010. 11. 9/ ex el i b/ t r ns y s ' ) . / s am s et _d( c x t , ' t r ns y s . t i m t ep' , 1. 0) . es s am s et _s ( c x t , ' pt f l ux . ex edi r ' , ' C: / SAM 2010. 11. 9/ ex el i b/ t ool s ' ) . / f or t i l t i n [ 10, 15, 20, 25, 30] : s am s et _d( c x t , " pv . ar r ay . t i l t " , t i l t ) . c x t = s i m at e_c ont ex t ( c x t , ' t r ns y s . pv ' ) ul c x t = s i m at e_c ont ex t ( c x t , ' f i n. r es . l oan' ) ul pr i nt ' Ti l t =' , t i l t pr i nt ' Lc oe( r eal ) =' , s am get _d( c x t , ' s v . l c oe_r eal ' ) . pr i nt ' Lc oe( nom =' , s am get _d( c x t , ' s v . l c oe_nom ) ) . ' pr i nt ' E_net =' , s am get _d( c x t , ' s y s t em annual . e_net ' ) . . 3. s am f r ee_c ont ex t ( c x t ) . Run the python my_pv_case.py script. It should display energy production and LCOE values at array tilt values of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30
2.
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degrees.
7.11
Libraries
Contents Overview describes SAM libraries. Accessing Libraries from Input Pages explains how to use libraries to populate input variables on input pages. Library Descriptions describes the libraries in the current version of SAM and the input pages that display values from each library. Default and User Libraries explains the difference between libraries that come with the software, and libraries that you add to your projects. Managing Libraries with the Library Editor describes the buttons on the library editor and explains how to use it to create and modify libraries.
Overview
A library is a collection of stored values for some sets of input variables on SAM input pages. A library allows you to populate a set of variables by choosing an entry from the library. For example, each entry in the photovoltaic inverter library stores a set of values for the variables describing the characteristics of an inverter in the Sandia inverter database. When you choose an inverter from the library, SAM populates the inverter characteristic variables on the Inverter page with values from the library. See Accessing Libraries from Input Pages for details. For advanced analyses, you may want to add your own entries to a library, or to modify entries in an existing library. The library editor allows you to add and manage libraries. You should only add or modify a library entry when you have a complete set of data for the entry. Because values in the entry may be interdependent in ways that are not obvious, you can easily introduce errors to simulation results by changing values in a library entry. An obvious example would be changing one of the power values for an entry in the inverter library without changing the current and voltage values. In general, you should not modify libraries unless you are familiar with both the characterization of the physical component represented by library entries, and with SAM's mathematical representation of the component. Note. If you decide to modify or create your own libraries, you should first read about the difference between default and user libraries, and refer to the instructions for working with the library editor.
Accessing Libraries from Input Pages

Depending on the library, SAM either displays a "Choose from library" or "Library" button, or displays the library entries as a list directly on the input page. For some components, to choose an item from a library, you click the Choose (or Library) button and then click the item's name in a list of library items. SAM
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automatically populates appropriate variables on the input page, which you can edit if necessary. For example, on the physical trough model's Collectors page, to choose an entry from the parabolic trough collector library, click Choose collector from library. SAM displays a list of collectors from the library. When you click a collector name in the list, SAM copies collector geometry and optical parameter values from the library to the variables on the Collectors page.
If you change the value of one of those variables, SAM indicates that the parameters on the input page differ from parameter values in the library by displaying "No library match" in the library name box:
For other libraries, such as the component-based photovoltaic model's Sandia module library, SAM displays the list of library items directly on the input page. When you choose an item from the list, SAM copies values from the library to the project's case, and displays some of them as read-only values on the Module page. If you want to use change a value, you must create a new user library.
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SAM Help
Note. SAM often only displays a subset of the parameters from a library on input pages. If you want to see the complete parameter set for a library item, you can view the values in the library editor.
Library Descriptions
SAM uses libraries to store parameter sets for the following performance model components and displays them as lists on the relevant input pages. BIOBIB Fuels Not used. CEC Modules (CECModule) List of photovoltaic modules from the California Energy Commission database of approved modules displayed on the Module page. CSP Empirical Trough TES Dispatch (EmpiricalTroughDispatch) Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the empirical trough model displayed on the Thermal Storage page. CSP GSS TES Dispatch Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the empirical trough model displayed on the Thermal Storage page. CSP Physical Trough Receiver (HCE) (PhysicalTroughHCE) Receiver characteristics for the physical trough model displayed on the Receivers (HCEs) page. CSP Physical Trough SCAs (PhysicalTroughSCA) Collector characteristics for the physical trough model displayed on the Collectors (SCAs) page. CSP Physical Trough TES Dispatch (PhysicalTroughDispatch) Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the physical
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trough model displayed on the Thermal Storage page. CSP Tower TES Dispatch (TowerDispatch)
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Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the power tower model displayed on the Thermal Storage page. CSP Trough HCEs (TroughHCE) Receiver characteristic for the empirical trough model displayed on the SCA/HCE page. CSP Trough Parasitics (TroughParasitics) Parasitic loss coefficients for different reference power cycle options of the empirical trough model displayed on the Parasitics page. CSP Trough Power Cycles (TroughPowerBlock) Steam turbine characteristics for different reference power cycle options of the empirical trough model displayed on the Power Block page. CSP Trough SCAs (TroughSCA) Collector characteristics for the empirical trough model displayed on the SCA/HCE page. Dish Stirling Systems (DishStirlingSystem) Complete system descriptions for the dish-Stirling model displayed on the System Library page. Energy Payment Dispatch (EnergyPaymentDispatch) Energy payment allocation factors and schedules displayed on the Energy Payment Dispatch page. Large Scale Wind Turbine Library (LargeScaleWindTurbine) List of turbines for the Utility Scale Wind model displayed on the Wind Farm Specifications page. SHW Collectors (SHWCollectors) Not used. SHW Draw Profiles (SHWDrawProfile) Not used. SRCC (SRCCCollectors) List of solar water heating collectors displayed on the SWH System page. Sandia Inverters (SandiaInverter) List of inverters from the Sandia inverter database for the photovoltaic model displayed on the Inverter page. Sandia Modules (SandiaModule) List of modules from the Sandia module database for the photovoltaic model displayed on the Module page. Small Scale Wind Library (SmallScaleWindTurbine) List of wind turbines for the Small Scale Wind model displayed on the Small Scale Wind System page. TOU Utility Rates (TOURateSchedule) Retail time-of-use rates for projects with residential or commercial financing displayed on the Utility Rate page.
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SAM Help
Not used.
Wind Turbine Library (WindTurbine)
Default and User Libraries

SAM stores data for each library in library files. A library file is a text file with a the .samlib extension. You can find the library files in the library folder (/exelib/libraries in your SAM installation folder). SAM uses a library type definition file with the .samlibtype extension to map values from the library file to SAM input variables. There are two types of libraries, default libraries indicated in lists by the prefix "SAM/" in lists, and user libraries indicated by the prefix "USER/": Default libraries are available to all project files on your computer and cannot be modified from the library editor. SAM considers any library file stored in the library folder to be a default library, and indicates default libraries in lists on input pages with the prefix "SAM/." Although you can use a text editor to modify a default library, we recommend using the library editor to create a copy of the default library for editing so that you always have a copy of the original default library that came with SAM. Note that you can add your own library to the default collection by creating a library file and putting it the libraries folder. User libraries are libraries stored in the project file. A user library must be added to a project file to be available in the file. User libraries are indicated in lists by the prefix "USER/." Unlike default libraries, user library parameters are stored in the project file and can increase the project file size. To make a user library available to more than one SAM project on your computer, you can either export it as a library file and then import it into other projects, or you can export to the default library folder so that it is available to all projects on your computer. SAM displays user libraries at the end of the list. For example, the modules from the user library for the Sandia PV module model appear at the end of the list of modules:
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Managing Libraries with the Library Editor

The library editor allows you to create and edit user libraries. You cannot edit default libraries from the library editor. To edit a default library, you can either create a copy of the library as a user library (the recommended approach), or you can edit the file directly using a text editor. See Default and User Libraries for details. To open the library editor: On the File menu, click Libraries. Note. In order for the library editor to be fully functional, you must open a SAM file before opening the library editor. If you open the library editor from SAM's welcome page, only the export function is active.
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SAM Help
Libraries Shows the list of default libraries with the prefix "SAM/" and any user libraries in the project with the prefix "USER/". Click a library name to display the library's contents. Each library entry is a row in the table. New User Library Click to add a new user library to the project. SAM stores user library data in the project file rather than in external library files. Remove User Library Click to remove a user library. You cannot remove a default library indicated by the "SAM/" prefix. Add Entries Add rows of data to a user library. You must choose a user library indicated by the "USER/" prefix before adding entries. You cannot add entries to a default library with the "SAM/" prefix. Export Export the current library to a library file (.samlib). Export a library when you want to use it in a different project. You must import the library into the other project for it to be available in that project. You can export a library to the default library folder (/exelib/libraries in your SAM installation folder) to make the library available to all SAM projects on your computer. Import Create a new user library by importing entries from a library file (.samlib). When you import a library, SAM stores the library entries in the project file, which affects the file's size. Help Display the Libraries help topic. Close Close the library editor.
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To create a new user library: 1. 2. 3. 4.
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Open the library editor. Click New User Library. Type a name for the library in the Import Library window. This is the name that will appear in library lists. Choose a library type in the New User Library window. See the table of library types for type descriptions.
When you create a new user library, SAM adds an empty library with the name you specified and the prefix "USER/" to the list of libraries. To assign values to the entry, you must first add a copy of an existing entry, and then modify its values. This helps to ensure that no library entries have blank values. To add entries to a new or existing user library: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Click the user library's name in the Libraries list. User libraries are indicated by the prefix "USER/". Click Add Entries. In the Copy Existing Entry window, check one or more items that have similar characteristics to the entry you want to add. Click OK. To rename a library entry, in the library table, right-click the entry's name, and choose Rename from the shortcut menu. To add values to a library entry, you can either change values manually by double-clicking each cell and typing a value, or copy a row of values from a comma-separated text file or Excel worksheet file, and then right clicking the library entry's name and choosing Paste Values in the shortcut menu.
Note. The library editor does no error checking, so be sure to use valid values in your library entries. To modify values in a default library: 1. 2. Create a new user library of the same type as the default library (see instructions above). Add the entry that contains the values you want to modify from the default library and change the value (see instructions above).
Note. You can also use a text editor to change values directly in a default library. You should only use this approach if you are very familiar with the parameters stored in the library, and are certain that you want to discard the original values stored in the library. We recommend only modifying copies of libraries. See Default and User Libraries for file location details. To "convert" a user library to a default library: 1. 2. 3. Click user library's name in the Libraries list. Click Export and save the file in the libraries folder (/exelib/libraries in your SAM installation folder). SAM will display the library with the "SAM/" prefix, and make it available to all SAM projects on your computer.
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References
Parabolic Trough Technology and Modeling

Burkholder F et al, 2009. Heat Loss Testing of Schott's 2008 PTR70 Parabolic Trough Receiver. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/TP-550-45633. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/45633.pdf Forristall R, 2003. Heat Transfer Analysis and Modeling of a Parabolic Trough Solar Receiver Implemented in Engineering Equation Solver. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/TP-55034169. http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/pdfs/34169.pdf Kelly B and Kearney D, 2006. Parabolic Trough Solar System Piping Model. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/SR-550-40165. http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/pdfs/40165.pdf McMahan A, 2006. Design & Optimization of Organic Rankine Cycle Solar-Thermal Power Plants. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/publications/theses/ mcmahan06.zip Moens et al, 2005. Advanced Heat Transfer and Thermal Storage Fluids, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/CP-510-37083. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37083.pdf Patnode A, 2006. Simulation and Performance Evaluation of Parabolic Trough Solar Power Plants. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/publications/theses/ patnode06.zip Pilkington Solar International GmbH, 2000. Survey of Thermal Storage for Parabolic Trough Power Plants. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/SR-550-27925. http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/ pdfs/27925.pdf Price H et al, 2006. Field Survey of Parabolic Trough Receiver Thermal Performance, National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/CP-550-39459. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39459.pdf Stuetzle T, 2002. Automatic Control of the 30 MWe SEGS VI Parabolic Trough Plant. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/publications/theses/Stuetzle02.zip Troughnet Parabolic Trough Solar Power Network, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www. nrel.gov/csp/troughnet. References to SAM modeling on Troughnet, http://www.nrel.gov/csp/ modeling_analysis.html#system Wagner M, 2008. Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc. edu/publications/theses/wagner08.zip
Dish-Stirling Technology and Modeling

Fraser P, 2008. Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf International Energy Agency SolarPaces technology characterization Solar Dish Engine. http://www. solarpaces.org/CSP_Technology/docs/solar_dish.pdf
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Power Tower Technology and Modeling

International Energy Agency SolarPaces technology characterization Solar Power Tower. http://www. solarpaces.org/CSP_Technology/docs/solar_tower.pdf Kistler B, 1986. A User's Manual for DELSOL3: A Computer Code for Calculating the Optical Performance and Optimal System Design for Solar Thermal Central Receiver Plants. SAND86-8018. http://prod.sandia.gov/techlib/access-control.cgi/1986/868018.pdf NREL 2007 Solar Power Tower, Dish Stirling and Linear Fresnel Technologies Workshop presentations. http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/wkshp_power_2007.html U.S. Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Concentrating Solar Power Technologies: Power Tower Systems. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/power_towers.html Wagner M, 2008. Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc. edu/publications/theses/wagner08.zip
Photovoltaic Modeling
Arizona State Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory. http://www.poly.asu.edu/ptl Bower W et al, 2004. Performance Test Protocol for Evaluating Inverters Used in Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems. http://bewengineering.com/docs/index.htm California Energy Commission, New Solar Homes Partnership Calculator: CECPV Calculator. The CEC calculator uses the same module performance model as SAM's CEC performance model; documentation included with the CECPV Calculator explains details of the model. http://www.gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov/ nshpcalculator De Soto W, 2004. Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://minds.wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/7602 De Soto W et al, 2003. "Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance." Solar 2003 Conference Proceedings. American Solar Energy Society. King D et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND20043535. http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov/docs/PDF/King%20SAND.pdf King D et al, 2007. Performance Model for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Inverters. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND2007-5036. http://infoserve.sandia.gov/sand_doc/2007/075036.pdf Neises T, 2011. Development and Validation of a Model to Predict the Temperature of a Photovoltaic Cell. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/publications/theses/ neises11.zip Marion B, 2010. Overview of the PV Module Model in PVWatts. Presented at PV Performance Modeling Workshop, Albuquerque, New Mexico. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/PR-520-49607. Marion B et al, 2005. Recent and Planned Enhancements for PVWATTS. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. CP-520-37016. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37016.pdf Marion B et al, 2001. PVWatts Version 2: Enhanced Spatial Resolution for Calculated Grid-Connected PV Performance. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. CP-560-30941. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/ fy02osti/30941.pdf
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Project Economics and Financing

Short W et al, 1995. Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-462-5173. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/ legosti/old/5173.pdf Wiser R, 1997. "Renewable energy finance and project ownership", Energy Policy Vol 25 No 1 pp 15-27. Wiser R et al, 1997. Financing Investments in Renewable Energy: The Role of Policy Design and Restructuring. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. http://eetd.lbl.gov/ea/EMS/ reports/39826.pdf Wiser et al, 1996. Alternative Windpower Ownership Structures: Financing Terms and Project Costs. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. http://eetd.lbl.gov/ea/emp/reports/38921.pdf
TRNSYS
Klein S et al, 2004. TRNSYS 16 A Transient Simulation Program. Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://sel.me.wisc.edu/trnsys/ Klein S et al, 2007. TRNSYS 16 A Transient Simulation Program, Volume 5 Mathematical Reference. Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Weather Data
EnergyPlus Weather Data Format Description. http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/pdfs/ weatherdatainformation.pdf Hay J and Davies J, 2980. Calculation of the Solar Radiation Incident on an Inclined Surface. Proceedings of the First Canadian Solar Radiation Workshop. Marion W et al, 2008. Users Manual for TMY3 Data Sets. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/ TP-581-43156. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/43156.pdf Marion W et al, 1995. User's Manual for TMY2s Typical Meteorological Years. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/tmy2/PDFs/tmy2man.pdf Meteonorm. http://www.meteonorm.com/ Perez R et al, 1988. The Development and Verification of the Perez Diffuse Radiation Model. Sandia National Laboratories SAND88-7030. Reindl D et al, 1990. Diffuse Fraction Correlations. Solar Energy Vol 45 No 1. Solar Prospector. http://mercator.nrel.gov/csp/ Weather Analytics TMY Anywhere. http://weatheranalytics.com/globaltmy.html
Useful Web Sites

Go Solar California: http://www.gosolarcalifornia.ca.gov SolarPACES, International Energy Agency: http://www.solarpaces.org U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at http://www.dsireusa.org National Renewable Energy Laboratory
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477 Energy Analysis, http://www.nrel.gov/analysis National Center for Photovoltaics, http://www.nrel.gov/pv Concentrating Solar Power Research, http://www.nrel.gov/csp Publications, http://www.nrel.gov/publications/ Sandia National Laboratories Photovoltaic Systems Research & Development, http://photovoltaics.sandia.gov Concentrating Solar Power, http://www.sandia.gov/csp/csp_r_d_sandia.html Publications, http://www.sandia.gov/news/publications/index.html

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System Advisor Model (SAM)

Version 2011.5.23 Manual Release Date 5/23/2011

2011 National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Solar Advisor Model 2011.5.23

File Formats ...........................................................................................................................33

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4 Costs and Financing

Energy...........................................................................................................................332 Payment Dispatch Electric Load ...........................................................................................................................334

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6 Time Series Data Viewer (DView)

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Generating Code ...........................................................................................................................464 Libraries ...........................................................................................................................466

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Keep SAM Up to Date

Checking for Updates

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C. Choose a financing option

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For a description of the financing options, see Financing Options.

See Run Simulations for details.

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Colors of Input Variables

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Informational text describing the input variables appears in orange font:

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Simulation Warning Messages

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Export Data and Graphs

Results Page View Graphs and Charts

Export Data and Graphs

Results Page Cash Flow and Tabular Data Browser

Case Summary and Hourly Results

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Export Data and Graphs

Why Use Cases?

Creating and Deleting Cases

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Photovoltaic Systems: Component-based Models

Photovoltaic Systems: PVWatts System Model

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Solar Water Heating

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Weather Data Guidelines

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Single Year Weather Data

Weather Data Elements

Solar Advisor Model 2011.5.23

Input Variable Reference

Weather Data Information (Annual)

Solar Advisor Model 2011.5.23

Wind Speed (m/s)

Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths

Copying Weather Data to a Project